Polish Cartographical Review Vol. 51, 2019, no. 1, pp. 5–18 DOI: 10.2478/pcr-2019-0001 WIESŁAW OSTROWSKI Received: 10.01.2019 Polish Academy of Sciences Accepted: 04.03.2019 Tadeusz Manteuffel Institute of History Warsaw, Poland [email protected] DARIUSZ DUKACZEWSKI, ANNA MARKOWSKA Institute Geodesy and Cartography Department of Geoinformation and Cartography Warsaw, Poland orcid.org/0000-0002-9885-2257; orcid.org/0000-0001-8446-6171 [email protected]; [email protected]

Presentation of build-up areas on topographic maps of selected European countries*

Abstract. The authors present a comparative analysis of presentation of build-up areas with conventional symbols on 60 civil European topographic maps. The above-mentioned maps are in different scales, from 1:10,000 to 1:100,000, and have been published in nineteen European countries and the autonomous com- munity of Catalonia. The analysis has proved that the scope of characteristics of build-up areas presented on the analysed maps was very diverse, from qualitative and quantitative point of view (e.g. there were between 2 and 25 different categories on 1:10,000 maps). The 1:10,000 and 1:50,000 maps generally contain more information on the characteristics of build-up areas than 1:25,000 maps. The characteristics themselves are also very diversified (e.g. only 6 of them appear on more than half of the analysed maps – most often churches). Polish maps stand out due to the fact that they contain particularly rich and consistent representation of both physiognomic characteristics and general functional characteristics of buildings and build-up areas at all the analysed scales. Keywords: topographic maps, build-up areas, European topographic maps, comparative analysis

1. Introduction The development of computer technology has modified somewhat the method of presen- The topographic maps have always been tation and selection of the presented attributes an expression of society’s spatial awareness of objects, but in many countries major changes (W. Żyszkowska 2005). Preparation of such occurred mainly in the last decade of the last century and were associated with political maps means structuring and arranging the changes taking place in the countries of Cen- space by depicting only those individual ele- tral and Eastern Europe. They led to develop- ments of it which are considered to be signifi- ment of (usually completely new) concepts of cant (T. Zarycki 2004). The organization and topographic maps. Western European countries structuring have evolved over time, following also introduced changes concerning the scope developments in the management and organi- of the content of these maps (e.g. United King- zation of social life and the subsequent changes dom, Switzerland and Germany), but these in 1the perception of geographical space. changes consisted only in certain modifications

* The works on the database have been founded within the Ontological foundations of the historical GIS (Pol. Ontologiczne podstawy budowy historycznych systemów informacji geograficznej), contract no. 2bH15021683, financed by Narodowy Pro- gram Rozwoju Humanistyki (National Programme of the Development of Humanistics) under Bogumił Szady of Tadeusz Manteuffel Institute of History, Polish Academy of Sciences. 6 Wiesław Ostrowski, Dariusz Dukaczewski, Anna Markowska of the maps’ scope and graphic form which were 1:20,000, nineteen 1:50,000 maps and thirteen meant to increase their legibility (H.-U. Feldmann, 1:100,000 maps. N. Kreiter 2006, R. Harbeck 1985, A.J. Kent All characteristics of build-up areas on the 2007, D. Schmidt 1987). Thus, the concept of analysed maps are divided into two basic, West European maps constitutes both a con- conventional categories: physiognomic char- tinuation and a result of their gradual moderni- acteristics and functional characteristics. Phys­ sation, while Eastern European countries tended iognomic characteristics include depiction of to opt for completely new approaches to crea- distinctive architectural forms of buildings, tion of topographic maps. The new concept of their state (e.g. destroyed buildings, ruins), Polish maps developed in the 1990s is a good their heights and (in relation to residential example of this trend (M. Kacprzak, W. Os- buildings) their character – single-family or trowski 1994). multi-family buildings. Functional characteristics Apart from the afore-mentioned historical and were further divided into two subcategories for political conditions, the content of topographic buildings’ general functions (public and indus- maps is also influenced, on the one hand, by trial buildings, outbuildings, agricultural and objective geographical conditions, and, on the residential buildings) and detailed functions other hand, by subjective approaches assumed (e.g. schools, hospitals, town halls, post offices). by creators of topographic maps concepts of Religious buildings were distinguished as a se­ individual countries (W. Ostrowski 2008). parate subcategory (e.g. churches, chapels), because of their specificity and the particularly 2. Aim and scope of the analysis long tradition of their presence on topographic maps. Even though their physiognomy is usually The aim of the study was to conduct a com- also distinctive, their classification is defined parative analysis of how topographic maps primarily by their function. depict one of the most important categories of Only those signs which were listed in the elements, build-up areas. The research included legends of the analysed maps were included 60 series of contemporary editions of civil topo- in the analysis of the maps’ thematic scope. graphic maps at the scales of 1:10,000 (and However, it should be noted that sometimes 1:12,500), 1:25,000 (and 1:20,000), 1:50,000, legends did not include signs whose meaning and 1:100,000, published in nineteen European was assumed to be obvious, e.g. signs of indi- countries and in the autonomous community vidual buildings or built-up areas. What is more, of Catalonia. They were series of maps of eight the explanatory abbreviations may have a sig- Western European countries (Austria, Belgium, nificant influence on the scope of topographic France, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Germany, maps’ content. This applies first of all to depic- Switzerland and United Kingdom), four Central tions of detailed functions of buildings, which European countries (Czech Republic, Estonia, for example on Polish topographic maps are Latvia, Poland), four Northern European coun- presented almost exclusively by means of tries (Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden) and explanatory abbreviations. Spain, as well as its autonomous community The comparative analysis does not include of Catalonia, Croatia and Portugal, which rep- additional information concerning objects clas- resented Southern Europe. The analysis was sified as tourist attractions. They are widely used carried out on the basis of maps listed in table 1. only on some maps: at the 1:25,000 scale in the In the case of the Czech, Catalan, German, case of the British and French maps, at the Norwegian, Polish and Swiss maps, the analysis 1:50,000 scale in the case of the British, French, included all four of the above-listed major map Catalan, Luxembourgian and Norwegian maps, scales. In the case of Belgian, British, Danish, and at the 1:100,000 scale, only on the Catalan Finnish, French, Luxembourgian, Latvian and map. Swedish maps, the analysis was conducted for three scales, and the Austrian, Croatian, Esto- 3. Results nian, Spanish, Dutch and Portuguese maps were analysed at two scales (tab. 2). In total, the 3.1. 1:10,000 and 1:12,500 maps analysis was carried out for twelve 1:10,000 maps and one map at the scale of 1:12,500, The analysis was carried out on the basis of thirteen 1:25,000 maps and two at the scale of the legends of topographic maps from twelve Presentation of build-up areas on topographic maps of selected European countries 7

Table 1. List of maps used as a basis for the analysis

Country Publisher City Name of the map Map scale Bundesamt für 1:25, 000V UTM Austria Eich- und Ver- Wienna Österreichische Karte messungswesen 1:50,000V UTM L’Institut Géogra- topo10 1:10,000 phique National / Belgium Brussels topo50 1:50,000 National Geogra- fisch Instituut topo100 1:100,000

L’Institut 1:10,000 Cartogràfic 1:25,000 Catalonia Barcelona Mapa topogràfic de Catalunya i Geològic de 1:50,000 Catalunya 1:100,000 Državna Geodet- TK25 1:25,000 Croatia Zagreb ska Uprava TK100 1:100,000 Český Úřad Základní mapa České republiky (ZM 10) 1:10,000 Zeměměřický Základní mapa České republiky (ZM 25) 1:25,000 Czech Rep. a Katastrální, Prague Základní mapa České republiky (ZM 50) 1:50,000 Zeměměřický úřad Základní mapa České republiky (ZM 100) 1:100,000 Kortsyningen, Danmarks Topografiske Kortværk – DTK/kort25 1:25,000 Styrelsen for Denmark Copenhagen Danmarks Topografiske Kortværk – DTK/kort50 1:50,000 Dataforsyning og Effektivisering Danmarks Topografiske Kortværk – DTK/kort100 1:100,000 1:10,000 Estonia Eesti Maa – amet Tallin Eesti põhikaart 1:50,000 1:10,000 Taustakarttarasteri Finland Maanmittauslaitos Helsinki 1:20,000 Maastokarttarasteri 1:50,000 L’Institut national TOP25 1: 25,000 de l’information France Saint Mandé TOP50 1:50,000 géographique et forestière TOP100 1:100,000 Bundesamt für DTK10-V 1:10,000 Kartographie und Frankfurt DTK25-V 1:25,000 Germany Geodäsie and am Main DTK50-V 1:50,000 provincial (Lands) mapping agencies DTK100-V 1:100,000

LĢIA – Latvijas 1:10,000 Ģeotelpiskās Latvijas Republikas Topogrāfiskā Karte 1:50,000 Latvia Riga informācijas 1:100,000 aģentūra TOP50NL 1:50,000 Administration du 1:20,000 Luxembourg Cadastre et de la Luxembourg Carte topographique 1:50,000 Topographie 1:100,000 Administration du TOP25NL 1:25,000 Netherlands Cadastre et de la Apeldoorn Topographie TOP50NL 1:50,000 1:10,000 Økonomisk Kartverk – ØK 1:20,000 Norway Statens Kartverk Hønefoss N50 Kartdata UTM33 1:50,000 N100 Kartdata UTM33 1:100,000 8 Wiesław Ostrowski, Dariusz Dukaczewski, Anna Markowska

Country Publisher City Name of the map Map scale 1:10,000 Główny Urząd 1:25,000 Poland Geodezji Warsaw Mapa topograficzna i Kartografii 1:50,000 1:100,000 Direção Geral do SCN10K 1:10,000 Portugal Lisbon Território SCN50K 1:50,000 Instituto Geo- 1:25,000 Spain Madrid Mapa Topográfico Nacional gráfico Nacional 1:50,000 Fastighetskartan 1:12,500 GSD Terrängkartan Sweden Lantmäteriet Gävle 1:50,000 GSD Fjällkartan GSD Vägkartan 1:100,000 Office fédéral 1:10,000 de topographie / Bundesamt für Landestopogra- 1:25,000 Switzerland phie / Ufficio Wabern Carte nationale de la Suisse federale di topo- 1:50,000 grafia / Uffizi federal da topo- 1:100,000 grafia, Swisstopo Scale Raster 1:10,000 United Ordnance Southampton Pathfinder 1:25,000 Kingdom Survey Landranger 1:50,000

countries and the autonomous community of iognomic characteristics concerning not only in- Catalonia, which included 158 categories of dividual buildings and structures, but also built-up objects related to build-up areas, that is, 12 on areas. Detached houses are additionally shown average (fig. 1). The Belgian map definitely on the Latvian map, while the Swedish map contained the highest number of categories (25), contains categories of compact dwellings and while the British map had the least categories high-rise buildings. The more unusual phy­sio­ – only 2. The physiognomic characteristics gnomic characteristics include large domes with clearly dominate on the maps of these scales diameters exceeding 15 m which were presented – they represent 56% of all the characteristics. on the Belgian map, roofed areas and under- The British and Catalan maps include only ground structures shown on the Estonian map, physiognomic characteristics, and such charac- city towers with a wall presented on the German teristics are definitely dominant on the Latvian map, and annexes on the Norwegian map. The (85%), Swiss (75%), Estonian (67%) and Nor- Estonian, Catalan, Latvian and Portuguese maps wegian (60%) maps. Most symbols concern show buildings under construction, while the distinctive buildings which are shown for orienta- Estonian map presents also foundations. On tion purposes. The maps from all the countries the other hand, the Belgian and Portuguese (except United Kingdom) contained symbols of maps included ruins and remains of buildings. towers (the German map included 4 types of The latter employs also a separate symbol for towers), while greenhouses were presented barracks. High-rise buildings were shown on on maps from nine countries and windmills on the maps of three countries: Belgium (build- maps of eight countries. ings higher than 15 m), Switzerland (buildings The Estonian, Finnish, Catalan, Latvian and higher than 25 m) and Poland (buildings with Swedish maps of this scale already contain phys- more than 11 storeys or higher than 30 m). Presentation of build-up areas on topographic maps of selected European countries 9

Table 2. Number of content categories concerning build-up areas on the maps included in the analysis

Country, 1:10,000 1:12,500 1:20,000 1:25,000 1:50,000 1:100,000 autonomous region Austria – – – 7 7 – Belgium 25 – – – 10 10 Catalonia 6 – – 5 6 11 Croatia – – – 16 – 18 Czech Rep. 14 – – 13 9 7 Denmark – – – 8 14 14 Estonia 12 – – – 13 – Finland 12 – 12 – 12 – France – – – 9 10 8 Germany 18 – – 10 13 14 Luxembourg – – 11 – 8 6 Netherlands – – – 12 14 – Norway 5 – – 13 20 10 Poland 16 – – 16 17 15 Portugal 16 – – – 10 – Spain – – – 6 6 – Sweden – 12 – – 13 8 Switzerland 7 – – 4 7 4 United Kingdom 2 – – 7 9 –

Only the Polish map has separate symbols sented in a visible method by means of drawings for single-family and multi-family houses. This of individual buildings which most of the time is surprising because this distinction (which is preserve their basic dimensions and propor- applied consistently on Polish topographic tions. Therefore, the fact that the Swedish and maps, including ones with smaller scales) and Latvian maps depict areas with compact dwell- the height of buildings constitute the basic cri- ings may be surprising. teria for determining the built-up density and The Belgian, Finnish, German and Swedish in consequence also population density1. The maps include more functional characteristics distinction between single-family houses located than physiognomic ones. Eight out of the on private properties with one or two storeys thirteen analysed 1:10,000 maps present the and multi-family buildings which usually have general functions of buildings or related areas. more than two storeys is the most important Residential, industrial and public buildings are physiognomic difference between buildings – shown as a rule. Industrial and storage areas one which also influences their function. (Poland, Germany), industrial areas (Belgium, The built-up density level is also a result of Estonia), industrial areas and storage areas the ratio of the area covered by buildings to the (Finland), as well as industrial, commercial and undeveloped area. On 1:10,000 maps, despite transport areas (Czech Republic), and last but the necessity of enlarging the smallest (usually not least commercial areas (Finland), are all non-residential) buildings, this relation is pre- functional areas related to buildings. The Belgian map contains the highest number of detailed functional characteristics of build- 1 The distinction between single-family and multifamily dwellings is commonly used on those Polish maps which ings. This map is distinguished by the colourful are used in spatial planning. diversity of symbols of buildings which present 10 Wiesław Ostrowski, Dariusz Dukaczewski, Anna Markowska

Fig. 1. The number of characteristics of buildings, structures and build-up areas on 1:10,000 maps, divided into different types

their selected detailed functions. Halls, shopping buildings which is based on differentiation centres, schools, hospitals (with a separate between parish churches, other churches and distinction for university hospitals) and fire belfries. stations were shown in such a way. Outside of It is worth noting that the Belgian maps de- Belgium, the highest number of this type of pict also unused buildings, i.e. buildings which characteristics can be found on the German have no functions, and inactive churches. map which included also police stations, sana- toria and greenhouses. Most often, the maps of 3.2. 1:25,000 and 1:20,000 maps this scale have separate symbols for hospitals, greenhouses and fire stations. On the other In comparison with the above-analysed hand, the Portuguese map contains bullfighting 1:10,000 maps, 1:25,000 and 1:20,000 maps arenas and petrochemical plants. from the fifteen European countries are much On the vast majority of 1:10,000 maps, the less diverse in terms of the number of the religious function of objects is usually signalled shown characteristics of built-up areas (from by means of symbols. Churches and chapels sixteen, in the case of the Polish map, to four, are usually shown separately, but only the Polish on the Swiss map – fig. 2). map contains separate symbols for Christian In contrast to the 1:10,000 maps, the 1:25,000 and non-Christian temples. The Swedish map (and 1:20,000) maps are dominated by func- includes a unique classification of religious tional characteristics (55%). It is true foremost Presentation of build-up areas on topographic maps of selected European countries 11

Fig. 2. The number of characteristics of buildings, structures and build-up areas on 1:25,000 maps, divided into different types

in the case of the Norwegian (92%), Luxem- In addition, the Danish map present also the bourgian (78%), Finnish (75%), United Kingdom area of the city centre. On the Polish map, (71%) and French (67%) maps. On the other only areas with single-family dwellings are rep- hand, physiognomic characteristics are most resented as built-up areas, and all residential numerous on the Catalan (80%), Danish and buildings and larger outbuildings are shown Swiss (75%), as well as Spanish (67%) maps. against the background of such areas. When it comes to the distinctive buildings Similarly as in the case of the 1:10,000 presented on 1:10,000 maps, greenhouses maps, the maps of most countries shown de- are included on the majority of 1:25,000 (and stroyed buildings. The Spanish map presents 1:20,000) maps, while towers and windmills only ruins of religious buildings, while the Cata­ are shown on five maps. Historic buildings and lan map includes build-up areas under con- ruins are presented only on the Croatian map. struction and the areas with ruined dwellings. Built-up areas are shown on nearly half of the High-rise buildings are shown on the Croatian, analysed maps using the afore-mentioned scale. Danish, Dutch and German maps. 12 Wiesław Ostrowski, Dariusz Dukaczewski, Anna Markowska

Just as the 1:10,000 maps, the 1:25,000 3.3. 1:50,000 maps maps contain more characteristics concerning general functions than detailed ones. General While 1:25,000 maps have significantly less functional characteristics are in this scale diverse content than 1:10,000 maps (on average generally similar to the ones depicted on the about 10 categories, where the latter group of 1:10,000 maps, although there are some sur- maps had 12), which is understandable, con- prising differences. For example, on the Czech sidering the significant scale difference, this map, the category of industrial, commercial or tendency does not hold true for the analysed transport areas (one category) has been re- 1:50,000 maps on which the number of cate- placed with the category of animal farm lands gories is not much smaller than in the case of or food industry plants. On the Norwegian map, the 1:10,000 maps (on average: 11.5 catego- the functional characteristics of buildings were ries, fig. 3). If we compare the maps of thirteen broadened, from the level of two general func- countries whose maps are analysed at both tions (residential buildings and other buildings) 1:10,000 and 1:50,000 scales, it turns out that to the level of four general functions (including for six of them (Estonia, Latvia, Norway, Poland, agricultural buildings) and four detailed ones Sweden and United Kingdom) the 1:50,000 (including garages and holiday houses). As in maps contain more categories than the 1:10,000 the case of 1:10,000 maps, the highest number maps, and that the number of these categories of general functions is presented on the Polish is even several times greater in the case of the map. Five functions were presented on the British and Norwegian maps (tab. 2). Luxembourgian map (residential, agricultural, The analysed 1:50,000 maps show a similar public and commercial buildings). The Dutch number of physiognomic and functional charac- map includes only the detailed functions of teristics (on average about five and a half). selected objects (city hall, hospital, pump sta- Physiognomic characteristics definitely domi- tion). The hospital is the most frequently shown nate on the Czech (89%), Swiss (71%), Belgian element which appears on the maps of four (70%) and German (69%) maps, while func- countries (Netherlands, Luxembourg, Germany tional characteristics are most prominent on and Norway). The most general and at the same the Luxembourgian (88%), Finnish (75%) Nor- time synthetic functional characteristics of the wegian (65%), Danish (64%) and Swedish buildings are presented on the United Kingdom (62%) maps. Clusters of buildings and structures are map which includes only important buildings. most often presented as built-up areas on the In comparison with the 1:10,000 maps, cha­ 1:50,000 maps. Such areas are listed in the racteristics of religious functions stand out among legends of the twelve analysed maps. Different all functional characteristics shown on 1:25,000 subcategories distinguished on the basis of (and 1:20,000) maps, as they appear on fourteen building density are shown only on the Polish, of the analysed maps, constituting 35 categories Latvian and German maps. The Polish map in total. Additional physiognomic characteristics contained separate categories for compact multi- of religious buildings are added to the typical family dwellings, dense multifamily dwellings categories of churches and chapels (presented and single-family dwellings. Compact and dense on the Austrian, Czech, German and Polish dwellings are shown on the Latvian maps, maps), The Dutch and Estonian maps include while the compact dwellings and scattered places of worship with towers. In the case of the housing are included on the German maps. Austrian map churches with one and two towers The Norwegian map preents urban dwellings, were distinguished. At the United Kingdom map and while the Danish one shows the city centre there are the separate categories for places of dwellings. worship with a tower, and places of worship with The average number of physiognomic char- a spire, minaret or dome. The Croatian, Finnish acteristics of buildings is more than 20% higher and Norwegian maps also show belfries. The than on the 1:25,000 maps, but at the same Croatian map contains the richest depiction of time smaller by a quarter than the one pre- objects with religious functions, including such sented on the 1:10,000 maps. Towers (3 types categories as churches, belfries, chapels, on Belgian and German maps), windmills and mosques, synagogues and monasteries. greenhouses belong to the most commonly Presentation of build-up areas on topographic maps of selected European countries 13

Fig. 3. The number of characteristics of buildings, structures and build-up areas on 1:50,000 maps, divided into different types

represented elements, just as in the case of ruins and foundations of houses, as well as larger scale maps. The French, Norwegian and roofed areas. Portuguese maps include also a symbol for Despite the relatively small scale, the maps forts, while the Danish map has a symbol for of several countries (Denmark, Norway and halls, and the Norwegian one presents also Germany) show also high-rise buildings, or locations of mountain cabins and sheds. The areas with high-rise buildings, as in the case Estonian map contains information about the of the Swedish map. The latter includes also 14 Wiesław Ostrowski, Dariusz Dukaczewski, Anna Markowska a category of closed built-up areas, which is Just as on maps at other scales, Polish very important from the point of view of the maps contained the richest range of catego- map’s users. ries concerning general functions of buildings. It should be stressed that 1:50,000 maps de- The industrial development areas or industrial pict more detailed functions of buildings than and storage areas are the most commonly dis- the 1:25,000 and 1:10,000 maps. The Latvian tinguished elements of this type on the maps and Norwegian maps contain the highest num- of the remaining countries (Denmark, Nether- ber of such detailed functional subcategories lands, Catalonia, Latvia, Germany, Norway and (7 each). Hospitals are the most frequently Sweden). The Luxembourgian map includes occurring functional objects (they are presented public and industrial buildings, outbuildings, as on the Danish, Dutch, Catalan, Latvian, German, well as agricultural and residential buildings. Norwegian, and Portuguese maps); other com- The Danish map contains not only industrial mon ones are town halls (Denmark, France, areas, but also technical areas, while the Finnish Netherlands, and Latvia) and schools (Denmark, and Spanish maps shows agricultural or in- Latvia, and Norway). It should be emphasized dustrial buildings, and the Estonian map has that the Norwegian map includes special sub- a category of production buildings. categories for meeting houses, welfare insti- The scope of characteristics concerning reli- tutions, public transport buildings and farms, gious functions is generally similar to the scope The Belgian map shows hangars and garages, presented on the 1:25,000 maps. Additional and the Swedish map – areas with single-family physiognomic characteristics of religious build- dwellings. ings are presented also on the Austrian, British,

Fig. 4. The number of characteristics of buildings, structures and build-up areas on 1:100,000 maps, divided into different types Presentation of build-up areas on topographic maps of selected European countries 15

Estonian, Dutch and Luxembourgian 1:50,000 Detailed functions have been included on maps. The Estonian map has separate subcate- eight of the analysed maps. They are most gories of churches with towers and churches broadly represented on the Latvian, Danish without towers. The Norwegian maps at the and Norwegian maps. All eight of them show scale of 1:50,000 no longer distinguish between hospitals, and the Croatian map includes also church buildings and belfries. clinics and warehouses. The Danish map takes The major (important) buildings are repre- into account town halls, and the Latvian town sented on the Swedish and Norwegian maps. halls, post offices, forest district offices and forester’s lodges. The Latvian map is the only one which indicates the detailed function of the 3.4. 1:100,000 maps built-up area – holiday and leisure houses, as well as allotment houses. The Norwegian map The average number of characteristics shown stands out because of its inclusion of accom- on the analysed 1:100,000 maps is 16% lower modation facilities, mountain cabins and holi- than on the topographic 1:50,000 maps of the day homes. same countries, 17% lower than on the 1:10,000 General functions of buildings and built-up maps and 6% higher than on the 1:25,000 maps or built-up-related areas are presented on the (fig. 4). Within the set of the Catalan and German maps of most countries. The most dominant maps, more categories related to buildings and function is by far the industrial one which is built-up areas can be found on the 1:100,000 depicted in the form of symbols of industrial maps than on the 1:50,000 maps (tab. 2). buildings (Norwegian map), industrial buildings The presentation of characteristics of built-up or outbuildings (Catalan, Polish and Swedish areas definitely dominate on the 1:100,000 maps. maps), industrial and storage areas (Catalan, Just as on larger scale maps, the Danish map German, Polish maps), industrial built-up areas presents additionally also the city centre areas. (Belgian and Danish maps), or industrial areas The Latvian, German and Polish 1:100,000 (Norwegian map). Technical areas are identi- maps, just as well as 1:50,000 maps, shows fied on the Danish map, just as they were on the level of building density. While the Latvian larger-scale maps. Public buildings are shown 1:50,000 map includes compact and dense on the Polish and Latvian maps with separate dwellings, 1:100,000 map presents 3 levels of symbols, whereas the Swedish map presents building density instead: compact dwellings, the major (important) buildings. scattered and low-density housing, and scattered The characteristics of objects which perform housing. Both dense and scattered housing is religious functions are included on all the ana- presented on the Polish 1:100,000 map with lysed maps of this scale. Again, only the Swedish the same areal symbol. This map, just as the map contains separate symbols for parish 1:50,000 version, distinguishes between single- churches, while the Croatian map shows a wide family and multifamily dwellings. range of symbols, for churches, mosques, syna- Similarly to the larger-scale maps, the 1:100,000 gogues, monasteries and chapels, and the maps include towers (10 countries), windmills Danish map includes synagogues. In contrast to (8 countries), and – in the case of Croatian, 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 maps, the physiognomic Estonian, Catalan, German and Polish maps characteristics of religious buildings were not – greenhouses. Forts are presented with a sep- taken into account. However, religious buildings arate symbol on the Belgian, Croatian, French which are tourist attractions were noted on the and Portuguese maps, while the Croatian map Catalan and foremost French map. On the latter, includes additionally not only ruins of forts and these objects were divided into subcategories fortresses, but also palaces and manor houses of churches, chapels and other temples. (and their ruins), as well as huts and ruins of residential buildings. 4. Conclusions High-rise buildings are included only on the German map, but the Danish map indicates The carried analyses has proved that the areas with high-rise buildings instead of indi- scope of characteristics of built-up areas pre- vidual buildings. Courtyards and patios are sented on topographic maps published in se- taken into account on the Portuguese map. lected countries is very diversified. The highest 16 Wiesław Ostrowski, Dariusz Dukaczewski, Anna Markowska average number of characteristics was found ries, on the 1:25,000 map (5). On the other on the Croatian (17), Latvian and Polish (16), hand, on the Norwegian maps, the highest Belgian (15), German and Portuguese (14), number of categories appear on the 1:50,000 Dutch (13), Estonian, Finnish, Danish and Nor- map (20) and the lowest on the 1:10,000 map wegian (12) maps, as well as the Czech and (only 5). Such large discrepancies in the con- Swedish (11) maps. The top three includes two tent of maps at different scales are most likely countries (Latvia and Poland) which, as men- caused by the fact that concepts for maps of par- tioned in the introduction, completely changed ticular scales were developed independently, their approach to topographic maps in 1990s. not as a uniform series of scales. This lack of Previously, their approach to map development dependence between the number of charac- was based on the concept of Soviet military teristics and the the scale is also a consequence maps, distinguished by a particularly wide range of the fact that smaller-scale maps (1:50,000 of content which was largely meant to serve and 1:100,000) of some countries (e.g. Norway) military purposes. The built-up-area-related con- cover also characteristics which are relevant tent is especially diverse in the case of German for tourists, while larger-scale maps allow for maps and the maps of two Benelux countries greater use of explanatory abbreviations. which have rich traditions in topographic car- When it comes to consistency in the scope tography. Finally, the third group consists of of content presented on map of particular the Scandinavian countries (Denmark, Finland, scales, Polish maps (from fifteen to seventeen Norway and Sweden) which share a specific, categories) definitely stand out, as do, to a lesser original approach both to the scope of content extent, German (from ten to eighteen catego- and the graphic form of topographic maps. ries) and Swedish maps (from eight to thirteen). The smallest number of categories was found The uniformity of content may be attested by on Austrian and Catalan maps (7 on each), as the share of categories repeated on the maps well as British, Spanish, and Swiss maps (6 on of a given country in all the analysed scales in each). On the one hand, these are countries with relation to the number of categories on the map highly-developed topographical cartography and which contains the lowest number of catego- dominant mountain areas, which place special ries. The maps of four countries stand out in this emphasis on the characteristics of roads and respect: Denmark (75%), Belgium and Portugal natural objects (Switzerland, Austria), and on the (70% each), and Poland (67%). other hand, the Spanish and Catalan maps, Generally speaking, the analysed maps main- just as maps of other Southern European tain a balance between physiognomic and countries, reflect approaches which have been functional characteristics, especially at smaller shaped by the specificity of natural conditions scales – 1:50,000 and 1:100,000. As already and cultural development. It should be empha- mentioned, physiognomic characteristics domi- sized that Spain’s neighbour, Portugal, has nate on the 1:10,000 maps, while functional topographic maps with much richer content. characteristics are more prominent on the One could expect that the 1:10,000 maps 1:25,000 maps. would contain the highest number of charac- The 1:10,000 maps of three countries con- teristics of buildings and build-up areas, and tain already not only individual buildings, but that their number would get lower as the scale also symbols of built-up areas whose number decreases. However, it turns out that the largest of characteristics (understandably) increases number of characteristics is presented both on visibly as the scale decreases. The highest the 1:10,000 and 1:50,000 maps (on average: number of such characteristics is presented on around 12), and the smallest range is shown the Polish maps – the 1:25,000 maps include on the 1:25,000 maps (10). only single-family dwellings, while the smaller The Catalan and Norwegian maps can serve scale maps offer categories of multi-family and as clear illustrations of the fact that there is no single-family dwellings, as well as compact and relation between maps’ content range and their dense dwellings. The only other map which scales. On Catalan maps, the highest number represents single-family and multi-family dwell- of categories concerning built-up areas and ings separately is the Latvian 1:50,000 map, buildings can be found on the 1:100,000 map and the compact, dense or scattered dwellings (11), and the smallest number of the catego- are shown separately only on the Latvian and Presentation of build-up areas on topographic maps of selected European countries 17

German maps. The 1:100,000 Luxembourgian Polish maps, public buildings are presented as map includes also compact dwellings. The fact a separate category only on the Latvian maps that the city centre is presented already on the at two of the smaller of the analysed scales Danish 1:25,000 map, as well as on smaller- and on the Belgian 1:10,000 map. scale maps of that country, and that urban Of the three distinguished types of functions buildings are included on the Norwegian maps, (general, detailed and religious), religious func- is surprising, considering the subjective cha­ tions are definitely represented most frequently racter of the scope estimations. The Swedish (except for the 1:10,000 maps). Almost all of 1:10,000 and 1:50,000 maps contain unusual the maps show churches and chapels. The characteristics of built-up areas, as they differ- Swedish maps include also separate catego- entiate between high-rise and low-rise buildings. ries of parish churches and belfries, while Cro- The same can be said for the Catalan maps atian, Danish, French, Luxembourg and Polish which includes also areas under construction. maps depict temples of other religion than The most frequently noted physiognomic Christian. As already mentioned, some physio­ characteristics of individual buildings and struc- gnomic features of churches are presented on tures are symbols for greenhouses, towers several maps (Austrian, Estonian, Dutch and and windmills, as well as destroyed buildings British). Churches which are also tourist at- or ruins, which are included on the majority of tractions are singled on French and Catalan the analysed maps. 1:100,000 map. Due to the use of explanatory abbreviations, In total, 666 categories of buildings, struc- information on the functions of buildings is tures and build-up areas shown with the help presented in the form of separate symbols to of conventional symbols have been identified a wider extent only on the maps of four of the on the sixty analysed maps. Some of these analysed countries: Norway (1:25,000, 1:50,000 characteristics are presented on only one map and 1:100,000), Latvia (1:50,000 and 1:100,000), (e.g. domes with diameters exceeding 15 m, Belgium and Germany (1:10,000). The highest welfare institutions, closed built-up areas), number of characteristics of detailed functions whereas others are used on many maps. The of buildings can be identified on the 1:50,000 analysis revealed that the number of such widely- maps, and only slightly smaller number is in- -used categories is surprisingly low, because cluded on the 1:100,000 maps, which is a con- sequence of the fact that such maps are often used for tourism purposes. It is particularly true Table 3. The number and percentage of maps with the for the Norwegian maps and to a lesser extent most commonly recurring categories of build-up areas for the Swedish and Latvian ones. What is more, Maps the use of explanatory abbreviations is limited Categories of content Percentage on smaller-scale maps in urbanised areas. Number [%] General functions of buildings and built-up areas are presented on just over a half of the Church 51 85 analysed maps. Industrial areas or industrial Tower 35 58 and storage areas are most common. Presenta- Ruin / ruined building 32 53 tion of general functions of buildings is particu- Building 32 53 larly diverse on the Polish maps and, to a lesser Greenhouse 31 52 extent, on the Finnish (1:10,000, 1:25,000 and 1:50,000), Norwegian (1:25,000, 1:50,000), Bel- Chapel 30 50 gian (in all the analysed scales), Swedish Windmill 28 47 (1:10,000) and Luxembourgian (1:100,000) Hospital 25 42 maps. Buildings are classified according to Built-up area 23 38 their basic functions – as residential, public, Industrial and storage 22 36 and industrial buildings or outbuildings – in all area or industrial area the analysed scales only on the Polish maps. Public building 17 28 The latter two functions, just as on the Catalan and Swedish maps, become combined when High building 14 23 the scale is changed to 1:100,000. Apart from Town hall 9 17 18 Wiesław Ostrowski, Dariusz Dukaczewski, Anna Markowska only 10 are included on more than thirty percent Finally, it should be emphasized that the of the analysed maps, and only 6 (churches, analysed maps contained a few unique and towers, ruins or decrepit buildings, buildings, original characteristics of buildings and build-up greenhouses, and chapels) are used on at least areas which could be useful for map users. half of these map (tab. 3). Christian churches They included the following categories: closed are definitely the most often shown category, built-up areas (Swedish 1:50,000 map); holiday which is a consequence of the centuries old and leisure houses area (Swedish 1:50,000 tradition and thus was a predictable result. The map, Latvian 1:100,000 map); animal farm lands second most frequently used category were (Czech 1:25,000 map); areas under construc- towers which are important for orientation, and tion (Catalonian 1:25,000 map); buildings under the third (which may be a surprise) – ruins or construction (Estonian, Catalonian, and Latvian destroyed buildings. However, as already men- 1:10,000 maps, Estonian 1:20,000 map); foun- tioned, it should be remembered that legends dations of buildings (Estonian 1:10,000, and of some topographic maps do not include sym- 1:20,000 maps); shopping centres (Belgian bols whose meaning is assumed to be obvious, 1:10,000, and Luxembourgian 1:10,000 and e.g. buildings or built-up areas. 1:20,000 maps).

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