The Role of Fire in Wilderness Are Sug Elements of Philosophy and Policy Have Considerably Gested
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l,t I� .i t� --- _:_· . ·� THE ROLE OF FIRE IN r;d ; ,-,. , - . ;..... l.. WILDERNESS: A STATE-OF KNOWLEDGE REVIEW Bruce M. Kilgore ABSTRACT such as air quality and the impacts of fire on visitor experiences. While solid data from any source have been Literature from the United States Canada and sought, there tends to be a geographical emphasis on the Ausiralia is reviewed to summariz; knowled�e concerning Western United States, largely because much of the pri fire history, effects of fire, fire behavior, what is mary wilderness resource and research results tend to "natural," the role of Indian burning, the role of pres focus there. cribed fires, effects on wildlife, insects and disease, and mdrient cycling, and the role ofstand replacement fires in The Role of Philosophy and Policy wilderness ecosystems. Opportunities and priorities for further study on the role of fire in wilderness are sug Elements of philosophy and policy have considerably gested. Unresolved questions and problems are presented. influenced research on wilderness fire. Factual data on the role of fire in various ecosystems, involving both fire INTRODUCTION history and fire effects, provided the ecological and theo retical basis for fire management {Kilgore 1976) and for Research on the role of fire in natural ecosystems and, research on wilderness fire. The need for additional specifically, the impacts of fire on wilderness values, has research on the "natural" role of fire and philosophical been an important part of fire research in the past few support for accepting what is "natural" in wilderness decades. Pyne (1985) feels that wilderness fire ecosystems were emphasized to managers and the public "reoriented fire research into biological topics and fire by the popular (sometimes almost poetic) and widely effects at large, both ecological and economic." It also recognized ecological statements of three men-one a compelled a fundamental separation of wildland fires manager, the other two scientists-who had broad vision into two broad categories, wild and prescribed. and philosophical-ecological bent. These men were: This paper will attempt to summarize what we know (1) Robert Marshall, one of the original founders of The about (1) the fire history of various wilderness eco Wilderness Society (see Winter 1984 issue of Wilderness, systems; (2) fire effects in these wilderness ecosystems; quarterly publication of The Wilderness Society); (2) Aldo \ (3) fire behavior in wilderness ecosystems; and (4) "wilder Leopold, the father of game management, who was ness fire,'' involving such special philosophical concerns closely associated with Marshall in establishing the first /\ ,11.s (a) what is "natural;" (b) the role of Indian burning; National Forest Wilderness-the Gila in New Mexico (c) the role of planned or scheduled prescribed fires; and (Leopold 1921, 1949); and (3) A. Starker Leopold, one of I (d) the role of high-intensity, stand-replacing fires in Aldo's sons, who was chairman of the committee that these natural ecosystems. prepared the widely quoted Leopold Report of 1963 Conceptually, the role of fire in all ecosystems (Leopold and others 1963). That report made major managed for natural values-such as research natural recommendations for revision of National Park Service areas (Kilgore 1984)-is of concern. In practice, the domi resource management policy,.including fire management. nant management interest and primary research informa Impetus for work done by National Park Service scien tion to date come from the large wilderness units in tists (and by other agencies as well) was provided by the National Forests and National Parks where impacts Leopold Report. For the Park Service, this was sup from adjacent managed vegetation are less. Hence, I will plemented by direct consultation with Starker Leopold, tend to focus discussion primarily on these areas, while who served briefly as its chief scientist. His personal attempting to discuss principles and insights that will be involvement was extremely important-both scientifi· meaningful in any ecosystem managed for natural cally and politically-in implementing the first natural values. fire zones in Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks in I will rely primarily on data from literature published 1968 and in gaining support for initiating early research in the United States, Australia, and Canada, because, as on the impacts of fire in these wilderness zones. Parsons (1981) noted, with the exception of "Australia GENERAL EVOLUTION OF and parts of Africa, where prescribed burning ... has been utilized ... to perpetuate native communities for RESEARCH ON FIRE IN many years (Hodgson 1967; Phillips 197 4), there is little WILDERNESS evidence of other countries showing interest [in using fire to maintain natural ecosystems)." Emphasis will be In reacting to the· concept of wilderness fire research, on the effects of fire on resources, with only minor refer· C. E. Van Wagner once asked, "Is this a new division of ence to �elationships involving human use of wilderness, fire research in general? Where do the more traditional features of fire beh. ,ior and the biological results of fire 70 effects fit?" (Van Wagner, personal communication (Heinselman 1973) illustrated the importance of natural 1985). My answer is that ii wilderness fire research is fire questions beyond western wilderness. More recently, restricted to direct, management-oriented studies, then it natural fire management programs implemented in becomes very narrow and somewhat isolated from the National Parks and National Forest Wildernesses in the data most needed to make it useful. If not so restricted, West have led to research results that further our under it becomes very broad and includes much of fire effects standing of the role of fire in natural ecosystems research in general. For the purposes of this discussion, (Kilgore and Briggs 1972; Kilgore 1973a; Mutch 1974; therefore, wilderness fire research includes (1) studies of Despain and Sellers 1977; van Wagtendonk 1978; fire history, behavior, and effects that apply to Parsons and DeBenedetti 1979). ecosystems most strongly involved with wilderness, Research questions initially began as some form of parks, and 9ther natural areas; and (2) special studies to "How can we best suppress fires on all lands, including determine what is "natural," involving both philosophi· parks and wilderness?" This gradually changed to such cal and policy matters as these relate to Indian burning, specific questions as "Does fire always cause soil erosion agency-ignited fires, the role of high-intensity, stand and always harm wildlife?" Somewhere in the late 1950's replacing fires, and the impact of fire suppression on fuel and early 1960's, we may have switched from a "fire is accumulation and forest structure. bad" to a "fire is good" approach before moving to the more objective question, "How does fire affect various Shifting Focus of Fire Research resources (wildlife, soil, water, and vegetation)?" Fire is not always good for wildlife or plants. Some papers seem Initial emphasis in fire effects research was on how to to imply that high plant/animal diversity in early succes· improve fire suppression techniques and on case studies sion means disturbance is good and old stands with of damage caused by fire in given ecosystems (Show and lower diversity are decadent. As applied to wilderness, Kotok 1924, 1930). Most of these studies were not car· fire effects that best mimic the natural ecosystem are ried out in natural systems. Federal and State land good-they may be from eithei: low or high intensity, fre· management agencies were so committed to total exclu· quent or very infrequent fires. sion of fire that there was "reluctance to promote With the advent of the Leopold Report (Leopold and research or release results which seemed to jeopardize others 1963), the focus shifted rapidly to the question of success" of other agency fire projects such as fire sup· whether fire could be allowed to burn in wilderness and pression (Schiff 1962). park lands without damaging the resource. The current This early emphasis on the negative aspects of fire-or research question has become "How can we best restore fire damage-was gradually changed by the work of such fire to its natural role in wilderness?" Subquestions early plant ecologists as Clements, Cowles, Hall, involved include: (1) What is "natural?" (Kilgore 1985b); Ramaley, and Cooper (Bock 1976) working largely with (2) what changes were caused by fire suppression? (van lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) and ponderosa pine Wagtendonk 1985; Habeck 1985; Brown 1985); (3) do we (Pinus ponderosa). In addition, a group of fire scientists need to use human-ignited prescribed fires to restore or in the South known as the "Dixie Pioneers" (Komarek maintain a semblance of naturalness? (Kilgore 1982; ___._ 1973) challenged the concept that all fires are bad. This Worf 1985; Lucas 1985; Kilgore 1985a); and (4) how pre- group of four men included a forester (Chapman 1912), a -�ise do we need to be in restoring vegetation in parks botanist (Harper 1913), an animal husbandman (Greene and wilderness? (Bonnicksen 1985; Bancroft and others_..; 1931), a wildlife scientist (Stoddard 1935), and several 1985; Parsons and others 1986; Bonnicksen and Stone in Forest Service scientists from southern experiment sta press). tions (Heyward and Barnette 1934). In combination, the work of these southern fire scientists showed that Development of Theoretical Structure of prescribed burning could be beneficial to longleaf pine, cattle, and quail without damaging the chemical compo· Wilderness Fire Research sition of forest soils in the region. A background in basic ecological concepts is necessary Western counterparts to these southern scientists to understand how wilderness ecosystems operate included two foresters with the Bureau of Indian Affairs (Franklin 1978). We need knowledge of the composition, (BIA) and a forestry professor in California. The com· processes, and structure of forested and other wilderness bined ponderosa pine research and experimental manage· .