DOCSLIB.ORG

Right to Disconnect in the 27 EU Member States

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Right to Disconnect in the 27 EU Member States WORKING PAPER title of report here Industrial relations Right to disconnect in the 27 EU Member States Telework and ICT-based mobile work: Flexible working in the digital age Right to disconnect in the 27 EU Member States Author: Oscar Vargas-Llave, Tina Weber and Matteo Avogaro Research Manager/s: Oscar Vargas-Llave Eurofound reference number: WPEF20019 Related report/s: Regulations to address work–life balance in digital flexible working arrangements © European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (Eurofound), 2020 Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged. For any use or reproduction of photos or other material that is not under the Eurofound copyright, permission must be sought directly from the copyright holders. Any queries on copyright must be addressed in writing to: [email protected] Research carried out prior to the UK’s withdrawal from the European Union on 31 January 2020, and published subsequently, may include data relating to the 28 EU Member States. Following this date, research only takes into account the 27 EU Member States (EU28 minus the UK), unless specified otherwise. This report presents the results of research conducted prior to the outbreak of COVID-19 in Europe in February 2020. For this reason, the results do not take account of the outbreak. The European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (Eurofound) is a tripartite European Union Agency established in 1975. Its role is to provide knowledge in the area of social, employment and work-related policies according to Regulation (EU) 2019/127. European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions Telephone: (+353 1) 204 31 00 Email: [email protected] Web: www.eurofound.europa.eu Right to disconnect in the 27 EU Member States Contents Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1 1 – ICT-based flexible work and the ‘Right to Disconnect’ .............................................................. 3 2 – The existing EU legislative framework related to challenges in ICT-based flexible work ............ 8 EU Working Time Directive and remote work implications ............................................................................... 8 Other EU directives with relevance for ICT-based flexible work ...................................................................... 10 European social partner Framework Agreements: Telework and Digitalisation ............................................. 11 3 – National legal framework on telework and ICT-based flexible work ....................................... 15 Binding nature of regulation and coverage...................................................................................................... 15 Link between the legislation on ICT-based flexible work and work-life balance ............................................. 16 4 – Current debates and proposals for regulating the R2D ........................................................... 18 Overview .......................................................................................................................................................... 18 Main reasons for regulating a R2D ................................................................................................................... 19 Countries without a debate ............................................................................................................................. 24 Countries with legislative proposals regarding the R2D .................................................................................. 35 Countries with legislation on the R2D .............................................................................................................. 37 5 – The ‘Right to Disconnect’ in France, Belgium, Italy and Spain: legislation, implementation, operationalisation and impact .................................................................................................... 41 Legislation ........................................................................................................................................................ 41 The implementation of the R2D ....................................................................................................................... 44 Operationalisation of the R2D ......................................................................................................................... 46 Impact and effectiveness of the R2D ............................................................................................................... 52 Social partners and governments views .......................................................................................................... 53 6 – The Right to disconnect in the context of the Surge of Telework during Covid-19 crisis ........... 56 Changes in telework policies during Covid-19 ................................................................................................. 56 Renewed impetus to R2D in the group of 4: France, Belgium, Italy and Spain................................................ 58 Countries with previous debates have revitalised the discussion with guidelines and incipient social dialogue .................................................................................................. 59 Lack of debate and consideration of R2D in most Central and Eastern European Member States and Denmark, even in times of Coronavirus ........................................................................................................... 60 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 62 Abbreviations and definitions .................................................................................................... 65 References ................................................................................................................................. 69 Right to disconnect in the 27 EU Member States Introduction Over the last decade advances in Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) have significantly changed the world of work, making it possible to work anytime anywhere in many sectors and occupations. This is occurring in the context of a growing knowledge-based and service economy where ICTs are key tools for work. These trends contribute to a shift towards more flexible working time patterns. Countries that have a high share of workers on flexible schedules also have a relatively high number of workers undertaking ICT-based flexible work (including home-based telework). Working life is experiencing a shift from regular, ‘office-based’ working-time patterns to more flexible models of work, which contribute to a blurring of boundaries between work and private life. The shift towards ICT-based flexible work in the form of telework has been particularly significant during the COVID-19 pandemic. A Eurofound survey carried out in April 2020 found that 37% of workers had started to work from home because of the health implications of the crisis. ICT-based flexible work has many advantages. The flexibility it provides offers opportunities for improving work-life balance and can contribute to increased productivity. Moreover, it has environmental benefits resulting from reduced commuting and it is essential to ensure business continuity. However, ICT-based flexible work also poses a number of challenges, linked to the increased fading of clear-cut distinctions between working and non-working time, as well as between private and professional physical spaces. The blurring of boundaries and constant connectivity facilitated by ICTs, can lead to long working hours involving working beyond contractual time and insufficient rest periods. Such trends are more likely to arise within a culture of work accepting or promoting such practices. When such patterns become regular practice they might have a negative impact on work-life balance, as well as physical and psychological well-being. It is because of these challenges that a debate has arisen around the need for a ‘right to disconnect’ (R2D). The R2D, which is yet to be formally conceptualised, can be described as the right for workers to switch off their technological devices after work without facing consequences for not replying to e- mails, phone calls or text messages. However, the concept can have different meanings. It can be considered as the ability of the worker to refrain from working outside normal or agreed working hours through digital tools (the ‘right to disconnect’). It can also be understood and implemented as an obligation for the employer to ensure that employees do not work during rest periods and leave time (the ‘right to be disconnected’). This report intends to contribute to the debate on the need to address the issue of R2D in the context of the increasing number of employees in ICT-based flexible work. To this end, it explores the situation regarding the R2D in the 27 Member States of the European Union and provides an understanding of the differences between the countries that have developed R2D legislation and those of countries which have not included this right in their regulatory frameworks. After showing evidence of the increase of ICT-based flexible work (including home-based telework) and explaining the advantages and challenges of this work arrangement
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Regulations to Address Work–Life Balance in Digital Flexible Working Arrangements
    RESEARCH REPORT Industrial relations Regulations to address work–life balance in digital flexible working arrangements Regulations to address work–life balance in digital flexible working arrangements European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions When citing this report, please use the following wording: Eurofound (2020), Regulations to address work–life balance in digital flexible working arrangements, New forms of employment series, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. Authors: Oscar Vargas Llave and Tina Weber Research manager: Oscar Vargas Llave Eurofound project: Work–life balance in the context of flexible work and ICT use Provider: Network of Eurofound Correspondents Acknowledgements: The authors would like to express their gratitude to Matteo Avogaro who provided insights into the research for this project and to Catherine Cerf for her practical suggestions in working with the Network of Eurofound Correspondents Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union Print: ISBN 978-92-897-2102-8 doi:10.2806/218866 TJ-01-20-409-EN-C PDF: ISBN 978-92-897-2103-5 doi:10.2806/03528 TJ-01-20-409-EN-N This report and any associated materials are available online at http://eurofound.link/ef19046 It is part of Eurofound’s New forms of employment series. See the full series at http://eurofound.link/efs009 © European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2020 Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged. For any use or reproduction of photos or other material that is not under the Eurofound copyright, permission must be sought directly from the copyright holders. Cover image: © goodluz/Shutterstock Any queries on copyright must be addressed in writing to: [email protected] Research carried out prior to the UK’s withdrawal from the European Union on 31 January 2020, and published subsequently, may include data relating to the 28 EU Member States.
    [Show full text]
  • Mitla Position Paper – Right to Disconnect
    MITLA.ORG.MT MITLA POSITION PAPER – RIGHT TO DISCONNECT INTRODUCTION Today’s working realities and increased MITLA believes that a wider discussion adoption of new information and is required on the introduction of further communications technologies have introduced protections to workers against the growing new challenges into our working environments. realities of digital advances and in favour of The boundaries between work and private life greater flexibility in working arrangements, to have been blurred. Since workers are constantly benefit both the employer and the employee. connected through digital tools, employers’ This would have to be weighed against expectations have changed. the nature of the work, the professional A local discussion was recently sparked on competence of an individual, the skill of the the employees’ right to disconnect. This is a employee, the employee’s preferences, and proposed right ensuring the ability of people to the philosophy adopted in their work-place detach from work and choose to not engage in environment. In this position paper, MITLA work-related electronic communications, such questions whether the introduction of the as e-mails, calls, or messages, beyond work right to disconnect, as proposed so far before hours and during their designated rest periods, the European Parliament, is necessary once including vacations. legislative solutions and employment practices are already in place to guarantee employees their freedoms. LITERATURE AND STAKEHOLDERS’ POSITION SO FAR The right to disconnect is not unknown in Several European countries have introduced some parts of Europe. We all benefit from some form of a ‘right to disconnect,’ pre-existing fundamental human rights which albeit through different means.
    [Show full text]
  • Managers' Trends Report
    Managers’ Trends Report #1 - September 2017 Managers’ Trends Report Labour markets, employment, business & social dialogue #1 - September 2017 second version every 6 weeks for CEC members only 1 Managers’ Trends Report #1 - September 2017 Content News CEC event reports ...3 Policy and legal ...4 Politics ...4 Industry ...6 Recent publications ...7 Focus Labour market reforms in France ...8 Young adult mobility in Europe ...11 Glossary Legend CEPS: Centre for Economic Policy Studies (think tank) Source reference links are CESI: European Confederation of Independent Trade underlined in black Unions Further information links are EU-OSHA: European Agency for Safety and Health underlined in orange at Work EC: European Commission ECB: European Central Bank ECHR: European Court of Human Rights EESC: European Economic and Social Committee ETUC: European Trade Union Confederation EURES: European Job Mobility Portal FECCIA: European Federation of Managers in the CEC European Managers Chemical Industry September 2017 GDP: Gross Domestic Product [email protected] selective French higher education Rue de la Loi 81a, 1040 Brussels Grandes écoles: Published: 27.09.2017 insitutions outside the university system ILO: International Labour Organisation OECD: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Disclaimer: CEC European Managers Development cannot guarantee for the accuracy of OHS: Occupational Health and Safety the information provided. 2 Managers’ Trends Report #1 - September 2017 ■ > Against that background, employers, CEC event reports public services, social partners and others will be able to propose digital internships within the digital opportunity framework. ■ The Future of Work - Making it E-asy The framework includes recruitment Conference, Tallinn, 13-14.09 procedures (in liaison with universities) and an Estonian Presidency “erasmusintern” candidate platform.
    [Show full text]
  • Legal Analysis of the Regulation and Implementation Of
    X Legal analysis of the regulation and implementation of “teleworking” in Montenegro’s Labour Framework Legal analysis of the regulation and implementation of “teleworking” in Montenegro’s Labour Framework 2021 Copyright © International Labour Organization 2021 First published 2021 Publications of the International Labour Office enjoy copyright under Protocol 2 of the Univer- sal Copyright Convention. Nevertheless, short excerpts from them may be reproduced without authorization, on condition that the source is indicated. For rights of reproduction or trans- lation, application should be made to ILO Publications (Rights and Licensing), International Labour Office, CH-1211 Geneva 22, Switzerland, or by email: [email protected]. The International Labour Office welcomes such applications. Libraries, institutions and other users registered with a reproduction rights organization may make copies in accordance with the licenses issued to them for this purpose. Visit www.ifrro.org to find the reproduction rights organization in your country. Also available in: Montenegrin ISBN 9789220343401 Podgorica, 2021 The designations employed in ILO publications, which are in conformity with United Nations practice, and the presentation of material therein do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the International Labour Office concerning the legal status of any country, area or territory or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers. The responsibility for opinions expressed in signed articles, studies and other contributions rests solely with their authors, and publication does not constitute an endorsement by the International Labour Office of the opinions expressed in them. Reference to names of firms and commercial products and processes does not imply their endorsement by the International Labour Office, and any failure to mention a particular firm, commercial product or process is not a sign of disapproval.
    [Show full text]
  • THE FUTURE of WORK and DIGITAL WELLBEING Protecting Employees in a Covid-19-Shaped World
    THE FUTURE OF WORK AND DIGITAL WELLBEING Protecting employees in a Covid-19-shaped world Supported by 1 CONTENTS Executive summary 2 SECTION 3 – What should companies be doing to support their employees? 32 SECTION 1 – How is digitalisation Removing stigmas about accessing support 33 impacting how we work? 4 Turning policies into practice 33 What will the future of work look like? 4 Creating digital solutions to digital challenges 35 ‘Work from anywhere’ 5 Increased communication 6 SECTION 4 – Conclusion 36 Global teams 7 SECTION 5 – Country profiles 37 How digitalisation is changing Canada 37 different industries 8 France 42 Marine 9 Singapore 46 Manufacturing 11 United Arab Emirates 52 Finance 14 United Kingdom 57 Oil and Gas 15 Healthcare 17 APPENDIX – Methodology Note SECTION 2 – Are these changes a good on Survey 62 thing for employee wellbeing? 19 How is digitalisation benefitting employees? 19 Inclusion 19 Diversity 20 Increased productivity 22 Physical health benefits 22 What are the risks? 23 Work-home conflicts 23 Difficulties in communication 25 Exacerbating inequalities 26 Physical health risks 28 Digitalisation and mental wellbeing 29 Digitalisation and stress 29 Digitalisation and isolation 31 © The Economist Intelligence Unit Limited 2020 The future of work and digital wellbeing 2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Covid-19 has accelerated existing trends towards digitalisation. This shift has the potential to improve people’s working lives by giving them more flexibility in where, when and how they work. However, it also threatens wellbeing through increased isolation and stress. Covid-19 has accelerated trends towards Companies need to actively manage these greater digitalisation in how we work digital transitions to ensure they maximise During the pandemic, people globally had to employee wellbeing benefits and minimise start working remotely, increasing their use of the risks digital communications and virtual collaboration.
    [Show full text]
  • The Impact of Teleworking and Digital Work on Workers and Society
    STUDY RequestedDisability by the EMPL committee The impact of teleworking and digital work on workers and society Special focus on surveillance and monitoring, as well as on mental health of workers Policy Department for Economic, Scientific and Quality of Life Policies Directorate-General for Internal Policies Author: Manuela SAMEK LODOVICI et al. EN PE 662.904 - April 2021 The impact of teleworking and digital work on workers and society Special focus on surveillance and monitoring, as well as on mental health of workers Abstract The study analyses recent trends in teleworking, its impacts on workers, employers, and society, and the challenges for policy- making. It provides an overview of the main legislative and policy measures adopted at EU and national level, in order to identify possible policy actions at EU level. The study is based on an extensive literature review; a web survey; interviews with representatives of European and national stakeholders; and five case studies of EU countries: Finland, Germany, Ireland, Italy and Romania. This document was provided by the Policy Department for Economic, Scientific and Quality of Life Policies at the request of the committee on Employment and Social Affairs (EMPL). This document was requested by the European Parliament's committee on Employment and Social Affairs. AUTHORS Project manager and editor: Manuela SAMEK LODOVICI, IRS Main report: Elena FERRARI, IRS Emma PALADINO, IRS Flavia PESCE, IRS Pietro FRECASSETTI, IRS Manuela SAMEK LODOVICI, IRS Eliat ARAM, Tavistok Kari HADJIVASSILIOU,
    [Show full text]
  • Right to Disconnect: Legal Provisions and Case Examples
    title of report here Right to disconnect: Legal provisions and case examples Challenges and prospects in the EU: Labour market change – trends and policy approaches towards flexibilisation Author: Tina Weber Research Managers: Tina Weber, John Hurley and Irene Mandl Eurofound reference number: WPEF20001 © European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (Eurofound), 2020 Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged. For any use or reproduction of photos or other material that is not under the Eurofound copyright, permission must be sought directly from the copyright holders. Any queries on copyright must be addressed in writing to: [email protected] The European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (Eurofound) is a tripartite European Union Agency established in 1975. Its role is to provide knowledge in the area of social, employment and work-related policies according to Regulation (EU) 2019/127. European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions Telephone: (+353 1) 204 31 00 Email: [email protected] Web: www.eurofound.europa.eu Right to disconnect: Legal provisions and case examples Legal provisions Italy: Law Agile on Smart working Flexible work practices aimed at enhancing work–life balance through the use of information and communications technology are mainly referred to as ‘smart working’ (lavoro agile). Such practices were originally introduced at company level and were subsequently specifically recognised by Law 81 of 22 May 2017. Specifically, Articles 18–24 of Law No. 81/2017 establish the regulatory framework for smart working. The law stipulates that smart working is put in place by an individual agreement between the employer and the worker and that it represents a way to perform ordinary work.
    [Show full text]
  • The Employee Right to Disconnect
    Volume 9 | Issue 1 Article 3 1-27-2019 The mploE yee Right to Disconnect Paul M. Secunda Marquette University Law School Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarship.law.nd.edu/ndjicl Part of the Comparative and Foreign Law Commons, International Law Commons, and the Labor and Employment Law Commons Recommended Citation Secunda, Paul M. (2019) "The mpE loyee Right to Disconnect," Notre Dame Journal of International & Comparative Law: Vol. 9 : Iss. 1 , Article 3. Available at: https://scholarship.law.nd.edu/ndjicl/vol9/iss1/3 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Notre Dame Journal of International & Comparative Law at NDLScholarship. It has been accepted for inclusion in Notre Dame Journal of International & Comparative Law by an authorized editor of NDLScholarship. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The mploE yee Right to Disconnect Cover Page Footnote Professor of Law and Director, Labor and Employment Law Program, Marquette University Law School. This Article is part of a Symposium that the Journal of International and Comparative Law of the University of Notre Dame Law School hosted on February 23, 2018, which included the panel: Human Rights to a Healthy Working Environment. The irony is not lost on the author that he wrote a large segment of this Paper after his normal working hours, and even on "vacation." Much thanks to Khatija Choudhry, Marquette Law Class of 2019, for her excellent research and writing assistance on this Paper. The aP per is dedicated in honor of my father, Steven Secunda, the man I most admire most of all.
    [Show full text]
  • The Right to Disconnect: a Response to One of the Challenges Raised by the Digital Transition? European and Belgian Perspectives1-2
    The Right to Disconnect: a Response to One of the Challenges Raised by the Digital Transition? European and Belgian perspectives1-2 Digital technology facilitates communication, is time-saving and provides opportunities for economic growth. It transforms our lives and our social interactions and redefines our private and professional spheres. Digital transition raises a number of issues. A pressing challenge stems from the effects of information and communication technologies (ICT) on working conditions. A portion of the knowledge workers has always been working outside the contractually defined working hours. Even if the work overload varies from one occupation to another, it has become a commonality that the worker’s brain be seldom switched off. Inspiration does not choose the moment when it comes, and if an idea is not immediately grasped (sometimes in the middle of the night), it becomes irretrievable. For a long time, work overflows have been somewhat limited by physical constraints; the limited number of books or files one is able to bring home was a natural limit to the overflow of work in the worker’s private sphere, even though a change had already been observed from the 1980s onwards with the arrival of laptops and the development of telework3. Internet, with its many developments, has transformed the world of work. Digital technologies make it possible to relocate work geographically and temporally, thus blurring the natural boundaries to working outside the contractual framework: it is now possible to work anywhere and at any time. The “home invasion” triggered by new technologies, the lack of discipline in the use of electronic messaging and digital addiction challenge the right to a privacy, the right to rest and the health of the employees (I).
    [Show full text]
  • Regulating Telework in a Post-COVID-19 Europe
    Regulating telework in a post-COVID-19 Europe European Agency for Safety and Health at Work ISSN: 1831-9351 Regulating telework in a post-COVID-19 Europe 1 European Agency for Safety and Health at Work — EU-OSHA Regulating telework in a post-COVID-19 Europe Authors: Pablo Sanz de Miguel, Maria Caprile and Juan Arasanz (NOTUS). This report was commissioned by the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (EU-OSHA). Its contents, including any opinions and/or conclusions expressed, are those of the authors alone and do not necessarily reflect the views of EU-OSHA. Project management: Maurizio Curtarelli and Lorenzo Munar (EU-OSHA). Europe Direct is a service to help you find answers to your questions about the European Union Freephone number (*): 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (*) Certain mobile telephone operators do not allow access to 00 800 numbers, or these calls may be billed. More information on the European Union is available on the internet (http://europa.eu). Cataloguing data can be found on the cover of this publication. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2021 ISBN: 978-92-9479-541-0 doi:10.2802/125499 © European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, 2021 Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged. 2 European Agency for Safety and Health at Work — EU-OSHA Regulating telework in a post-COVID-19 Europe Table of Contents 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 4 2 EU regulation pre-COVID-19 ....................................................................................................... 4 3 National regulation pre-COVID-19 ............................................................................................... 6 3.1 Countries with statutory definitions of and specific legislation on telework ................................
    [Show full text]
  • (Re-)Regulating Remote Work in the Post-Pandemic Scenario: Italian Labour Law E-Journal Lessons from the Italian Experience Issue 1, Vol
    (Re-)Regulating Remote Work in the post-pandemic scenario: Italian Labour Law e-Journal lessons from the Italian Experience Issue 1, Vol. 14 (2021) Iacopo Senatori ISSN 1561-8048 [email protected] https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1561-8048/13376 Carla Spinelli [email protected] (Re-)Regulating Remote Work in the Post-pandemic scenario: Lessons from the Italian experience Iacopo Senatori Carla Spinelli 1. Introduction. Regulating remote work in a post-pandemic world. 2. The Italian case in a diachronic perspective. From remote work to smart work. 3. The legal qualifications of remote work in Italy: Telework. 3.1. In the public sector. 3.2. In the private sector. 4. Telework in collective bargaining. The implementation of the 2002 European Framework Agreement in the private sector. 4.1. Levels of collective bargaining. 4.2. Rationale: the social and economic functions of telework. 4.3. Definitions and structural elements of telework. 4.4. Organization of the work performance. 4.5. Employment conditions, rights and obligations of teleworkers. 4.6. Collective Relations. 5. The Italian way to smart working between law and collective bargaining: regulatory purposes and techniques. 5.1. In the private sector. 5.2. In the public sector. 6. Law No. 81/2017 on agile work. 6.1. The legal definition of agile work, its juridical qualification and the principle of consensus. 6.2. Some critical issues about agile work. 7. Agile work during the Covid-19 pandemic. 7.1. In the private sector. 7.2. In the public sector. 8. Agile work in collective bargaining (private sector).
    [Show full text]
  • And the Normal Duration of the Working Time: Correlation of Concepts
    UDC 349.2:347:15/17(477) I. V. LAGUTINA, Doctor of Legal Sciences, Associate Professor, Head of Labour Law and Social Security Law Department of National University “Odessa Law Academy” «RIGHt TO dIsconnect» and tHe noRMaL dURATIon oF tHe woRKInG tIMe: coRReLATIon oF concePts У статті підкреслюється, що нові форми роботи і зміни робочого середовища породжують нову небезпеку. Тривалість робочого часу веде до зростання соціальної напруженості і конфронтації. Аналізується, що порушен- ня права на відпочинок, що забезпечується встановленням нормальної тривалості робочого часу, спричиняє по- силення стресу і депресії серед працівників і, отже, до зниження загального обсягу виробництва. Ключові слова: трудові права, працівник, робочий час, право на роз’єднання. Problem setting. The modification of working time article’s main body. The subject of working time has reflects changes in working conditions, its organization, been central to the work of the ILO since its inception, content and, at the same time, the degree of flexibility of when it adopted the first of many international labour stan- the labour market. Herewith, the organization of working dards, the Hours of Work (Industry) Convention, 1919 time, including its duration, is an instrument through (№ 1). Normal hours of work are, according to the ILO, the which the labour market can respond to processes occur- hours that workers are expected to spend on work activities ring in the economic, social and technological spheres. during a short reference period such as 1 day or 1 week, as Therefore, understanding the factors that underpin the stipulated in laws or regulations, collective agreements or processes of organizing and changing of working time arbitral awards, or establishments’ rules or customs.
    [Show full text]