Consequences of Degradation of Punyamati River: Religious Impacts Through Water Quality Analysis

CONSEQUENCES OF DEGRADATION OF PUNYAMATI RIVER: RELIGIOUS IMPACTS THROUGH WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS

Ms. Srijana Shrestha TU Registration No: 5-2-1014-0040-2013 TU Examination Roll No: 510140009

A PROJECT WORK SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN BOTANY

SUBMITTED TO DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY NIST COLLEGE BANEPA-4, KAVRE, NEPAL JULY, 2017 ABSTRACT

Degradation of rivers in the urban area has become a serious problem around the world. Though the leading cause of river degradation are diverse, disposal of solid and liquid waste, encroachment upon the river waterway and water extraction are solve of the obvious cause river degradation. The study was carried out with the aim of evaluating the factors leading to degradation of Punyamati River and cultural and religious consequences there from. Punyamati is an important river with religious and cultural significance of Panauti.

The study identified the disposal of sewage, industrial waste water and agricultural runoff as leading causes of river water degradation of Punyamati River. Analysis of river water quality at five different locations along the river course- Dhaneshwor, Chaukot, Banshghari, Pashupatinath Area and Trivenighat, revealed progressive degradation in the river water quality due to increasing pollution load resulting from untreated effuluent discharge.

Increasing river pollution was found to be impacting negatively on religious rituals performed in Punyamati Rivers. The study clearly reveal that the number of people using river water for all kinds of religious and cultural uses have been declining over time, obviously due to increasing pollution in the river.

DISCLAIMER

I hereby declare that this study entitled “CONSEQUENCES OF DEGRADATION OF PUNYAMATI RIVER: RELIGIOUS IMPACTS THROUGH WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS” is based on my original research work. Related works on the topic having duly acknowledged. I owe all the liabilities relating to accuracy and authenticity of data or any other information included in this project work.

………………………

Srijana Shrestha

Date:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all I would like to express my deep gratitude to Mrs. SangitaThapa, lecturer of NIST College for her expert guidance, constant encouragement, and valuable suggestions for the completion of this project work and in doing out best in this work and kindly agreed to contribute as my supervisor in under taking of this project work.

Respectfully, I would like express my deep sense of indebtedness and profound gratitude to Mr. Chet Bahadur Bista, principal of the college for providing me such an opportunity to carry out this project work.

I also sincerely owe to Mr. Bishwo Ram Tamang, co-ordinator of the batch for providing guidance, valuable suggestion, constructive comments and encouragement throughout the undertaking of the research and writing works.

I am thankful to Chemistry Department of NIST College, Banepa and Lab Assistant, Mr. Dinesh Prasad Dahal for assisting me during lab process for research. I would also like to thank my friends Mr. Ashok Thapa, Ms. Reshma Shrestha, Ms. Tara Ghimire and Ms. Ruby Hamal who help in completion of this project work..

My special thanks goes to Ms. Tara Devi Shrestha who constantly help me during field survey and Mr. Suraj Manandhar for his technical support without which this project work would have not been accomplished.

I would like to express my deep gratitude to my beloved parents and my family members for their belief, love and encouragement throughout my study period.

Srijana Shrestha

T.U. Registration No.: 5-2-1014-0040-2013

Exam Roll No.: 510140009

III

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 : Classification of surface water in Nepal 12

Table 3.1 : Objective wise Methodological Tools 15

Table 3.2 : Methods for the Evaluation of water Quality Parameters 20

Table 4.1 : Dissolved Oxygen in five different stations of Punyamati River 23

Table 4.2 : Free Carbon dioxide in five different stations of Punyamati River 24

Table 4.3 : Choloride concentration in five different stations of Punyamati River 25

Table 4.4 : Total Solid Matter in five different stations of Punyamati River 25

Table 4.5 : Acidity in five different stations of Punyamati River 26

Table 4.6 : List of religious and cultural activity of Triveni Ghat 28

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 : Sources of pollution 13

Figure 3.1 : Methodological framework of the study 14

Figure 3.2 : Map of Kavrepalanchok district showing location of 17 Panauti Municipality

Figure 3.3 : Map of Panauti Municipality 18

Figure 4.1 : Dissolved Oxygen in five different stations of Punyamati River 23

Figure 4.2 : Free Carbon dioxide in five different stations of Punyamati River 24

Figure 4.3 : Chloride concentration in water samples 25

Figure 4.4 : Total solid matter in water samples 26

Figure 4.5 : Variation in acidity of water samples 27

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

DHM Department of Hydrology and Meteorology

DO Dissolved Oxygen

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

GNI Gross National Income

HDI Human Development Index

ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development

IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources mg/l Milligram per litre ml Milliliter

NTNC National Trust for Nature Conservation

NWSC Nepal Water Supply Corporation

PPM Parts per Million

RONAST Royal Nepal Academy of Science and Technology

UN United Nation

UNDP United Nation Development Programme

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

WHO World Health Organization

WWF World Wildlife Fund

TABLE OF CONTENT

ABSTRACT I

DISCLAIMER II

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT III

LIST OF TABLES IV

LIST OF FIGURES V

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS VI

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………….. 1-7

1.1 Background…………………………………………………………………….. 1

1.1.1 Water ……………………………………………………………………. 1

1.1.2 River: It’s Importance …..………………………………………………. 2

1.1.3 River and Culture ………………………………………………………. 3

1.1.4 River Pollution ………………………………………………………….. 4

1.2 Objectives ……………………………………………………………………… 5

1.3 The Research Questions ……………………………………………………….. 5

1.4 Rationale ………………………………………………………………………. 6

1.5 Limitations of the Study ………………………………………………………. 7

CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………………….. 8-13

CHAPTER 3 : MATERIALS AND METHODS ……………………………….. 14-22

3.1 Methodological Framework ………………………………………………….. 14

3.2 Study Area …………………………………………………………………… 15

3.3 Research Methodologies …………………………………………………….. 19

3.3.1 Water Sample Collection …………………………………………….. 19

3.3.2 Field Survey ………………………………………………………….. 20

3.3.3 Secondary Data Collection …………………………………………… 20

3.4 Data Analysis Approach …………………………………………………….. 20 CHAPTER 4 : RESULT …………………………………………………..……. 23-29

4.1 Water Quality Analysis …………………………………………………….... 23

4.1.1 Dissolved Oxygen ……………………………………………………. 23

4.1.2 Free Carbon dioxide ………………………………………………….. 24

4.1.3 Chloride ……………………………………………………………… 24

4.1.4 Total Solid Matter …………………………………………………… 25

4.1.5 Acidity ……………………………………………………………….. 26

4.2 Religious Uses of River …………………………………………………….. 27

CHAPTER 5 : DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION …………………………. 30-36

5.1 Discussion …………………………………………………………………… 30

5.1.1 Dissolved Oxygen ……………………………………………………. 30

5.1.2 Free Carbon dioxide ………………………………………………….. 31

5.1.3 Chloride ……………………………………………………………… 31

5.1.4 Total Solid Matter …………………………………………………… 32

5.1.5 Acidity ……………………………………………………………….. 32

5.2 Religious Uses of River …………………………………………………….. 33

5.2.1 Changes in the Religious and Cultural Uses resulting from ………… 35 River Pollution

5.3 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………. 35

CHAPTER 6 : RECOMMENDATIONS …………………………………………. 37

APPENDIX I - QUESTIONNAIRE

APPENDIX II – LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS

REFERENCES Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1Background

1.1.1 Water

Water found on the earth is the most essential commodity for all kinds of living beings. It is one of the prime essential ingredients of life. More than 2000 years ago, in one of the great Epics, a sage advised his ruler “If you wish to establish your reputation among people, store great quantities of water in valleys of our kingdom. Those who fail to store water will fail to store their glory.” Therefore, the relation between the life and water is so intimate that it is virtually impossible to separate them from each other.

Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earth’s streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms. Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure; but it often refers also to its solid state (ice) or gaseous state (steam or water vapor). It also occurs in nature as snow, glaciers, ice packs and icebergs, clouds, fog, dews, aquifers and atmospheric humidity.

Water (H2O) is a polar inorganic compound that is at room temperature a tasteless and odorless liquid, nearly colorless with a hint of blue. This simplest hydrogen chalcogenide is by far the most studied chemical compound and is described as the "universal solvent" for its ability to dissolve many substances. (Earnshaw, Alan, 1997)

Water covers 71% of the Earth’s surface. It is vital for all known forms of life. On the Earth, 96.5% of the planet’s crust water is found in seas and oceans, 1.7% in groundwater, 1.7%in glaciers and ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland, a small fraction in other large water bodies, and 0.001% in the air as water vapor, clouds and precipitation. Only 2.5% of this water is freshwater, and 98.8% of that water is in ice and groundwater. Less than 0.3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the

1 atmosphere, and an even smaller amount of the Earth’s freshwater (0.003%) is contained within the biological bodies and manufactured products.

Water is obtained from various sources; Surface water and Ground water. Surface water is water that collects on ground or in a stream, river, lake, reservoir, or ocean. Surface water is constantly replenished through precipitation, and lost through evaporation and seepage into ground water supplies. Ground water, which is obtained by drilling wells, is water located below the ground surface in pores and spaces in the rock.

People use surface and ground water every day for a variety of purposes, including drinking, cooking, and basic hygiene, in addition to recreational, agricultural, and industrial activities. According to the United States Environment Protection Agency (EPA), the majority of public water systems (91%) are supplied by ground water, however, more persons (68%) are supplied year-round by community water systems that use surface water(EPA, 2008).

1.1.2 River: It’s Importance

River valleys constitute very rich ecological resource system supporting the livelihood of the people since time immemorial. These river valleys provided the conditions necessary for the civilizations to flourish and supported them socially, economically and environmentally. The rivers provided water for drinking and for agricultural uses. The annual flooding cycles in the rivers left fresh deposits of fertile soil on the valley floors, enabling farmers to cultivate the same plots of land in perpetuity. In addition, the rivers were used as corridors for the transportation of goods and as the natural waterways for the disposal of refuges and wastewater. This has been a reason that many ancient civilization started at the northern most peak of the Nile River at the Neolithic Revolution. The water from Nile was the basis to create lush green fields sheltered by desert around, eventually led to formation of Egypt and its colonies around. Most people depended on farming that required water from Nile. The flooding that came in the late summer to winter fertilized the land for next season’s cropping (Scott, undated). Similarly Harappan civilization along Indus River, Mesopotamian civilization in land between Euphrates and Tigris River and Yellow

River Valley civilization in China are other examples of human civilizations that evolved along the river valleys.It is therefore obvious to conclude that river valleys were not merely important to the evolution of early civilizations, but were, in fact, a necessary prerequisite for their existence.

1.1.3 River and Culture

River and riverine resources have been attracting people for the availability of fertile soil and water, food for production to meet the domestic needs. Rivers also serve as the means for natural waterways for effluent discharge and traditionally the cheapest means of the transportation of goods and services. The rivers are also linked strongly to the social, cultural and religious value system. In the religious realm, rivers are intricately linked to rites and rituals among the Hindus. Rivers are considered “pure” and “sacred” and treated as “mother” and “goddess”. Holy dip in the rivers is essential before performing many religious rites. The last rites after death are generally performed on the banks of holy rivers. On specific days bathing in the rivers is considered sacred. During Dashain, Navaratri (nine days festival) is celebrated by taking holy bath in different holy rivers for nine consecutive days. Likewise, in every first day of new month locally called Sankranti, there is a tradition of taking holy dip and offer donations. Baisakh Sankranti (Mid of April or Nepalese New Year Day), Shrawan Sankranti (Mid July) and Maghe Sankranti (Mid February) have special religious and cultural importance. In Maghe Sankranti, many religious fairs are organized at variousconfluences including in the Kamala River and Gwang River in Sindhuli, in the confluence of Kali Gandaki River and Trishuli Rivers at Devghat in Chitwan, and at several other holy places. Just like Sankranti, Purnima (the full moon day) has also important religious significance in the Nepalese society. On the full moon day in Jestha (May-June), people take bath in Indreshwor fair in Indrawati and in BhadraPurnima, people take bath in PashupatiAryaghat, Hanumanghat and other important rivers in Nepal. Generally, in every Sankranti and Purnima, people take holy dip in the rivers. Besides, Sankranti and Purnima, Ekadashi(the eleventh day of lunar fortnight), Aunshi (the day of new moon) and Asthami (the eight day of the lunar fortnight), people visit different holy places for taking baths and performing religious rites.

The religious value of river is also linked to art and crafts and cultural and religious artifacts that are developed along the river bank. Generally temples, shrines and places of worship and the places of religious rites are developed along the rivers. Permanent stone and masonry structures built along the river banks, calledghat, not only have the hydraulic function as revetment for bank protection but also have aesthetics and cultural values as well. Also, building ghats and temples along the river bank is considered noble works. This is the reasonthat ghats were built along Bagmati and Bishnumati Rivers by several rulers. The rulers and those rich and influential in the society also built pati, pauwa, dhungedhara (stone spout) and temples of numerous gods and goddesses near the river bank in the memory of the deceased member of their family or for the cause of religious devotions (Amatya, 2006).

In the Nepalese societyevery river or stream has its own religious and cultural significance. As Nepalese consideredriver a bridge between the earth and the heaven, they believed that offering homage in thename of departed souls by carrying out religious rituals like Shraddha, Tarpan (a ceremonyperformed in honor of deceased ancestors, consisting of the daily offering of water and atstated intervals the balls of rice and meal to three paternal and maternal forefathers) and Daan(generosity) at the banks of the river would ensure that the offerings reach them.

1.1.4 River Pollution

There are many definitions regarding pollution but in general word “Pollution” has been defined as an unfavourable alteration of our environment, largely as a result of human activities. The unfavourable alteration includes the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of our environment that may or will harmfully affect human life or that of desirable species, our industrial processes, living conditions and cultural assets. Water pollution may be defined as the addition of any agent whether chemical or physical or biological which renders the body of water unfit for a specified use or reuse. Water pollution affects the entire biosphere – plants and organisms living in these bodies of water. In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and population, but also to the natural biological communities. Water pollution also affects not only inhabiting biota but also helps to spread out number of

4 water borne diseases such as Hepatitis, Dysentery, Typhoid, Malaria, Yellow fever, Flue, Tuberculosis among human beings and animals (Kudesia, 1980).

Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells). It has been suggested that water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases, and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily (Pink, Daniel, 2006).

1.2 Objectives

The overall objectives of this study is to evaluate the factors and processes leading to river water degradation, the cultural and religious consequences resulting from continued processes of river degradation. The specific objectives of the study are stated here under:

 To access the spatial variability of water quality along the course of Punyamati River by analyzing the physico-chemical parameters.

 To identify the factors leading to degradation of water quality along the course of Punyamati River.

 To evaluate the consequences of degradation of water quality on the livelihood of people depending upon the river water for religious and cultural activities.

1.3 The Research Questions

The study was taken up with the aim of assessing the livelihood consequences resulting from the continued processes of degradation of a river and using it as a basis in establishing the livelihood linkages to e river degradation. The study uses the course of Punyamati River within Panauti Municipality and focuses on the following key questions:

i. What have been the factors and processes at work leading to the degradation of Punyamati River over time?

ii. What has been the current state of degradation of Punyamati River and how is this perceived by the people who have been depending in the river for their livelihood? iii. What are the livelihood consequences resulting from the river degradation? Who are the people affected and how?

1.4. Rationale

Unlike other rivers of Nepal, Punyamati River flowing through Panauti is experiencing a rapid depredation due to many factors such as human encroachment, untreated sewage discharge, agricultural runoff, and extraction of river water on the upstream. Water quality related studies have not been done yet in this river.

The present scenario of the urban rivers is vivid; assessment of water quality alone is not worth to carry out. The real problems faced by the river dependent people, such as, who are affected by affected by river degradation and to what extent, carry immense meaning. The assay of the real socio-economic, cultural, religious, health and environmental impacts aroused by the degradation of the river has to be carried out. In addition to this, factors responsible for river degradation should be addressed in parallel. The consideration has to be given to all bigger smaller rivers which serve as the tributaries of other major rivers of Nepal.

River such as Punyamati River, has its own social, cultural ecological and religious importance to the people of Panauti, has undergone continued degradation affecting not only the livelihood of the people but also imparting irreversible implication to historical and tourism importance of the city. There has been no initiative till the date on conservation and restoration of Punyamati River. It is very important therefore to establish the state of degradation of Punyamati River and the causes and processes too.

1.5 Limitations of the Study

 The result of this research carried out in and around the Punyamati River is only limited to these sites. It may or may not be applicable to other sites.  Water quality analysis was carried only one time which might not represent the river water quality of whole year.  Some of the qualitative data were anlysed on the basis of the perception of the respondents which might not be 100% true.  Due to limited time and fund detail study was not possible.

Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 River Pollution

2.1.1 Global Context

Peterson et al.(1971) described the influence of human activities on the surface water in the developing countries which has increased dramatically over the past decades which also have accelerated the pollution process of the surface water sources.

Smit and Nasr(1992) described that at least 10%of the world’s population is thought to consume foods produced by irrigation with wastewater.

Stanley et al. (1994) published the final report on the Bagmati Basin Water Management Strategy and Investment Programme which stated that Bagmati River water within the Kathmandu valley was not suitable for drinking, recreation and irrigation purposes.

Helmer and Hespanhol (1997) published a report in which they described wastewater is generated at the rate of 35-200 litres per person per day depending on water supply service level, climate and water availability where households are connected to piped water supplies.

Carpenter et al. (1998) published a book “Nonpoint pollution of surface water with phosphorous and Nitrogen” described the anthropogenic activities (urban, industrial, agricultural and increasing exploitation of water resources) and natural process (precipitation, pattern, weathering, soil erosion sediment loss) have led to serious decline in the surface water qualities.

Gleick(2000) described that agricultural sector is the single largest user of fresh water, accounting for nearly 70% (90% in some countries) of all the extractions of fresh water worldwide.

FAO (2002) described that agricultural sector is the single largest user of fresh water, accounting for nearly 70% (90% in some countries) of all the extractions of fresh water worldwide.

Svendsenet al.(2004) published a book “Managing River Basins: An Institutional Perspective” which described that the water resources in many river basins are fully or almost fully committed to a variety of uses both in stream and remote, water quality is degraded: river dependent ecosystems are threatened;and still expanding demand is leading to intense competition and, at time, to strife.

WWF (2004) documented that the rivers in the Kathmandu Valley continue to degrade in the absence of conservation and restoration measures.

UN (2006) studied about river pollution and show that globally about two million tons of human waste are deposited in water source per day.

WHO(2006) described that the use of wastewater in agriculture is likely to increase as fresh water becomes increasingly scarce due to population growth, urbanisation and climate change.

WHO(2006) describedwastewater is approximately 99% water with dissolved and suspended solids.

WHO(2006) described in semi arid area, a city of one million people would produce enough wastewater to irrigate approximately 1500-3500 ha of land.

Cap-Net/UNDP (2008) described that globally aggregate national water use varies directly with both Gross national income (GNI) and Human Development Index (HDI).

2.1.2 Nepalese Context

Shrestha (1980) studied the water quality of Bagmati River biologically, using aquatic insects as bio-indicators. This was one of the first applied research work where aquatic insects were used indicators to assess the water quality of rivers of Nepal.

Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (1996) published the first comprehensive report on the water quality of Bagmati River and its tributaries which was based on monitoring of water quality of rivers in Kathmandu valley from 1992 to 1995. The report classify the river quality into seven classes (Table 2.1).

Sharma and Moog(1996) made the first systematic study on the water quality status of the Bagmati River and its tributaries in Kathmandu valley and introduced the use of saprobic system in monitoring surface water quality. Different biotic indices, and scores that have been in use worldwide, were applied in water quality monitoring of Nepalese rivers.

Pradhan (1998) investigated microbial population density and their biomass with respect to saprobic water quality classes.

Shrestha (2002) studied about the physico-chemical parameters of Vishnumati River. The water quality of Vishnumati River has deteriorated considerably with the increased industrialization, urbanization and direct human interference thereby affecting the lotic ecosystem of Bishnumati River and discharge of industrial effluents, domestic wastes and also direct discharge of sewage pipe lines to river continuously without any pre-treatment.

Pradhan (2002) assessed the water quality of Bagmati River using ‘mayflies’ as bio- indicators and suggested higher taxonomic indentification for better precision of water quality classes.

Sharma et al. (2005) described that in rainy season, water quality of the river improves considerably due to increased assimilative capacity of the river but it degrades to the extent in dry season that makes the river look like a sewer.

Sharma et al. (2006) published a book “A review of water quality studies in rivers of Nepal in Water Resources, Security and Sustainability” which describes that the water quality of the Bagmati River in Kathmandu Valley deteriorates as the river passes through the core of Kathmandu city.

Sada (2010) described four important causes of river degradation; i) upstream water extraction, ii) disposal of untreated urban sewage and solid waste, iii)development of urban infrastructure and services with complete disregard of the river environment, and iv) insensitivity of the Bhaktapur municipality, and other agencies, and lack of recognition of river conservation and restoration as an important part of urban development planning.

Shrestha (1980); Upadhya and Roy(1982); Pradhananga et al.(1988); DISVI(1988); RONAST (1988); Karmacharya (1990); Shrestha (1990); Moog and Sharma (1996); DHM (1996); Pradhan (1988) and Juettner et al.(2003) stated that the issues of water quality degradation in Bagmati River have received the most consistent attention compared to other rivers in the country due to the fact that Bagmati River is located in the capital city and that has religious and cultural importance as well. Also, that the issue of water pollution has not been alarming in other river systems in our country.

2.2Cultural significance of Rivers

BBWMS (1994) described that the Nepalese cultural considered the rivers as an important religious and cultural significance.

IUCN(1995) described that the unplanned and haphazard urbanization and fast industrial growth has increased the misuse of cultural resources and has created the deteriorating situation of the monuments.

Ghimire (1998) described the river water as ‘Jal’ which is believed to purify the person’s soul.

Amatya (2006) described that the river links the earth and the heaven. People believe that the offerings that they make will find way to their ancestors in the heaven, flowing through river.

Amatya (2006) published a book “Water and Culture” in which he described the river is considered as “Ganges” that means the entire area becomes sacred where the “Ganges”flow. He also described about the “ChanakyaNiti”, a book on religious and cultural codes written by Chanakya, Mention River as our mother and river water resembles the milk of our mother.

NTNC (2008) that the starting of pollution of rivers leads to the destruction of monuments and structures along the river bank.

NTNC (2008) described that most of the important heritage sites along the rivers are deteriorating and are at the risk of collapse.

Table 2.1: Classification of surface water in Nepal

Quality grade I: Quality grade I-II: Quality grade II: Quality grade II-III: Unpolluted to very Slightly polluted Moderately polluted Critically polluted slightly polluted

Clear water, low in Low nutrient content Dense colonization of Considerable pollution nutrients algae load of organic 8 or more mg/l oxygen substances River bed usually stone. with frequent small High-yield fish water Gravel or sandy detectable deficts Turbid, eventually Oxygen content always sludge Amount of dissolved BOD:Generally over 6 mg/l oxygen:>8mg/l between 1 and 2 mg/l Amount of oxygen 4 BOD frequently or even less mg/l between 2 and 6 mg/l BOD:0-1 mg/l NH4 is only present in concentrations NH frequently below BOD between 5 and Absence of NH (or 4 4 averaging 0.1 mg/l 0.3-0.4 mg/l 10 mg/l traces only) NH4 frequency below 1.3 mg/l

Quality grade III: Quality grade III-IV: Quality grade IV: Heavily polluted Very heavily polluted Excessively polluted

Water turbid with Water turbid with Water highly turbid sewage outfall sewage outfall Bed covered in Sludge, where the Bed usually covered in sludge current is weak sludge Often smells of Underside of stones Fish are only hydrogen sulphide blackened by iron encountered locally sulphide and then not on a No fish population permanent basis Periodic fish mortality Often very low or no Oxygen content dissolved oxygen Oxygen always present sometimes less than 1 in amounts of 2-4 mg/l mg/l, as a rule not BOD over 15 mg/l but drops at times <2 more than few mg/l mg/l NH4 usually several BOD frequently 10-20 mg/l BOD frequently 7 to 13 mg/l mg/l NH4 usually several NH4 usually in excess mg/l of 0.6 mg/l and may reach upto several mg/l

(Source:DHM, 1996 as cited by Sharma et al.)

(Source: Sharma and Moog, 2005)

Figure 2.1: Sources of pollution

Chapter 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Methodological Framework

The methodological framework adopted in the course of the study is illustrated in Figure 3.1. The methodology involved extensive review of secondary sources of information and consultation with the local people. A number of methodological tools were then used in collecting primary and secondary information relevant to the objectives of the study.

Research

Data Collection

Primary Secondary

Field visit,

Interviews, Literature review

Water quality analysis

Synthesis of Data

Qualitative and Quantitative Data Analysis

Draft Report Preparation

Synthesis and Correction

Thesis Writing

Figure 3.1:Methodological framework of the study

The methodological tools adopted in the course of exploring specific set of information leading to achieve the study objectives are illustrated in Table 3.1. These tools were identified based on a rigorous analysis of their strength in capturing specific set of information needed to achieve the study objectives. In selection of specific tools, the limitations of the resources available for the study were also taken into account.

Table 3.1: Objective wise Methodological Tools

Objectives Research Tools 1. To access the spatial variability of water  Field visit quality along the course of Punyamati River  Water sample collection  Lab test by analyzing the physic-chemical parameters 2. To identify the factors leading to  Direct observation degradation of water quality along the  Interviews  Literature review course of Punyamati River 3. To evaluate the consequences of  Literature review degradation of water quality on the  Interviews with local people livelihood of people depending upon the river water for religious and cultural activities.

3.2 Study Area

Panauti: An Introduction

Panauti is one of the oldest towns in Nepal, consisting of many temples that are still present till this day dating back to 15th century or earlier. It has been debated that Panauti was founded by Ananda Malla (1274-1310BC), others believed that there is a golden scripture dated 1385, which is located within the Indreshwor temple stating that King Harisingh Dev founded the town.

Panauti is a historical city found in Nepal, as it was originally a small state given by King Bhupatindra Malla as a dowry to his sister. This town has a population of under 10,000 people and a few prominent icons, such as the Indreshwor temple and Durbar Square found in the town center. At the end of the 13th century, Panauti was finally

15 integrated into the unified kingdom of Nepal, along with Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur, which are all former capital cities of the Kathmandu valley. Panauti, consists of a variety of Buddhist and Hindu religious monuments, and is considered to be one of the area’s most important medieval sites.

Panauti is quaint and interesting destination of Nepal. It feels as if has been left exactly the way the founders had built the town. A nostalgic atmosphere covers the narrow town streets and ancient structures. It is known as a Newari town that is located near Roshi River and Punyamati River. Panauti can be easily reached from Kathmandu, which is at a distance of 32km south-east.

Panauti, situated at the confluence of the two rivers Roshi and Punyamati, has been regarded as an important religious site since very early times. In Nepali society it is believed that such rivers are scared places. A visit or just an ablution in such places enables man to be freed from sins and anxieties. Furthermore, it is believed that there is also a third “invisible” river, Lilawati creating a tri-junction called Triveni and is historically known to have remarkably enhanced Nepal’s religious sanctity and popularity especially in Panauti. However, the last one is said to be visible only to the sheers and the intellectuals. The site is also regarded as the “Prayagtirtha of Nepal”. Due to the convergence of these three rivers, on festive occasions, large numbers of people from around the world come to this holy place to pay respects, as well as visiting the Indreshwor temple and other holy sites located in Panauti. The confluence of these three rivers is an important pilgrimage site where a month-long fair is held known as Makar Mela in the interval of every twelve years. During this celebration, hundreds and thousands of devotees visit Panauti to cleanse themselves in this scared water.

About Panauti Municipality:  Coordinates :27o35’N 85o31’E / 27.583oN 85.517oE  Country :Nepal  Zone :Bagmati Zone  District :Kabhrepalanchok District  Total Area :118.00km2 (45.56 sq mi)  Total Population :46,595.00  Population Density :390/km2(1000/sqmi)

Panauti municipality

Figure 3.3: Map of Kavrepalanchok district17 showing location of Panauti Municipality

Figure 3.3: Map of Panauti Municipality

3.3Research Methodologies

3.3.1 Water Sample Collection The water samples were collected from five different locations along the river course, refered herein as, S1 to S5. The water samples were collected along the river of about 8 km length. All the water samples were collected from the river within the urban area. First sample was collected from residental area. Other two samples were collected from the industrial area and last two were collected from the religious area.

Dhaneshwor (S1)

The first sample was collected at Dhaneshwor, at the bridge way to Panauti from Banepa.. This site is densely populated. The water flowing to this site was polluted due to domestic sewage and wastewater from automobile workshops.

Chaukot (S2)

Second water sample was collected at Chaukot. The water was polluted due to the wastewater drainage from the industries. Domestic sewage from the local residence was also found to be the cause of river pollution in this site.

Banshghari (S3)

Third water sample was collected from river at Banshghari. The water was polluted due to the wastewater drainage from the industries. Domestic sewage from the local residence was also found to be the cause of river pollution in this site. Agricultural runoff was also found to be discharged in this site.

Pashupatinath Area (S4)

The fourth sample was collected from river at Pashupatinath area. The municipal sewage and agricultural runoff are discharged into the river. This site has significant religious and cultural value.

Trivenighat (S5)

The last sample was collected from Trivenighat, the confluence of Punyamati and Roshi River. It is highly significant site from religious and cultural point of view.

3.3.2 Field Survey

The study area was visited during collection of samples and people were interviewed to generate the information to achieve the objectives of the study. The present study not being focused on a random basis, a questionnaire was prepared for acquiring information. The survey was conducted among people found around the sites of sample collection.

3.3.3 Secondary Data Collection

Socio-economic data, population data and other related data will collected from the Panauti municipality. Some information were collected from the internet sites too.

3.4 Data Analysis Approach

Water samples were analyzed in the Biology and Chemistry Laboratory of NIST College, Banepa. Physico-chemical analysis of 5 different parameters of water samples collected from five different stations were evaluated. The tested parameters, their unit of measurement and methods used in analysis are given in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2: Methods for the Evaluation of water Quality Parameters

S.N Parameters Unit Method 1. Dissolved Oxygen mg/l Titration 2. Free Carbon dioxide mg/l Titration 3. Chloride mg/l Titration 4. Acidity mg/l Titration 5. Total solid matter mg/l Gravimetric (evaporation and weighing)

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

250 ml of water taken in a conical flask and 1 ml of Manganese Sulphate (MnSO4) was added by pipette, dipping the end below the surface. 1 ml of alkaline iodine solution was also added to it. A stopper was put in the flask and the solution was mixed thoroughly. The precipitate was allowed to settle down and 2 ml of cone

Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) was added. The precipitate was dissolved by shaking the flask 10 ml of this solution was taken in a conical flask and titrated with Sodium thiosulphate until coffee brown colored appeared. At the moment a drop of starch solution was added an indicator and again titrated with Sodium thiosulphate solution until blue color disappeared. The volume of titrant used in getting t end point was noted which is nothing but a quantity of dissolved oxygen. Three reading were noted in each and mean was taken which latter on was converted into mg/l or PPM.

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)=(ml. x N) of Na2S2O3 x 1000 x 8 V2 (V1-V/V1)

Where, V= volume of MnSO4 +KI

V1= volume of BOD bottle

V2 = volume of sample taken

Free Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Like dissolved oxygen, free carbon dioxide is also one of the most important parameters of water pollution. It was determine by simple laboratory method. 100 ml of sample was taken is a conical flask was kept cool until taken form estimation 2 or 3 drops of phenolphthalein was added. If the sample does not become red it indicates the presence of free carbon dioxide (CO2). Immediately the sample was titrated with the 0.0227 N NaOH solution stirring with a glass rod until a pink color appeared for about 1 min. The volume of NaOH consumed was noted which is nothing but a quantity free carbon dioxide. This was later converted into mg/l i.e. PPM by as simple equation.

Free carbon dioxide (mg/litre) = vol. of NaOH used x normality x 44 x 1000 Volume of sample.

Chloride

For chloride determination, 50 ml of sample was taken in a clean conical flask and 2 ml. Potassium Chromate (K2CrO4) solution was added to it. The solution was titrated against sliver nitrate (AgNO3-0.002 N) until a persistent red tinger appeared. The volume of Sliver Nitrate of three replicate readings at each station was taken as main volume was converted later into mg/l by using following equation.

Chloride (mg/litre) = (ml. x N) of AgNO3 x 1000 x 35.5 ml. of sample used

Total Solid Matter

250ml of water was taken in a dry beaker and weighed. The beaker with sample was kept in the oven at 120oC until the water evaporate. Then after the beaker was cooled and weighed with the residue.

Total Solids(mg/litre) =Wt. of residue (g)x 1000,000 Volume of sample taken (ml)

Acidity

200 mg of NaOH was dissolved in 500 ml of water to prepare 0.01 N solution of NaOH. 0.1 mg of phenolphthalein was dissolved in 100 ml of warm water to prepare 1% phenolphthalein solution. 100 ml of sample was taken in conical flask and 3 drops of phenolphthalein was added on it and titrated against the NaOH till the pink color appeared. The volume of NaOH of three replicate readings at each station was taken as main volume was converted later into mg/l by using following equation.

Acidity (mg/litre) = volume of NaOH x Normality of NaOH x 100x1000 Volume of sample used

Chapter 4

RESULTS

4.1 Water Quality Analysis

4.1.1 Dissolved Oxygen

Dissolved oxygen is one of the parameters of study of water pollution because whenever water is polluted, the dissolved oxygen also decreases. The presence of Dissolved Oxygen was not found to be sufficient in all stations. The highest value of DO was noted 6.57 mg/l in S5 and lowest was 2.02 mg/l in S2.

Table 4.1: Dissolved Oxygen in five different stations of Punyamati River

Stations Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l)

S1 4.05

S2 2.02

S3 4.37

S4 5.67

S5 6.25

7 6.57 6

5 4.37 4.5 4.05 4 3 2.02 2

1 Dissolved Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) 0 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 Stations

Figure 4.1: Dissolved Oxygen in five different stations of Punyamati River

4.1.2 Free Carbon dioxide

It is another important parameter which indicates the extent of pollution. The highest value of free CO2 was found at station S1 (284 mg/l) and lowest at station S4 (66 mg/l)

Table 4.2: Free Carbon dioxide in five different stations of Punyamati River

Stations Free Carbon dioxide(mg/l) S1 284 S2 220 S3 264 S4 66 S5 154

300 284 264

250 220 200 154 150

100 66

50 Free Free Carbondioxide (mg/l) 0 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 Stations

Figure 4.2: Free Carbon dioxide in five different stations of Punyamati River

4.1.3 Chloride

The observed values of chloride concentration at the sampling sites ranged from 35.5 to 142 mg/l. The highest value was observed at S1 (142mg/l) and lowest at S5 (35.5mg/l).

Table 4.3: Chloride concentration in five different stations of Punyamati River

Stations Chloride (mg/l)

S1 142

S2 124.5

S3 88.75

S4 53.25

S5 35.5

160 142 140 124.5 120 100 88.75 80 60 53.25

Chloride (mg/l) 35.5 40 20 0 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 Stations

Figure 4.3: Chloride concentration in water samples

4.1.4 Total Solid Matter

The observed concentration of total solid at the sampling site is presented in the Table 4.4 and Figure 4.4. The total solid matter is observed to be highest at S2 (900 mg/l) and lowest at S5 (270mg/l)

Table 4.4: Total Solid Matter in five different stations of Punyamati River

Stations Total Solid Matter (mg/l)

S1 600

S2 900

S3 600

S4 780

S5 270

1000 900 900 780 800 700 600 600 600 500 400 270 300 200

Total solid Totalsolid (mg/l) matter 100 0 S1 S2 StationsS3 S4 S5

Figure 4.4: Total solid matter in water samples

4.1.5 Acidity

Observed acidity of water samples at all sampling sites is illustrated in Table 4.5 and Figure 4.5., which is found to be highest in S1 (425 mg/l) and lowest in S3 and S5 (100 mg/l).

Table 4.5: Acidity in five different stations of Punyamati River

Stations Acidity (mg/l)

S1 425

S2 300

S3 100

S4 250

S5 100

450 425 400

350 300 300 250 250 200 150 Acidity(mg/l) 100 100 100 50 0 S1 S2 StationsS3 S4 S5

Figure 4.5: Variation in acidity of water samples

4.2 Religious Uses of River

In order to capture the changes in the religious and cultural use of river as a result of river degradation short interviews were carried out with the people around sampling sites. The people involved in interviews were those who were involved in the religious and cultural uses of water. No discrimination by caste, economic strata and gender was however observed among the people performing religious rituals along the river. The places of religious and cultural, and also archaeological, importance along Punyamati River identified in the course of the study were:

Pashupatinath temple, Maneshwori temple, Brahmayani temple Indreshwor temple, Radha Krishna temple Trivenighat. These places along the river have their own religious and cultural importance to the people in the area.

A list of religious functions performed at Trivenighat, their religious and cultural significance and approximate time of year is presented in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6: List of religious and cultural activities of Trivenighat

S.N. Religious and Cultural Month Remarks activities 1. Bathing and washing face with Every Solar and Lunar religious sentiments and eclipse day bringing water for rituals in the temples 2. Bathing and washing face with Every Aunshi religious sentiments and bringing water for rituals in the temples 3. Bathing and washing face with Every Ekadashi religious sentiments and bringing water for rituals in the temples 4. Bathing and washing face with Ashwin Ghatasthapana(first religious sentiments and (September/October) day of Dashain) bringing water for rituals in the temples and taking soil from river to make Jamara 5. Bathing and washing face with Ashwin Nawami(ninth day religious sentiments and (September/October) of Dashain) bringing water for rituals in the temples 6. Bathing and washing face with Mangsir Laxmi puja religious sentiments and (November/December) bringing water for rituals in the temples 7. Fasting and telling Sri Magh Sri SwosthaniBrata SwosthaniBrata Katha; (January/February) Bathing and washing face with religious sentiments and bringing water for rituals in the temples 8. Fasting and telling Sri Magh Madhav Narayan SwosthaniBrata Katha; (January/February) Festival Bathing and washing face with religious sentiments and bringing water for rituals in the temples 9. Bathing and washing face with Whole month of Magh Makar mela religious sentiments and (January/February)

bringing water for rituals in (once in every 12 the temples years) 10. Bathing and washing face with Chaitra (March /April) Ram Nawami religious sentiments and bringing water for rituals in the temples 11 Sorhashraddha(Last rituals of Whole year the ancestors)

Chapter 5

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

5.1 Discussion

Water quality of the river was found deteriorating considerably with the increases in industrialization, urbanization and various other developmental activities. Punyamati River flowing from the centre of Panauti Municipality is also at the same situation. It is being polluted day by day deteriorating its water quality drastically. Therefore, it is urgent to assess the physical chemical as well as biological nature of the water in the future also.

5.1.1 Dissolved Oxygen

The presence of DO is essential to maintain the variety of life forms of biological life thus in term used by several aquatic organisms and is largely determined by the oxygen balance of the system. In general, the actual amount of the oxygen is related to the nature of the stream, water temperature, presence of aquatic life and degree of pollution. A low content of DO is a sign of organic pollution. The threshold limit of DO for drinking water is 3 mg/l (Kudesia, 1980), while the DO of 5 mg/l and 4mg/l are the minimum limit for the river water in Japan and India (WHO/UNDP, 1988) respectively.

The standard DO value for the existence and growth of aquatic life, bathing and agriculture use is 6, 3 and 3 mg/l, respectively (Nepal Gazette, 2008). If this is used as basis in evaluating the suitability of different sites for specific uses, S5 would be the only suitable site for growth of aquatic life, while the rest sites are grossly unsuitable. Similarly for bathing and irrigation uses, except S2, all other sites are suitable.

High DO level is also known to cause gases bubble diseases which blocks the blood flow ultimately killing wide varieties of fish species (www.state.ky.us/nrepc/water/wcpdo.htm). These bubbles are also seen in the fishes when DO level is high. DO is also known have its effects on odour, clarity and taste of water as well.

The reason for low DO observed at S2 is the domestic sewage and industrial wastewater discharged to the river.

5.1.2 Free Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide is found in dissolved state in water. The presence of higher concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide in water increases solvent action and makes it more corrosive. A concentration of less than 100 mg/l does not produce any change in the taste of water (Swenson and Boldwin, 1965). It is also regarded as a vital factor, which indicates the degree of water pollution. The amount of free carbon dioxide is generally very low in clean and unpolluted water. But when the water is subjected to the pollution, especially organic pollution, its amount rises up due to break down of complex organic matters into simple components. And when the amount goes up the medium becomes unsuitable for the majority of the aquatic fauna and flora.

5.1.3 Chloride

The observed values of chloride concentration at the sampling sites ranged from 35.5 to 142 mg/l (Figure 4.3) which was well within the standard value of 100 mg/l (Nepal Gazette, 2008). The highest value observed at S1 is essentially due to the domestic sewage and wastewater discharged from the automobile workshops. The value is least at S5 which can be attributed to dilution affect due to the confluence of Roshi River at Trivenighat.

Chlorides are one of the major constituents found in every natural rivers in some extent. According to Plharya and Malviya (1988) high concentration of chloride shows high pollution. Concentration of chloride upto 250mg/l is not harmful for

31 public health but an increase above this value is an indication of organic pollution (WHO, 1971). Generally, human excretes, domestic and industrial wastes are rich in chlorides. Its concentration always remains higher in waste water.

Wastewater with 30-100 mg/l of chlorides can cause salinization and is also known to influence soil washing and land drainage conditions depending on other parameters and site characteristics (WHO, 2006). Below 140 mg/l, no effects are generally observed but if it exceeds the value, crops get affected. There could be some visible effects of chloride concentrations exceeding 350 mg/l, such as burning of the leaves of sensitive plants (WHO, 2006).

5.1.4 Total Solid Matter

Total solid matter include both the suspended solids and the dissolved solids. High amount of total solid matter can block the light from reaching to submerged vegetation resulting into reduced rates of photosynthesis which then causes less dissolved oxygen to release into the water by plants. If light is completely blocked, the plants will stop producing oxygen and will die. As the plants are decomposed, bacteria will use up even more oxygen from the water. Low dissolved oxygen can kill fish. High amount of total solid matters can also cause an increase in surface water temperature, because the suspended particles absorb heat from the sunlight. This can cause dissolved oxygen levels to fall even further because warmer water can hold less DO, and can harm aquatic life in many other ways. Increased total solids has a similar effect on turbidity that reduces the water clarity, water temperature increases, oxygen levels can fall due to less photosynthesis and the solid can bind to toxic compounds and heavy metals (http://bcn.boulder.co.us/basin/data/NEW/info/TSS.html).

5.1.5 Acidity

Carbon dioxide produced by animals and plants at night, that gets dissolved in water forming carbonic acid is the prime reason for change in acidity of water. Higher acidity of water indicates the organic pollution of water.

5.2 Religious Uses of River Many places along the river Punyamati were found to be significant with religious and cultural point of view.

The places of cremation located along the river bank have their own religious and cultural importance. Usually there are designated places for cremation of deceased along the river banks and that cremation is also not allowed at all locations. General practice among the Hindus is to burn the dead bodies while the Buddhists usually burry them at designated places. Trivenighat is the one and only important ghat in Panauti in terms of religious importance for cremation of deceased.

There is amazing belief among the people with regards to religious importance of Trivenighat. They consider Trivenighat located at 'Triveni', that is at the confluence of three rivers- Punyamati, Roshi and Lilawati. It is also believed that Lilawati is yet to emerge on the ground, and to them, this is continually flowing underneath the ground which is visible to only those with divine power.

People can be seen bathing and performing their daily rituals at Trivenighat. Considering the religious importance of the place, people bring the water for rituals in the temples and at home and pay homage to ancestors by cupping the river water in their hands and holding it in the air. Beside these daily rituals, there are occasional rituals andfunctions performed at Trivenighat. These include Bratabandha, Chhatpuja, and doing shraddha or last rituals of ancestors. On Dasahara, people gather in large number at Trivenighat to bathe in the river and consider that bathing in the river on this day is as good as bathing in the Ganges. They also offer vegetables- cucumber, red pepper and an edible roots on this day for the belief that offering these vegetables at the river bank would get rid of "bad luck". Similarly, on the morning of full moon day, orthodox Brahmins and Chathariyas gather at Trivenighat for religious bathing and change their sacred threads (Janai). The Rajopadhyaya Brahmin males gather at the river at the same spot for religious bathing. No one else is supposed to enter or cross the river while these Brahmins are bathing in the river.

Trivenighat, as mentioned earlier, also carries importance as a place of cremation and performing last rites of the deceased. The elderly persons in their last stage are brought to the rest houses, called sattals, where they stay so that near relatives could lay the dying on brahamanal (a stone slab with carving of Naga on the top that slopes

33 into the river water) for them to breathe their last breath with the feet immersed in the flowing river water. After the death, the deceased’s male relatives gathered to a dip (a place where dead body is burnt). Before igniting the wood, mourners pour water from Trivenighat into the corpse mouth. After the pyre and body get burnt the remnants are flown into the river. The intention of this ritual is to seek a place in Vishnulok or Baikuntha for the deceased. Mourners after completing the cremation bathe in the river to purify themselves and offer river water to the deceased facing south direction.

Similar religious and cultural activities are performed at other religious sites along Punyamati River. During Chhath, people gather in the bank of river along Punyamati, especially in Trivenighat and Pashupatinath and perform various rituals.

Trivenighat has another very important religious significant regarding Makar Mela which takes place at an interval of every 12 years and is among the most important religious carnivals for Hindu pilgrims all over Nepal as well as India. It is believed to be the same as the Kumbha Mela, which takes place in Prayag, India. Hindu pilgrims from all over the country as well as India take part in this carnival. It is celebrated according to the solar system of the calendar when the sun enters from Kumbha to Makar rashi. It is believed that during this Mela, taking a dip in the holy river, Trivenighat (junction of three rivers: Rudrawati i.e. Roshi, Lilawati and Padhmawati i.e. Punyamati), is believed to wash away all your sins as well as cure skin diseases. According to mythology, Lord Indra, the God of Heaven, was suffering from an incurable disease. He meditated for 12 years to please Lord Shiva in the hope that his disease would be cured. As Lord Indra used to bathe in the Trivenighat, Shiva decided to mix the nectar of his cure in the waters of Rudrawati. When Indra bathed in the holy water of this river, he was instantly cured from his ailment. Since then, it is said that every 12 years, the nectar of cure for all diseases flows through this river. It is also believed that if you take a bath in Trivenighat, you will be relieved from all your earthly sins and receive salvation. Another mythology has it that if you mix the water of Trivenighat with oil during the time of Makar Mela, then the oil will settle on the base whereas the water will float! Tradition has it that after taking abath in the ghat, you must visit the Indreshwor Mahadev Temple and offer the holy water to Gorakhnath so that your wishes will be fulfilled.

Panauti is also known as the city of Nagas (snakes). These serpents are believed to have come from Taudaha, Chobar to visit the temple of Lord Shiva during the Makar Mela. These snakes stay there for one whole month and leave after the completion of the Mela. So this year as well, like during the last festival 12 years ago, devotees witnessed these snakes around the Shivalaya. During Makar Mela, Panauti becomes a hotspot with its inviting environment.

5.2.1 Changes in the Religious and Cultural Uses Resulting from River Pollution

The study attempted to record the changes brought to the religious and cultural uses of wateras a result for increasing degradation of Punyamati River. This clearly revealed that thenumber of people using river water for all type of religious and cultural activities has beengradually declining over time. The obvious reason has been increasing pollution in the river.People have started valuing Punyamati differently than the people did fifty years ago. Punyamati River has now turned to sewerage because of the wastewater discharge of entirecity of Panauti coming to the river. With the increasing pollution in the river, people havestarted avoiding the use of river water for religious bathing and other rituals. Instead ofbathing in the river, people now prefer sprinkling a bit of river water over their heads and theyrather prefer bathing with tap water. The cremation and last rites of the deceased are thoughstill performed on the banks of Punyamati and the remnants are flown into the river but thethin trickle of water that runs through mounds of garbage and debris does not seem topossessing the power, for the people, for sending the departed soul to the heavenly abode.

5.3 Conclusion

Punyamati River has been important source of water in Panauti for diversified uses. In fact this river has been the life line of the city of Panauti. Besides being important source of fresh water, the river carries immense social, religious and cultural importance and has been the means of agricultural based livelihood for the people who have been traditionally depending on the river water for irrigation. This study was taken up with the aim of establishing the state and causes of degradation of Punyamati River and the livelihood consequences resulting therefrom.

Analysis of river water quality at five different locations along the river course- revealed progressive degradation in the river water quality due to increasing pollution load resulting from untreated effluent discharge. If DO alone is used as indicator of water quality in evaluating the suitability of water for different uses, none of the river reaches, except that at Trivenighat, may be considered suitable for aquatic ecosystem, recreation and irrigation uses.

Increasing river pollution was found to be impacting negatively on religious rituals performed in Punyamati River. The study clearly revealed that the number of people using river water for all kinds of religious and cultural uses have been declining over time, obviously due to increasing pollution in the river. With the increasing pollution in the river, people have started avoiding the use of river water for religious bathing and other rituals. Instead of bathing in the river, people now prefer sprinkling a bit of river water over their heads and they rather prefer bathing with tap water. The cremation and last rites of the deceased are though still performed on the banks of Punyamati and the remnants are flown into the river but the thin trickle of water that runs through mounds of garbage and debris does not seem to possessing the power, for the people, for sending the departed soul to the heavenly abode.

Chapter 6

RECOMMENDATIONS

. Purification of water quality in the river Punyamati should be done by setting sewage treatment plant different places like Dhaneshwor, Chaukot and Banshghari in directly venting of the treated waste into the river. . Separate management should be provided for the settlement of bathing sites, washing clothes and other domestic purposes by providing adequate supply of tap water for private and public consumption. Greater emphasis should be given to poor and local people who are dwelling near the river water. . The toxic chemicals of the agricultural run off as well as industrial pollutants from industrial area of Chaukot and Banshghari which mix into River should be manage properly. . People should be warned about the polluted water, which may have toxic manifestation of the pollutants and danger of harbouring pathogenic organisms. . Enforcement of the river should be well managed by plantation program of forest. Formation of green belt along the riverside should done to prevent soil erosion and to keep it environmentally clean. . There should be immediate management of public private toilets with regular cleaning facilities and adequate management of drainage system. . Installation of sufficient number of garbage collection tank and litter boxes at convenient points should be done for clearance of solid wastes of the surrounding. . More detailed ecological study of the area including parameters like physical, chemical and biological should be done and find out inter-relationship of each other. . Top priority should be given to eradicate the people which brings consciousness to them.

Appendix I - Questionnaire

Checklist for Cultural/Religious Use of Water in Punyamati River 1. What is the religious/cultural importance of this place? What is the significance of this place being located along the bank of Punyamati River?

2. What are the religious uses of water from Punyamati River on a daily basis at this location? Explain each of the uses specified below: a. Daily bathing with religious sentiments b. Bringing water for rituals in the temples c. Bringing water of religious rituals at homes. d. Performing cremation (burning/burial) e. Performing last rituals of ancestors. f. Others (specify……)

3. Who are the people depending on the water in Punyamati River at this location for religious/cultural uses on a daily basis? (what specific case/religious group, where from do they come)

4. What have been the changes in the number of people using river water for religious/cultural uses on a daily basis over different periods of time? (assess the response in 1-5 scale, 1= very low, 2= low, 3= moderate, 4= large and 5= very large)

Appendix II - List of Photographs

Sample Collection at Dhaneshwor

Sample Collection at Chaukot

Sample Collection at Banshghari

Sample Collection at Pasupatinath Area

Lab Work for Water Quality Analysis

Triveni Ghat During Makar Mela, 2066

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