Israël Verdeeld

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Israël Verdeeld israël verdeeld Jona Lendering Israël verdeeld Hoe uit een klein koninkrijk twee wereldreligies ontstonden A Athenaeum—Polak & Van Gennep Amsterdam 2014 Voor Marlous Mollee Eerste en tweede druk, 2014 Dit boek kwam mede tot stand dankzij bijdragen van het Nederlands Letterenfonds en de Stichting Wetenschapsvoorlichting Oudheid. Copyright © 2014 Jona Lendering Athenaeum—Polak & Van Gennep, Singel 262, 1016 ac Amsterdam Omslag Nanja Toebak Omslagillustratie © Livius Kaarten © Erik Eshuis Boekverzorging Perfect Service isbn 978 90 253 0390 7 /nur 321 www.uitgeverijathenaeum.nl www.livius.nl Inhoudsopgave Ten geleide 9 1. Joden en Romeinen 13 Pompeius in Jeruzalem 13 Rome en Jeruzalem 19 Implosie en crisis 21 Discussies 23 2. Verdeelde elite 28 Perzen en Ptolemaiën 28 Koningen en hogepriesters 33 Antiochos’ decreet 42 Opstand 44 3. Hasmoneeën en Herodianen 51 De orde hersteld 51 Een onafhankelijk Judea 54 Omstreden heerschappij 58 Geforceerde eenheid 62 Het einde van de eenheid 66 Indirect bestuur 72 Herodes’ staatsgreep 74 Koning der Joden 79 Vacuüm 85 4. Diversiteit 93 Een tussenbalans 93 Een boekengeloof 94 Gods uitverkoren volk 98 De werken der Wet 107 Monotheïsme? 115 De tempel 121 Tempel, synagoge en charismatici 123 Diaspora en thuisland 128 5. Josephus’ vier scholen 133 Scheuring 133 Sadduceeën 137 Farizeeën 141 De vierde filosofie 149 Essenen 152 Een overvloed aan informatie 161 6. Het herstel van Israël 164 Eerste en laatste dingen 164 Apocalyptiek 166 Eindtijdverwachtingen 172 Messianisme 175 De koninklijke messias 178 Andere eschatologische figuren 181 Messias en halacha 187 7. Leven in de Eindtijd 190 Jakobus en Paulus 190 De evangeliën 195 Intermezzo 204 Authenticiteitscriteria 206 Jezus’ achtergrond 213 Het Koninkrijk van God 217 De Weg 222 De messias 231 De Christenen als Joodse stroming 239 8. De val van Jeruzalem 249 Problemen 249 Crises in Rome en Jeruzalem 253 Josephus’ betrouwbaarheid 255 Menachem 257 Cestius’ campagne 259 Joodse voorbereidingen 262 De Romeinse messias 265 Twee burgeroorlogen 268 Het einde 272 Naspel 279 9. Vooruitblik 284 Israël hersteld 284 Jochanan ben Zakkai 285 De Christelijke gemeentes 291 De Fiscus Judaicus 296 De wegen scheiden 298 Verdelend verleden 311 Appendix: de bronnen 314 Heersers 326 Verklarende woordenlijst 329 Meer lezen 332 Verantwoording en dank 344 Noten 346 Illustratieverantwoording 383 Register 384 Landkaarten Het oude Nabije Oosten 12 Jeruzalem omstreeks 63 v.Chr. 15 Judea in de tweede en eerste eeuw v.Chr. 29 De Hasmonese veroveringen 53 De verdeling van het koninkrijk van Herodes 86 De Romeinse provincie Judea 250 Jeruzalem omstreeks 70 n.Chr. 274 Stambomen Honiaden, Tobiaden en Simoniden 34 De Seleukiden 38 De Hasmoneeën 56 Het huis van Herodes 76 De familie van Jezus 215 Ten geleide Relevance is the enemy of history. John P. Meier Elk jaar bezoeken honderdduizenden reizigers Jeruzalem om daar de heilige plaatsen te bekijken. Er staan altijd mensen bij de Klaag‑ muur, een overblijfsel van het tempelcomplex dat ooit het middel‑ punt vormde van de Joodse wereld. Op loopafstand is een andere historische plek: de basiliek van het Heilig Graf, waar incidenteel een pelgrim ten prooi valt aan het idee de messias te zijn. Ik weet dat dit Jeruzalemsyndroom goed is voor een glimlach maar vermeld het zonder ironie. Zó diep kunnen mensen worden getroffen door ge‑ beurtenissen van twee millennia geleden. Je hoeft voor zo’n sensatie natuurlijk niet naar Jeruzalem te reizen en je hoeft er ook niet religieus voor te zijn. Je kunt er ook voor naar een museum of naar een historische plaats. Als je liever thuis blijft, kun je al ontroerd raken door het lezen van de brieven van je groot‑ ouders. Dit contact met het verleden is prettig en daarom behoeft de historische belangstelling geen rechtvaardiging. Ze is in die zin niet anders dan een concert, een roman, een computerspel of een boswandeling. Een geschiedenisliefde beloont zichzelf en dat is vol‑ doende. Dit boek wil u in contact brengen met de Joodse religie in de tweeënhalve eeuw tussen pakweg 180 v.Chr. en 70 n.Chr. Het was een ander Jodendom dan het huidige. De tempel, waar aan de ene God werd geofferd, stond nog centraal. Een Bijbelcanon bestond nog niet en er was geen door iedereen aanvaarde autoriteit die ge‑ 9 schillen kon beslissen. Allerlei religieuze stromingen waren met el‑ kaar in discussie: sadduceeën, essenen, farizeeën, de aanhangers van een agressief nationalistische ‘vierde filosofie’ en degenen die Jezus beschouwden als messias. Dit boek eindigt met de gevolgen van de verwoesting van de tem‑ pel in 70, wanneer ook de meeste van die stromingen ten einde ko‑ men. Een groep farizeeën rond Jochanan ben Zakkai legde toen de grondslag voor het rabbijnse Jodendom. Iets later organiseerden ook de volgelingen van Jezus zich en ontstond het Christendom. Hoewel de twee religies uit elkaar zijn gegaan, grijpen ze terug op de in dit boek beschreven periode. Het is hun gedeelde verleden. Daarover zijn dan ook al talloze boeken geschreven. Gaat zo’n boek echter over het ontstaan van het rabbijnse Jodendom, dan is Jezus een voetnoot; gaat zo’n boek over het ontstaan van het Chris‑ tendom, dan krijgen de reinheidsregels hooguit een bijzin. Steeds presenteren de auteurs het Tempeljodendom als de opmaat tot iets wat later belangrijk werd en ze brengen dienovereenkomstig selec‑ ties aan in de stof. Dat is op zich begrijpelijk, maar zo haal je weg uit het verleden wat niet op onze cultuur aansluit: alles wat vervreemdt, schokt, verrast en te denken geeft. Ik schrijf dit boek om te tonen dat het Jodendom aan het begin van onze jaartelling méér is dan alleen het voorstadium van iets dat later kwam. Ook wil ik tonen hoe een klein koninkrijk door snoeiharde militaire agressie kon veranderen in twee religies. Dat onderwerp is het waard te worden bestudeerd om wat het zélf is. Drie waarschuwingen nog. Om te beginnen: de materie is com‑ plex. Juist in die complexiteit lag iets van het eigene van de Joodse religie, maar het is alleen uit te leggen door soms dingen te herhalen en door vaak te verwijzen naar andere passages. De appendix helpt u als u het zicht in de Joodse literatuur kwijt bent, maar als u een page turner zoekt, is dit niet uw boek. Ten tweede: een beschrijving van de Joodse religie ‘van binnenuit’ is niet mogelijk. Ik kan u tonen hoe de puzzelstukjes liggen en zal suggereren hoe ze bij elkaar kun‑ 10 nen worden gelegd, maar een beschrijving van het bewijsmateriaal is geen beschrijving van de religie zelf. Als u zich wilt inleven in een priester, messias, rabbi of apostel is dit niet uw boek. En tot slot: ik pretendeer niet het laatste woord te spreken. Als u voor eens en al‑ tijd wilt weten hoe het werkelijk was, is dit niet uw boek. Ik meng me in discussies die in volle gang zijn en onderling samenhangen, waardoor het kan gebeuren dat in het ene debat wordt aangenomen wat in het andere is weerlegd. Israël verdeeld is een vraag om moei‑ lijkheden maar ik vind het onderwerp boeiend genoeg om me eraan te vertillen. 11 Filipi Zw a r t e essaloniki Z e e Sinope K a s MYSIË p i s c FRYGIË h Korinthe Smyrna e Sardes ANATOLIË Z Filadela KAPPADOKIË ARMENIË e Efese e E N Tyana E G LIKIË A KI M M M E Tarsos O S K O Antiochië P Seleukia O ASSYRIË E T M i d d u A e l fra l a a M n Emesa t d I MEDIË s Tigris e Ë PARTHIË Kyrene Baalbek I Ë Teheran Z Beiroet R e Y Palmyra Hamadan e S Sidon Damascus Tyrus IË BYLON Alexandrië Samaria Gerasa BA Jeruzalem Babylon Leontopolis Petra Het oude Nabije Oosten oude Nabije Het TE EGYP PERZIË P e Nijl r z i s c R h e o d G e o l 0 500 Z f e km e 1. Joden en Romeinen Pompeius in Jeruzalem De Joden wisten het: de Romeinen waren oppermachtig. Ze had‑ den de Karthagers verslagen en Gallische stammen schatplichtig ge‑ maakt. Om de zilver‑ en goudmijnen te verwerven van het Iberisch Schiereiland, hadden ze dat veroverd tot aan de rand van de aarde en hadden ze de overlevenden een jaarlijkse schatting opgelegd. De Macedoniërs en de Griekse stadstaten die zich tegen Rome hadden verzet, waren eveneens onderworpen. Zelfs koning Antiochos iii de Grote van Azië, die met olifanten, paarden, strijdwagens en mas‑ sa’s voetvolk tegen de Romeinen was opgetrokken, was verslagen. Rome had hem een heffing opgelegd en gebied ontnomen. Sinds‑ dien was de Romeinse invloed alleen maar gegroeid. Opstanden waren gesmoord in bloed. Romes vijanden waren gesneuveld, hun vrouwen en kinderen gevangengenomen, hun vestingen verwoest.1 De vorige alinea vat samen wat de Joden aan het einde van de tweede eeuw over de Romeinen wisten. Genoeg om te weten hoe machtig Rome was. Daarom hadden de Joodse machthebbers steeds geprobeerd de overweldigers ver weg te houden. De leden van de koninklijke familie, de Hasmoneeën, waren echter verdeeld geweest en het was aan hun onhandigheid te danken dat Jeruzalem in de zomer van 63 v.Chr. werd belegerd door de legioenen van de Romeinse veldheer Pompeius. Hij was er nog wel op uitnodiging. Enkele weken eerder was de Joodse koning Aristoboulos hem in Damascus om militaire bijstand komen vragen. Deze was aan de macht gekomen door zijn broer Hyrkanos af te zetten, maar die had kunnen rekenen op de steun 13 van grote delen van de bevolking en had bovendien hulp gevonden in Petra, de hoofdstad van het volk der Nabateeërs in het huidige Jordanië. Hun sjeik had Hyrkanos steun toegezegd, was Jeruzalem binnengetrokken en had aan het begin van de lente van 63 het be‑ leg opgeslagen voor het bolwerk van Aristoboulos’ aanhangers: de tempel.
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