Sacred Language of the Vlach Bread Illustrated Book and Dictionary in 40 Pictures

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SACRED LANGUAGE OF THE VLACH BREAD ILLUSTRATED BOOK AND DICTIONARY IN 40 PICTURES

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Belgrade 2011

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SACRED LANGUAGE OF THE VLACH BREAD

Illustrated book and dictionary in 40 pictures

Balkankult Foundation BELGRADE 2011.

Bread told me:

I am not food for the hungry or a redemption offering, nothing of the kind! I am a living language of Old Gods which Man spoke at a time when he was close to God; when everyone who spoke the language could become God himself!

Bread told me this as well:

As food, I last but one moment, but as a sign, I last forever, as hope in life eternal!

It was then that I understood the words of Jesus Christ:

Take it and eat; this is my body! I am the bread of life; if anyone eats of this bread KHZLOOOLYHIRUHYHU7KLVEUHDGLVP\¿HVKZKLFK, will give for the life of world. Take it and eat it; this is my body!

)URPDQHWKQRORJLVW¶V¿HOGGLDU\ “Conversations with Vlach bread”)

INTRODUCTION 0LQLDWXUHRQWKH9ODFKVRI(DVWHUQ6HUELD

,QWKLVLOOXVWUDWHGERRNZHVRXJKWWRSUHVHQWWRDEURDGHUSXEOLFIRUWKH¿UVWWLPH one aspect of the spiritual culture of the Vlachs of Eastern Serbia, which has survived over centuries in ritual breads and traditions. The most prominent among those is pomana, a ritual for which the Vlachs bake hundreds or even thousands of breads! The material was collected in the framework of project “The Vlach ritual bread and pomana´ODXQFKHGE\3DXQ(V'XUOLü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foot of the southern rim of the Carpathian mountains, extending from Bratislava LQWKH6ORYDN5HSXEOLFDFURVVWKH&]HFK5HSXEOLF3RODQG8NUDLQHDQG5RPDQLD WR6HUELDZKHUHLWXQLWHVZLWKWKH%DONDQPRXQWDLQVDWWKHýHVWREURGLFDEHQG,Q 6HUELDWKH&DUSDWKLDQPRXQWDLQVDUHLQWHUVHFWHGE\WKH'DQXEHULYHUIRUPLQJD SLFWXUHVTXH'MHUGDS*RUJH7KLVHQRUPRXVPRXQWDLQFKDLQWKHQWXUQVLQWRLG\OOLF YDOOH\V OHDYLQJ EHKLQG PRXQWDLQ EORFNV RI 0W 0LURþ 'HOL -RYDQ +RPROMH %HOMDQLFDDQG.XþDM3RUHþND5HND5HVDYD0ODYDDQG3HNULYHUVÀRZWKURXJK LQWHUVHFWLQJ YDOOH\V DQG JRUJHV WKHLU ZDWHUVKHGV GR QRW IRUP RQO\ VHSDUDWH K\GURJUDSKLF ZKROHV EXW VSHFL¿F HWKQRJUDSKLF DUHDV DV ZHOO 6HYHUDO VXFK DUHDVDOVRIRUPYDOOH\V=YLåG6WLJDQG%UDQLþHYRLQWKH:HVWDQG1HJRWLQVND .UDMLQDDQG.OMXþLQWKH(DVW0DMRUWRZQVRI(DVWHUQ6HUELDLQFOXGH3RåDUHYDF 0DMGDQSHN1HJRWLQ=DMHþDU%RUDQGûXSULMD7KHWRZQVRI%RUDQG0DMGDQSHN DUHSDUWLFXODUO\IDPRXVIRUWKHLUPLQHV7KHODWWHU¶VKLVWRU\JRHVEDFNWRWKHSHULRG RI 9LQþD VSDQQLQJ PRUH WKDQ \HDUV ZLWK PLQRU RU PDMRU LQWHUUXSWLRQV Due to ore deposits in its neighborhood along with archeological prehistoric PHWDOOXUJ\VLWHVLQ0ODYDWKLVDUHDLVFRQVLGHUHGD(XURSHDQELUWKSODFHRIPHWDO ZKHQ1HROLWKLF(XURSHPRPHQWRXVO\VWHSSHGRXWRIWKH6WRQH$JH6WLOOLWLVQRW MXVWWKDWDUFKHRORJLFDOPHWDOOXUJ\OHIWLWVDQFLHQWPRQXPHQWVLQWKHSLFWXUHVTXH 'MHUGDS*RUJHWKHUHLVD0HVROLWKLFVLWHRI/HSHQVNL9LUIDPRXVIRULWV¿JXULQHV 5 DQG WUDSH]HVKDSHG VHWWOHPHQWV 2QO\ D IHZ NLORPHWHUV GRZQVWUHDP WKHUH LV 9ODãDFIURPZKLFKWKHFXOWXUHRI/HSHQVNL9LUVSUDQJ,WZDVWKHUHWKDWDVWRQH VDFUL¿FLDODOWDUKDVEHHQUHFHQWO\XQFRYHUHGZLWKJUDSKLVPVLQGLFDWLQJWKDWWKH KLVWRU\RIDOSKDEHWVWDUWHGDIHZPLOOHQQLDHDUOLHUWKDQDQWLFLSDWHG ɌKH7LPRNDQGWKH3HNDUHJROGEHDULQJULYHUV7KHODWWHURZHVLWVFXUUHQWQDPH to ancient greed for gold. 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It was from that area that the Slav tribes pushed through to the %DONDQVLQWKHthFHQWXU\YLD(DVWHUQ6HUELDWRSHUPDQHQWO\VHWWOHWKHUH,QWKH DUHDRI5RPDQL]HG7KUDFLDQVZKLFK+HURGRWXVFDOOHG³WKHJUHDWHVWQDWLRQLQWKH ZRUOGDIWHUWKH+LQGXV´D6ODY6WDWHRI%XOJDULDZDVFUHDWHGDQGWKH6ODY6WDWH RI6HUELDWRWKH:HVW7KHERUGHUEHWZHHQWKHWZR6WDWHVVKLIWHGIURPWKH:HVW WRWKH(DVWWREH¿QDOO\VHWLQWKHthFHQWXU\DORQJWKH7LPRN5LYHULQ(DVWHUQ 6HUELD$IWHUWKHIDOORIWKH5RPDQ(PSLUHWKLVSDUWRIWKH%DONDQVZDVXQGHUWKH LQÀXHQFHRIWKH%\]DQWLXPIRUVRPHWLPHDQGLQWKHthFHQWXU\LWZDVFRQTXHUHG E\WKH7XUNVZKLFKVWD\HGWKHUHXQWLOWKHthFHQWXU\,QWKHZDNHRIWKHEUHDNXS RIWKH7XUNLVK(PSLUHQDWLRQDO6WDWHVDVZHNQRZWKHPWRGD\VWDUWHGWRHPHUJH in the Balkans. (YHQWKRXJKIURPSUHKLVWRULFWLPHVWKLVSDUWRI(XURSHKDVH[SHULHQFHGFRQVWDQW changes in ethnic composition whose causes, duration or contours are sometimes GLI¿FXOWWRGHOLQHDWHLWLVFHUWDLQWKDWWKHFXUUHQWHWKQLFSLFWXUHRI(DVWHUQ6HUELD has been the consequence of ethnic, historic, political and economic factors in the HQGRIWKHthDQGHDUO\thFHQWXU\7KHFUXFLDOPRPHQWZDVWKH*UHDW6HUELDQ 0LJUDWLRQOHGE\$UVHQLMHýDUQRMHYLüLQWULJJHUHGE\XQVSHDNDEOHDWURFLWLHV FRPPLWWHGE\WKH7XUNVZKLFKDOPRVWHPSWLHGHUVWZKLOH6HUELD7KHDQFHVWRUVRI WKHSUHVHQWGD\9ODFKVZHUHGLVIUDQFKLVHGSDXSHUVVODYHVYLUWXDOO\RSSUHVVHGE\ ER\DUVLQWKH5RPDQLDQSULQFHGRPV1RUWKWRWKH'DQXEH9ODFKLDDQG0ROGRYD RUXQGHUWKHUXOHRI$XVWULDDQG+XQJDU\LQWKHDUHDRI%DQDWDQG(UGHOM7KHLU SRVLWLRQZDVKDUGO\DQ\EHWWHULQ%HVVDUDELDRU'REUXMD7KLVFODVVRI(XURSHDQ 6 SDXSHUVWKDWVXIIHUHGEH\RQGZRUGVVXSSRUWHGDOORWKHUVRFLDOFODVVHV1RZRQGHU WKHQWKDWKLVWRULFGDWDVSHDNRIWKRXVDQGVRISDXSHUVÀHHLQJWKHVHDUHDVDFURVV WKH'DQXEHWRWKH6RXWKWRWKHDUHDEHWZHHQWKH0RUDYDDQGWKH7LPRNULYHUV HVSHFLDOO\ GXULQJ WKH )DQDULRW UHJLPH ZKLFK ZDV LQ SRZHU LQ WZR 5RPDQLDQ SULQFHGRPVIRUPRUHWKDQDFHQWXU\ 6HUELDLWVHOIZDVVRGHYDVWDWHG GHPRJUDSKLFDOO\ WKDW EHIRUH WKH 3RåDUHYDF 3HDFH7UHDW\ ZDV VLJQHG LW KDGRQO\LQKDELWDQWVLQFOXGLQJ%HOJUDGH LWVODUJHVWYLOODJH%RJDWLüKDG UHVLGHQWV 6XEVHTXHQW FHQVXVHV LQGLFDWH WKDW WKH 1HJRWLQ NUDMLQD KDG VHWWOHPHQWVZLWKIDPLOLHV3RUHþQDKLMDKDGVHWWOHPHQWVZLWKUHVLGHQWV ZKLOH+RPROMHGLVWULFWKDGVHWWOHPHQWVZLWKUHVLGHQWVDQGVRRQ$OWKRXJK WKHVH GDWD DUH ODUJHO\ LQDFFXUDWH DQG GHOLEHUDWHO\ GRFWRUHG ZLWK LQDGHTXDWH FHQVXVPHWKRGVZLWKSRSXODWLRQWKDWHYDGHGWREHUHJLVWHUHGWKH\VWLOOSUHVHQWD UDWKHUJORRP\SLFWXUHRIDVZHHSLQJGHYDVWDWLRQSUHYDLOLQJLQ6HUELDDWWKHWLPH 2FFDVLRQDOWUDYHOHUVGHVFULEHG6HUELDDV³DOPRVWHQWLUHO\FRYHUHGE\IRUHVWV´ 7KHVHWWOHPHQWRIWKH9ODFKVIURPWKH1RUWKZDVLQWHQWLRQDOO\HQFRXUDJHGE\WKH $XVWULDQDXWKRULWLHVLQ7LPLVRDUDDWRQHSRLQWVLQFHWKH\ZHUHJLYHQDSRUWLRQRI &DUSDWKLDQ6HUELDDIWHUWKH3RåDUHYDF3HDFH7UHDW\$FFRUGLQJWRKLVWRULFDOVRXUFHV WKH$XVWULDQDXWKRULWLHVVRXJKWWR³WXUQQHZO\DFTXLUHGVWDWHV6HUELDLQSDUWLFXODU QRWMXVWLQWRDQDGGLWLRQDOUHVRXUFHWRERRVWPLOLWDU\DQG¿QDQFLDOFDSDFLW\RIWKH +DEVEXUJ0RQDUFK\EXWWRFUHDWHWKH6WDWHVZKRVHSRSXODWLRQVDWLV¿HGZLWKQHZ RUGHUDQGUXOHUZRXOGDWWUDFWRWKHU&KULVWLDQVLQ7XUNH\´(VVHQWLDOO\WKHSODQ ZDVWRMXVWLI\WKHFRQTXHVWRIWKH%DONDQVWDWHVE\DQDOOHJHGQHHGWR³LQWURGXFH European culture to the Balkan barbarians”. It is no wonder then that the head of the 7LPLVRDUDDGPLQLVWUDWLRQ&RXQW&ODXGLXVGH0HUF\SHUVRQDOO\WRXUHGWKH%DQDW 9ODFKVZKLFKWKH$GPLQLVWUDWLRQUHVHWWOHGWR6HUELDLQDQGRYHUVDZ WKHLUVHWWOHPHQWEHWZHHQWKH7LPRNDQG.XþDMQDULYHUVDQGHQFRXUDJHGWKHPWR DOVRHQWLFHWKHLUUHODWLYHVWRFRPHRYHUIURP%DQDW(QFRXUDJHGE\WKHVHSROLFLHV WKH6HUEVIURPWKH6RXWKLQ7XUNLVKRFFXSLHGWHUULWRULHVVWDUWHGWRVHWWOHWKHUHLQ ZDYHV7KHPRVWLPSRUWDQWRQHZDVLQOHGE\6HUESDWULDUFK$UVHQLMH,9 7KHVDPH$XVWULDQDXWKRULWLHVSHUVRQL¿HGE\)LHOG0DUVKDO)ULHGULFK+HLQGULFK accepted new Serbian immigrants and allowed them to settle in the area of Crna 5HNDXQGHULWVDXWKRULW\([FHSWIRUMXVWL¿HGLQWHUQDOUHVHWWOHPHQWVLQWHUFKDQJH DQGPL[LQJEHWZHHQSRSXODWLRQVWKHUHZHUHQRVLJQL¿FDQWHWKQLFWXUEXOHQFHVWKHUH save occasional uprisings, rebellions and liberation wars which the Vlachs and WKH6HUEVIRXJKWVLGHE\VLGH:LWKWKHULVHRI5RPDQLDQQDWLRQDOVHQWLPHQWLQWKH WHUULWRU\RIWKHSUHVHQWGD\5RPDQLDLQWKHthDQGWKHthFHQWXU\RXU9ODFKV ZHUHQRORQJHUWKHUH,WZDVFUXFLDOO\LPSRUWDQWWKDWWKHVHGLVIUDQFKLVHGER\DU VXEMHFWVIRUWKH¿UVWWLPHJRWWKHLUODQGLQWKH&DUSDWKLDQSDUWRI6HUELDWKH\ZHUH DEOHWRWDNHDVPXFKODQGDVWKH\ZDQWHG7KH\WXUQHGWKLVZDVWHODQGFRYHUHGE\ ZHHGVDQGEXVKHVLQWRDUDEOHODQGRIWKHLURZQDQGUHPDLQHGWKHUHXQWLOWRGD\ 7KHUHZDVQRQHHGWRJREDFNWRKHDUWOHVVER\DUVDQGUXWKOHVVFRNR\VLQGHHGRU thought. Rich and colorful Vlach oral traditions make no mention of nostalgia for WKHROGKRPHODQGH[FHSWLQUDUHO\ULFSRHPVFXUVLQJWKH'DQXEHULYHUIRUKDYLQJ 7 separated a brother and sister or sweethearts. Neither the Romanian princedoms, preoccupied with their own domestic problems paid much attention to the escaped SDXSHUV H[FHSW ZKHQ VR PDQ\ OHIW WKDW WKH\ UHPDLQHG DOPRVW HPSW\ OLNH IRU H[DPSOH LQ ZKHQ DFFRUGLQJ WR 5RPDQLDQ KLVWRULFDO VRXUFHV LQ WKH ZDNH RIWKHRXWUDJHRXV¿VFDOH[SORLWDWLRQRIWKH)DQDULRWUHJLPH³PRUHWKDQ SDXSHUVHPLJUDWHGWRWKHVRXWKRIWKH'DQXEH0DQ\RIWKHPKLGWKURXJKRXWWKH WHUULWRU\DQGWKXVMHRSDUGL]HGWKHLQFRPHWRWKH7UHDVXU\DQGWKH3RUWD´3DXSHUV ZHUHSHUFHLYHGDVDQHFRQRPLFFRPPRGLW\ZKLFKDOOIHXGDO6WDWHVZDQWHGWRSXW WKHLUKDQGVRQVLQFHZDVWHODQGZDVDPDMRUEORZWRWKHLUIHXGDOV\VWHP Similar situation prevailed with the Church which cannot survive without its IROORZHUV,QRXUFDVHWKH2UWKRGR[&KXUFKIROORZHGLWVÀRFN6HUEVDQG9ODFKV alike, providing service in their language (in Vlach language in some places even XQWLOPLGthFHQWXU\ EXWLWVWKHRORJLFDOOHYHOZDVDWLWVORZHVWSRLQWVLQFHLWV LQFHSWLRQ6XFKVLWXDWLRQSUHYDLOHGHYHQDIWHUWKH7XUNVOHIWDQGWKLVORQJVWDQGLQJ IUDLOW\RIWKHFKXUFKZDVFHUWDLQO\RQHRIWKHUHDVRQVWKDWHWKQRJUDSKLFIUHVKQHVV LQ(DVWHUQ6HUELDKDVEHHQSUHVHUYHGOLNHQRZKHUHHOVHLQ&KULVWHQGRP$QHYHQ PRUHLPSRUWDQWHOHPHQWOLHVLQWKHYHU\VWUXFWXUHRIWKH9ODFKIDPLO\LQZKLFKD ZRPDQSUHVHUYHGWKHIUHHGRPRID7KUDFLDQZRPDQ DVWHVWL¿HGWRE\+HURGRWXV but still managed to preserve a major role in the ritual life she has had since the matriarchate! (Researchers still come across old Vlach women that two thousand \HDUVDIWHUWKHGHDWKRI-HVXV&KULVWVWLOOKDYHQRWKHDUGRIKLP /LWWOHLVNQRZQDERXWDXWRFKWKRQRXVSRSXODWLRQ ³VWDULQFL´ LQWKLVSDUWRI6HUELD HYHQ WKRXJK DFFRUGLQJ WR WKH 7XUNLVK UHJXODWLRQV WKHVH DUHDV HJ LQ WKH th FHQWXU\ YHU\GHQVHO\SRSXODWHG6LQFHVFLHQFHFRXOGQRWRIIHUUHOLDEOHGRFXPHQWV DVWRWKHLUH[DFWQXPEHULWLQWKHZDNHRIJUHDWPLJUDWLRQVWKH\UDQNHGDOOWKRVH who know nothing of their origin as “starinci”! This practice in Serbian science KDVEHHQDGRSWHGE\WKHLQÀXHQWLDODQWKURSRJHRORJLFDOVFKRRORI-RYDQ&YLMLüLQ WKHHQGRIWKHthFHQWXU\6WLOOOLWWOHKDVFKDQJHGVLQFHWKHQ7KHUHZHUHPHPEHUV of “starinci” population among the Serbs and among the Vlachs but compared WRWKHQXPEHURIQHZFRPHUVWKHLUQXPEHUZDVLQVLJQL¿FDQWWROHDYHDQ\YLVLEOH trace other than in terms of geographic names. It is indisputable, though, that DSSUR[LPDWHO\WZRWKLUGVRI9ODFKYLOODJHVEHDU6HUELDQQDPHV±ZKLFKPHDQV WKDWWKH\KDYHQRWEHHQHVWDEOLVKHGE\WKH9ODFKV QRUWKDWWKHHQYLURQPHQWZDV 9ODFK 0HUHO\DGR]HQYLOODJHVEHDU9ODFKQDPHVZKRVHH[LVWHQFHLVGRFXPHQWHG LQ7XUNLVKFHQVXVHVEHIRUHWKHthFHQWXU\0RUHRYHUWKHOHJHQGVRQWKHQDPHV RIYLOODJHVKDUGO\PDNHDQ\VHQVHWKH\DUHDQREYLRXVSURGXFWRIIRONZLWDQG indicate that there has been no genuine or full spiritual contact among the “new settlers” and “starinci” population. There are also examples among the Vlachs and Serbs alike that people named their villages after the villages of their ancestors. 0L[LQJSHRSOHLVOLNHPL[LQJDQ\RWKHUVWXIIDODUJHUHOHPHQWSUHYDLOVDQGDGGV ÀDYRUWRWKHHQWLUHPL[ 8 2Q WKH RWKHU KDQG WKH 9ODFKV WKHPVHOYHV DUH QRW HWKQLFDOO\ KRPRJHQRXV $FFRUGLQJWRHFRQRPLFDFWLYLW\WKH\PD\EHGLYLGHGLQIDUPHUVZKROLYHLQWKH (DVWLQWKHYDOOH\VDURXQGWKH'DQXEHDQGWKH7LPRNDQGKLJKODQGHUVFDWWOH EUHHGHUVZKRSRSXODWHDODUJHSRUWLRQRIWKHPRXQWDLQRXVWHUULWRU\ZHVWWRWKH 0LURþDQG'HOL-RYDQ7KHORZODQGHUVDUHFDOOHG7ӽUDQLVLQFHWKH\FRPHIURP 7DUD UXPkQHDVFӽ ± WKH QDPH RI D ORZODQG SULQFHGRP RI 9ODãND LQ 5RPDQLDQ WKH\ DUH DFWXDOO\ WKH 9ODFKV proprie dicti! ZKLOH WKH FDWWOHEUHHGHUV DUH FDOOHG8QJXUHDQLVLQFHWKHLUDQFHVWRUVODUJHO\FDPHIURPWKHUHJLRQVXQGHUWKH 8QJXUUXOH +XQJDULDQV %RWKJURXSVVSHDNDQDUFKDLFGLDOHFWVWHPPLQJIURP WKH%DONDQ/DWLQODQJXDJHV 5RPDQFHODQJXDJHV ,QWKHLUDEVHQFHRYHUWLPH WKLVODQJXDJHEHFDPHDQRI¿FLDOODQJXDJHLQ5RPDQLD7ӽUDQLVSHDNWKH2OWHQ ODQJXDJHDQG8QJXUHDQLVSHDNWKH%DQDWGLDOHFWRIWKLVODQJXDJH$FFRUGLQJWR dialect characteristics, there is a special subgroup among the Ungureani that call WKHPVHOYHV0XQWHQLWKH\SRSXODWH3RUHþDQG&UQD5HNDDQGPHULWDWWHQWLRQVLQFH ULWXDOEUHDGVDUHEHVWSUHVHUYHGWKHUH$FFRUGLQJWRRXUHVWLPDWHV8QJXUHDQLIRUP WKHODUJHVWSRSXODWLRQ FORVHWRSHUFHQW WKH7ӽUDQLDFFRXQWIRUSHUFHQWDQG 0XQWHQLDFFRXQWDSSUR[LPDWHO\IRUSHUFHQW7KHUHLVVPDOOQXPEHURI%XIHQL FHQWHUHG DURXQG WKH PLQLQJ DUHD RI 0DMGDQSHN 7KH\ DUH 2OWHQL DQG FDPH WR 0DMGDQSHNIURPWKH%DQDWPLQHVLQPLGthFHQWXU\7KHLU\RXQJHVWJHQHUDWLRQV KDYHEHHQDOPRVWWRWDOO\6HUELDQL]HGDVKDVEHHQWKHFDVHLQDOOSODFHVZKHUHWKH Vlachs became part of urban population. In addition, there are several villages in (DVWHUQ6HUELDSRSXODWHGE\9ODFK5RPDDOVRIURPWKH5RPDQLDQWHUULWRULHVDV ZHOODVDQXQNQRZQEXWDVPDOOQXPEHURI&LQFDUV±$UPӽQDZKRPHOWHGZLWK the Vlachs in rural, and with the Serbs in urban areas. The accurate number of the Vlachs cannot be established through regular censuses. 2YHUWLPHWKH9ODFKVLQ6HUELDEHFDPHDÀXFWXDWLQJGXDOLGHQWLW\PDVVZKLFK GHFODUHGWKHPVHOYHVPRVWO\DV6HUEVLQFHQVXVHVSODFLQJLQWKHIRUHIURQWWKHLUJHR SROLWLFDODI¿OLDWLRQLH6WDWHKRRGRYHUWKHLUHWKQLFEDFNJURXQGDQGQDWLRQDOLW\ 5HVHDUFKHUVLQWKH¿HOGRIWHQKHDUGVLPSOHEXWORJLFDOH[SODQDWLRQV³,GHFODUH P\VHOIDV6HUEVLQFH,OLYHLQ6HUELDDQGQRWDVD5RPDQLDQVLQFH,GRQ¶WOLYH LQ5RPDQLD 2I¿FLDOO\DWWKHFHQVXVWKHUHZHUH9ODFKVLQ6HUELD whereas the number of those that spoke Vlach as their mother tongue before VFKRROZDV7KHODUJHVWQXPEHURI9ODFKVUHFRUGHGLQ6HUELDZDVLQ ZKHQWKH\DFFRXQWHGIRURIWKHSRSXODWLRQLQ6HUELD7KHQWKHLU QDWLRQDOLW\ ZDV UHFRUGHG DV 5RPDQLDQ LQ OLQH ZLWK WKH REOLJDWLRQ DVVXPHG E\ 6HUELDDWWKH&RQJUHVVLQ%HUOLQLQZKHQWKHUHVSHFWRIPLQRULW\LVVXHVZDV one of the preconditions for international recognition. On the one hand, it was a OHJDOFRQVHTXHQFHRIWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRI5RPDQLD XQL¿FDWLRQRI9ODFKLDDQG 0ROGRYDLQ ZKLFKDOVRJDLQHGLQWHUQDWLRQDOUHFRJQLWLRQDWWKH&RQJUHVV and the expressed awareness of the Serbian State that the Vlachs were de facto D 5RPDQLDQ PLQRULW\ %\ WKH VDPH WRNHQ EHIRUH WKH &RQJUHVV RI %HUOLQ WKLV SRSXODWLRQ ZDV UHFRUGHG DV WKH 9ODFKV LQ WKH FHQVXVHV VLQFH 6HUELD ULJKWIXOO\ FRQQHFWHGLWWR9ODFKLDRULWVQHLJKERULQJDUHDVZLWKVLPLODUSRSXODWLRQ$QHZ 9 WXUQDERXWLQWKHFHQVXVQRPHQFODWXUHHPHUJHGLQWKHZDNHRIWKH6HFRQG:RUOG:DU with Yugoslav communists coming out as winners. Their political commitment to UHVWRUHWRWKH9ODFKVWKHVWDWXVRIDQDWLRQDOPLQRULW\DWOHDVWQRPLQDOO\ZDVÀDWO\ UHMHFWHGE\WKH9ODFKPHPEHUVRIWKH3DUW\DQGDVPDOOHUQXPEHURILQWHOOHFWXDOV 3URPSWHGE\WKHLUH[DPSOHDQGE\WKHDWWLWXGHRIWKH6DORQLND¿JKWHUVUHQRZQHG IUHHGRP¿JKWHUVIURPWKH)LUVW:RUOG:DU LQDQHQYLURQPHQWZHUHLGHRORJLFDO XQLW\UHTXLUHGHWKQLFXQLW\DVZHOO RUGLQDU\SHRSOHQRORQJHUGHFODUHGWKHPVHOYHV DV5RPDQLDQVDQGHYHQOHVVDVWKH9ODFKV&RQVHTXHQWO\DFFRUGLQJWRWKH FHQVXVWKHUHZHUHRQO\9ODFKV7KHSUHVHQWGD\QXPEHURI9ODFKVFDQEH calculated on the basis of various demographic and ethnographic parameters (for H[DPSOHWKHQXPEHURIUHVLGHQWVLQ9ODFKRQO\YLOODJHVDPRXQWVWR Taking into account mixed villages, urban population and Diaspora, we come to DWOHDVW6HUELDQQDWLRQDOVWKDWPD\RULJLQDWHIURPWKH9ODFKVHWWOHUVIURP WKH¿UVWKDOIRIWKHthFHQWXU\DQGODWHUVLQFHWKHVHWWOHPHQWFRQWLQXHGLQWRWKH QH[WFHQWXU\DVZHOO ,Q WKH SUHVHQWGD\ 6HUELD D VWHS DZD\ IURP WKH (XURSHDQ 8QLRQ D VSHFL¿F FRPPXQLW\ZLWKGLVWLQFWKLVWRU\DQGVSLULWXDOFXOWXUHLVVHHNLQJDQRSSRUWXQLW\WR HQWHUWKLVJUHDWQHZZRUOGZLWKWKLVFXOWXUHMHRSDUGL]LQJDVOLWWOHDVSRVVLEOHWKDW SDUWRILWVLGHQWLW\WKDWGLVWLQJXLVKHVLWIURPRWKHUVERWKFRPSDUHGWR5RPDQLD from which its ancestors came or to Serbia in which it invested all its potentials. 2QHVPDOOVHJPHQWRIWKLVXQXVXDODQGULFKFXOWXUH±QRWWREHIRXQGHOVHZKHUH LQ(XURSH±LVSUHVHQWHGLQWKH,OOXVWUDWHG%RRNWKDWIROORZV7KDWLVMXVWDMHZHO LQWKHFURZQSUHVHUYHGE\WKH9ODFKVIURPWKHELUWKRIWKH(XURSHDQFLYLOL]DWLRQ H[DFWO\LQWKHSDUWRI(XURSHZKHUHWKLVFLYLOL]DWLRQZDVERUQ The Vlach ritual bread lives on, but in the form of an alphabet whose letters are copied while less and less people able to read it. No doubt, after a millennium’s existence, the Vlach ritual bread and its pomana WUDGLWLRQKDYHEHHQVHULRXVO\HQGDQJHUHGIRUWKH¿UVWWLPHE\RQJRLQJFKDQJHVLQ VRFLDODQGFXOWXUDOOLIHLQUXUDODUHDV$OWKRXJKLWEHORQJVWRDVPDOODQGOHVVNQRZQ HWKQLFJURXSWKDWWKURXJKRXWLWVKLVWRU\ZDVDWWKHVRFLDOERWWRPRUPDUJLQVWKH Vlach ritual bread carries universal human values, preserved like nowhere in other societies and social groups! It would be best protected if it were placed on the 81(6&2OLVWRI³/LYLQJ+XPDQ7UHDVXUHV´

10 ILLUSTRATED BOOK Picture 1 – POMANA 6ODYLF3RPƞQǍ²GDûD³²SDUDVWRV³ ZLWKHDVWHUQ9ODFKV +R- PROMH3RUHý.OMXý.UDMLQD&UQD5HND WDNHVWKHVKDSHRIDKXPDQERG\LQUHSRVH IDFLQJHDVWZDUG7KHPDMRUSDUWRISRPDQDLV²KHDG³VXUURXQGHGE\DSURSHUQXPEHURI breads, with symbols called ]DNXDĔH or WUͽEXͿHƺHZLWKRXWZKLFKSRPDQDFDQQRW²WUDYHO³ WRDIWHUOLIH %DýHYLFDPXQLFLSDOLW\RI%ROMHYDF Ü

7 4 6 5 3 2 1 17

. Regular, big loaves in three places times two = 6 in all

side

”pomana of one on each on one 20 15 e “defense

26 26 26

decoratedflowers, with Hazelpoles wood th for

14 13 12 11 10 9 8 17 13

3LFWXUH°2QWKH²KHDG³RIHDVWHUQSRPDQDWKHUHLVDEDVLFEUHDGkapu ²KHDG³1R ²VKRXOGHUV³DUHPDGHXSRIEUHDGVSODFHGDWWKHWRSRISROHV RQWKHULJKW²VKRXOGHU³ there is a cake called GXPĔHćvX ²*RG³ ZKLOHRQWKHOHIWDQGULJKWVLGHDFFRUGLQJWR FHUWDLQUXOHVWKH²ODZV³DUHDOLJQHG /D]QLFD+RPROMH 12 3LFWXUH ° POMANA ZLWK ZHVWHUQ 9ODFKV =YLäG 6WLJ %UDQLýHYR 0ODYD 5HVDYD 0RUDYD LV FRQHVKDSHG DQG LV FDOOHGkamara 6HUELDQ NDPDUD ,W LV FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\DODUJHQXPEHURIEUHDGV7KHSRPDQDLQWKLVSLFWXUHFRQVLVWHGRIEUHDGVDQG falls amon NXPvQGH ° VSHFLDO OX[XULRXV SRPDQD WKDW WKH 9ODFKV REVHUYH ZKLOH WKH\ DUHVWLOODOLYH7KHZRUGKDVSUHVHUYHGWKHRULJLQDO/DWLQZRUGIRUGDûDFRPPDQGDUH FRPPHQGDUH. The number of breads is not a coincidence, but the result of many rules that SRPDQDKDVWRIXO¾OOLQVRFLDOUHOLJLRXVDQGPRUSKRORJLFDOVHQVH ãLWNRYLFDPXQLFLSDOLW\ RI*ROXEDF%UDQLýHYR

Picture 4 – Three phases of building kamaraRQSRPDQDDPRQJZHVWHUQ9ODFKVUHYHDOLWV distinct cosmos-like shape, since kamara obviously represents a celestial sphere resting RQIRXUSRVWVRQWKHWRSRIWKHVSKHUHWKHUHLV8UDQLXP²VZDVWLND³UHYROYLQJDURXQGWKH SRODUVWDUDVLIUHYROYLQJDURXQGWKH²WKHHDUWKD[LV³.DPDUDLVDOVRDUHPLQGHURIDQROG belief that each of us has our own star, and once the star expires we expire, too (Dobra 9RGDPXQLFLSDOLW\RI-DJRGLQD5HVDYD 13 3LFWXUH°KAPU ²+HDG³ 3RPDQDEUHDGPDGHRIVRXUZKHDWGRXJKEDNHGLQDEULFN oven, called NRSWRUͿ *RUQMDQH%RU3RUHýND5HND

%UHDG LV WKH ³KHDG´ RI SRPDQD ³GDüD´ ZLWK HDVWHUQ 9ODFKV DQG LW KDV DQ DQWKURSRPRUSKRORJLFDOVKDSHLWLVSODFHGDWWKHKHDGRIWKHWDEOHFRYHUHGZLWK ritual breads, which viewed from above resembles a reposing man, the actual deceased person. In the old times, pomana used to be placed in the exact spot ZKHUHDSHUVRQGLHG,WZDVDUUDQJHGDVKHODLGDWWKDWPRPHQW1RZWKH\SODFH it with head facing kîtra rîsarit (“to the East”), as the deceased is laid to rest in WKHJUDYH$VKHDGRISRPDQDLWLVWKHIXQFWLRQRIWKLVEUHDGWROHDGSRPDQDDQG SUHYHQWLWIURPJRLQJ³DVWUD\´DVLWWUDYHOVWRWKHRWKHUZRUOGZKHUHDVSHFLDOGHLW\ LQFKDUJHRIGLVWULEXWLQJSRPDQDZLOOKDQGLWSHUVRQDOO\WRWKHGHFHDVHG$WWKDW SRLQWKHZLOOEHYLVLWHGE\KLVFORVHVWUHODWLYHVDQGDOOGHLWLHVWRZKRPWKHEUHDGV DUHGHGLFDWHG,QWKHRWKHUZRUOGSRPDQDLVJXLGHGE\DORDILQWKHIRUPRIFXUYH called YvQWXUD or razluogKHUHSODFHGLQWKHYHU\FHQWHURIWKHhead. The entire 14 EUHDGVLJQL¿HVDFDOHQGDU\HDUDVDXQLWRIHWHUQDOSDVVDJHRIWLPHXQIROGLQJLQ F\FOHV7KDWLVZK\LWLVGLYLGHGLQ¿HOGVE\ULEERQVUHSUHVHQWLQJ6XQUD\VHDFK with a new moon (OXQDûLQͼUͼ DWWKHHGJHRIHDFK¿HOG7KH0RRQDQGLWVSKDVHV IURPQHZ0RRQWRIXOO0RRQIROORZHGE\LWVGLVDSSHDUDQFHLHG\LQJLVPRVW UHPLQLVFHQWRIDKXPDQIDWHDQHZPRRQSURPLVHVWKHKRSHRIUHELUWKVLQFHLWLV EHOLHYHGWKDWWKH*RGFUHDWHGDPDQWREHLPPRUWDO+RZHYHUWKHELUWKLVQRWWREH in this world and it has no biological character of Eastern religions reincarnation ±LQZKLFKWKDQNVWRQXPHURXVDQGYHU\HODERUDWHIXQHUDOULWXDOVHDFKGHFHDVHG Vlach will start his eternal life as a small king! Since the time immemorial, there is DEHOLHIWKDWRQO\SURPLQHQWSHRSOHWKRVHRFFXS\LQJKLJKSRVLWLRQVKDYHDFKDQFH of becoming immortal...

3LFWXUH°(DVWHUQ9ODFKVFDOOWKLVW\SHRIGDûDSRPDQDvQüLQVͽ ²ODLGRXWHORQJDWHG³ ,WLVSUHSDUHGWKURXJKRXWWKHHQWLUHIXQHUDOF\FOHEHJLQQLQJRQWKHGD\RIEXULDO ²ğDUD³ RQWKH¾UVW6DWXUGD\IRUW\GD\VDQGVL[PRQWKVDIWHUGHDWK,WHQGVZLWK¾UVW\HDUSRPDQD which is then repeated every year or every odd year, until seven or nine cycles expire. At HDFKDQQLYHUVDU\WKHQXPEHURI²KHDGV³LQFUHDVHVVRWKDWDVHYHQ\HDUSRPDQDKDVVHYHQ ²KHDGV³ZKLFKEHORQJWRWKHGHFHDVHG7KHHLJKWKKHDGLVPHDQWIRUDOORWKHUGHFHDVHG ancestors to which group the deceased himself will go upon expiry of this deadline. $FFRUGLQJWRVRPHLWLVWKHWLPHZKHQ²UXSHJXUPD]X³ KHDGVHSDUDWHVIURPERG\ ZKLOH according to others he just squats below a jug. 15 Picture 7 – .2/$.2/ 180$5$7 ²QXPEHUHG³ ORDI ²URVDU\³ 7KLV EUHDG LV PDGH RIVRXUZKHDWGRXJKPL[HGZLWKZDWHUDQGVDOWRYHQEDNHGLQD¿DWSDQ 6HOR2VQLû PXQLFLSDOLW\RI%ROMHYDF&UQD5HND

This bread is dedicated to those who died in “the dark”, without holding a lit FDQGOH,WFRQWDLQVVRNRüHƺD±V\PEROVUHSUHVHQWLQJVRPHRIWKHPDMRU3DJDQ JRGVOLNH6XQ0RRQ*XDUGLDQRI+HDYHQRUGD\VRIWKHZHHN LQOLQHZLWKWKH 9ODFKWUDGLWLRQVWKHGD\VHQMR\WKHSURWHFWLRQRIVHYHQSODQHWVNQRZQLQWKH2OG :RUOG 7KHEUHDGVDUHVDFUL¿FLDORIIHUVRWKDWWKHGHFHDVHG³LVWDNHQ´RXW³RI the dark” and brought to light, some kind of pastoral heaven. There are other accessories to assist the “transition”, for example, scissors that the deceased uses WRFXWWKHIXQHUDOVKURXG ³SRNURXĠ´ WRIUHHKLPVHOIOLNHDIHWXVIURPWKHZRPE the chain connecting the heaven and the earth which at the same time represents VRPHROGGHDWKGHLWLHVa ladderIRUWKHGHFHDVHGWR³FOLPE´WR+HDYHQOLNH5DR ODGGHUthe hand that takes the pomana etc. Swastika (“kokija”) called /XĝDIXU 16 /DW/XFLIHU³WKHOLJKWEHDUHU´SODQHW9HQXVRU'DQLFDLQRXUSDUWV ±WKHPDLQ V\PEROLQWKH9ODFKGHDWKFXOWVLQFHLWLVVHHQDVSHUVRQDOOLJKWZKLFKWKHGHFHDVHG carries in his hand as he goes through the Kingdom of Darkness to the other world. 7KURXJKRXW KLV HWHUQDO VWD\ LQ WKDW .LQJGRP WKH GHFHDVHG9ODFK LV XQGHU WKH SURWHFWLRQRIWKLVVLJQ7KHUHDUHDOVRIXUĞLƺLSRPvQWXOXӿ ³HDUWKO\UDNH´ LQWKH VKDSHRIDWUHHSUHYHQWLQJWKH(DUWKIURPIDOOLQJLQWRDE\VV7KHVSLUDOVKDSHG VLJQLV9vQWXUD ³:LQG´DIHPDOHIRUPRIWKHZLQGGHPRQ9vQWX DVSHFLDOGHLW\ FDOOHG5D]OXRJXSRPHĔLZKLFK³DUUDQJHV´SRPDQDDQGFDUULHVLWIURPWKLVZRUOG WRDQRWKHUWRKDQGLWWRWKHGHFHDVHG$PRQJWKH9ODFKV9vQWXUD is also a trance demon, the condition most similar to death itself. The name of the bread stems IURPQXPEHUVDQGQXPEHULQJZKLFKLVHVVHQWLDOLQDFRPSOH[V\VWHPRI9ODFK SRPDQDEHFDXVHRQO\LIHYHU\WKLQJLQSRPDQDLVWKHUHSDUWLFXODUO\WKHGHLWLHV called ]DNXDēH, WUͼEX;HƹHRUVRNRüHƺHSRPDQDFDQHQVXUHDWZRZD\SDVVDJHIURP WKLVWRDQRWKHUZRUOGZKLFKLVRQHRILWVPDMRUUROHV$QGWKHVHZRUOGVDUHMXVWWZR DVSHFWVRILPPRUWDOHWHUQLW\GUHDPWDERXWE\DOOKXPDQEHLQJV

3LFWXUH ° 5LWXDO QvPHĔLWX ²GHGLFDWLRQ³ RI SRPDQD FRQVLVWV RI FHQVLQJ LQ FLUFOHV touching and naming each object on the table and praying that the deceased should UHFHLYHDOORILWDWWKHPRPHQWRI²GHGLFDWLRQ³2QO\DIWHUWKLVULWXDOFDQSRPDQDEHFRPH DKRO\WDEOHDQGWKHGHFHDVHGPD\DSSURDFKLW&HQVLQJLVGRQH²EDFNZDUGV IURPOHIWWR ULJKW FRQWUDU\WRKRZLWLVGRQHDW6ODYDVLQFHWKHGHFHDVHGVKRXOGEH²UHWXUQHG³WRWKLV ZRUOG -DVLNRYRPXQLFLSDOLW\RI0DMGDQSHN*RUQML3HN 17 Picture 9 – .2/$.85$ư8/8ư ²+HDYHQO\&DNH³ 3RPDQD0DGHE\EDNHUVDFFRUGLQJ WRUXUDOWUDGLWLRQPRGHOV &UQDMNDPXQLFLSDOLW\RI0DMGDQSHN3RUHýND5HND

7KH +HDYHQO\ &DNH LV GHGLFDWHG WR WKH GHFHDVHG ZKR GLHG vQ ēHJXUD (“in the GDUN´ DQGFRQWDLQVODZVZKLFKVKRXOGIDFLOLWDWHKLVWUDQVLWLRQWRWKH+HDYHQ,Q DGGLWLRQWRWUDGLWLRQDOV\PEROVOLNHWKH6XQ0RRQGD\VRIWKHZHHNHWFDPRQJWKH laws there are also creatures from the Christian folklore: 0D;ND3U;DĝLVWͼ ³0RWKHU of God”), $UDQħHOX ³+RO\$UFKDQJHO´ 'XPēHĆvX ³2XU/RUG´ HWF7KH\DUH UHSUHVHQWHGE\URXQGEUHDGVWRZKLFKRQHWKUHHRUIRXUVPDOOFURVVHVDUHDI¿[HG Special laws are intended for sin redemption (VWUvPEDWDûH) and administration of justice (þLUHSWDûH) which is considered the highest law in the other world. The EDNHUVDGGHGSROHVLQPLGVHFWLRQDQGDEUDLGHQFLUFOLQJWKHEUHDGZKLFKLVDOZD\V URXQGVKDSHG,QDGGLWLRQWRWKHEUHDG¶VHPSKDVL]HGVRODUFKDUDFWHUDQGWKHOD\ out of laws, which without the poles would remain unclear since applications merge during baking and lifting process. The purpose of these bread additions is 18 to increase the price of bread. Still, the industrial bread production has taken over EULFNRYHQ KRPH EUHDGPDNLQJ WUDGLWLRQ EHLQJ FKHDSHU DQG IDVWHU 0RUHRYHU those breads look better than those made at home. On the other hand, bakers do QRWKDYHHQRXJKWLPHRUNQRZOHGJHWRIXOO\KRQRUFRPSOH[DQGLQWULFDWHODQJXDJH RIEUHDGV\PEROVZKLFKLVZK\WKHVHV\PEROVDUHJUDGXDOO\GLVDSSHDULQJRUULWXDO EUHDGVDUHPDGHDFFRUGLQJWRROGSDWWHUQVEXWURXWLQHO\ZLWKRXWDQ\DZDUHQHVV RIWKHLUWUXHPHDQLQJDQGSXUSRVH6WLOOWKHEDNLQJLQGXVWU\GRHVWKHLUEHVWDQG FDQQRWSRVVLEO\EHH[SHFWHGWREHDJXDUGLDQRIWUDGLWLRQV

3LFWXUH°7KHZRUVWWKLQJWKDWFDQEHIDOODPDQRQKLVZD\WRHWHUQDOOLIHLVWRHPEDUN upon that road without a candle in his hand, because the after-life is engulfed in darkness. That is why a dying man is closely watched. It is considered a great sin on the part of the living not to light a candle at the moment of death and help the dying man to hold it in his right hand until he expires. If that were not possible for whatever reason, the relatives DUHUHTXLUHGWRPDNHDVSHFLDOFDQGOHDVVRRQDVSRVVLEOH,WLVFDOOHG²ELJ³RU²KHDYHQO\³ candle and it should be sent to the deceased in the process of dedication so that he may IUHHKLPVHOIIURPHWHUQDOGDUNQHVV8QWLOPLGth century, this candle was made on the eve of funeral and was carried at the head of a funeral procession. Since the making of this candle is complicated and has several stages, it can be made only by a special kind of women, deeply committed to the cult. There is less and less of such women, and that is ZK\WKRVHFDQGOHVDUHWRGD\PDGHIRUWKHGD\SRPDQD$FFRUGLQJWRWKHEHOLHIWKDW is the moment when the deceased crosses over the log to the other world. The candle is placed at the head of pomana and lit at the beginning of pomana ritual with a request that LW²WDNHV³WKHGHFHDVHGWRWKH+HDYHQ VͼOSHWU;DNͼQUD; 9LOODJH%UHVWRYDFPXQLFLSDOLW\ RI%RU&UQD5HND 19 Picture 11 – .2/$.8 /8 .5$ĝ81 ²&KULVWPDV FDNH³ &KULVWPDV -DVLNRYR 0DMGDQSHN*RUQML3HN 0DGHE\EDNHUVDFFRUGLQJWRWKHHWKQRORJLVWVµGUDZLQJIURPWKH ¾HOG 7KHEUHDGLQWKLVSLFWXUHLVEDNHGDW&KULVWPDVWLPHIRUWKHKHDOWKDQGSURVSHULW\ RIIDPLO\PHPEHUVLQWKHQH[W\HDUVRWKDWFDWWOHDQGSODQWVPD\EHDUIUXLWDQG ODQGDQGSDVWXUHVÀRXULVKLQVKRUW±IRURYHUDOOSURJUHVV ³VvþDWRWvQDLQûH”). 7KHFDNHGHSLFWVWKHZRUOGYHUWLFDOO\GLYLGHGLQWKUHHSDUWV WKHXQGHUZRUOGWKLV ZRUOGDQGWKHXSSHUZRUOG DQGKRUL]RQWDOO\LQWZR ³WKLV´DQG³WKDW´ $OOWKH ZRUOGVDUHRSSRVHGWRHDFKRWKHU:KHQWKH6XQULVHVLQWKLVZRUOGLWVHWVLQWKDW ZRUOGDQGWKHGHDGDUHJHWWLQJUHDG\WRVOHHS7KH\ZDNHXSZKHQWKHGD\LQWKLV world “goes back” and that is the reason that pomana is never observed in the morning, because the dead are asleep at that time and cannot be in attendance. The VSLUDOHOHPHQWVIRXQGRQWHUUDFRWWDEUHDGVIURPWKH9LQþDFXOWXUHDUHSUHVHUYHG LQWKHVDPHQXPEHUDQGRUGHU ththPLOOHQQLXP%& $QH[DPSOHRIVXFK 1HROLWKEUHDGGHSLFWHGLQSLFWXUHKDVEHHQXQHDUWKHGLQ.UHPHQMDNVLWHLQ 20 WKH QHLJKERUKRRG RI 3RWSRUDQM YLOODJH PXQLFLSDOLW\ RI 9UãDF DQG KDV EHHQ H[KLELWHGLQWKHDUFKHRORJLFDOFROOHFWLRQRIWKH&LW\0XVHXPRI9UãDF7KHRQO\ GLIIHUHQFHLVDGRXEOHFURVVZKLFKUHSODFHGSUHKLVWRULFUKRPEV$OORUQDPHQWVRI WKH&KULVWPDVEUHDGFDQDOVREHIRXQGRQIXQHUDOEUHDGVLQ*RUQML3HN0HGLXP ULJKW VSLUDO LV GHFRUDWHG ZLWK VHYHQ QRWFKHV PDGH E\ NQLIH RQ IUHVK GRXJK ,W UHSUHVHQWVVHYHQGD\VRIWKHZHHNXQGHUWKHLQÀXHQFHRIVHYHQFHOHVWLDOERGLHV NQRZQLQWKH2OG:RUOGOXē 0RRQ0RQGD\ PDUğ 0DUV7XHVGD\ P;HUFXU; 0HUFXU\:HGQHVGD\ MXR; -XSLWHU7KXUVGD\ YLēLU; 9HQXV)ULGD\ VvPEvWͼ 6DWXUQ6DWXUGD\ GXPLēLNͼ 6XQ6XQGD\ 7KHVPDOOEUHDGZLWKWKHVHV\PEROV is called YXPRùͼO. Even though the origin of the word is unclear, this bread is VRPHWLPHVDOVRFDOOHGIUXPRúӽO ³EHDXW\´ SUHVXPDEO\IRUKRPRSKRQLFUHDVRQV 7KH UHVLGHQWV RI *RUQML 3HN JLYH LW DZD\ EHIRUH SRPDQD DQG HDW LW EHFDXVH LW ³LVJRRGIRUEHDXW\´ ³EXQþLIUXPRùDğͼ´ ,WIDOOVZLWKLQDJURXSFDOOHGUD]ORXJ RU YvQWXUD LQ RWKHU SDUWV DQG LWV UROH LV WR EH LQ WKH IRUHIURQW RI SRPDQD DV D KXPDQVXEVWLWXWHRQWKHURDGWRWKHRWKHUZRUOG7KHPRWLIVIURPWKLVDQGDIWHU OLIHLQWHUWZLQHEHFDXVHWKHRWKHUZRUOGLVQRWRQO\WKHZRUOGRIWKHGHDGEXWRI WKHGLYLQHFUHDWXUHVDQGIRUFHVWKDWVKDSHWKLVZRUOGDQGUXOHKXPDQGHVWLQ\LQDOO its aspects.

Picture 12 – The symbols carved in the clay model of Neolith bread from Kremnjak site in the vicinity of Vršac. Compared to the bread from Jasikovo (Picture 11), the Vlach bread has a double cross instead of rhombs. It is presumed that the rhombs were created in prehistoric times by stylizing bent swastika ends. Both breads have the same number of spirals, arranged symmetrically along the vertical line, i.e. along the horizontal line in the case of the Vlach bread. Peripheral notches LQ WKLV 9LQþD WHUUDFRWWD FDQ DOVR be found on some Vlach ritual breads: they are called numarature (“numbers”) and are made by knife on fresh dough. The number of notches is 365 and a half, the number of days in a year according to “old women’s” calendar. 21 3LFWXUH082ùÌ ²$QFHVWRUV³ 3RPDQD/HVNRYR 0DMGDQSHN*RUQML3HN %DNHUVµ UHSOLFDRQWKHEDVLVRIHWKQRORJLVWVµ¾HOGVNHWFK

7KLV ULWXDO EUHDG KDV WZR LQWHUWZLQLQJ DQFLHQW V\PEROV ³VZDVWLND´ ³FURRNHG cross, “kokija”) and a cross with four new moons at its ends. Its name PXRùv (“the HOGHUO\´³DQFHVWRUV´ SRLQWVWRWKHUROHRISRPDQDLQWKLVFDVHLWLVLQWHQGHGIRU the deceased’s ancestors who are invited to his pomana, to help themselves to the offerings and assist him to settle in the new world. Kokija, which has a central place on the cross is in some places called VYLûL3;HWUL ³6W3HWHU´ 7KDWLVZK\ZH FRQFOXGHWKDWWKLVXQLYHUVDOV\PERO±VZDVWLND 6DQVNULWsu-asti-ka, su “good” and asti³WREH´ ±LQDGGLWLRQWREHLQJWKHGHFHDVHGJXLGHDQGWRUFKEHDUHUDOVRSOD\HG DUROHRIDGRRUDQGNH\NHHSHUDWWKHHQWUDQFHWRWKHRWKHUZRUOGDQGDMXGJHLQ the world of the dead, since in some Vlach tales it is St. Peter that decides where WKHGHFHDVHGVKRXOGJRWKHKHDYHQRUKHOO6ZDVWLNDPD\ZHOOEHWKHV\PERORI WKHGHDGVLQFHWKLVLVRQHWKHROGHVWV\PEROVLQKXPDQKLVWRU\:HUHFRJQL]HVRPH RIVDFUDOUROHVRIVZDVWLNDLQP\WKVDQGOHJHQGVUHJDUGLQJ6W3HWHUZKRVHQDPH 22 VZDVWLNDWRRNXQGHUWKHLQÀXHQFHRI&KULVWLDQIRONORUH$FURVVZLWKQHZPRRQVLV an ancient representation of a dead person and a new moon should enable rebirth. :KLOHGRXJKLVVWLOOIUHVK9ODFKZRPHQFDUYHQRWFKHVRQHDFKKDOIPRRQD WRWDORIWKHQXPEHURI³JUHDWGD\V´LQD\HDUDFFRUGLQJWRRQHEHOLHI6LQFHLQ DTXDUWHURIDFHQWXU\ZHIDLOHGWR¿QGDQ\RQHZKRFRXOGWHOOXVZKDWWKH³JUHDW GD\V´DUHLWLVSUHVXPHGWKDWWKLVLVDUHGXSOLFDWLRQRIQXPEHUIRXUZKLFKLQ WKH9ODFKFXOWXUHDQGPDQ\RWKHUDQFLHQWFXOWXUHVUHSUHVHQWVDVXSUHPH*RGWKH 0DVWHURI8QLYHUVH³IURPWKH(DVWWRWKH:HVWIURPWKH1RUWKWRWKH6RXWK´,Q view of the fact that Romanian word PRù is linked to the Dhacian substrate and WKHVFLHQWLVWVIRXQGLWLQWKH'KDFLDQ*RG6DOPRNVLV RU=DOPRNVLV LWLVSRVVLEOH WKDWWKHVHEUHDGVSUHVHUYHGK\SRVWDVHVRIWKLVJUHDW*RGZRUVKLSSHGE\DQFHVWRUV RIWKHSUHVHQWGD\9ODFKV"$FFRUGLQJWR+HURGRWXV³SHRSOHGRQRWGLHEXWDUH VXPPRQHGE\*RG6DOPRNVLV´ZKRFODLPHGWKDW³QHLWKHUKLPQRUKLVJXHVWVRU WKHLURIIVSULQJZLOOQRWGLHEXWZRXOGJRWRVRPHSODFHZKHUHWKH\ZLOOOLYHIRUHYHU DQGHQMR\´

Picture 14 – 0RXúIURPSRPDQDIURP5XGQD*ODYD 0DMGDQSHN*RUQML3RUHý 7KHFURVV ZLWKKDOIPRRQVUHSUHVHQWVWKHGHFHDVHGZKLOHVZDVWLND OXĝDIXU SODFHGDWKLVFKHVWKDV a role of reviving him in the after-life. 23 3LFWXUH°.2/$.8',%Ì7 ²3ROHFDNH³ 3RPDQD5XGQD*ODYD 0DMGDQSHN*RUQML 3RUHý %DNHUVµUHSOLFDRQWKHEDVLVRIHWKQRORJLVWVµ¾HOGVNHWFK

7KLVURXQGEUHDGKDVDULQJDQGGHFRUDWLRQVLQWKHLQQHU¿HOG$OO9ODFKEUHDGV with a ring (ĝHUN, JDUþLQ) are considered “great” or sacrosanct in the religious VHQVHVLQFHWKHULQJUHSUHVHQWVDKRO\QLPEXVJHQHUDWHGIURPWKH6XQDXUD,QWKH KLVWRU\RIUHOLJLRQVLWKDVEHHQUHSUHVHQWHGLQWKHLPDJHVRIWKH%DE\ORQLDQJRGV In addition to swastika (“NRNL;H”) which occupies central place in this bread as ZHOOWKHUHDUHIRXUV\PPHWULFDOO\SODFHGVSLUDOVFDOOHGUD]OXRJX or vîntura whose UROHLVWRWDNHSRPDQDWRWKHGHFHDVHGLQDQ\RIWKHIRXUFDUGLQDOSRLQWV%HWZHHQ WKHPWKHUHDUHIRXUV\PEROVRI/DWLQOHWWHU67KHRUQDPHQWVDFWXDOO\UHSUHVHQW KDOIRIVZDVWLNDGHULYHGLQWKHFRXUVHRIORQJVWDQGLQJULWXDOSUDFWLFH7KHUHDUH VHYHUDOPHDQLQJVLQWKHFXOWRIWKHGHDGZLWK9ODFKVRI*RUQML3RUHþ'XHWRLWV twisted shape it is called VWUvPEDWDûH ³DFXUYH´ DQGLWLVSUHVHQWHGDVDVDFUL¿FH for the deceased’s sins in life. In other parts, it is called sîmbîta. It is dedicated to 6DWXUGD\DVDZHHNGD\RIWKHGHDG$VRIODWHSRPDQDDUHLQFUHDVLQJO\REVHUYHG 24 RQ6DWXUGD\V3UHYLRXVSRPDQDGD\V7XHVGD\VDQG7KXUVGD\VDUHREVHUYHGLQ FDVH UHODWLYHV FDQ JHW D GD\RII IURP ZRUN VLQFH HPSOR\HUV DUH QRW XQGHU WKH obligation to honor pomana requests. The bread is dedicated along with a pole 3LFWXUH ZKLFKHDFKGHFHDVHGSHUVRQUHFHLYHVZLWKSRPDQD,QWKHROGGD\V WKHGHDGZHUHEXULHGZLWKWKRVHSROHV0XFKHDUOLHUSROHVGLGQRWVHUYHWRSURWHFW SRPDQD LW LV EHOLHYHG WRGD\ ,QVWHDG LW KDV EHHQ LQWURGXFHG LQ WKLV ULWXDO DV LQVLJQLDDQKRQRUEHVWRZHGXSRQWKHGHFHDVHGDVWKH\HQWHUDQRWKHUZRUOG7KLV stems from the semantics of the entire ritual whose purpose is to provide a high social status to the deceased in the new world, which is a precondition for eternal OLIH3ROHKDVEHHQRQHRIWKHROGHVWV\PEROVVLJQLI\LQJVXFKSRVLWLRQ7KHSROH EHFDPHLQVLJQLDDWDWLPHZKHQHDUO\FDWWOHEUHHGLQJVRFLHWLHVVWUDWL¿HGDQGZKHQ FXOWVP\WKVDQGUHOLJLRXVUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVVXUURXQGHGVRUFHUHUVDQGWULEDOFKLHIV 6WUDQJHO\HQRXJKWKHVHKDYHEHHQYHU\ZHOOSUHVHUYHGZLWKWKH9ODFKV

3LFWXUH°+DQGOHRIWKH SROHIURPSRPDQDLQ-DVLNRYR (Majdanpek, Gornji Pek, 7KHSROHKDVEHHQ decorated by NRQÿLMDQMH, a drawing technique with hot-wax cinder. To the right, WKHUHLVD²FRVPLFWUHH³VFHQH connecting the two worlds together with its height. Its annual rebirth raises hopes of the deceased being born again and that is why he carries it on his funeral insignia. 25 Picture 17 – KAPU ²+HDG³ 3RPDQD/R]QLFD ãDJXELFD+RPROMH %DNHUVµUHSOLFDRQ WKHEDVLVRIHWKQRORJLVWVµ¾HOGVNHWFK

In addition to ring (“JDUþLQ´ ZKLFKSODFHVWKLVEUHDGLQWKHFDWHJRU\RI³JUHDW´ DQGDVVLJQLQJWRLWWKHKROLQHVVRI6XQLWKDVDVSLUDOYvQWXUDLQLWVFHQWHUFDOOHG EX]GRJDQ ³&OXE´ ZLWK IRXU VXUURXQGLQJ ³6´VKDSHG FXUYHV PHDQLQJ WKDW WKH head will lead pomana to all four cardinal points in search of the deceased. Breads IURP WKH NDSD JURXS DUH QRW SODFHG GLUHFWO\ RQ WKH WDEOH ,QVWHDG WZR UHJXODU EUHDGVDUHSODFHGXQGHUQHDWK 3LFWXUH 2QO\LQFDVHRIODUJHSRPDQDVPRUH breads are placed underneath, when there is a lot of guests and not enough space. 7KHUHVKRXOGDOZD\VEHHQRXJKEUHDGIRUHDFKPDQQRWRQO\DWWKHWDEOHEXWDOVR WRWDNHKRPH7KH9ODFKVWKHVDPHDVDQFLHQW(J\SWLDQVDUHYHU\JHQHURXVLQ food offerings for their dead since the deceased will get as much food in the other ZRUOGDVKDVEHHQHDWHQDWSRPDQD$QGKHZLOOUHFHLYHIRRGRQO\LISHRSOHHDWLQJ EUHDG RFFDVLRQDOO\ VD\ bobdaprost (“God forgive”) and mention the deceased 26 man’s name with sorrow (This is important for guests themselves since those who JHWFDUULHGDZD\ZLWKIRRGDQGGULQNVDQGIRUJHWWRSUDLVHWKHGHFHDVHGPD\EH LQWHUFHSWHGE\WKHGHFHDVHGRQWKHLUZD\KRPHZKRZRXOGWDNHDZD\WKHEDJZLWK EUHDGVJLYHQDZD\LQKLVKRQRU 8QGHUQHDWKDOOWKRVHEUHDGVWKH\XVHGWRSODFH a small corn bread as well, called PDODͿE\WKH9ODFKV7KLVWUDGLWLRQKDVEHHQ SUHVHUYHGE\WKHORZODQGHUVZKHUHFRUQLVDPDMRUFURS7KHFRUQEUHDGGRXJKLV GHFRUDWHGE\IRUNV7KHQDPHkapu ³KHDG´ DFWXDOO\FRQVLVWVRIWKUHHFDUHIXOO\ FKRVHQEUHDGVZKLFKUHÀHFWDQDQFLHQWWULDGLQZKLFKDOOLPSRUWDQWGHLWLHVWRWKH GHFHDVHGDQGKLVHWHUQDOOLIHOLYHLQXSSHU8UDQLXPSDUWRIWKHWKUHHSDUWFRVPRV The representations of the “lower” world differ among the Vlachs. Sometime WKHUH DUH FRQÀLFWLQJ RU H[FOXGLQJ ZKLFK WHVWL¿HV WR WKHLU GLIIHUHQW RULJLQ DQG age. Rural culture does not even up religious differences nor excludes outdated FRQWHQWVIURPUHOLJLRQ2QO\WKRVHWKLQJVWKDWKDYHSXUSRVHDQGLPSRUWDQFHWROLIH RIPHQLQYLOODJHVSHUVLVWVLQFHVHOIVXI¿FLHQWHFRQRP\FDQQRWGHDOZLWKH[FHVVLYH OXJJDJH7KDWLVZK\WKHLGHDRIIXQHUDOULWXDOVKDVEHHQVRGHHSO\HPEHGGHGLQ UXUDOWLVVXH$QGVRZKHQZHSHHODZD\WKHWKRXVDQG\HDUROGUHOLJLRXVOD\HUV ZLWKWKH9ODFKVZH¿QGVWLOOIUHVKO\SUHVHUYHGLGHDRIDIWHUOLIHZRUOGZKLFKLV neither “Up” or “Down” but at the same plane with our unique and unrepeatable ZRUOGO\OLIH

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$WKUHHSDUW²KHDG³ composition on pomana in Krivelj, represents a triad world. This photo was taken E\HWKQRORJLVWVLQWKH¾HOG LQ$WWKHWRSWKHUH is YUXPRúͽO bread, which ²OHDGV³WKHHQWLUHSRPDQDWR after-life. It is the only bread kissed in a dedication ritual. As a rule, each object sent to the deceased, from food to furniture, should be WRXFKHG E\KDQG ²SRLQW³ QDPHG ²GHVFULEH³ DQGNLVVHG ²YHULI\³ )RUVDQLWDU\ FRQFHUQVWKH9ODFKZRPHQ FRQ¾QHGIRRGNLVVLQJRQO\WR symbolic kissing of this most important bread. 27 Picture 19 – .$38 /$ 320$1$$/%Ă ²+HDG RI ZKLWH SRPDQD³ *RUQMDQH %RU 3RUHýND5HND %DNHUVµUHSOLFDRIDSKRWRPDGHE\HWKQRORJLVWVLQWKH¾HOG

'XULQJWKH:KLWH:HHNRQWKHHYHRI(DVWHU/HQW ³3XRVWXSDU;DVvPLORU”), the 9ODFKSUHSDUHDVSHFLDOGDüDFDOOHG3RPDQD$OEͼ ³:KLWHSRPDQD´ ,WLVEHLQJ REVHUYHGLQWKH¿UVWWKUHH\HDUVRIDVHYHQ\HDUSRVWGHDWKF\FOH,WLVDOVRFDOOHG SRPDQDVNXPSͼ ³([SHQVLYHGDüD´ GXHWRLWVDOOHJHGSRZHUWRSODFHWKHGHFHDVHG LQ+HDYHQLQFDVHKH±IRUZKDWHYHUUHDVRQ±IDLOHGWRJHWWKHUHLPPHGLDWHO\DIWHU WKHIXQHUDO0RVWRIDQFLHQW9ODFKVHVSHFLDOO\KLJKODQGHUVLPDJLQH+HDYHQDVD PHDGRZLQDIDUDZD\IRUHVW7KHPHDGRZLVGLYLGHGLQWZRSDUWV±RQHLVGDUN cold and waterless, covered with withered and black grass. This is for those who died without a candle. Once all proper rituals are observed for them, including ZKLWHSRPDQDWKH\SDVVRYHUWRWKHRWKHUSDUWRIWKHPHDGRZIXOORIVFHQWHG ÀRZHUVZKLFKWKHGHFHDVHGJHWDVSUHVHQWZLWKHYHU\SRPDQD,QWKHPLGGOHRI the meadow there is a huge tree with a cold water spring underneath. This is the RQO\SODFHZKHUHWKHGHFHDVHGFDQHDVHWKLUVWXQEHDUDEOHLQWKHRWKHUZRUOG(DFK 28 GHFHDVHGSHUVRQVKDOOEHHQWLWOHGRQO\WRWKHTXDQWLW\RIZDWHU³UHOHDVHG´ZKHQ a little boat made of wood (Cucurbita lagenaria), with candles arranged in the VKDSHRIFURVVOLWDVWKHZRRGGULIWVDZD\DORQJWKHEURRN 3LFWXUH ,WLVQRW believed that Sun could reach this part of the meadow, although there is a belief WKDWWKHUHDUHGD\VDQGQLJKWVDQGLWLVE\IXQHUDOVRQJV±petrekaturama±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

3LFWXUH°5HOHDVLQJDtrok ²ERDW³ GRZQVWUHDPLVWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWSDUWRI²UHOH DVLQJ³ZDWHUDSDUWRIHYHU\SRPDQD7KHORQJHULW¿RZVGRZQVWUHDPWKHPRUHZDWHUIRU the deceased in the other world, where in addition to eternal hunger and cold, there is an HWHUQDOWKLUVW 5XGQD*ODYD 29 3LFWXUH°KAPU ²KHDG³ 3RPDQD=ORW %RU&UQD5HND %DNHUVµUHSOLFDRQWKHEDVLV RI¾HOGSKRWR

7KH SLFWXUH GHSLFWV RQH YDULDWLRQ RI +HDG SUHSDUHG LQ WKH ZDNH RI SRPDQD REVHUYHGRQH\HDUDIWHUGHDWKZKHQPRXUQLQJFORWKHVDUHWDNHQRIIDQGWKHSHULRG RIPRXUQLQJHQGV,QWKHSDVWEODFNFORWKHVZHUHQRWXVXDOO\ZRUQLQWKHSHULRGRI mourning. Some people still remember that white used to be the color of mourning, in addition other mourning signs like not wearing hats, not shaving, letting one’s KHDUORRVHDQGDYRLGLQJWRZHDUMHZHOU\%ODFNZDVQRWZRUQIRUSUDFWLFDOUDWKHU than religious reasons. The clothes of ancient Vlachs were made of sheep wool, KHPSDQGÀD[DOOZKLWH2QO\ZLWKWKHLQYHQWLRQRINDUDER;D (copper sulfate), ZDVLWSRVVLEOHWRSHUPDQHQWO\FRORUFORWKHVLQEODFNZKLFKFRLQFLGHGZLWKWKH WUDJHGLHV LQ ZRUOG ZDUV 7KH 9ODFK ZRPHQ HYHQ WRGD\ WDNH RII EODFN FORWKHV to perform pomana rituals which indicates that wearing black is a more recent WUDGLWLRQ2QFHWKH\FRPSOHWHWKHULWXDOVWKH\SXWEODFNFORWKHVEDFNRQ:KLWHLV DVRODUFRORUWKHFRORURIOLJKWZKLFKLVYHU\QHFHVVDU\LQWKH³+HDYHQO\´IXQFWLRQ RISRPDQDULWXDOV,QWKHVRODUGLVFRIEUHDGIURP3LFWXUHWKHUHLVDOHIWWXUQLQJ 30 VZDVWLNDLQUHYHUVHFRQWUDU\WRWKHPRYHPHQWRI6XQVLQFHLWVKRXOGUHWXUQWKH deceased from the other world to this one, so that he could also end mourning and embrace life in full, along with his living cousins. In addition to swastika, in all ¿HOGVEHWZHHQVZDVWLND¶VDUPVWKHUHLVDVSLUDOvîntura LQ=ORWZLWK&KULVWLDQL]HG name SU;HVNXUD), on its left there is ODQğX, from the times when Gods or demons of death were “snatchers” and captured human souls in nets, chains, loops, ropes or similar traps. In the upper left, there is ¿XDU;DDÀRZHUZKRVHUROHLQWKHFXOW RIWKHGHDGLVYHU\LPSRUWDQWVLQFHLWLVEHOLHYHGWKDWRQO\WKHVFHQWRIÀRZHUVLQ addition to a funeral song can permeate the other world and tempt the deceased to come to pomana no matter where he is or what he does at the moment. In the XSSHUULJKW¿HOGWKHUHDUHWZREDFNWREDFN³¿UHVWHHOV´JHQHUDWHGIURPVZDVWLND OLNHPDQ\RWKHUVDFUDOV\PEROVLQWKH9ODFKFXOWXUH+HUHWKH\UHSUHVHQWVRPH NLQGRINH\IRUWKHSDVVDJHWKURXJKWKHJDWHEHWZHHQWKLVZRUOGDQGWKHRWKHU

3LFWXUH°7KHVDPHDVKLVUHODWLYHVWKHGHFHDVHGLVLQWKHSHULRGRIPRXUQLQJIRU RQH \HDU DIWHU GHDWK 7KH PRXUQLQJ SHULRG HQGV RQ WKH ¾UVW DQQLYHUVDU\ RI GHDWK RQ ZKLFKRFFDVLRQD²UHHOIRUWKHVRXO³LVSHUIRUPHG VHHSLFWXUH ,QVRPHDUHDVOLNH3RUHý DQG&UQD5HNDWKHUHDUHSRPDQDZLWKELJ¾UHVFDOOHGSULYHJͿ SLFWXUH ZLWKSHRSOH dancing around them until small hours. The more people come from various quarters, the more respect will the deceased receive in the new society where he will spend his life in joy DQGKDSSLQHVVVLPLODUWRSULYHJ;7KHUROHRIWKHGHFHDVHGWKHUHHOOHDGHULVDVVLJQHGWR his cousin of the same gender, resembling the deceased by height; earlier, he used to carry a torch with the name of the deceased, and these days he carries a picture of the deceased 5XGQD*ODYDPXQLFLSDOLW\RI0DMGDQSHN3RUHýND5HND 31 3LFWXUH°.2/$.2/0,. ²6PDOOFDNH³ 3RPDQD0DGHE\EDNHUV /MHVQLFDYLOODJH PXQLFLSDOLW\RI.XýHYR=YLäG)LHOGSKRWR

7KLVEUHDGKDVDVKDSHRIOHIWWXUQLQJVZDVWLNDZLWKLQDKRO\DXUD,WLVFDOOHGDVPDOO cake because on kamara 3LFWXUH LWLVSODFHGXQGHUFDNHîndoite (“double”) ZLWKWKUHHKDOIVZDVWLNDV 6VKDSHG DOVRZLWKLQVLPLODUULQJ7KHLPSRUWDQFHRI VZDVWLNDLQWKH9ODFKFXOWXUHLVQRWVHHQRQO\E\LWVPDLQUROHLQWKHFXOWRIWKH GHDGEXWE\PDQ\YDULDWLRQVJHQHUDWHGIURPLWZKLFKRYHUWLPHZLWKWKHFXOW¶V development, acquired a separate name, independent role and a special meaning. 6RPHRIWKHVHVLJQVZHUHLQGHSHQGHQWO\XVHGDVHDUO\DVLQ1HROLWK 3LFWXUH

The illustration below: VRPH RI LQGHSHQGHQWO\ XVHG V\PEROV LQ 9ODFK EUHDGV ZHUH JHQHUDWHGIURPVZDVWLNDWKH¾UVWGUDZLQJIURPWKHOHIWLQWKLVURZ.

32 3LFWXUH°.$0$5$RQSRPDQDLQ/MHVQLFDLQ6WRMDGLQRYLûIDPLO\ ¾HOGSKRWR ,QWKHEDFN$5HSHG]LûDVWXGHQWSURMHFWDVVRFLDWH 7KHW\SHRISRPDQDZLWK³NDPDUD´KDVDSRLQWHG8UDQLXPFKDUDFWHUVLQFHEUHDG UHSUHVHQWDWLRQV RI DIWHUOLIH GHLWLHV DUH HOHYDWHG WR WKH ³FHOHVWLDO´ OHYHO 6HYHQ VPDOOEUHDGVLQWKHIURQWRINDPDUDUHSUHVHQWVHYHQGD\VRIWKHZHHN'D\VDUH XQLWVRIHWHUQDOWLPHZKRVHH[LVWHQFHLQWKLVZRUOGLVLQWHUUXSWHGE\GHDWKEXW VLQFHWKH\DUHXQGHUWKHSURWHFWLRQRIVHYHQSODQHWVEUHDGVDFUL¿FHPRYHVWKHP IRUZDUGDQGWKH\FRQWLQXHWRJRRQLQHWHUQDODIWHUOLIH7KH9ODFKVHPEUDFHGD fatalistic concept of life. The same as in other archaic cultures, it was believed that fate demons determine a man’s fate at the moment of his birth as well as his life’s HQGDQGWKHIRUPRIGHDWK)DWHLVGHWHUPLQHGDFFRUGLQJWRGD\VDQGWKHLUQXPEHU LVUHFRUGHGE\NRQþHưLQWKH%RRNZKLFKKDVRQO\ZKLWHDQGEODFNSDJHV7KDWLV ZK\ZKHQDPDQGLHVQRFRQGROHQFHVDUHRIIHUHGLQIDWDOLVP3HRSOHMXVWVLJKDQG VD\ĜHVͼIDĝQDPͼ;DYXWĆvƹH ³:HOOZKDWFDQ\RXGRKHKDGQRGD\VOHIW´ 7KHRQO\ZD\WR³H[WHQG´KLVGD\VLVWRUHJXODUO\REVHUYHSRPDQDDPDQDFWXDOO\ GLHVRQFHKHLVIRUJRWWHQDQGDQ\WUDFHRIKLPLVORVW 33 3FWXUH°383ÌĆ$ ²+RRSRH³ 3RPDQD$OHNVDQGURYDF IRUPHUO\=ORNXûH1HJRWLQ .UDMLQD 0DGHE\EDNHUV

$QWKURSRPRUSKRORJLFDOEUHDGFDOOHGSXSvĆD, or SDSXùD (“Doll”) known in a wi der eastern Vlach area. In some parts of Romania it has a role in wedding and birth ULWXDOV,WKDVYDULDWLRQVLQQRUWKZHVWHUQ%XOJDULDLQWHUPVRI¿JXUH,Q*RUQML3HN it was used as a gift to departing guests. It was part of ritual breads and pomana, EXWQRWDQ\PRUH,WDSSHDUVHYHQWKRXJKUDUHO\LQSRPDQDLQFHUWDLQYLOODJHV RI&UQD5HNDLQWKHYLFLQLW\RI%RU,WLVEHVWSUHVHUYHGLQWKHULWXDOSUDFWLFHVRI 7LPRNYLOODJHV±$OHNVDQGURYDF.RYLORYRDQG&UQRPDVQLFD,WVUROHLVWRFDUU\ 34 pomana to the deceased and to help him VRUDGLWµHήHSµHPDVĂ (to lift it off the WDEOH ,WLVXVHGLQDVSHFLDOULWXDORQHGD\DIWHUSRPDQDZKHQWKHUHODWLYHVJDWKHU WRJHWKHUDJDLQIRUOXQFK SUvQGX $WWKHHQGRIWKHULWXDOWKUHHZLGRZV 3LFWXUH GDQFHDURXQGDVSHFLDOWDEOHKROGLQJSODWWHUVZLWKWKLVEUHDGLQZKLFKDZKLWH candle has been inserted. On the platter, along with the bread, there is a bunch of ÀRZHUVVZHHWVDQGIUXLWV7KHZLGRZVPRYHVORZO\IURPOHIWWRULJKWDQGVLQJ these verses: /DUDưVX¿HWµHODUDư_%DJĂVDPDNXưPưRGDư_.ĂODSRəUWDUDưX- OXư_øHήH¿RDUưDVRDUHOXư_øLPLURVX¿RULORU 7R+HDYHQVVRXOWR+HDYHQV%H FDUHIXOWRZKRP\RXJLYHIXQHUDOIHDVW6LQFHDWWKH+HDYHQ¶VJDWHWKHUHLVDVXQ ÀRZHUVPHOOLQJVZHHWO\ 2QFHWKH\DUHWKURXJKVLQJLQJWKHZLGRZVVWRSVWRPS three times, exchange platters, make the sign of the cross and start walking to the ULJKWWKLVWLPHXWWHULQJWKHVDPHYHUVHV$IWHUWKHWKLUGURXQGWKH\SXWGRZQWKH platters with SXSvĆD, and start tasting each meal and drink, knocking each dish ZLWKNLWFKHQXWHQVLOVXQWLOWKH\UHDFKWKHNLWFKHQZKHUHWKH\VWDUWEDQJLQJDWWKH SRWVDQGSHQVZLWKODGOHVWR³ZDUQ´WKHGHFHDVHGWKDWKLVSRPDQDLVRQLWVZD\ DQGJHWUHDG\WRWDNHLWIURP³WKHKDQGV´RIDSHUVRQWKDWSHUIRUPHGWKHGHGLFDWLRQ ritual, called ERþDSURVW. No matter how old the deceased was at the moment of GHDWKKHFDQQRWVWDUWHDWLQJIRRGDORQHKHLVOLNHDVPDOOEDE\ZKRFDQHDWRQO\ when someone alive takes a gulp of soup for him, or chews food for him or drinks from a cup. The Romanian ethnologists are of the view that SXSvĆD has been in KHULWHGIURPWKHDQFLHQWWLPHVRISUHKLVWRULFKXQWHUVZKHQLWZDVEHOLHYHGWKDW a human soul resembles a bird. The Vlach SXSvĆD is an anthropomorphological IRUPRIRUQLWRPRUSKRORJLFDOQDPHZLWKDVSHFLDOIXQFWLRQRI³DIWHUOLIHVHUYLFH´

3LFWXUH°7KUHH widows at pomana in Aleksandrovac, shortly EHIRUH²SXSvĆDGDQFH³ whereby the deceased is not only sent pomana to Heaven but also ²VHUYDQWV³ZKRVKRXOG help him set the table. In many ancient religions various sculptures were buried along with the deceased to perform ²DIWHUOLIHVHUYLFHV³IRU him. There used to be several hundred such sculptures buried in ancient Egypt. 35 3LFWXUH°$53,8$5Ă ²/LWWOHZLQJ³ 3RPDQD6ODWLQD %RU&UQD5HND 0DGHE\ EDNHUV

,QPDQ\9ODFKDUHDVSHRSOHVWLOOEHOLHYHWKDWWKHGHFHDVHGJRHVWRWKHRWKHUZRUOG as ]EXUDWXRU; ³À\HU´ DZLGHVSUHDGEHOLHIWKDWSUHYDLOHGLQWKHSDVW3HRSOHXVHG WRVD\³āOPXRUWVDIDĝHvQħLUùv]EXDUͼ³ (³7KHGHFHDVHGWXUQVLQWRDQJHODQGÀLHV DZD\´ 7KDWLVZK\WKHIHHWRIWKHGHFHDVHGZHUHQRWFRYHUHGRQFHKHLVSXWLQ DFRI¿Q%\WKHVDPHWRNHQSRPDQDZKLFKKDVWKHIRUPRIDKXPDQERG\ZLWK EUHDG³KHDG´WXUQHGWRWKH:HVWLVQRWFORVHGDWWKHIHHWLQWKH(DVWWKHEUHDGV DUHDOLJQHGDORQJERWKHGJHVRIDWDEOHZKLOHWKHPLGGOHVWD\VHPSW\WRHQDEOH SRPDQDWR³ZDON´VLQFHLWKDVDORQJZD\WRJRWRUHDFKLWVGHFHDVHGUHSUHVHQWHG E\KLVGRXEOH,QRQHSDUWRI&UQD5HNDVSHFLDOEUHDGVDUHPDGHZKHUHE\DGRXEOH FXUYHKDVD³KDW´LQWKHVKDSHRI*UHHNOHWWHUȍRUZRPDQ¶VFXUO\KDLU,WLVFDOOHG DUSLXDUͼ, a diminutive of DUS;H, which means a wing. It follows that the role of WKHEUHDGKDVWRGRZLWKÀ\LQJ7KHUHDUHQLQHRIWKRVHDWSRPDQDDOLJQHGRQWKH WDEOHIURPWKHKHDGGRZQ¿YHRQWKHULJKWDQGIRXURQWKHOHIWVLGHOLNHSRPDQD KDVZLQJVWRÀ\,Q9ODFKRUDOWUDGLWLRQVWKHUHLVQRPHQWLRQRIDVRXODEOHWRÀ\ OLNHDELUGWKDWFRQFHSWKDVEHHQGHYHORSHGFLUFXPVWDQWLDOO\IURPWKHQDPHRIWKH 36 bread called pupîda 3LFWXUH DVZHOODVWKHIDFWWKDWWKH9ODFKVSODQWDIUXLW WUHHRQWKHJUDYHVVRWKDWKLVELUGOLNHVRXOPD\UHVWDIWHULWÀLHVDURXQGWKHEXULHG ERG\6WLOOLQERWKFDVHVWKHUHPD\EHRWKHUH[SODQDWLRQV2UVXFKEHOLHIVDUH somewhat more recent because according to old Vlach beliefs human soul does QRWOHDYHWKHERG\VLQFHDPDQFRQWLQXHVKLVDIWHUOLIHLQWKHVDPHVKDSHKHZDVDW the time of death. This animatistic concept is rather rare in current representations RIDQFLHQWFXOWXUHV,WLVDOPRVWFRPSOHWHO\JRQHRUEDUHO\VXUYLYHG,QWKH9ODFK world, animatismLVVRHPSKDVL]HGWKDWLWIRUPVDQHQWLUHULWXDOSUDFWLFHLQWKH FXOWRIWKHGHDGULJKWIXOO\FRQVLGHUHGRQHWKHPRVWLQFOXVLYHDQGGLYHUVHLQWKH SUHVHQWGD\(XURSH

3LFWXUH°7KHEHOLHILQGDUNFROGDQGZDWHUOHVVDIWHUOLIHZRUOGLVRI/XQDURULJLQROG as human race itself. It is rooted in Paleolith, a time when man was in constant search of food, life was short and ended abruptly, before old age could set in. The impression was that a man just fell asleep while his soul as an organic double left for another world for good. It is an unsettling thought that a deceased will spend eternity in darkness and cold, DQGWKDWLVZK\WKH\WKH9ODFKVEXLOGDELJ¾UHFDOOHGSULYHJͿ, usually for the seventh, ODVWSRPDQDZKLFKPDUNVWKHHQGRIDGHDWKF\FOH3ULYHJ;LVFXUUHQWO\REVHUYHGRQO\E\ KLJKODQG9ODFKVVLQFHLWUHTXLUHVDORWRIZRRGZKLFKLVODFNLQJLQWKHORZODQGV 5XGQD *ODYDPXQLFLSDOLW\RI0DMGDQSHN*RUQML3RUHý 37 3LFWXUH°.ư$ư$5$ư8/8ư ²+HDYHQO\.H\³ 3RPDQD/D]QLFD ãDJXELFD+RPROMH +RPHPDGH

7KH 9ODFK EHOLHIV UHJDUGLQJ DIWHUOLIH DUH YHU\ FRPSOLFDWHG ULWXDO V\VWHP LV FRPSOH[DQGREMHFWVSDUWLFXODUO\PDGHRIGRXJKIRUHWHUQDOOLIHVHHPWRKDYHEHHQ OLPLWHGRQO\E\KXPDQLPDJLQDWLRQ7KH9ODFKVD\WKDWDOXYDWXMXNDULӿDEDELORU ³GRXJK LV ROG ZRPHQ¶V WR\´ (YHU\WKLQJ LV UDWKHU VLPSOH ZKHQ D GHFHDVHG HPEDUNV³XSRQWKHURDG´ZLWKDOLWFDQGOHLQKLVKDQG+LVPRVWUHFHQWO\GHFHDVHG FRXVLQZKRKDVDOUHDG\SDVVHGDORQJWKDWURDGFDUU\LQJEUHDGVDFUL¿FHEDNHGE\ KLVIDPLO\HDVLO\SDVVHVRYHUWKHORJWRKHDYHQ+HUHDFKHVWKHKHDYHQNHHSHUV VWRSVIRUDPRPHQWEHIRUHWKH6RPRÿLYDZKRVLWVRQDVWRQHWKURQHDQGFRPSDUHV his life with what had been “inscribed” in the book at his birth. In the end, he SDVVHVWKURXJK+HDYHQ¶V*DWH+HLVZHOFRPHGWKHUHE\+RO\0RWKHUZKRZDNHV XS³DOOVDLQWV´XSRQKLVDUULYDOWRRSHQWKHJDWHVIRUKLPDQGWRDFFRPSDQ\KLPDV KHWRXUV+HDYHQ1HYHUWKHOHVVLIRQHGLHVZLWKRXWDFDQGOH±LQZKLFKFDVHVHYHQ QHLJKERULQJKRXVHVZLOOEHSXWWRVKDPH±KHZLOOH[SHULHQFHDORWRIKDUGVKLSVDV KHPRYHVDURXQGLQGDUNQHVVRULQWKHEHVWFDVHZLOOEHHVFRUWHGE\DZKLPVLFDO ZKLWHEHDUGHGROGPDQ+HZLOOWKHQKDYHWR¿JKWRIIWKHDWWDFNVRI-DGFDLQDQ DWWHPSWWRFURVVRYHUWKHORJDQGH[SHULHQFHPDQ\WULDOVDQGWULEXODWLRQVEHIRUH KHUHDFKHVWKH+HDYHQ¶V*DWHZKHUHKHPLJKWEHFRPSHOOHGWRZDLWIRUGD\VDQG SOHDGEHIRUHDGHLW\ZRXOGWDNHSLW\RQKLPDQGRSHQWKHJDWHVIRUKLP 38 6XFKDQLOOIDWHGPDQLVWKHUHIRUHJLYHQDNH\VKDSHGEUHDGDWSRPDQDUHVHPEOLQJ DQROGIDVKLRQHGNH\VRWKDWKHPD\XQORFNWKHJDWHVKLPVHOI-XGJLQJE\WKLVNH\ WKRVHJDWHVUHVHPEOHURXJKO\FXWGRRUVEXLOWE\WKH9ODFKVRQWKHLUZRRGHQVKHGV PRXQWDLQORGJHVRUZDWHUPLOOV$QGVRWKHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRI+HDYHQDVDPHDGRZ now gets a gate suitable to shape and structure!

3LFWXUH°6.$58ğĂ – ladders used by the deceased to climb to Heaven are also – like the basic concept of after-life – inspired by immediate natural environment and experience IURPHYHU\GD\IDUPHUVµOLIH)RUH[DPSOHWKHODGGHURQWKHOHIWVLGHLVDQROGFRQWUDSWLRQ that the farmers were able to build even in the most primitive circumstances of suitable ZRRGZLWKKRUL]RQWDOEDUVPDGHRIWKLFNEUDQFKHVERXQGE\VPDOOHUEUDQFKHV/DGGHUV on the right are somewhat more complicated and those required more sophisticated tools WKDQRUGLQDU\D[HV7KH\FRXOGWDNH\RXWRJUHDWHUKHLJKWV7KUHHKRUL]RQWDOEDUVUH¿HFW DWKUHHSDUWZRUOG1RPDWWHUKRZELJWKRVHZRUOGVZHUHWKHGHFHDVHGFRXOGHDVLO\UHDFK WKHPZLWKWKLVVLPSOHFRQWUDSWLRQ0DQ\DQFLHQWFXOWXUHVPHQWLRQODGGHUV*RGV6HWKDQG Hor personally held them for the deceased in ancient Egypt; in the Bible, they appear in WKHYLVLRQVRI-REDVKLVFRQQHFWLRQWRWKH*RG9HGDKDUYHVWHUFOLPEVWKHODGGHURQWKH ZD\WR+HDYHQLQPLWHUP\VWHULHVWKH\KDGVHYHQKRUL]RQWDOEDUV%XGGKDFOLPEVGRZQ WKHODGGHUWRRIIHUKLVWHDFKLQJVRQWKHURDGWRVDOYDWLRQ$WWKH²EHJLQQLQJ³RIWLPHZH ¾QGWKHPLQ+HDYHQZKHQDPDQFRPPXQLFDWHGZLWK*RGGLUHFWO\EXWWKH\ZHUHORVWRQFH DPDQEHFDPHVLQIXO7KHSLFWXUHVKRZVODGGHUVIURPSRPDQDLQ/D]QLFD PXQLFLSDOLW\ RIãDJXELFD+RPROMH ZKLFKZHUHJLYHQWRWKHGHFHDVHGLQDQGVLQFHKHGLHG ²LQGDUNQHVV³ 39 3LFWXUH ° 35267$ĝ8ē( ²)DUHZHOO FDNH³ 3RPDQD *DP]LJUDG =HMHýDU &UQD 5HND 0DGHE\EDNHUV

$GHFHDVHG9ODFKEHJLQVKLVWUD;XþLYHĝL;H (“Eternal life”) bathed and dressed in QHZFORWKHV2QWKHURDGWRHWHUQLW\KHFDUULHVRQO\DIHZSHUVRQDOSRVVHVVLRQV and food, placed in a colorful trastu (“Bag”), placed over his arm as he is laid in a FRI¿Q+HLVDWWLUHGSURSHUO\EXWPRGHVWO\DVWKRXJKKHLVJRLQJWRYLVLWDUHODWLYH IRUDIHZGD\V)RUW\GD\VXSRQKLVGHDWKRURQH\HDUDWWKHODWHVWKHVKDOOKDYH a tombstone erected for him, like NDVDþLYHĝL;H ³(WHUQDO+RXVH´ HTXLSSHGZLWK DOO KRXVHKROG DSSOLDQFHV WDEOH FKDLU EHG EHG OLQHQ FXWOHU\ WRLOHWULHV ZDOOHW DQG PRQH\ WR SD\ KLV GHEWV KDQG ZDWFK RU FKDLQ ZDWFK PLUURU FRPE ZDWHU FRQWDLQHUVDQGVLPLODULWHPV+HLVDOVRJLYHQDQHZVXLWVLQFHWKHRQHKHKDVEHHQ EXULHGLQHLWKHUJRWGLUW\RUZRUQRXW+HLVWKHUHIRUHJLYHQDOOWKRVHWKLQJVWKDW DQ\OLYLQJPDQZRXOGQHHGLIKHZHUHWROLYHHOVHZKHUH+HLVDOVREHLQJJLYHQ his suit he wore for work because the belief is that the deceased will not sit there LGO\:DWHUDQGIRRGLVVHQWRQO\WHPSRUDULO\DIWHUKLVGHDWK:KHQWKHGHFHDVHGLV given furniture, special breads are made as well, which differ in shape depending 40 RQWKHUHJLRQEXWZLWKWKHVDPHIXQFWLRQWRHQDEOHWKHJLIWVWR¿QGWKHLURZQHU 7KHUHDUHXVXDOO\IRXURIWKRVHWRFRYHUDOOFDUGLQDOSRLQWV,QRQHSDUWRI&UQD 5HNDWKH\KDYHDQDQWKURSRPRUSKLFVKDSH 3LFWXUH UHVHPEOLQJUHYHUVH¿UH steels generated from swastika at this time representing a gate to the other world RUDNH\ZLWKDSRZHUWRRSHQWKHJDWH2QO\WKHVLQOHVVSDVVHDVLO\WKURXJKWKRVH JDWHV 6WLOO WKHUH DUH QR WRR PDQ\ VLQOHVV SHRSOH LI DW DOO DQG WKHUHIRUH DOO RI WKHPKDYHWRSD\IRUUHGHPSWLRQ2QO\DIWHUDQRIIHULQJLVPDGH±LQWKHIRUPRI VXFKEUHDG±DPDQFDQUHFHLYHWKHJLIWV6WLOOSULQFLSDOULWXDOH[SUHVVLRQVZLWK SURVW±OLNHprostîtu VͼVD prostDVNͼprostDĝXēH or bogdapruost, bobdapruost, ERþDpruost±GLGQRWKDYHWKHFXUUHQWPHDQLQJRIEOHVVLQJIRUWKH³UHGHPSWLRQ RIVLQV´LQWKHKLVWRU\RIIRONUHOLJLRQEXWZHUHLQWKHSKDVHRIWUDQVLWLRQIURP animatism to animism, a magical formula with a dramatic ritual purpose: to help WKHVRXOOHDYHWKHERG\LQDIWHUOLIH,WLVRQO\ZLWKDQLPLVPWKDWERG\LVFRQVLGHUHG as “prison of the soul”.

3LFWXUH°%UHDGSURVWDĞXĔH in the ritual of furniture dedication and dining utensils at SRPDQDLQ*DP]LJUDG 41 3LFWXUH°ù$3û(.82785ư ²6HYHQDQJOHV³ 3RPDQD/D]QLFD ãDJXELFD+RPROMH +RPHPDGH5LJKWV\PEROVIURPWKHEDFNRIDQ(J\SWLDQVFDUDESODFHGRQWKH deceased chest at burial.

7KHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVRIDIWHUOLIHLQWKH9ODFKWUDGLWLRQDUHXQGRXEWHGO\YHU\ROG +DGWKH\QRWEHHQPDWHULDOL]HGLQULWXDOEUHDGVWKH\ZRXOGSUREDEO\KDYHEHHQ lost over time and committed to oblivion as has been the case with other Balkan FXOWXUHV5HVHDUFKHUVDUHRIWHQJHQXLQHO\H[FLWHGZKHQWKH\UHDOL]HWKDWZKDWZH VHHLQWKH9ODFKULWXDOWUDGLWLRQVWRGD\FDQRQO\EHIRXQGLQDQFLHQW(J\SWVFULSWV $ULDQ9HGDV,UDQLDQ$ZHVWD2OG7HVWDPHQWLQVKRUWLQFXOWXUHVWKDWYDQLVKHG ORQJDJR6RIRUH[DPSOHDEDVLFV\PEROIURPZKLFKWKHODUJHVW QXPEHU RI V\PEROVGHULYHGLV³6DQVFULW´VZDVWLND7KHROGHVWWUDFHVRIVZDVWLNDZHUHIRXQG RQPDPPRWKERQHVIURPODWH3DOHROLWKLFDJH 0H]LQVLWH&KHUQLJRYVND\DUHJLRQ 8NUDLQHGDWLQJEDFNEHWZHHQ%& 2Q³VHYHQDQJOH´EUHDGZHVHH RQHVZDVWLNDHOHPHQWLQWKHVKDSHRI/DWLQOHWWHU³6´ZKLFKIRUPVDFORVHGFLUFOH RIVHYHQHOHPHQWVFRQQHFWHGE\KRRNV7KLVLVWRSRJUDSK\RIDIWHUOLIH$FFRUGLQJ WRWKHVKDSHRIWKHEUHDGDQGDFFRPSDQ\LQJULWXDOVZHOHDUQWKDWLWLVVHSWDJRQDO corresponding to cosmos and universe! The bread is presented to the Keeper of +HDYHQDVDQRIIHULQJZLWKDUHTXHVWWKDWDOOVHYHQTXDUWHUVRIWKH+HDYHQDUH VHDUFKHGDQGDGHFHDVHGIRXQGZKDWHYHUTXDUWHUKHPD\EHLQDWWKDWPRPHQW7KLV LVIRUDPDQZKRGLHGZLWKRXWDFDQGOH+LVUHODWLYHVDUHDZDUHRIKLVSUHFDULRXV situation and believe that he should be elsewhere, instead of being pushed to some dark corner. The guard is asked to take the deceased to the gate of heaven and 42 OHWKLPJREDFNKRPHZKHUHDJUHDWSRPDQDLVSUHSDUHGLQKLVKRQRU/RRNLQJ DWWKHVHV\PEROVZHVHHPWREHJRLQJEDFNWRWKHDQFLHQW(J\SWIRUDPRPHQW $FFRUGLQJWRWKHLUWUDGLWLRQWKHUHZHUH³VHYHQKRXVHVLQWKHXQGHUZRUOGZLWK three times three times seven doors”. In addition, our “kokija” seems to have been WDNHQRIIWKHEDFNRIWKH(J\SWLDQVFDUDE 3LFWXUHULJKW DV\PERORIHWHUQDO OLIH%\SODFLQJLWLQWKHFRI¿QRQWKHGHFHDVHGFKHVWZDVLQWHQGHGWRHQVXUHKLV UHELUWKLQDIWHUOLIH3RLQWLQJWRVLPLODULWLHVEHWZHHQHOHPHQWVRIWKH9ODFKDQG (J\SWLDQFXOWXUHZKLFKFDQEHIRXQGLQVHYHUDOSODFHVLQWKLV,OOXVWUDWHG%RRNLV QRWDPHUHGHFRUDWLRQRIDFRPSDUDWLYHPHWKRG)XUWKHULQGHSWKDQDO\VLVFRXOG SURYLGHSURRIWRKLVWRULFDOK\SRWKHVLVIRUVXFKVLPLODULW\VLQFHWKHUHÀHFWLRQVRI WKH(J\SWLDQUHOLJLRQDVRQHRIWKHPRVWSRZHUIXODQGORQJHVWODVWLQJDPRQJWKH DQFLHQW0HGLWHUUDQHDQUHOLJLRQVFRQWLQXHGLQWKH0LGGOH$JHVWKURXJK7KUDFH DQG5RPDQFLYLOL]DWLRQ:HFRQVLGHUWKDWLWLVQRWQHFHVVDU\WRSURYHWKDWWKHVH WZRFLYLOL]DWLRQVUHSUHVHQWWZRGLVWLQFWFRPSRQHQWVRIWKH9ODFKHWKQRJHQHVLV

3LFWXUH°5LWXDOFDUU\LQJRIEUHDGVFDQGOHVDQGRWKHUVDFUL¾FLDORIIHULQJVLQDWKUHH SDUWFLUFOLQJDURXQGSULYHJ;¾UHWRWKHWXQHRIDGHDWKVRQJVXQJE\¾YHHOGHUZRPHQ Unfortunately, the man died without a candle in his hand and the singers plea with the Guardian of the Heaven to take him out of the world of darkness and help him to come home to pomana; that will give him light and warmth and the Guardian will then be able WRWDNHKLPWR+HDYHQ /D]QLFDPXQLFLSDOLW\RIãDJXELFD+RPROMH 43 3LFWXUH°92ưē,ĝ(6.92ưē,ĝ(6. ²0DOH³ 3RPDQD=ORW %RU&UQD5HND +RPH- PDGH

Swastika, whose elements represent four annual positions of constellation Ursa 0LQRUDVWKH\KDYHEHHQSHUFHLYHGDFFRUGLQJWRWKHSRODUWKHRU\E\WKHDQFHVWRUV RI,QGR$ULDQVLQWKLVFDVHKDVDQDGGLWLRQDODUP2OGZRPHQIURP&UQD5HND believe that this changes its gender. It now has a male attribute and a new function. ,WLVQRORQJHUDOLJKWJXLGHRUNH\EXWDJXDUGLDQWKDWZDWFKHVRYHUIXQHUDOWDEOH called masa or astalu7KLV LV D VSHFLDO WDEOH VHW LQGHSHQGHQWO\ IURP SRPDQD sometimes in another room. It is intended for the deceased himself as opposed WRSRPDQDZKLFKKHVKDUHVZLWKKLVGHDGUHODWLYHVRUQHLJKERUV:KHQDOOOD\HUV RIWKH9ODFKFXOWDUHUHPRYHGWKLV³DVWDO´VHHPVWREHVRPHVRUWRIDKRO\WDEOH ZLWKDGHFHDVHGSHUVRQVLWWLQJWKHUHDVDSULQFHNLQJRU*RGUHDG\WRZHOFRPHDOO GHLWLHVQHFHVVDU\WRFRQ¿UPKLVQHZVWDWXV8QGHUWKHOLJKWRIDWULSOHVZDVWLNDLQ 44 WKHFRPSDQ\RIVHOHFWHGLPPRUWDOVWKHGUHDPWKDWWKHGHFHDVHGKDVKDGVLQFHKH DSSHDUHGRQWKH(DUWK¿QDOO\FRPHVWUXHWREHFRPHLPPRUWDODQGOLYHHWHUQDOO\LQ KHDYHQO\EOLVV7KHURDGWR+HDYHQ±DFFRUGLQJWR9ODFKROGZRPHQ±LVSRVVLEOH IRUHYHU\RQHZKRLVIDPLOLDUZLWKWKHPDJLFRIEUHDGDQGWKHKRO\ODQJXDJHRILWV V\PEROV3HUKDSVVFLHQFHVKRXOGFKDQJHLWVYRFDEXODU\DQGLQVWHDGRIVSHDNLQJRI the cult of the dead when referring to the Vlach culture it should speak of the cult RILPPRUWDOOLIHDVDQHYHUODVWLQJZLVKRIHYHU\PDQ

3LFWXUH°6FLHQFHLVIDFHGZLWKDJUHDWFKDOOHQJHRIH[SODLQLQJWKHJHQHVLVDQGVWUDWD RI WKH SRPDQD FRPSOH[ LQ WKH 9ODFK FXOWXUH LQFOXGLQJ WKH TXHVWLRQ DV WR KRZ DOO RI LWVXUYLYHGLQLWVRULJLQDOIRUPVLQFHWKHWLPHLPPHPRULDOXQWLOWRGD\7KH9ODFKVDUH &KULVWLDQVEXWWKH&KXUFKLQ¿XHQFHGUXUDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVRIDIWHUOLIHRQO\VXSHU¾FLDOO\ PRVWO\WKURXJKIRONORUHVLQFHWKH&KXUFKGRHVQRWVSHDN9ODFKDQGWKH9ODFKVGRQRW VSHDN&KXUFK6ODYLFODQJXDJH,WZRXOGDSSHDUWKDWLWKDVWRGRVRPHWKLQJZLWKWKHIDFW WKDWZRPHQWDNHFDUHRIWKHFXOWRIWKHGHDGWKHLUUROHLVLUUHSODFHDEOHDQGLWZRXOGEHD sin not to allow them to perform those rituals the way it was passed on to them by their mothers and grandmothers or from wise old women in their villages. Priests are only rarely invited to read at pomana since their services are expensive and pomana is already a huge expenditure for a household. If priests are called these days, they perform their services and leave and then women take over doing things that have been done from time immemorial; any changes to the ritual may take place if they allow it or submit to it. In WKLVSLFWXUHZHVHHDSDJDQ&KULVWLDQUHOLJLRXVV\QFUHWLVPDPRUHIUHTXHQWVFHQHDWWKH SUHVHQWGD\9ODFKSRPDQDV 9ODROHPXQLFLSDOLW\RI0DMGDQSHN*RUQML3HN 45 3LFWXUH°7UDGLWLRQVDUHSDVVHGRQRUDOO\WKURXJKWHDFKLQJWKDWVWDUWVDWDQHDUO\DJH ZLWK9ODFKVZKHQJLUOVDUHLQWURGXFHGWRWKHFXOWWKURXJK² IUHHLQJ³WKHZDWHUULWXDO There are other ways of teaching the cult which includes drawings, written instructions or sound recordings. Pomana is a complex system of organically linked symbols sometimes coupled with elaborate myths on the outlook, designation or position at the table. The same as alphabet has its rules, so the language of ritual breads has its rules which RQFHYLRODWHGQHJDWLYHO\DIIHFWSRPDQD ²SRJRYRU;HVNSRPDQD³ DQGLWFDQQRWFURVVWKH borders between the two worlds, guarded by Gods. Allegedly, insulted Gods do not wish to read writings or cannot understand it! Modern bakers introduced confusion in this KRO\ODQJXDJHWKH\KDYHWDNHQRYHUWRPDNH²OHWWHUV³IURPROGZRPHQEXWWKH\FDQPDNH WKHPRQO\DFFRUGLQJWRVRPHRQHHOVHµVGHVLJQ)RUWKHPDQGIRUWKHVDNHRINHHSLQJWKHP FRPPLWWHGWRPHPRU\9ODFKZRPHQXVHQRWHERRNV,QWKLVSLFWXUHZHVHHSDJHVIURPD QRWHERRNNHSWE\D9ODFKZRPDQIURP9ODROD PXQLFLSDOLW\RI0DMGDQSHN*RUQML3HN HDUO\stFHQWXU\ 46 3LFWXUH°$WDEOHZLWKV\PEROVXQFRYHUHGRQDSSUR[LPDWHO\IUDJPHQWVRISRWWHU\ DQG¾JXULQHVIURPWKH9LQýDFXOWXUH WK°WKPLOOHQQLXP%& ZKHQ(XURSH¾QDOO\ stepped out of the Stone Age and entered the Metal Age. On the basis of interpretations offered by an archeologist Marija Gimbutas, these symbols became known in science as WKH²9LQýDDOSKDEHW³7KHDOSKDEHWZDVV\VWHPDWL]HGE\KHUIROORZHU6KDQ00:LQQ while Romanian scientist Sorin Paliga prepared them as a font for computer systems. All V\PEROVSDLQWHGLQ\HOORZDQGOLVWHGEHORZWKHWDEOHDUHIRXQGRQ9ODFKULWXDOEUHDGV in eastern Serbia. Some similarities may be a coincidence in some cases but not in all. Graphisms like swastika, sun, crescent moon, regular and leaning crosses or spirals may be traced in archeological documents in many epochs and cultures which followed VXFFHVVLYHO\DIWHU9LQýDLQWKH%DONDQV7KHPHUJHURIVLOHQWDQGGLVWDQW9LQýDFXOWXUHDQG WKHOLYLQJFXOWXUHRIWKH9ODFKVZHPD\OHDUQDORWDERXWERWKFXOWXUHVLQFOXGLQJWKRVH that were emerging and disappearing in this part of Europe in the meantime. There is an RQJRLQJVFLHQWL¾FGHEDWHZKHWKHU9LQFKDJUDSKLVPVZHUHDOSKDEHWRURZQHUVKLSPDUNV ,QWKLVVHQVH9ODFKEUHDGVVSHDNLQIDYRURIDOSKDEHWEXWQRWWKHRQHXVHGWRH[FKDQJH PHVVDJHVDPRQJSHRSOH°ZHFRQVLGHUWKDWLQWKH9LQýDVRFLHW\WKHUHZDVQRQHHGIRU WKDW°EXWWKDWLWZDVDKRO\DOSKDEHWXVHGE\WKH9LQýDSHRSOHWRSOHDZLWKWKHLU*RGV1R GRXEWVRPHRIWKHVH*RGVDUHVWLOODOLYHDQGLPPHUVHGLQWKHDIWHUOLIHRI9ODFK3DQWKHRQ 47 3LFWXUH7KHDXWKRURISURMHFW²9ODFKULWXDOEUHDGDQGSRPDQD³HWKQRORJLVW3DXQ (V'XUOLû 5XGQD*ODYD GLUHFWRURI0XVHXPLQ0DMGDQSHN°RQDSKRWRWDNHQ RQ6HSWHPEHURQSRPDQDLQ'HEHOL/XJKLVVHYHQWLHWKVLQFHKHVWDUWHGUHVHDUFK LQ)RUDTXDUWHURIDFHQWXU\KHUHFRUGHGRQHKXQGUHGSRPDQDE\KLPVHOIRUZLWK KLVDVVRFLDWHV+LVUHVHDUFKWHDPLQFOXGHG0LURVODY%DODEDQRYLû%RULYRMH.UýPDURYLû DQG$QLFD 5DGRYDQRYLû ZKR VWD\HG ORQJHVW ZLWK KLV WHDP 6LJQL¾FDQW FRQWULEXWLRQ WR JDWKHULQJPDWHULDOVZDVPDGHE\=RUDQ,OLû$OORIWKHPZHUHDWVRPHSRLQWHPSOR\HHV RIWKH0XVHXPLQ0DMGDQSHNLQFOXGLQJ$OHNVDQGDU5HSHG]LûDVWXGHQW(YHQWKRXJKLW started as a project of local character in the territory of the municipality of Majdanpek, DIWHULQLWLDOFRPSDUDWLYHUHVHDUFKLQQHLJKERULQJUHJLRQVDQGWKHIDFWWKDWWKH9ODFKEUHDG was almost totally ignored by science, it has been decided to expand to project to entire UHJLRQRI(DVWHUQ6HUELDDQGWRLQFOXGHDVPDQ\9ODFKVHWWOHPHQWVDVSRVVLEOH,QWKH EHJLQQLQJWKH\XVHGGUDZLQJVQRWHVDQGSKRWRJUDSKV:LWKYLGHRFDPHUDVSRPDQDZHUH recorded. The materials were computer-processed using the software developed by this DXWKRU KLPVHOI 6HYHUDO KXQGUHG SRPDQD KDYH EHHQ GRFXPHQWHG ZLWK FORVH WR SKRWRVZKLOHYLGHRDQGDXGLRPDWHULDOVZHUHUHFRUGHGRQ&'V7ZRGRFXPHQWDULHVRQ WKLVWRSLFHDUQHGUHQRZQHGSUL]HVDWHWKQRIHVWLYDOV7KHUHDUHPRUHWKDQVNHWFKHVRI ULWXDOEUHDGVDQGWKH\DUHFXUUHQWO\EHLQJFDWHJRUL]HG,QYLHZRIWKLVLWPD\EHFRQVLGHUHG WKDWWKH9ODFKEUHDGLVRQHWKHEHVWGRFXPHQWHGWRSLFVLQ6HUELDQHWKQRORJ\0RUHRYHULQ addition to preparing an outstanding ethnological monograph, this author has developed DQLGHDRQWKH0XVHXPRI9ODFKULWXDOEUHDGDQGSODFLQJWKHEUHDGVDQGSRPDQDULWXDORQ 81(6&2OLVWRI²/LYLQJ+XPDQ7UHDVXUHV³ 48 B R A N I Č E V O R o m a n i a Topolovnik Đurakovo D a n u b e TEKIJA Brnjica STIG Dvorište Češljeva Bara Krivača Doljašnica ŽITKOVICA []KLENJE Rakova Bara Kobilje MUSTAPIĆ DUBOKA KLJUČ LJEŠNICA ALJUDOVO Brodica Boljetin Golubinje Kaona ZVIŽDVOLUJA Starčevo Brza Ranovac Ševica D. Milanovac Palanka Svinjarevo RAŠANAC Мосна M LAVA NERESNICA MAJDANPEK Velika Morava Melnica TOPOLNICA DEBELI LUG Klokočevac RUDNA GLAVA LESKOVO Dupljane Plavna OSANICA JASIKOVO Malajnica Prahovo Selište VLAOLE CRNAJKAP O R E Č Proštinac Krepoljin GORNJANE SAMARINOVAC Bobovo TANDA R E S A V A Sige LAZNICA H O M O L J E Luka KRAJ IMokranje NA M O R A V A Bučje TOPLA DOBRA VODA KRIVELJ ALEKSANDROVAC

Oštrelj BELJAJKA SLATINA ŠIPIKOVO Gradskovo ZLOT L E G E N D VLAŠKA BRESTOVAC Nikoličevo Šarbanovac Metovnica Topolovnik - location in which the questionnaire was carried out PODGORAC Boljetin - location in which ritual breads were registered GAMZIGRAD T i m o k DUBOKA - location in which the ritual was recorded Osnić C R N AValakonje R E K A - border between ritual types Bulgar i a BAČEVICA - border between Eastern and Western Vlachs Dobro Polje - Carani Western border

durlic ‘09

3LFWXUH°0DSRIHDVWHUQ6HUELDZLWKVLWHVUHODWHGWRSURMHFW²9ODFKULWXDOEUHDGDQG SRPDQD³UHVHDUFKHGLQWKHSHULRGIURP 9ODFKV 5XPvēL OLYH LQ HDVWHUQ 6HUELD EHWZHHQ WKH ULYHUV RI 0RUDYD 7LPRN 'DQXEH and Rtanj. They speak an archaic dialect of Romanian, since they separated from the Romanians before they were established as a modern nation. Geographically, they PD\EHGLYLGHGLQHDVWHUQDQGZHVWHUQ /LQH DQGDFFRUGLQJWRODQJXDJHDQGRWKHU HWKQRJUDSKLFFKDUDFWHULVWLFVLQWRWKUHHJURXSV8QJXUHDQL %DQDW WRWKHZHVWRI/LQH 0XQWHQLFORVHWR8QJXUHDQLEHWZHHQOLQHVDQGDQG7ͼUDQL 2OWHQL HDVWRI/LQH 2OWHQDQFHVWRUVZHUHIDUPHUVZKLOH0XQWHQLDQG8QJXUHDQLDQFHVWRUVZHUHFDWWOH breeders. Ethnic composition of this part of Serbia was formed in the end of the 17th and HDUO\thFHQWXU\ZKHQPLJUDWLRQRIWKH9ODFKVHWWOHUVIURPWKHSUHVHQWGD\5RPDQLD 0ROGRYD8NUDLQHDQG%XOJDULDHQGHG,QFHQVXVHVWKH\UHJLVWHUDV6HUEV9ODFKVDQG 5RPDQLDQVDQGWKDWLVZK\LWLVGLI¾FXOWWRGHWHUPLQHWKHLUH[DFWQXPEHU,WLVHVWLPDWHG WKDWDORQJZLWK'LDVSRUDWKHUHDUHPRUHWKDQRIWKHP8QWLOWKHSURMHFW HQFRPSDVVHG9ODFKYLOODJHVRXWRILQZKLFKWKH9ODFKVIRUPPDMRULW\DQGRQH 6HUELDQYLOODJHIRUWKHVDNHRIFRPSDULVRQEHWZHHQ9ODFKSRPDQDDQG6HUEGDûD'XHWR ¾QDQFLDOFRQVWUDLQWVDOOUHJLRQVKDYHQRWEHHQSURFHVVHGWRWKHVDPHH[WHQW6WLOORQWKH basis of gathered materials, it can be concluded that the tradition of ritual breads has been SUHVHUYHGEHVWLQ+RPROMH*RUQML3RUHýDQG&UQD5HND7ZRNLQGVRISRPDQDKDYHEHHQ LGHQWL¾HGRQHZLWK²NDPDUD³DQGWKHRWKHURQHZLWK²KHDGV³DQGWKHERUGHUEHWZHHQWKH two has been marked by line 1. 49 3LFWXUH ° 3RPDQD 1R ZLWKLQ SURMHFW ²9ODFK ULWXDO EUHDG DQG SRPDQD³ 7KH SKRWRZDVWDNHQRQ6HSWHPEHULQ5XGQD*ODYD PXQLFLSDOLW\RI0DMGDQSHN ,W ZDVSUHSDUHGE\ORFDOUHVLGHQWV0LKDMORDQG'DUD0DNXORYLûLQWKHLUOLIHWLPH7UXPSHW players were commissioned for pomana as well. The festivities began at the cemetery, with WKHGHFRUDWLRQRI²HWHUQDOKRPH³RIWKHKRVWV7KHIHVWLYLWLHVHQGHGDWWKHYLOODJHVTXDUH with a lot of residents joining the celebration. As though nothing has changed from the times when Herodotus described how Thrace cried when a baby was born and how they EXULHGSHRSOH²GDQFLQJDQGFHOHEUDWLQJKDSS\WKDWWKHGHFHDVHGKDVQRWKLQJWRZRUU\ DERXWDQ\PRUHQRZWKDWKHLVJRLQJWREHFRPPLWWHGWROLIHHWHUQDO³7KH9ODFKVZKR SUHVHUYHGPDQ\HOHPHQWVRI7KUDFHFXOWXUHRUJDQL]HVXFKSRPDQDIHVWLYLWLHVEHOLHYLQJ that the joyous atmosphere from pomana will be easily transferred to the other world and last throughout the entire after-life. Such pomana are called VͽƺLQGDU (Romanian – VDUDQGDUHPRGHUQ*UHHNİĭȠĭȝıȏȠșIRUW\GD\VDIWHUGHDWK E\&DUDQLNXPvQG (Latin FRPPDQGDUH E\8QJXUHDQLDQGSRPDQDÿLYLͿDĠͽ ²GDûDIRUWKHOLYLQJ³ E\0XQWHQL,Q IDWDOLVWLFFXOWXUHVDQGDOPRVWDVDUXOHLQUXUDODUHDVGHPRQVRI)DWHGHWHUPLQHDPDQµV life depending on their current mood and it cannot be changed. Pre-destined fate will take its course no matter what a man does and it cannot possibly be changed. On the other KDQGDPDQFDQLQ¿XHQFHKLVDIWHUOLIHLIKHEHOLHYHVWKHUHLVRQH$9ODFKDVDWUXHUHOLF RIIDWDOLVPSUHSDUHV²NXPLQG³RU²VDULQGDU³WRWDNHRYHUKLVGHVWLQ\LQKLVRZQKDQGVKH QRZDVVXPHVWKHUROHRI)DWHDQGXWWHUVWKHIROORZLQJZRUGVDVKHSRXUVWK\PHDQGZLQH RYHUKLVJUDYH³0D\P\GD\VLQKHDYHQEHDVWKLVGD\IRUHWHUQLW\³7KHQKHJLYHVDQ offering to God, a special bread asking to keep pomana for him before he gets there! And all those participating in this strange celebration sincerely wish that this does not happen WRRVRRQ1RPDWWHUKRZLG\OOLF+HDYHQVPD\EHHYHU\RQHZLVKHVWRVWD\LQWKLVZRUOGDV long as possible. 50 3LFWXUH ° 6FKHPDWLF GUDZLQJ RI VRPH 9ODFK ULWXDO EUHDGV IURP WKH UHFRUGV RI WKH Museum in Majdanpek. In the upper part of the table, the names of the breads are as IROORZV]DNXDĔH, WUͽEXͿDƺH, VRNRüDƺH, NRNLͿH, EXVNRPͿDƺĔLĞH or LNXDĔH. The number of ²ODZV³RQSRPDQDLVQRWWKHVDPHLQDOOSODFHV7KHUHPD\EHWKUHHWRQLQHWHHQRQRQH WDEOHDQGVRPHWLPHVHYHQXSWRGLIIHUHQWV\PEROVDWWKHVDPHWLPH,QWKHORZHUSDUW of the table, there so - called big breads – NDSLüH ²KHDGV³ NRODĞÿLELW (breads dedicated ZLWKDSROH DQGRWKHUV 51 L I T E R A T U R E

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