Three Prisoners Problem Wikipedia Three Prisoners Problem from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia
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Bertrand's Box Paradox Wikipedia Bertrand's Box Paradox from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia
3/30/2017 Bertrand's box paradox Wikipedia Bertrand's box paradox From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Bertrand's box paradox is a paradox of elementary probability theory, first posed by Joseph Bertrand in his 1889 work Calcul des probabilités. There are three boxes: 1. a box containing two gold coins, 2. a box containing two silver coins, 3. a box containing one gold coin and a silver coin. The 'paradox' is in the probability, after choosing a box at random and withdrawing one coin at random, if that happens to be a gold coin, of the next coin also being a gold coin. These simple but counterintuitive puzzles are used as a standard example in teaching probability theory. Their solution illustrates some basic principles, including the Kolmogorov axioms. Contents 1 Solution 2 Boxes with drawers version 3 The paradox as stated by Bertrand 4 Card version 4.1 Preliminaries 4.2 Solutions 4.2.1 Intuition 4.2.2 Labels 4.2.3 Bayes' theorem 4.2.4 Eliminating the white card 4.2.5 Symmetry 4.2.6 Experiment 5 Related problems 6 Notes 7 References Solution 1 2 It may seem that the probability that the remaining coin is gold is 2, but in truth, the probability is actually 3. If a gold coin was withdrawn in the first step, it is more likely that this happens because the chosen box is number 1 (the box with two gold coins) than box number 3 (the box with one coin of each type). Two problems that are very similar are the Monty Hall problem and the Three Prisoners problem. -
List of Paradoxes 1 List of Paradoxes
List of paradoxes 1 List of paradoxes This is a list of paradoxes, grouped thematically. The grouping is approximate: Paradoxes may fit into more than one category. Because of varying definitions of the term paradox, some of the following are not considered to be paradoxes by everyone. This list collects only those instances that have been termed paradox by at least one source and which have their own article. Although considered paradoxes, some of these are based on fallacious reasoning, or incomplete/faulty analysis. Logic • Barbershop paradox: The supposition that if one of two simultaneous assumptions leads to a contradiction, the other assumption is also disproved leads to paradoxical consequences. • What the Tortoise Said to Achilles "Whatever Logic is good enough to tell me is worth writing down...," also known as Carroll's paradox, not to be confused with the physical paradox of the same name. • Crocodile Dilemma: If a crocodile steals a child and promises its return if the father can correctly guess what the crocodile will do, how should the crocodile respond in the case that the father guesses that the child will not be returned? • Catch-22 (logic): In need of something which can only be had by not being in need of it. • Drinker paradox: In any pub there is a customer such that, if he or she drinks, everybody in the pub drinks. • Paradox of entailment: Inconsistent premises always make an argument valid. • Horse paradox: All horses are the same color. • Lottery paradox: There is one winning ticket in a large lottery. It is reasonable to believe of a particular lottery ticket that it is not the winning ticket, since the probability that it is the winner is so very small, but it is not reasonable to believe that no lottery ticket will win. -
Boy Or Girl Paradox Wikipedia Boy Or Girl Paradox from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia
3/30/2017 Boy or Girl paradox Wikipedia Boy or Girl paradox From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The Boy or Girl paradox surrounds a set of questions in probability theory which are also known as The Two Child Problem,[1] Mr. Smith's Children[2] and the Mrs. Smith Problem. The initial formulation of the question dates back to at least 1959, when Martin Gardner published one of the earliest variants of the paradox in Scientific American. Titled The Two Children Problem, he phrased the paradox as follows: Mr. Jones has two children. The older child is a girl. What is the probability that both children are girls? Mr. Smith has two children. At least one of them is a boy. What is the probability that both children are boys? 1 1 Gardner initially gave the answers 2 and 3, respectively, but later acknowledged that the second question was [3] 1 ambiguous. Its answer could be 2, depending on how you found out that one child was a boy. The ambiguity, depending on the exact wording and possible assumptions, was confirmed by BarHillel and Falk,[4] and Nickerson.[5] Other variants of this question, with varying degrees of ambiguity, have been popularized by Ask Marilyn in Parade Magazine,[6] John Tierney of The New York Times,[7] and Leonard Mlodinow in Drunkard's Walk.[8] One scientific study showed that when identical information was conveyed, but with different partially 1 ambiguous wordings that emphasized different points, that the percentage of MBA students who answered 2 changed from 85% to 39%.[2] The paradox has frequently stimulated a great deal of controversy.[5] Many people argued strongly for both sides with a great deal of confidence, sometimes showing disdain for those who took the opposing view. -
Paradoxical Results from Conditional Probability: the Importance of the Σ-Algebra
Mathematisch Instituut Universiteit Leiden Master thesis Paradoxical results from conditional probability: the importance of the σ-algebra Author Supervisor Mathijs Kolkhuis Tanke Prof.dr. Peter Grünwald September 25, 2019 Abstract A vast number of questions and problems concerning probability theory need conditional probability for providing answers and solutions. From traditional games of dice to modern statistical applications and machine learning, all use conditional probability in some sense to obtain more insight in the problem. As fundamental conditional probability is, it is not without controversy. Prob- lems and paradoxes like the Borel-Kolmogorov paradox, Monty Hall’s three door problem and the two envelope problem have puzzled mathematicians, statisti- cians and psychologists for centuries, resulting into much debate and a vast amount of literature. This thesis concerns some of the most well-known paradoxes in conditional probability. In all paradoxes, the paradoxical result arises from wrongly stating the probability space concerning the problem or wrongly applying conditional probability, like not giving the accompanying σ-algebra or not conditioning on a partition. All problems can be easily avoided by always stating the probability space with the σ-algebra when applying conditional probability. The two most obvious examples are the Borel-Kolmogorov paradox and Monty Hall’s problem. The Borel-Kolmogorov paradox is a good example of why conditioning on sets with zero measure is only possible with much care and why it is necessary to provide the accompanying σ-algebra with your solution. Monty Hall’s three door problem is a prime example of wrongly conditioning on a set of subsets that cannot form a partition of the sample space. -
Monty Hall Problem - Wikipedia
Monty Hall problem - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Hall_problem Monty Hall problem From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The Monty Hall problem is a brain teaser, in the form of a probability puzzle (Gruber, Krauss and others), loosely based on the American television game show Let's Make a Deal and named after its original host, Monty Hall. The problem was originally posed (and solved) in a letter by Steve Selvin to the American Statistician in 1975 (Selvin 1975a), (Selvin 1975b). It became famous as a question from a reader's letter quoted in Marilyn vos Savant's "Ask Marilyn" column in Parade magazine in 1990 (vos Savant 1990a): In search of a new car, the player Suppose you're on a game show, and you're given the choice of three doors: picks a door, say 1. The game host Behind one door is a car; behind the others, goats. You pick a door, say then opens one of the other doors, say No. 1, and the host, who knows what's behind the doors, opens another door, 3, to reveal a goat and offers to let the say No. 3, which has a goat. He then says to you, "Do you want to pick door player pick door 2 instead of door 1. No. 2?" Is it to your advantage to switch your choice? Vos Savant's response was that the contestant should switch to the other door (vos Savant 1990a). Under the standard 2 assumptions, contestants who switch have a 3 chance of winning the car, while contestants who stick to their initial choice have 1 only a 3 chance. -
Logic A-Z from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia Chapter 1
Logic A-Z From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Chapter 1 Antepredicament Antepredicaments, in logic, are certain previous matters requisite to a more easy and clear apprehension of the doctrine of predicaments or categories. Such are definitions of common terms, as equivocals, univocals, etc., with divisions of things, their differences, etc. They are thus called because Aristotle treated them before the predicaments, hoping that the thread of discourse might not afterwards be interrupted. 1.1 References • This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728). "*article name needed". Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (first ed.). James and John Knapton, et al. 2 Chapter 2 Apophasis Not to be confused with Apophysis (disambiguation), Apoptosis, or Apophis (disambiguation). Apophasis is a rhetorical device wherein the speaker or writer brings up a subject by either denying it, or denying that it should be brought up.*[1] Accordingly, it can be seen as a rhetorical relative of irony. Also called paralipsis (παράλειψις) – also spelled paraleipsis or paralepsis –, or occupatio,*[2]*[3]*[4]*[5] and known also as prae- teritio, preterition, antiphrasis (ἀντίφρασις), or parasiopesis (παρασιώπησις), apophasis is usually employed to make a subversive ad hominem attack, which makes it a frequently used tactic in political speeches to make an attack on one's opponent. Using apophasis in this way is often considered to be bad form. The device is typically used to distance -
Table of Contents
A Comprehensive Course in Geometry Table of Contents Chapter 1 - Introduction to Geometry Chapter 2 - History of Geometry Chapter 3 - Compass and Straightedge Constructions Chapter 4 - Projective Geometry and Geometric Topology Chapter 5 - Affine Geometry and Analytic Geometry Chapter 6 - Conformal Geometry Chapter 7 - Contact Geometry and Descriptive Geometry Chapter 8 - Differential Geometry and Distance Geometry Chapter 9 - Elliptic Geometry and Euclidean Geometry Chapter 10 WT- Finite Geometry and Hyperbolic Geometry _____________________ WORLD TECHNOLOGIES _____________________ A Course in Boolean Algebra Table of Contents Chapter 1 - Introduction to Boolean Algebra Chapter 2 - Boolean Algebras Formally Defined Chapter 3 - Negation and Minimal Negation Operator Chapter 4 - Sheffer Stroke and Zhegalkin Polynomial Chapter 5 - Interior Algebra and Two-Element Boolean Algebra Chapter 6 - Heyting Algebra and Boolean Prime Ideal Theorem Chapter 7 - Canonical Form (Boolean algebra) Chapter 8 -WT Boolean Algebra (Logic) and Boolean Algebra (Structure) _____________________ WORLD TECHNOLOGIES _____________________ A Course in Riemannian Geometry Table of Contents Chapter 1 - Introduction to Riemannian Geometry Chapter 2 - Riemannian Manifold and Levi-Civita Connection Chapter 3 - Geodesic and Symmetric Space Chapter 4 - Curvature of Riemannian Manifolds and Isometry Chapter 5 - Laplace–Beltrami Operator Chapter 6 - Gauss's Lemma Chapter 7 - Types of Curvature in Riemannian Geometry Chapter 8 - Gauss–Codazzi Equations Chapter 9 -WT Formulas