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Georgina Drew & Roshan P. Rai Connection amidst disconnection: water struggles, social structures, and geographies of exclusion in Darjeeling In Darjeeling Reconsidered Histories, Politics, Environments, 2018 / Middleton, T., Shneiderman, S. (ed./s), India, Oxford University Press, Ch.10, pp.219-239

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Originally published at: 10.1093/oso/9780199483556.003.0011

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20 October, 2020

http://hdl.handle.net/2440/114031 1 0 C o n n e c t i o n a m i d s t D i s c o n n e c t i o n Water Struggles, Social Structures, and Geographies of Exclusion in Darjeeling

G e o r g i n a D r e w a n d R o s h a n P. R a i*

t must be a relief for tourists visiting Darjeeling in the heat of the Indian summer to ease into the cooler temperatures of the former I hill station. Th e lush green mountain landscape, fed by monsoon * Georgina Drew and Roshan P. Rai extend their gratitude to the samaj members of Jawahar Busty, Mul Dara, and Mangalpuri. We thank them for their generosity and inspirational stewardship, as well as for welcoming us into their homes. We are also grateful to the Darjeeling Municipality, especially the Water Works Department, whose staff enabled us to get insights into the complex dynamics of water management in Darjeeling. Lakpa Tamang, of the University of Calcutta, deepened our work with his demarcation and mapping of springs in Darjeeling. Georgina also acknowledges the support of the Australian Research Council (DE160101178). Georgina Drew and Roshan P. Rai, Connection amidst Disconnection: Water Struggles, Social Structures, and Geographies of Exclusion in Darjeeling. In: Darjeeling Reconsidered: Histories, Politics, Environments. Edited by Townsend Middleton and Sara Shneiderman, Oxford University Press (2018). © Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780199483556.003.0011 220 georgina drew and roshan p. rai reoe (2011). Truelove particularities of the Darjeeling expe of particularities and the diffi adaptations. tive We clarify also to municipal water supplies fosters socialaffi waters, notconnected tothem, whois andhow aphysical disconnection nection. In what follows, we who discuss isconnected to municipal examine several issuesrelating to th births, weddings, andfunerals. struggles, well the as as shocks associated with life cycle events such as resource of vulnerabilities a variety that helpmitigate andeconomic one another. Th residentsare multi-ethnic often living inclose made upof proximity to to take position. this curious Samaj are community that organizations the socialstructures,ity of known as sharealso the specifi people donotpush for better access to municipal supplies. We will why, the within even overall context water stress of inDarjeeling, select inequitable water access itplays as outinthe hillstation. We explain will Darjeeling, however, share we will to the anunexpectedtwist issueof you choose to continue how beyond this plays of anoverview outin one roams about Darjeeling. Th water moving through of by the visibility pipesandnatural springsas must arise: How bad canitreally be?Th by aplea that usewater guests sparingly. To such avisitor, the question bathroom announcing ‘acute water scarcity’. Th checking into their hotel, they read posted inthe asign lobby orthe the plains behind.of And itmust beoddfor arrivals new when, after rains, islikely soothing to visitors’ they sensesas leave the parched earth higher socio-economic sectors of the population. sectors of higher socio-economic thethis world region of andthat those with better access are often from Many readers likely will beaware that access to water ispatchy across you thatyou may thinking be know wh ing to address Darjeeling’s water access challenges. ship where aresource lack isfelt along with the socialresponses emerg- this question. very basic It stresses attention onthe the pockets town- of To explain the water nuances access of inDarjeeling, we needto 1 youIf have read anything about water stress inIndia orSouth Asia, aiiDt (06 ; ’er (06 ; utn (09, 21 2011); 2010, (2009, Sultana (2016) ; O’Leary (2006); Lahiri–Dutt culty of generalizing the of examples culty we highlight, dueto the eseneighbourhood groups provide supportnetworks the hydrologicalcity of features andthe ingenu- ischapter isan eff the limits of thosethe socialconnections limitsof e themes of connection anddiscon-e themes of samaj e confusion is likely econfusion is madeworse rience. Towards this the endof at is to come in this discussion. discussion. tocome this at is in , that enable these residents nities that lead to produc- to lead that nities is notice is invariably met notice is is ort to partially explain 1 True enough. Should Should enough. True from which ourtext draws. and Roshan Rai’s decades spent living inDarjeeling add to the data set disconnected from, the municipal supplies. Oureff Township to examinethe ways that people are connected to, and/or thatstretc lines sion anddistribution from 2013to 2016. We have alsowalked the several water of transmis- Th springs. springs. the studiesthatpinpoint previous Waterworks Department n.d.). Th technical water experts, two seniorNGOrepresentatives, and28samaj leaders. more water than alitre to their wash of perday. bodieswith Many such the dryseason, for instance, for people inDarjeeling to getbywith little far more water at their disposalthan back in2011, those alsoobscure signs the factthat tourists often have e acute. be Th Let usreturn momentarily to posted the inDarjeeling’s signs hotels. Municipal and Connections Colonial Legacies leaders from Darjeeling’s of andaselection activists multiple samaj. have offi metwith 2014, and2016ranging from 10to 20days each time. In this work, we in Darjeeling since 2011, investigation with joint periods of in2013, authors we have engaged incollaborative water management studies of the power socialcollectives. andpromise of across the country, aff also while is emblematic the water challenge wider inequityfacing of of Indians inclusion. Th create of geographies structures the such as samaj counterbalance thisinways tendency that contemporary exclusion dopersistin of Darjeeling, butthatsocial study. exclusion toourcase phies of contention Our thatgeographies is off weadditionally discussion, isamounts 35key to interlocutors. atotal of is involved focus group discussions with several samajrepresentatives several with involved is group discussions focus eydonotexaggerate: the availability water lack inDarjeeling of of can

4 3 2 Th

Th (2011). Boer AsApril of 2016, we have metwith three municipal representatives, two earguments to follow methods. are onamixed based setof As co- ewater defi 3 4 Acia mtras historica materials, Archival As interlocutors ourdiscussions outwhenwestarted pointed cials of Darjeeling Municipalitycials of well community as as cit isestimated at 1.33milliongallonsper day (Darjeeling er insights into the geogra- relevance of ording arelatively uniqueglimpse into e eff location of Darjeeling’s of location numerous residents. It isnotuncommon in l documents, academic literature, academic documents, l h across the length of Darjeeling Darjeeling h across of thelength ort isto show how Darjeeling orts benefi orts ted from ted 2

221 Connection amidst Disconnection 222 georgina drew and roshan p. rai Darjeeling. Th below the Senchel Wildlife some15kilometres Sanctuary upstream of water needsrelies onareservoir buil tourists, and migrant workers. Th Th gallons of water thatgallons of isperennially recharged by26springs make upthis reservoir were manufactured for the 33million storage of as springs. as lost, is prec some this While mostof when the deluge fl water management. To explain more, Darjeeling’s history we of share abrief colonial era Darjeeling isstillheavily reliant onthe system instituted bythe British. the reasons that the situation issodire isthat the water infrastructure in toilet flushing, and to refrain from people goto great lengths to reuse grey water, reduce the frequency of dents are the 200,000people who constitute atransitory population. number continue will to increase. In addition to the permanent resi- theappeal picturesque of hillstation, there isevery indication that this living permanently inDarjeeling town at 120,000. Given the persistent Darjeeling doubled. By 2011, Census fi in Darjeeling’s population. From 1981 implemented, butthe system struggled to has accommodate the growth It may well have beenanappropriate modelat the timethat itwas the 1930s, originally meant itwas to10,000 service 20,000residents. arounddesigned the the twentieth turn of century. When fi nalized in age rainfall of roughlyage rainfall of 3,000millimetres. can hold upto 13milliongallons(Dar jeeling Waterworks Department n.d.). in 1910, canhold upto 20 million gallons. Th Senchel lakes,Senchel pipes to distribute and83kilometres water of the within waterfrom for of pipes thetransmission 35kilometres of about includes before arriving in town. water through pipes, aseriesof afilt Municipality, the system to relies move design onagravity-based the evisitors inhabiting Darjeeling include onapart-timebasis students, 7 6 5 Th According to the municipality, the water supply system for Darjeeling

Th Th (2011). India of Census ewater management system uponwhich Darjeeling relies was elakes are demarcated North as andSouth. Th erainfall isconcentrated inthe May monsoonmonths to of September esystem isnow stretched to itslimits. Th ows quickly down the the steep slopes Darjeeling of hills. washing clothes unnecessarily. Oneof esystem the servicing Darjeeling’s ipitation infi ltrates the system to emerge er house, andtwo distributiontanks t bytheBritish, located whichis gurespeople put the number of to 2011alone, the population of e South Lake, eSouth constructed in1932, 7 Overseen bythe Darjeeling eNorth Lake, constructed etwo lakes that 6 ad n aver- an and 5

of India’sof colonial experience. since, models atleast, andsocio-political theperiod cultural hegemonic wateras works have engineering tool beenavital usedfor perpetuating however, those pipesgoto neighbourhoods someof as where the water bundles that are scattered around Da ping into Darjeeling’s any oneof numerous springs. Not allpipesinthe supply. Th meant to distribute water to those fortunate enough to have their own township, oneoften seesmassive bundlescontaining pipes dozens of visible feature everyday of life inDarjeeling. As onewalksthrough the or leaking valves.’ note: asingle‘Not work doneinthe to was replace past the old pipeline theDepartment Darjeeling of Municipality makes this point clear. Th revitalization, andimprovement. the A 2012report of Waterworks line andvalves were laidby1930. Th municipality. A public report notes that the 95percent existing pipe- of tn (94 ; htob (1972) . Whitcombe (1984); Stone symbol of power diff power of symbol others whoof have persuasively that argued water isaconduit and signifi increasingly lower income residents. Th from this central hub, the downhill areas are marked bysettlements of Darjeeling’s mostcoveted—and expensive—land. As one moves away Darjeeling. Th tion network that prioritizesthe settlement colonial patterns era of capacity reaches the distributionpoint. the water supply could belostafter the 65–70percent town’s of water thewithin distributionmain. Th Th plied. lakes to the township the isabout 30–5percent total water of sup- inearlyinterviewed 2014, water intransmission from the Senchel lossof chain. According to awater at engineer the Waterworks Department, water leaksare prominent through the entire supply anddistribution 10 9 8 Th

Once the water from arrives Senchel intown, itfollows adistribu- oau ad ontn 19) Sygdu (2004). Swyngedouw (1998); Johnston and Donahue (2012). Department Waterworks Darjeeling e ineffi hpa ad Th and Chapman cantly lessaccess to municipal waters. Th eemployee commented that much about as could againbelost iswater cancome from the maindistributionlineorfrom tap- the municipal water andinequityof networkciency isa issettlement zone, located at the the top hill, of isnow 8 Th erentials. e lack of maintenance the elack reason that of ispartof msn 19) De (05 ; imri (1994); Gilmartin (2015); Drew (1995); ompson 10 9 Th

ismeansthat another 30–5percent of e observation is historically accurate, historically is eobservation issystem repair, isingreat needof rjeeling are for single households, esepoorer residents often have isfact recalls the work ey 223 Connection amidst Disconnection 11_Chapter_10.indd 224 224 georgina drew and roshan p. rai and those who donot(Figure 10.1). Such schisms refl exacerbatedhas aschism between those who have access to water In saying this, we that assert the resource management system inplace Source Pipes Water Past Walking 10.1 Figure shared.is Th overall water availability. management and governance failures rather than merely aquantitative issueof Her work encourages usto think about the ways that water stress isafeature of in philosophical detailby Deleuze andGuattari (1988) . the issue of inadequatethe water issueof supply isinpartamanufactured crisis. factors that play into Darjeeling’s water stress butthat, to alargeextent, numerous wires hanging overhead. electrical the myriad water pipesonthe ground are seeninconjunction the with

11 12 With these observations inmind, we suggest that there are ecological Th In labelling itrhizomatic, we fl ag the seenandunseennetworks discussed 2014). : Photograph Drew byGeorgina (January isobservation draws onthe work of Barbara RoseJohnston (2005) . e visual result isimpressively evisual rhizomatic, A Darjeeling Resident Manually Carrying Water while 11 epcal when especially theect overall 12 02/04/18 5:30 PM

opposed to dependence onmunic thatargue the system simultaneously provides members ‘self-reliance’ as informal insurance system that asocialsafety as alsoserves net. Members considerable socialsupport. amount of In asense, they are akinto an samaj, he/she isentitled fi to emergency a wellnancial assistance as as is complete andamembership fee ispaid. Once aperson belongs to a in anoffi bourhood might have asamaj, butnotallneighbours may belong to it said, residence aloneis notenough to ensure samaj affi ee t te sml a samaj. as simply them to refer an important intervening role. For reference, of ease henceforth we will water stress thatcrisis of Darj the samaj are often astand-infor networks. kinandethnic-based tion andthe heterogeneous Darjeeling’s nature of settlement patterns than shared cultural orreligiouspractices. lectives are onresidential often andbased multi-ethnic patterns, rather Darjeeling’s samaj are geographically clustered collectives. Th Municipal and Disconnections Samaj Aff Darjeeling. in development of trajectory od ( hedra 21 210). 2015: (Shneiderman holds it iscommon attendees for to alargeportionof come from non-Th example,By way of when the ethnic Th members participatinginthe or cultural the city’sof former ‘charm’ andcharact aesthetically pleasing colonial era structures, residents are apt to lament the loss contention.of When these buildingsar Th increasing rural rates to urban of migration, changed has Darjeeling’s landscape. everyday life. By taking monthly fees, about Rs. often of 100permember, ‘invisible structure’ that buff mantly stated when asked, people jointhe samaj because they off Nepali term that canbetranslated as ‘welfare’. As asamaj member ada- e rise of quickly eriseof made uni andvisually A driving conceptthe samaj isthe of ideathat they provide

16 15 14 13 this As aresultclustering, of itis common to seeethnically diverse samaj 210). (2015: Shneiderman (2015 Shneiderman : xv–xvi) ; seealsoMiddleton, this volume. Development, byto propelled cial sense. Rather, people joinsamaj after process aselection ers the risksassociated andinsecurities with eeling’s societies’‘village or angmi host life-cyclerituals inDarjeeling, ipal orstate governing bodies. r Srs ad agl–cae [2015]). Ganguly–Scrase and (Scrase er urism andthe needto accommodate religious activities of their neighbours.religious of activities e constructed alongside historic and e constructedhistoric alongside nspiring cement buildings isasource 13 14 It is within this manufactured manufactured this within is It Given the popula- diasporic ects ects liation. A neigh- gau samaj gau angmi angmi house- ese col- kalyan 16 er an er Th play play at at , a a , 15

225 Connection amidst Disconnection 11_Chapter_10.indd 226 226 georgina drew and roshan p. rai costs that canbeassociated with funerals. a death. When pooled, these fundshelpcover hospitalfees andthe high to afamily that experienced has or atrauma amedicalemergency such as samaj, for instance, each member islikely to give anadditional funds canalsobecollected depending onthe circumstances. In some these grant, fundsare aone-time disbursed as aloan. oras Additional medical emergencies, weddings, funer the samaj resources have apool of need, such to as distribute intimesof Source Darjeeling 10.2 Figure Th samaj that have beenhighly involved water insecuring for their members. nently provisionstrategies. their in water notprovided bythe municipality. Spring water features promi- the samaj have beenparticularly active inthe eff forprovisions members. their In theformerly unplanned settlements, ese are Muldara, Jawahar Busti, andMangalpuri (Figure 10.2). Important for fi ourdiscussion, thesamajalso : Photograph Drew. byGeorgina Map of Muldara,Map of Jawahar Busti, andMangalpuri Samaj in In chapter, this wehighlight three als, anddisasters. When needed, ort to access andmanage ght for resource basic `20–50 02/04/18 5:30 PM came the that Jawahar expectation Bustiresidents pay a cent remains inarural zone. With their municipal incorporation in1997 75 percentJawahar of municipal Busti iszonedas while the lower 25per residences builtonPublic Works Department land. Nowadays, the top colony’. Th calledthewas Manpari Busti, which translates to the ‘do what you like ity anditswaters. Inhabited since atthe least early 1960s, the enclave and enjoyable to drink. co in was, access have they which to is atemporary landholding taxthat ispaidupuntil the fi to municipal water supplies. roads. under-construction and rapid established residential duetoitsproximity expansion of toaseries located onthe town, south–west sideof that asection iswitnessing Darjeeling’s iconic gathering point Chowrasta. known as Th Th ghardhuri over one’s head). It alsorefers to the that they consumed contaminated resources. were cleaning the lake after recovering abody, people were incensed to discover public the reason for their fl ushing activities. When itcameto light that they fl lake back in2008. For three days after the event took place, the municipality let supplies whereas Muldara receives almostnone. speaking of the rancidspeaking that of materiality resource. of with laughter several as members pinched their faces when indisgust ‘smelly’ themunicipal supplies. todescribe Th interlocutors adje usedabarrage of group four with Jawahar Busti samaj members in2016, for instance, themupon which dependto many amuch of greater extent. In afocus water supplied bythe inferior municipality to was the spring water managed, howmany hadtheimpression thewaterwas that of details municipal waters. While the samaj members didnotalways know the leaders we encountered these were the qualityof highly criticalof ow anuninterrupted water supply to allmunicipal of taps without telling the e fi rst two are located onthe south–east, justdownhill from Jawahar acontinually Busti has evolving relationship to the municipal-

19 18 17 Th ethree samaj that we emphasize are connected invarying degrees Dhuri Th Jawahar Busti andMangalpuri receive varying municipal increments of is was punctuated byastory, punctuated was is told . is name was usedprimarily isnamewas when itconstituted unplanned isaNepali word for that which isabove you (suchthe as roof 17 Yet inallcases, the samaj members and household unit, especially when written as ntrast, most often described as ntrast, as described mostoften ‘sweet’ ctives including ‘rusty’,ctives ‘muddy’,and with gusto, of a suicide at Senchel atSenchel asuicide gusto,with of esedescriptionswere met 18 Th dhuri e spring water espring nalization of of nalization tax. . x a t ethird is 19 Th is 227 Connection amidst Disconnection 228 georgina drew and roshan p. rai was to tryandlobbywas municipal offi meeting with samaj members, in April 2016, of their temporary solution they didnotnecessarily enjoy paying the dhuri tax. At our last the timeof would have the had otherwise; municipal and water poor; qualitywas Th we spoke didnotseemuch benefi JawaharEven provisions, these whom thesamajleaders with with of Busti for amunicipal water hydrants lineandseven after the incorporation. Th ownership. storage andpipeconnectivity. for provisions water as well schemesas ruralsponsored livelihood the panchayatof system, then they would beable to access government- inDarjeeling’spawns municipal politics. What’s more, they were part if would nothave to pay dhuri taxan theyIf the were municipality, nolonger apartof somequipped, they to secede from the municipalityaprotest as for their poortreatment. for even washing clothes. In recent years, infact, they have threatened per week. Th water point, afamily municipal cangetbetween water 10and20litres of create fi member contributed their money(roughly own Rs. 300each) inorder to vote, asingle theonly provisionwas benefi Mangalpuri samaj members are often forgotten. and political centre town. of this disconnected As apartof ‘down’, the to beunassociated with what happens uphill towards the administrative themunicipality, within inclusion always remain down.’ Her point that, was despite performative eff commented onthis with the observation that, isupanddown will ‘Up regularly make promises that hardly ever materialize. Onewoman wryly Municipal Commissioner. To court the and signifi politicians. With 1,400voters, their numbers are certainly sizeable that they have long constituted animportant vote bankfor regional the municipality sinceof atthe least 1970s. Samaj residents contend Darjeeling train station, Mangalpuri beenconsidered samaj has apart quality andwater security. Located ashort walkdownhill from the thethat municipality being brings apartof itimproved with water eincorporation had only resulted inafew more hydrants than they Th Other Mangalpuri residents echoed the claim that they receive few e experience of Mangalpuri samaj eexperience further of softens the expectation thets from municipality. being apartof Aside from the right to ve water points for the distributionwithin samaj. From each cant elections, enough for the especially close–call that of iswater, they complain, isyellow, foul-smelling, andnotfi eJawahar Bustiresidents negotiated the with government t inbeing connected to the municipality. cials for improved services. the Mangalpuri samaj members seem samajmembers seem the Mangalpuri pipe leading to their enclave. totheir leading pipe Each d they would nolonger as serve votes of their samaj, politicians samaj, their politicians votes of orts at t volume). Bimal Gurung, who established the elsewhere GJM (discussed inthis tum after Ghisingh’s positionwas the second Gorkhaland Movement. In 2007, the lostmomen- DGHC internal disputes the within locala game political tion caught awider in in ourown land.’ As timewent on, beingpopula- feelings amarginal of andintheorganizations DGHC, Naveen lamented, feel‘we like refugees helpfrom such refusals authoritiesBecause of of inspecifi all the samaj’s problems would besolved ‘as Gorkhaland soon as comes’. permanent land rights. In response, they gotaterse reply, stating that the to request DGHC person helpinacquiring of more facilities and Gorkhaland. In particular, they Subash metwith Ghisingh, the chair- in touch with those campaigning for anindependent federal state of In services. provisions, werevide anattempt better briefl they toget ‘benefi thewithin municipality’s boundaries, Mangalpuri residents receive no thenews.good’ hearing upon when you die, orwhether they nodandsay with satisfaction, ‘that is eff respondtoyour death’.how people As mented one’s onhow the qualityof contributions to the samaj ‘aff the samaj, stressing the many points of we made earlier. He alsocom- we shall callNaveen, spoke at length about the benefi being in ts of meant that anidealreceiving hishousewas point. Th location accurate andthe lack of addresses for the other samaj members joked adefacto that postman. as healsoserves His home’s roadside Mangalpuri residents sitting onhisdesk andawaiting collection, he other for letters of pile the at convened. were we looked we which As in set inframes. Th army uniform plastic fl andseveral bouquetsof owers, which were allof sacre, hung from wire, anelectrical amanin along aportrait with of royal family, apparently taken months oryears before the 2001mas- gentlemen (andlater, three with women). An old Nepal’s photo of in asmallindigo-painted Mangalpuri room four with inthe middleof orts to helpothers the via samaj impacts whether people feel sad 20 Like the others, Naveen emphasized that despite their incorporation these concernsSeveral of were shared with us, while we were sitting e as Bsy 21) Ceti 21 29 Sniemn 21 25–6). (2015 : Shneiderman 299); (2013: Chettri (2013); Besky also See ts’ from the municipal that organizations are supposedto pro- 20 Th e DGHC was fi was eDGHC nally dissolved in2012andreplaced by eperson the speaking the house the mostwas of owner usurped byhissecond-in-command, dministration and the inception of dministration andtheinception of were and elaborated bytransitions he explained in jest, in heexplained aperson’s isman, whom c municipal c ects ects y 229 Connection amidst Disconnection 230 georgina drew and roshan p. rai samaj receives nomunicipal water supplies. In ourconversations with s ad f ajeig politics. Darjeeling of and political parties,the skepticism widespread of assessment, this suchimpressions are arefl of theaccuracy of theget fundsinstead actualization of people). Th samaj often share goodsoroff samaj. When anearby samaj faces acrisis, Mangalpuri the members of they are notsamaj members. Th willingness is tohelpextends to other hold. Still, they need, often when even helpoutneighbours intimesof more water (rather than more social for membership that the samaj feels are primarily aimedat acquiring others to join sothat they can benefi programme issuccessful, andthe samaj receives petitionsfrom regular a month to look after the pumps andthe distributionnetwork. Th employees precision system andare this with maintain paid theeach samaj households of onarotating, alternate day basis. Two taining the spring pumping systems th to stay out of politics as much as possible. Th As self-described ‘ordinary people andSocial Connections Samaj Aff another semi-autonom authority. administrative, executive, andfi nancial powers butitdoesnothave legislative ily to force payouts for specifi that threats further agitationfor of Gorkhaland are now usedprimar- bowl’ for the political parties. Implied inthese statements isanassertion ment. Rather, the demand for Gorkhaland hasbecome like a ‘begging there are too many partiesandnoreal unityto foster such adevelop- men gathered inthe room. Th reply initially was given inthe knowing form chuckles of from allthe provision—were overlooked struggles for amidstwider power. meant that their everyday concern samaj leaders whom with we spoke, these andturns political twists Unlike the Jawahar Busti andMangalpuri samaj, the Muldara 21 When the Gorkhaland promise asked of if stillheldtheir hopes, a Th eword semi-autonomous is usedto describethe GTA because ithas eyuseGorkhaland, inother words, aleveraging as device to ous organizational body, organizational ous theGTA. c programmes (andpotentially to specifi er donations. e verbal response that followed was that that was followed that response verbal e ’, the Mangalpuri samaj members try s—including their worries for water t from this system. New applications of anindependent state.of Regardless connections) are putonindefi nite ey set up to distribute waterto uptodistribute set ey ects ects ey focus instead eyfocus onmain- 21 ection of of ection Fr the For `2,500 e c their strong samaj affi senseof camaraderie to which of banal acts people point when trying to explain their heavy water 20to 30 litre upthe loads of mountainside. It isthese sickorbusy. get neighbours Th Samaj members might helpeach other collect water on days when communally managedspring sources andat communal hydrants. other when day-in accessin andday-out events, water management isaneveryday activity. Members seeeach for this. Whereas weddings, funerals, andemergenciesare occasional source robust connection of to their samaj. Th interactionslarity of related to water that people mostoften a cited as one another, belongingto their feelings well as samaj. as of strong cohesion. social Th eff they have accomplished together. For these many people, of the samaj ated the with municipality, ourinterlocutors expressed prideinwhat a time. for water collection, asamaj member canonly water take 30litres at of andtherules cancarry whataperson of tothephysicalDue limitations Th waterlect off the women whom with of we spoke declared even that their tripto col- spring water collection, the municipal supply seemsunnecessary. Some When contrasted the with low maintenance andlow fee requirements of connection to one’s to pay has afi home—also wanting more than justaccess to amunicipal tap—for instance, apiped and brought them with fees new for the samaj anditsmembers. Anyone connections, butthese connections had grid. Two adjacent samaj, for instance, had recently received municipal cautionary neighbouring talesfor samaj as served being ontheof water Chowrasta, three women andthree menexplained that the experiences group meeting bythe mainspring, located directly from downhill members, notoften aproblem. this was seenas In animpromptu focus bring the matter to the samaj leaders andcallfor punishment. rules, they might optto publicly them. chastise thatnotwork, does If they might sure they are only taking their dueshare. When they seeothers breaking the emaindrawback isthe water limited that amount of onecancollect. orts didmore than justhelppeople access resources; they alsocreated 22 Whether inJawahar Busti, Mangalpuri, orMuldara, the itwas regu- resource contrast quality in totheproblemsprovisionSet associ- of Muldar like Members locations in ers a means of daily exerciseers ameansof andachance to seeneighbours. is is manifested in feelings of connectivity to liation. eymay each even assist other in carrying a alsoregulate oneanother to make taken nearly ayear to materialize g watertheir supplies at oneof ere are pragmatic reasons Rs.xed price of 35,000. 22

231 Connection amidst Disconnection 232 georgina drew and roshan p. rai Marwari.’ research, ‘no bothered onewas about being aNepali oraBengali ora affi class that et al. have noted apotentially similartrend inDarjeeling. Th and the role they play inDarjeeling. look at these factors helpsto further explain the complexity the samaj of lower socio-economic situated in see themselves, well how as as they are seenbyothers, especially when note. to Th important resource management, samaj belongingare of someadditional aspects belonging. along the with So salient component resource of sharing and a range affi of liations andsocialinteractions that contribute to feelings of Upon stressed. refl repeatedly we that enquiry point of water collectionday study of because acts andthe that ourtopic was of and hissamaj affi the region, but, when heisinthe othershe hemighttell stated, Busti Darjeeling residents who share hisfaith. And another maninJawahar as that hefeels connected justas to hisfellow samaj membersto other as or religion. For instance, aMuslim maninthe Mangalpuri samaj stated strong their as affi feelings of locutors maintained that their belonging feelings to the of samaj were as rather than residents Darjeeling. as of this, In of evidence several inter- locutors declared that they mostclosely identifi When asked identity about their at group focus senseof meetings, inter- Added Samaj Layers of like Liechty isoccurring inplaces argue Kathmandu. such as than other caste, kin, orethnic indicators is something that scholars standing. Th socio-economic similar ity since the samaj are geographic residents clusters who of often have these sentiments may additionally refl urban residents actively worked to maintain their own ‘cosmopolitan’ cultural andlowermiddle class residents. class Th between tension are toblame divisions for of level anincreasing class-based

23 It ispossible, course, of that samaj members emphasized the every- 24 rw, agl–cae ad cae 21 1). Th 12). (2016 : Scrase and Ganguly–Scrase, Brown, (2002). Liechty 24

liations are now soprominent that during their periodof liation to situate himself in tosituate himself liation eseinclude statements about how samaj members nity for theircaste, particular ethnic group, Belonging andIdentity district, he uses geographic indictors indictors geographic district, heuses eidea that class ismore important neighbourhoods. A more in-depth neighbourhoods. A more in-depth is from Darjeeling when heisoutof ect astrong class solidar-ect senseof eir study shows that the better off relation to others. To others. to some, relation samaj membersed as ey also assert that eyalsoassert ection, likely itis ey assert 23 Brown n w o r B

affi situated the the within samaj geographical istheir boundaries of samaj it surprising that the primaryidentity that aperson often when asserts himself. To bring the point back to the samaj, therefore, we donotfind prominent at any given timedepends heritage, andhisCatholic faith. Th Darjeeling, for instance, connects to hissamaj affi how residents seethemselves andtheir neighbours. of Co-author Rai group, orreligious following canst includes belongingto acertain the that class, assertion notionsof ethnic organization).a faith-based Th fi nd themselves when (such they as are home, at school, at work, orin according to the circumstances, location, andcompany inwhich they After all, aperson’s of certain aspects identity become more prominent tiple components their identity andthese of may varyinplace andtime. mul- peoplecanarticulate identityresulting formationrarely is singular; and aff ‘anxious belongings’ outlined byMiddleton the embodied inhisstudy of the prevailing how sentiment samaj members of relate to oneanother, as the the belongingwithin feelings samaj were of notnecessarily stable, and that helppeople understand who they are andwhere they belong. (including socialand governmental structures) andthe lived experiences identities are bythe shaped intersec a shared samaj identity. Scholars Holland such as that argue andLave decades have allowed for the solidifi tions. Second, many samaj have beenaround since the 1970s, soseveral samaj members andthere islikely aperformative element to such asser- comments about samaj affinity were given when inthe other presence of statements andanalyses about the import yet are notfrequently challenged their naturalization. dueto assumptions of that across are down generations passed (1977, 1984).habitus of His articulation areas. Th residents, andespecially the ones that have recently migrated from the rural capital and habitus inways that were derogatory towards lower Darjeeling class liation. Notably, the feelingssamaj affi of

26 25 Th ree observations are worth noting inrelation to the aforementioned ideo (2013a). Middleton (2001). Lave and Holland ective dimensions of political life in Darjeeling. life political in of ective dimensions eirargumentsdraw from the practice–theory workPierre of Bourdieu ethird point isrelated to the second. It e aspect of hisidentity that ismost of easpect nity were the notwithout atouch of tion between historical institutions historical institutions tion between ill beimportant andinfl uential to shared practices, andof cation of in ways thatarein su emphasized the durable dispositions on the context inwhich hefi nds ance of theance samaj. of First, many liation, hisethnic Rai 26 sceptible to change I ohr words, other In 25 Th e 233 Connection amidst Disconnection 234 georgina drew and roshan p. rai owner, confessed to paying Rs. 600 amonth to have others deliver spring interlocutor, with two children andjo access to tap water, the timeneededto collect water too great. was One close to the top, nearly arm’s within reach Chowrasta, yet stillwithout of took to fi ll containers andcarrythem back upthe hill. For those living that the walkto the nothing spring was incomparison to how long it reduced. In Jawahar Busti andMuldara, interlocutors similarly stated on days March inthe of to dryseason May when the fl hours each day collecting water (Figure 10.3). Th fi than ing onesource point to indicate that, when even the spring isnoless in Jawahar Busti pointed toplastic containers the long lineof surround- spring water collection isconsiderable for somesamaj members. Women grow. To with, start the energy, physical fortitude, required andtime for their members, there are problems that persist, which may continue to Despite the impressive ways that the samaj have worked to getwater for Vulnerabilities Social and Precarity Resource eff to able called their samaj ‘strong’, using the English word, andsaidthat they are have organizedthemselves acohesive as collective. Th pridefor theways thatthey expressions their of in vocal were initially bers gave anindication this. of In afocus group meeting, four interlocutors well to as Darjeeling at large, could vary. Th of belongingto the municipality.of the the strength samaj’s of pride, andwhich potentially impacts notions self-worth upset byanexternally of imposedarticulations label that tests announced, ‘it stinks’. In this example, we see the carefully constructed asked to describe how it felt to translation. Th Bengali be classifi the municipality. Th pality endeduplabelling them a as ‘slum’ when they were included in munici- the that dismay with commented they that achieved, have they their extensivelight of efforts, socialorganization andthe highdegree of there are three public ones(andtwo that are privately owned). It in was source points. Th thefamily springs at useof allocate d hours nearseveral publicly listed and municipal waters intheir samaj. Th rated onthe nuanced rulesandregulations that govern spring the useof ve minutes from their home, they often have to spendoneto two ectively lobby administrators andpoliticians. Th eyalsooversee the upkeep the springs, of which of isEnglish term usedrather was than aNepali or ey found this nomenclature upsetting. found this ey When bs as alawyerbs as andpart–timeshop eirsystem includes rotational aslum,ed as oneinterlocutor eJawahar Busti samaj mem- is is particularly is true is emenrepeatedly water is ow of eyalso elabo- 11_Chapter_10.indd 235 be contamination that takes place along the spring linesat susceptible fl are susceptible to cross-contamination the with that andsewage waste numerous reasons for this. Th upon which residents candependentirely inthe long term. Th development inDarjeelingof meansthat they may not beasource effi the waterthe highqualityof andthe that fact they canbedistributed the two mainupsidesto the reliance onspringsare the perceptions of water to hisdoorstep. When these issues are taken into consideration, Source 10.3 Figure ows indrains Darjeeling’s alongside many of springs. Th ciently within the samaj. While the reliance onspringsispresently adaptive, the nature : Photograph Drew byGeorgina (April 2016). Waiting for Water at Jawahar Busti efi rst isanindication that the springs ere may also ere are 02/04/18 5:31 PM 235 Connection amidst Disconnection 236 georgina drew and roshan p. rai public health. but worries persist about environmen from TB had access to medications, andthat they took them regularly— were cured—and the samaj helpedto make sure that those suff were tuberculosis in2015. diagnosed of (TB) 10 cases Th theirried about the spring safetywater of after fi points. Mystery illnessesare now ri an earthquake canbring to poorly planned mountain habitats. that followed these events showed inshocking detail the that devastation Darjeeling, the was 2011quake as innearby Sikkim. Th scored their vulnerability. Th in asingle blow. Sheandothers recalled recent earthquakes that under- say ‘Aay–ya!’ the as them, buildings fallon taking their homes andlives commentary, she declared that she and thatstruction could topple inasizeable earthquake. In aheart-wrenching putting the those lives the downhill indanger risky of with allof con- wondered aloudwhy the residents above hercouldn’t seethat they were an earthquake strikes. A woman living at the Jawahar bottom of Busti opment fears overlapped concerns with about happen what when will meant that people were higherthan building they should. Th worried that landnearthe the development-eligible market scarcity of One samaj member declared the township to beovercrowded andhe ment too swift, was andthat notenough precautions were being taken. arrives.monsoon explaining their being crushed fear underalandslide when of the next pointed to anexposedanddeforested earth patch above of their spring talked at length about their landslides. fears of Muldara samaj members areessary guidelines notfollowed. Aware this connection, of residents pressure onthe landandincrease the landslides when chances nec- of human-induced andnatural disasters. Development uphill activities put ground channels. develo these Alongside foundations could putthe spring in down the drains sewage andthere concern was that the diggingfor the point for samaj members. Mud from the construction fl site was being constructeda housewas justa100feet above the mainsource neareremerging to the springs. downhill to Muldara, visit Onourlast above the springs. But the as township continues to grow, buildings are springs.long-term the viabilityof development past tookA lotof place Development isanother key issu Our interlocutors were particularly adamant that the develop- pace of e2015earthquakes inNepal were felt in sing. In wor- Mangalpuri, residents e that raises concerns about the jeopardy byshiftingthe under- her family would nothave timeto tal conditions impacting overall pment practices is the threat of pment thethreat practices is of ve cases of cancer and of ve cases emediaimages e cases of of TB ecases e devel- owing owing ering work the samaj. of Rather, the two are on arelational continuum. Th tute abinarythat demonizesthe municipality oroverly sanctifi domains is pure, of course, inclusion’,of their within especially so in saying thisthat the samaj simultaneously create what we might call we‘geographies do not mean to insti- Darjeeling, exclusion operate in wesuggest how of suchgeographies and places. While postcolonial water management make schemas clear how confl inequalitiesandidentity-based areicts spread across spaces exclusion helpsilluminate otherwords,in attention of togeographies rate of waterrate fl of instantly. Now, ittakes fi Before, residents could fi ll upawater 10–15litres container almost of the spring usedto fi ll a4-inch pipe, itnow barely fi lls a1-inch pipe. 20yearslast inMuldara, the spring fl slowedow has signifi cover andforestry, the andas climate continues to change. Within the suff plentitude will clues about power relations andthe role space insocialcontrol’. of space isalways contested andthat ‘relatively confl trivial canprovideicts Sibley’s approach of togeographies parallel towhat in waterarise with through belongingto asamaj. In Darjeeling, the subjectivities associated affi the as well waters, as municipal to connection Th subjectivities, found Darjeeling’s within diverse hydrological landscape. Th and CommentsDiscussion onGeographies Exclusion of students losetimeto study. experience adecrease intheir ability to earnhousehold income while other tasksthat are alsoimportant. to realize that timespent collecting painstaking. To emphasize the signifi schedules, water making collection the of more even act diffi esubjectivities touched uponare infl uenced byvarying degrees of echapter highlights the resource challenges, well the as as social

28 27 In addition to these concerns, ther Sibley (1995 : xiii) . xiii) (1995: Sibley (2014). Joshi also See ow declines, the linesback up. Th theer as landscape transforms, green alossof via ve minutes to fi ll uptheir containers. As the 27

•• Men andwomen, for instance, may water istimethat isnotspent doing locational clusters. locational these Neither of some call call some ‘geographies exclusion’. of cance this point, of it isimportant exclusion contains theideathat exclusion contains e isalsothe worry that springs’ isputspressure ontime nities that are produced cantly. While cultand es the es 28 Put t u P e 237 Connection amidst Disconnection 238 georgina drew and roshan p. rai citizenship’ not receive municipal waters might nothave the sametypeof ‘hydraulic ria andheavy metals. While lower income Darjeeling residents who do naked eye, isharder onthe palate, andislikely carrying unwanted bacte- colonial municipal legacy water supply that appears lesspure to the perceived clean, as good, andsweet. It isfarpreferable to the dubious alone. Th onthatsentiment afocus with discussion toendthis ourability softens toas discount the prevalence abjection, of the data onDarjeeling’s samaj have access to adequate water supplies. ness andotherness, Mumbai ariseinthe slums of when residents donot Anand’s work demonstrates how abjection, unwanted- orsentiments of because of the resiliencebecause Darjeeling’s of of samaj, along with their ability connect sentimentssimultaneity of of described as strong. as described Th exclusions.while Th ways that are indirect response to municipal inadequacies anderst- ate meansthrough which people are able to connect to oneanother in abjection thatof this might inspire. Onthe socialside, the samaj cre- waters thespring of quantity over time. canvary eitherdomain operating in theexclusion orinclusion extent of sion. Th are therefore tempered, to restate the point, socialinclu- with feelings of ing labelling them slums, as the sentiments abjection that of might occur animosity andanger over how the muni daily water inpractices collection of andmanagement. While there is through the structures that the samaj create, and they are reconstituted ajeig hills. Darjeeling grounds sharing longstanding connec acommon regto fashion the Gorkhaland Movement, which studies credit to communal eff On thebiophysical side, thespring

To westress thediscussion, close 32 31 30 29 abjection. exclusion are toproduce known of feelings of Geographies htr (2013). Chettri 545). (2011: Anand (2012). Anand 8). (1995: Sibley ese affi e reason for this is both biophysical as well as social. biophysical both as for ereason is well this as 31 those as onthe water grid, the highqualityandadequate nities are layered into association with varying degrees of 32

is has created ishas socialbondsthat ourinterlocutors efeelingsaffi of ional identity amongpeoplefrom diverse back- they receive help to off to help receive they ion and disconnection areion anddisconnection possible tions to oneanother andto the again thatourfi again onthe ndings 30 nity andsolidarity are forged cipality treats the samaj, includ- water that the samaj enjoy is waterthatthesamajenjoy is While we would notgosofar setthe sentiments orts 29

Mumbai, echo insights into the exclusionary urban water ecologies of Delhi, Delhi, intoecho insights urban theexclusionary waterecologies of exclusion.relations created through Such of studiesmight geographies tions may uphold argumentsleaning more strongly towards the abject thesamajde thecohesionshould of environmentallyShould the viability of sensitive springs diminish, or said that, we celebrate this distinctiveness caution. asentiment with of ethnically, culturally, andreligiously heterogeneous population. Having intricatelyis andcont tiedto past how resource the experience of struggle inthis postcolonial settlement shows Darjeeling in disconnection connectionamidst of the story migration sparsely to anotherwise inhabited region. Put inother words, populations that have come to inhabit Darjeeling through decades of Th address the water struggles that emergeinandaround the township. and location-specifi to provide for themselves necessitieswater. such basic as Th uh s h samaj. the as such and diffi to generalizecult dueto thesupport networks vital prevalence of social resilience deteriorates, Darjee eydothis inways that capacitate the multi-lingual andmulti-ethnic

35 34 33 aeahr (2011) . Rademacher 2012). (2011, Anand (2016). O’Leary (2011); Baviskar 34 and Kathmandu. and Kathmandu. thec attributes samaj are of uniquely positionedto 35 Until the resource orthe base levelof emporary settlement patterns an of ling’s experience remains distinct teriorate, then future investiga- e emplaced 33

239 Connection amidst Disconnection