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© _548901005677/Getty Images © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORBrief SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Contents © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION About the Author xiii Acknowledgments xiv © JonesPreface & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning,xvii LLC NOT FORThe SALE Student OR Experience DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONxx

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Brief Contents vii

© Jones & Bartlett Learning,Chapter LLC 14 The Ocean’©s ResourcesJones & Bartlett. . . . .Learning, . . . . LLC...... 449 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Chapter 15 The Human Presence in the Ocean ...... 469 Chapter 16 Global Climate Change and the Oceans ...... 509 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC AppendicesNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION545 Glossary 559 Index 575 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

© _548901005677/Getty Images © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORContents SALE OR DISTRIBUTION © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION About the Author...... xiii Chapter 3 The Origin of Ocean Basins. . . . . 47 Acknowledgments...... xiv 3-1 Continental Drift...... 47 Preface©. . Jones...... & . Bartlett...... Learning, . . . . LLCxvii 3-2 Seafloor© SpreadingJones &. . .Bartlett ...... Learning, . . . . .49LLC The StudentNOT Experience FOR SALE . . . OR . . .DISTRIBUTION ...... xx The GeomagneticNOT FOR Field SALE...... OR. . . . DISTRIBUTION . . . . . 51 Spreading Ocean Ridges...... 52 Chapter 1 The Growth of Oceanography. . . . 3 3-3 Global Plate Tectonics...... 55 Subduction Zones...... 55 1-1 Oceanography: What Is It?...... 3 Plate-Tectonic Model...... 57 © Jones1-2 & BartlettHistorical Learning, Review of Oceanography LLC ...... 4 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORThe SALEOpening OR and ClosingDISTRIBUTION of Ocean Basins. . . . . 63 Ocean Exploration...... 11 A Summary of Global Plate Tectonics...... 65 Early Scientific Investigations...... 13 3-4 Future Discoveries...... 71 Modern Oceanography...... 21 Study Guide...... 72 1-3 Current and Future Oceanographic Research...... © . Jones...... & . Bartlett. . . Learning, .22 Features LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Study Guide...... NOT . . . . FOR. . . . . SALE . . . OR DISTRIBUTION .24 The Process of Science: Seafloor NOTSpreading FOR. . . .SALE . . . . OR54 DISTRIBUTION Geology: The Red Sea...... 60 Features Geology: The San Andreas Fault...... 66 Science by the Numbers: Graphs ...... 18 Complexity Theory: Complex Adaptive Systems...... 70 The Process© Jones of Science: & BartlettThe Scientific Learning, Process. . . .LLC . . . 19 Science by the© Numbers: Jones Seafloor & Bartlett Learning, LLC Science by the Numbers: Conversions...... 24 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Spreading RatesNOT. . . .FOR ...... SALE ...... OR . . . . DISTRIBUTION72 Chapter 2 The Planet Oceanus...... 29 Chapter 4 Marine Sedimentation...... 77 2-1 The Earth’s Structure...... 29 4-1 Sediment in the Sea...... 77 The Earth’s Interior Spheres...... 29 Classification of Marine Sediment...... 78 © Jones & BartlettThe Earth’ sLearning, Exterior Envelopes LLC...... 31 © JonesFactors & Bartlett that Contr Learning,ol Sedimentation LLC...... 78 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 2-2 The Physiography of the Ocean Floor...... 31 4-2 Sedimentation in the Ocean...... 82 Bathymetric Provinces...... 32 Shelf Sedimentation...... 82 Continental Margins...... 32 Worldwide Distribution of Shelf Sediments. . . . 84 2-3 Geologic Differences between Continents Geologic Controls of Continental Shelf and Ocean Basins©. . Jones...... &. . Bartlett. . . . . Learning, .36 LLC Sedimentation...... © . . Jones ...... & . . Bartlett86 Learning, LLC The Earth’s TopographyNOT and FOR Bathymetry SALE. . OR. . . . DISTRIBUTION36 Carbonate Shelves...... NOT ...... FOR . . . SALE OR92 DISTRIBUTION Mass Balance and Isostasy...... 37 Deep-Sea Sedimentation...... 94 2-4 The Physiography of the Western North Deep-Sea Stratigraphy...... 106 Atlantic Ocean...... 42 4-3 Future Discoveries...... 111 Study Guide© Jones. . . . .& . .Bartlett ...... Learning,...... LLC .43 Study Guide. ©. . Jones...... & . Bartlett...... Learning, . 112 LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Features Features Science by the Numbers: Powers of 10...... 39 Geology: Probing the Seafloor...... 79 Geology: Probing the Seafloor...... 40 Geology: Dust Storms ...... 88

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Contents ix

The Process of Science: Climate Chemistry: The Sea-Surface Microlayer...... 155 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & BartlettVariability Learning, and Change LLC...... 93 Science by the Numbers: Order of Magnitude...... 158 NOT FOR SALEGeology: OR Catastr DISTRIBUTIONophic Meltwater Scouring and NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Deposition...... 96 Chapter 6 Wind and Ocean Circulation. . . . 165 Geology: The Drying Up of the Mediterranean Sea. . . . . 108 Science by the Numbers: Sedimentation Rates...... 111 6-1 Atmospheric Processes...... 165 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Air Pressure...... © . . Jones ...... & . .Bartlett . Learning, . 165 LLC Chapter 5 The PropertiesNOT FOR of SALE Seawater OR. DISTRIBUTION. . . 117 Coriolis Deflection. NOT. . . . . FOR. . . . . SALE. . . . . OR DISTRIBUTION. 166 General Wind Circulation ...... 169 5-1 Basic Chemical Notions...... 117 6-2 Surface Ocean Currents...... 170 5-2 Basic Physical Notions...... 118 The Wind-Driven Currents of the Sea Surface. . . . 170 5-3 The Water Molecule...... 119 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Types© Jones of Surface & BartlettFlows...... Learning, ...... LLC . 172 The Solutes of Seawater ...... 122 A Model of Geostrophic Flow...... 179 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Major Constituents...... 123 Refinement of the Geostrophic-Flow Model.. . . . 181 Nutrients...... 123 6-3 Deep-Ocean Circulation...... 186 Gases...... 124 Water Masses and Density-Driven Water Flow. . . . 187 Trace Elements...... 124 A General Model of Thermohaline Circulation. . . . 188 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Organic Compounds ...... 124 6-4 Water Flow in Semienclosed Seaways. . . . 193 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 5-4 Salinity...... 126 6-5 Future Discoveries...... 199 Principle of Constant Proportion...... 126 Study Guide...... 200 Factors That Regulate the Salinity of Seawater. . . . 127 Effects of Salinity on the ropertiesP of Water. . . . 133 Features Freezing Point© . Jones...... & . . Bartlett...... Learning, . 133 LLCPhysics: Current-Measuring© Techniques Jones &. . .Bartlett ...... Learning, . 173 LLC Density. . . . NOT...... FOR . . . . . SALE ...... OR DISTRIBUTION . 133 Physics: Hurricanes and TyphoonsNOT FOR. . . . . SALE...... OR DISTRIBUTION. 183 Vapor Pressure...... 133 Science by the Numbers: Volume Transport...... 187 5-5 Chemical and Physical Structure of the Physics: Underwater Weather and Waterfalls...... 197 Oceans...... 133 © JonesTemperature & Bartlett...... Learning, ...... LLC . 133 Chapter© 7Jones Waves & in Bartlett the Ocean Learning,...... LLC . 205 Salinity ...... 136 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 7-1 PropertiesNOT FOR of OceanSALE Waves OR .DISTRIBUTION ...... 205 Density...... 138 Surface Layer...... 139 Wind Generation of Waves...... 207 Pycnocline Layer...... 140 7-2 Wave Motions...... 208 Deep Layer...... 140 The Motion of Water Particles Beneath Waves. . . . 208 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 5-6 Gases in Seawater...... 140 Motion of the Wave Form...... 212 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Oxygen...... 142 7-3 The Life History of Ocean Waves...... 212 Carbon Dioxide...... 143 Growth of Waves in the Fetch Area...... 212 5-7 The Ocean as a Physical Storm Waves Outside the Generating Area. . . . . 213 Chemical System...... 148 Waves in Shallow Water...... 214 Reservoirs of© Water Jones. . . . .& . .Bartlett ...... Learning, . . 148 LLC Shoreline Under Storm© Jones Conditions & . Bartlett...... Learning, . 218 LLC The Global WaterNOT C ycleFOR. . . SALE...... OR. . . . .DISTRIBUTION . 153 7-4 Standing Waves. .NOT . . . . FOR. . . . . SALE . . . . OR DISTRIBUTION219 The Ocean as a Biogeochemical System...... 154 7-5 Other Types of Progressive Waves...... 221 Study Guide...... 158 Internal Waves...... 221 Tsunamis...... 226 Features © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Study Guide© Jones. . . . . & . . Bartlett ...... Learning,...... LLC229 ScienceNOT FOR by the SALENumbers: OR Parts DISTRIBUTION per Thousand...... 125 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Chemistry: Chemical Techniques...... 127 Features Chemistry: Desalination ...... 144 Physics: Wave-Measuring Techniques...... 210 Physics: Other Physical Properties of Water...... 149 Science by the Numbers: Wave Celerity (Speed)...... 214 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

x Contents

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Contents xi

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xii Contents

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© _548901005677/Getty Images © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALEAbout OR DISTRIBUTION the Author © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Paul Pinet, an emeri- His research has been focused on the geology of con- tus professor, contin- tinental margins, coastal bluff erosion, estuarine sed- ues to teach geology, imentation, and, more recently, on the philosophical © Jones & Bartlett Learning,oceanography, LLC and dimensions© Jones of deep & time. Bartlett At the Learning, moment, he LLCis devel- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONenvironmental stud- oping long-termNOT FOR (millennia) SALE OR conservation DISTRIBUTION strategies ies courses at Colgate for barrier islands in response to rising sea level and University, located for mitigating the ongoing extinction event in New in central New York England and its ocean. Pinet spent summers during state. He earned BA much of his adult life either climbing mountains © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC and MS degrees © in Jones around & Bartlett the world Learning, or cruising LLC on his small, gaff- eaded NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION geology from NOT the FORcatboat SALE (Taillefer) OR DISTRIBUTION off the New England coast. Though University of New an oceanographer, Pinet admits that he fears water Hampshire and the more than high, avalanche-prone mountains. He has University of Massachusetts, respectively, and a PhD also published a book of essays entitled Shadow ed by in oceanography ©from Jones the University & Bartlett of Rhode Learning, Island. LLCDeep Time. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

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© _548901005677/Getty Images © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORAcknowledgments SALE OR DISTRIBUTION © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Jones & Bartlett Learning is committed to producing Steve Calvert the fi est introductory textbook in oceanography pos- University of British Columbia sible. Th s eighth edition of Invitation to Oceanography Barry Cameron testifies© to Jones the staff &’s ear Bartlettnest commitment Learning, to thatLLC ideal. Acadia University© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC DuringNOT my long FOR association SALE withOR DISTRIBUTIONthese professionals, I David CampbellNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION was impressed by their patience, creativity, willingness Gardner-Webb University to listen carefully and critically to my perspectives, and Jesse Carlucci attentive concern for visual and written aesthetics. The Midwestern State University outcome of our collaborative effort is what you have William Chaisson © Jonesin & front Bartlett of you. Learning, A textbook ofLLC this ilk succeeds only if © JonesUniversity & Bartlett of Massachusetts–Amherst Learning, LLC NOT FORthere SALE is a dynamic OR DISTRIBUTION balance among syntheses, coverage, NOTKarl FOR M. Cha SALEuffe OR DISTRIBUTION and details, which was achievable because of our col- St. Louis University laborative effort. The few remaining errors and unin- G. Kent Colbath tentional misrepresentations in this eighth edition are Cerritos Community College mine alone. I am truly privileged© Jones to & be Bartlett working Learning, as an Susan LLC Conrad © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC author with Jones & BartlettNOT Learning. FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONState University of New York–DutchessNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Paul R. Pinet Community College Hamilton, New York Ronadh Cox Williams College Many colleagues at numerous institutions Stephen C. Dexter reviewed© Jones and constructively & Bartlett criticized Learning, drafts LLC of the University ©of JonesDelaware & Bartlett Learning, LLC variousNOT editions, FOR vastly SALE improving OR DISTRIBUTION their quality. Those Charles M. DrakeNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION who were particularly helpful and generous with their Dartmouth College time and expertise over the years include: Walter C. Dudley University of Hawaii at Hilo © JonesCharles & Bartlett Acosta Learning, LLC © JonesBrent Dugolinsky & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORNorthern SALE OR Kentucky DISTRIBUTION University NOTState FOR University SALE OR of New DISTRIBUTION York College at Oneonta Vernon Asper Stefka ddins University of Southern Mississippi Gardner-Webb University Captain Karen Arnold John Ehleiter Massachusetts Maritime Academy West Chester University Marsha Bollinger © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Dan LLC V. Ferandez © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Winthrop UniversityNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONAnne Arundel CommunityNOT College FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Joceline Boucher Lynn Fielding Maine Maritime Academy El Camino College Chuck Breitsprecher William Frazier American© Jones River & College Bartlett Learning, LLC Columbus ©College Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC KathleenNOT M. BrowneFOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Grant GardnerNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Rider University Memorial University of Newfoundland William H. Busch Elizabeth Gordon University of New Orleans Fitchburg State University Lee Cain Tom Garrison © Jones &Astoria Bartlett High Learning, School LLC © JonesOrange & CoastBartlett College Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

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Acknowledgments xv

© Jones & BartlettKelly Gower Learning, LLC © JonesA. & Lee Bartlett Meyerson Learning, LLC King’s Fork High School Kean College of New Jersey NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALEJack C. OR Hall DISTRIBUTION John E. Mylroie University of North Carolina–Wilmington Mississippi State University Angelos Hannides Joseph Nadeau Coastal Carolina University Rider University Christopher G. A.© Harrison Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCSeiichi Nagihara © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Rosentiel SchoolNOT of Marine FOR SALEand Atmospheric OR DISTRIBUTION Texas Tech UniversityNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Science, University of Miami Marlon Nance Robert W. Hinds California State University–Sacramento Slippery Rock University Peter Nielsen Ralph© Jones Hitz & Bartlett Learning, LLC Keene© StateJones College & Bartlett Learning, LLC Tacoma Community College Jeffrey Niemitz NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION William Hoyt Dickinson College University of Northern Colorado James Ogg R. Grant Ingram Purdue University University of British Columbia Harold Pestana © Jones & BartlettDavid Kadko Learning, LLC © Jones &Colby Bartlett College Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALERosentiel OR DISTRIBUTION School of Marine and Atmospheric NOT FORCurt SALE D. Peterson OR DISTRIBUTION Science, University of Miami Portland State University Dennis Kelly William Prothero Orange Coast College University of California at Santa Barbara John A. Klasik © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCC. Nicholas Raphael © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC California State Polytechnic University–Pomona Eastern Michigan University NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Charles E. Knowles Howard Reith North Carolina State University North Shore Community College William Kohland Joseph P. Richardson Middle Tennessee State University Savannah State University Ajoy© Jones Kumar & Bartlett Learning, LLC Philip L.© RichardsonJones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTMillersville FOR SALE University OR DISTRIBUTION U.S. NOTCoast GuardFOR SALEAcademy OR DISTRIBUTION Stephen Lebsack Jennifer Rivers Linn-Benton Community College Northeastern University Richard A. Laws Richard Robinson University of North Carolina–Wilmington Santa Monica College © Jones & BartlettPhillip Levin Learning, LLC © JonesPeter & Bartlett A. Rona Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALEUniversity OR DISTRIBUTION of California, Santa Cruz NOT FORRutger SALEs–Th ORe State DISTRIBUTION University of New Jersey James Loch Chris Sedlacek University of Central Missouri Palm Beach State College Fred Lohrengel Rebecca Shipe Southern Utah ©University Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC University of California,© Jones Los Angeles & Bartlett Learning, LLC Chris Marone NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONJean-Paul Simjouw NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Pennsylvania State University University of New Haven Jonathan B. Martin Jill Singer University of Florida State University College at Buff lo Heyward Mathews Charles R. Singler © St.Jones Petersburg & Bartlett Junior College Learning, LLC Youngstown© Jones State & UniversityBartlett Learning, LLC MarionNOT FOR McClary, SALE Jr. OR DISTRIBUTION Jon SloanNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Fairleigh Dickinson University California State University–Northridge Susanne Menden-Deuer Alan Trujill Western Washington University Palomar Community College © Jones & BartlettJames H. Learning, Meyer LLC © JonesToshi & Bartlett Urakawa Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALEWinona OR DISTRIBUTION State University NOT FORFlorida SALE Gulf OR Coast DISTRIBUTION University © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

xvi Acknowledgments

© JonesLuke & BartlettP. Van Roekel Learning, LLC © JonesDawn Wright & Bartlett Learning, LLC Northland College Oregon State University NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORJorge SALE F. Willemsen OR DISTRIBUTION Richard Yuretich University of Miami University of Massachusetts–Amherst Terri Woods East Carolina University © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

© _548901005677/Getty Images © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALEPreface OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION his book deals with the workings of the ocean always working to improve each succeeding version and the dynamic processes that affect its water, of this book, and so we welcome all comments and seafl or, and abundant life forms. The approach criticisms from our readers. Both faculty and students Tused© Jones is a broad & one,Bartlett relying Learning, on basic concepts LLC to explain agree that© Jonesthe development & Bartlett of key Learning, oceanographic LLC con- theNOT ocean’s FOR many SALE mysteries. OR DISTRIBUTION Anybody—whether sailor, cepts flNOT ws logically FOR SALE and systematically OR DISTRIBUTION from chapter surfer, beachcomber, or student—can learn about the to chapter, as well as from section to section. processes and creatures of the oceans. No background The fi st two chapters review the long history of in science is required to grasp the many important ocean exploration and research as well as the funda- ideas that are relevant to the working of the oceans. mental structure of the Earth’s interior and its exte- © Jones & BartlettWherever Learning, appropriate, LLC the underlying science is fi© stJones rior & oceanBartlett basins. Learning, Chapters 3LLC through 10 examine the NOT FOR SALEexplained OR DISTRIBUTIONclearly, and only then is it used to accountNOT FORgeology, SALE chemistry, OR DISTRIBUTION physics, and biology of the sea, for ocean processes. These overarching scientific con- highlighting the key scientific concepts and latest dis- cepts are summarized conveniently as “Key Concepts” coveries in these subdisciplines of oceanography. In at the end of every chapter. In order to help those unfa- some sense, the material and concepts in these eight miliar with the practice© Jones of science, & Bartlett a series Learning, of “process LLCchapters represent the core© Jones ideas of &the Bartlett ocean sciences, Learning, LLC of science” boxes NOTprovides FOR an explanationSALE OR ofDISTRIBUTION how sci- and when comprehendedNOT and FOR synthesized, SALE theyOR proDISTRIBUTION- entists reason and draw conclusions about the natu- vide the framework for understanding ocean habitats ral world. In the glossary, important words are clearly as whole, functional ecosystems—the chapter topics of defi ed and many are accompanied by figu e numbers the remainder of this book. For example, Chapters 11 that refer you to the figu e that illustrates the term. and 12 examine the intriguing intricacies of dynamic © JonesThe figu & es Bartlett and their Learning, accompanying LLC captions do coastal ©environments, Jones & Bartlett including Learning, beaches, dunes, LLC bar- notNOT merely FOR illustrate SALE OR but alsoDISTRIBUTION supplement the writ- rier islands,NOT estuaries, FOR SALE deltas, OR salt DISTRIBUTION marshes, mangrove ten text. All the drawings have been beautifully and swamps, lagoons, and coral reefs. Two chapters are accurately rendered by a team of talented artists and devoted to coastal ecosystems, because we are most illustrators in order to present in visual form ideas familiar and come in regular contact with the shore- © Jones & Bartlettthat are atLearning, times necessarily LLC abstract. They should© be Jones line & ratherBartlett than Learning, the open ocean. LLC It is likely that many NOT FOR SALEstudied OR carefully DISTRIBUTION before advancing to the next sectionNOT FORof us SALE as voting OR citizens DISTRIBUTION will be in a position to influ- of the chapter, because they help provide concreteness ence regulatory legislation and management practices to the ideas discussed. It has been the author’s experi- of these fragile habitats. Chapter 13 provides an over- ence that those students who truly understand the “ins view of the many fascinating and exotic ecosystems and outs” of the illustrations tend to have a solid grasp that are found far off hore, either in open water or of the chapters’ main© Jones concepts. & BartlettTh s will takeLearning, a bit of LLCon the deep-sea fl or. Chapter© Jones 14 surveys& Bartlett the ocean’s Learning, LLC time, but it is timeNOT well invested.FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONabundant resources, bothNOT living FOR (fish) SALE and nonlivingOR DISTRIBUTION (petroleum, metals, phosphate), that are vital for the modern human world. Chapter 15 presents a balanced ▸▸ Organization appraisal of the environmental stresses brought about © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC by human© Jones activity, & showingBartlett the Learning, nature and LLC alarm- ThNOTe eighth FOR edition SALE of Invitation OR DISTRIBUTION to Oceanography incor- ing extentNOT of FORthis impact SALE and OR providing DISTRIBUTION examples of porates new and updated material, based on the many groups of concerned citizens who are striving hard valuable suggestions made by faculty and students and successfully to reverse environmental despoil- who have worked with the previous editions of this ment. Th oughout this book, local and regional exam- book. Th s means that the organization of the mate- ples are drawn from all parts of the U.S. coastline, © Jones & Bartlettrial, the developmentLearning, LLCof the ideas, and the quality© of Jones including & Bartlett the Pacific Learning, coast as LLC far north as Alaska, the NOT FOR SALEthe prose OR andDISTRIBUTION illustrations are better than ever. WeNOT are FORAtlantic SALE seaboard OR DISTRIBUTION as well as maritime Canada, and the

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xviii Preface

© JonesGulf & Bartlettof Mexico. Learning, Examples from LLC foreign seas are used © JonesTh Complexity & Bartlett Theory Learning, box in Chapter LLC 14 uses man- where appropriate. Chapter 16 examines a most timely agement panarchy to assess the collapse of Antarctic NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORglobal SALE issue—climate OR DISTRIBUTION change. How will warming of krill, which is a keystone species that is being deci- the atmosphere and oceans affect the processes and mated by climate change and aggressive commercial biodiversity of marine ecosystems? What can we do fisheries. These disturbances will put the Antarctic individually and collectively to mitigate the impacts food web in dire circumstances in the near future of global warming so that© Jones our children & Bartlett can enjoy Learning, the if LLC we do not begin to manage© Jones the system & Bartlett properly. Learning, LLC ocean’s beauty? NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONChapter 15 has a box that usesNOT both FOR panarchy SALE and OR a DISTRIBUTION stability-landscape analysis to explain why the fish communities of Georges Bank off hore of northern ▸▸ What’s New New England and southeastern Canada collapsed by © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC overexploitation© Jones and had & to Bartlettbe closed. Learning,Lastly, in Chap LLC- Building on the context of the previous seven editions, ter 16, a fl w diagram and a stability landscape of the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION we have updated the graphs of environmental trends North Atlantic circulation demonstrate how the melt- where data were available to do so. Most importantly, ing of the Greenland ice sheet will interfere with the we have introduced a new set of boxes titled Com- downwelling of oxygen-rich water, thereby disrupting plexity Theory. Th s new approach in science uses the the world’s thermohaline circulation of the deep sea, © Jonestechniques & Bartlett called Learning, panarchy LLC and stability landscapes © Jonesa condition & Bartlett that will Learning,initiate a mass LLC extinction of the NOT FORand SALE addresses OR the DISTRIBUTION intricacies of complex ocean sys- NOTfauna FOR inhabiting SALE the OR abyssal DISTRIBUTION depths of the major ocean tems. It allows students to appreciate the conditions basins on Earth. that unify ecosystems into a network “whole” that has The future of Earth’s oceans is poised at a thresh- to be understood holistically, denoting that systems old for radical change during the 21st century. undergo changes across multiple spatial and temporal © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Although LLC broad predictions © are Jones possible, & thereBartlett will Learning, LLC scales. Th s means that focusing on one scale of space always be uncertainty as multiple changes occur NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION and time will not address solutions to problems that worldwide and begin to interact in complex ways that are associated with the other scales. Incorporation of cannot be understood until they materialize. At the these powerful techniques—panarchies of complex moment, Earth is warming up, and so air and water adaptive systems and stability landscapes and their temperatures are rising, glaciers and ice sheet are attractors—is© Jones crucial & Bartlett for thinking Learning, deeply aboutLLC the melting, sea level© Jones is rising, & beachesBartlett and Learning, barrier islands LLC problemsNOT of oceanFOR pollution,SALE OR the DISTRIBUTION breakdown of coral are eroding, oceanNOT circulationFOR SALE is changing, OR DISTRIBUTION and much reefs, the management of collapsed fisheries, the future sea life has been extirpated. As such, you will learn plight of barrier islands, and climate change. Th s is that we need to develop a mindset that will adapt to the only introductory oceanography textbook that these radical changes, rather than forcing emerging introduces students to these powerful techniques that systems to adapt to what humans prefer. I believe this © Jonesmarine & Bartlett scientists Learning, now employ LLC for dealing with multi- © Joneshumble approach& Bartlett to emergingLearning, complexity LLC is the most NOT FORscale SALE ocean ORprocesses DISTRIBUTION and ecosystem management. NOTreasonable FOR SALE way to OR deal DISTRIBUTION with the uncertain future of We introduce complexity theory in Chapter 3, humankind. The complexity of all of the above issues examining how complex adaptive systems emerge is examined in detail in Chapter 16, Global Climate and evolve over time, and then apply the theory Change and the Oceans. to the opening and closing of ocean basins by plate © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC tectonics. The Complexity Theory box in Chapter 10 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION applies a cross-scale panarchy to understand how ▸▸ How to Plan Your Course climate change affects the Peruvian anchovy fishery. Chapter 11 uses both complex adaptive systems and Th s book is written for use in an introductory, panarchies to examine how barrier islands will drown semester-long course for undergraduate, non-major worldwide© Jones if management & Bartlett strategies Learning, are not LLC modi- students. Yet,© it Jones has suffici & Bartlett t breadth Learning, and depth LLC to fi d toNOT allow FOR barrier SALE islands OR to migrateDISTRIBUTION landward by be used by scienceNOT FORmajors SALE as well. OR Chapters DISTRIBUTION 1 and 2 “rollover” as sea level rises. The degradation of coral can be taught during the fi st week of the semester, reefs is addressed in Chapter 12, using a stability land- allowing week-long coverage for each of the remain- scape diagram. Th s diagram predicts their demise ing 14 chapters. Moreover, this book can be easily due to nutrient inputs, which cause the coral polyps adapted to a two-semester-long oceanography course © Jonesto & die Bartlett as they are Learning, replaced by LLC a thick cover of seaweed. © Jonesas described & Bartlett next. Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

Preface xix

© Jones & BartlettFor a Learning, two-semester LLC oceanography course, we rec© Jones- &Chapter Bartlett 7: Learning,Waves in the LLCOcean ommend that many of the chapters be covered over a NOT FOR SALEChapter OR 9: Marine DISTRIBUTION Ecology NOT FOR SALEperiod OR longer DISTRIBUTION than a week. We recommend that the following chapters be extended over two weeks during Chapter 10: Biological Productivity in the Ocean the two-semester course. Chapter 11: The Dynamic Shoreline Chapter 3: The Origin of Ocean Basins © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Chapter 12: Coastal© Habitats Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Chapter 4: MarineNOT SedimentationFOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Chapter 13: Ocean NOTHabitats FOR and SALE Their Biota OR DISTRIBUTION Chapter 5: The Properties of Seawater Chapter 15: The Human Presence in the Ocean Chapter 6: Wind and Ocean Circulation Chapter 16: Global Climate Change and the Oceans © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

© _548901005677/Getty Images © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORThe SALE OR Student DISTRIBUTION Experience © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Every chapter opens with a suc- cinct list of Learning Objec- CHAPTER 1 tives. Students should review this list© Jones prior to & divingBartlett into Learning, The LLC Growth of ©Oceanography Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC the chapterNOT toFOR help SALE guide OR their DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION focus. As they progress through the chapter, they should period- LEARNING OBJECTIVES ically fl p back to the Learning ■ Describe the history of ocean exploration and of oceanography. ■ Critically evaluate the nature and power of the scientific method. Objectives to ensure they are fully ■ Become proficient at reading graphs and doing unit conversions. © Jonesgrasping & Bartlett that chapter’s Learning, key oceanLLC- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ographic concepts. Th s practice Preview will encourage students to think A complete historical account of oceanographic exploration and research would be a massive undertaking. The record critically about the fascinating fi ld stretches back over several millennia to the time when ancient mariners built boats and ventured boldly onto the sea to explore the unknown. However, a brief sketch of maritime history is needed in a book that deals with the physical, chem- of ocean science and its four major ical, geological, and biological processes of the ocean in a scientifically rigorous manner. First and foremost, this reminds us that for eons there have been people in the field of “oceanography”—people with an insatiable desire to make the divisions. Written in © a Jones conversa &- Bartlettunknown Learning, familiar. Knowledge LLC that is commonplace today required painstaking© investigationsJones by& numerous Bartlett seafarers Learning, LLC tional tone, every chapter also opens throughout centuries of exploration.40 Chapter Many 2 intended The Planet Oceanus to become rich by exploiting resources and controlling sea routes NOT FOR SALE forOR commerce. DISTRIBUTION All were driven by a yearning to understand the mysteries of theNOT Earth and FOR its seas. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION with a Preview that introduces the Today’s oceanographers (modernTHE OCEAN sea SCIENCESexplorers) carry forward this quest to satisfy humankind’s curiosity. They owe a huge debt to the courage andGEOLOGY vision of earlier mariners, who by slow increments replaced ignorance and myth with reader to the specific ocean science knowledge. GEOLOGY Probing the Seafl or concepts they are about to study. It ology meaning “the science of”) is etymologically more You should be familiar with important geophysical The distinction between oceanography and is a student-friendly primer that pro- techniques that geological oceanographers use to probeaccurate. ▸ 1-1 Oceanography:the ocean’s bottom. What Many of Is these It? techniques relyoceanology on sound waveis similar is reflected to thatoff the made ocean floorbetween back to geographythe © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC sound waves; by noting changesoceanogra© in theJones speed- that sound & seaBartlett surface, where it is recorded Learning, by a listening device LLC vides a framework for thinking critically about the travels, it is possible to determine some of the physical(the physicalcalled a hydrophone description ( of the world and its biota) efore delving into theproperties science of the of material (such as density) through FIGURE and geologyequal to one-half(the scientific the time it B2–takes studyA). theThe ofsound haswater the not, pulsedepth Earth however,to is and its dis - theme NOTof the chapter.FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONphy, we should understandwhich the sound exactly is passing. whatA NOTbrief description the FOR of several SALEleave theTh vessel,e word reflect OR oceanology off theDISTRIBUTION sea bottom, and return The offi these st part important of the geophysical term istechniques coined follows. processes).to the hydrophone multiplied, because by the speedthe latter of sound term in is solidly word means. , or Oceanus, the name water,oceanography which averages about 1,460 meters per second The Ocean Sciences feature boxes appear in all okeanosEcho Sounding placed Bfrom the Greek word (~3,275 miles per hour) in seawater of normal salinity. Th(At us, this text Before the twentieth century, measurements ,of water entrenchedfirst glance in this the seems minds complicated; of the it isn’t. laypeople Think about as well as the of the chapters. There are five types of boxes,of thebased Titan son of the depthgods were Uranus made with and a “leadGaea and who line.” Awas lead weight Westernit this way. practitioners If you traveled at of 50 themiles science. per hour in your father of the ocean nymphsattached (theto a rope Oceanids). or, more recently, Eventually to piano wire was car, and traveled from home to a store and back home in lowered to the ocean floor, and the total length of line will1 followhour without convention, stopping, how farusing away isthe the morestore from familiar term to was applied toused the was sea an estimate beyond of water thee depth. second Pillars The technique ofpart was on the principal subfi lds of oceanography: geology,oceanus Th denoteyour house?) the scientificToday, echo sounding tudy ofis done the continuously oceans. Hercules, the North Atlanticslow, because Ocean. it took many graphiahours to get, whichone sounding and recorded on graph paper to yield a topographic chemistry, physics, biology, and complexity theory. of the bottom in deep water. Furthermore, sounding by profileA common(see Appendix misconceptionIV) of the seafloor. is that oceanography is © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC of the term comes© from Joneslead and the line Greek gave only &word a rough Bartlett measure of water depth, Learning, LLC because the cable was often deflected and bent by a Sidescanpure science Sonar in its own right, practiced by women and Each is identifi d as such by a colorful and distinctiverefers to the act of recordingcurrents or by theand drifting describing. vessel itself. In fact, menEngineers who reasoned are specifi that sound ally could and also narrowly be directed instructed in oceanography is inadequate to describe the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION the word NOTElectronic FOR technology SALE developed by OR private DISTRIBUTIONitssideways investigative as well as downward, methods. such that Most echoes oceanographers would physics, are, in logo placed near the title of the box. organizations after World War II revolutionized the reveal the bathymetry to either side of a surveying ship science of the seas sounding because of scientiststhe sea bottom, do a muchprocess moretermed echo asfact, well astrained the water indepth one below of its the keel. traditional This technique, sciences ( sounding. A sound transmitter, mounted on the bottom than merely record and describe the ocean’s physical, calledchemistry, sidescanning biology,, produces and a map geology) of the portion or a related fi ld ■■ Geology of a vessel, sends a sound pulse out into the water. This of the sea bottom traversed by the ship ( boxes dig deep into key geologic oceanchemical,- geological, and biological characteristics. rather(engineering, than merely a profile meteorology, of the bottom. Considerablemathematics, statistics, or FIGURE B2– Oceanographers investigate, interpret, and model all experiencecomputer is needed science) to interpretand choose these tomaps applyB), theirfter obtaining research ographic concepts by exploring specific places,aspects of ocean processes, using the most modern uffix expertise to the study of the oceans. A and sophisticated techniques of scientific and math- such as the Red Sea, the San Andreas Fault, the The term oceanology (the s © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning,3 LLC Mediterranean Sea, and other global examples,ematical inquiry. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION including a discussion on the impact of Hurri- Sound source Hydrophone cane Sandy on the New York and New Jersey Echo sounding shorelines. Seismic reflection © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Ocean floor © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Subbottom sedimentary layers

NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION FIGURE NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION B2–A Echo sounding and seismic reflection. Reflecting sound pulses off the ocean floor reveals the depth of water beneath a vessel. Some sound can penetrate the ocean floor and reflect off rock layers, providing a seismic- reflection profile of the subbottom.

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The Student Experience xxi

222 Chapter 7 Waves in the Ocean PHYSICS ■■ Physics © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlettboxes expand Learning, the chapter LLC material and illumi- THE OCEAN SCIENCES nate key concepts by diving deep into specific examples. NOT FOR SALEPHYSICS OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Tiny Waves and Giant Waves For instance, hurricanes and typhoons are highlighted in each H2O molecule at the surface is “pulled” laterally and downward by the hydrogen bonds that it shares with the The most common type of water wave undoubtedly is FIGURE B3–A1), stretching the surrounding molecules ( the capillary wave, a tiny wavelet a few centimeters in water surface and creating a remarkably strong elastic the chapter covering wind and ocean circulation and the wavelength and a few millimeters in height, and with “skin” that resists deformation. When wind blows, air a period of less than half a second. Capillary waves are molecules drag across this water skin, wrinkle its surface, most apparent when water is flat and calm, although and produce capillary waves that have properties megatsunamis of 2006 and 2011 are featured in the chap- they occur on the backs and fronts of large waves as governed by the elasticity and tension of the water well. A gentle breeze disturbs the water surface ever so surface rather than gravity. Because of this stretching slightly, raising a series of these tiny waves that will decay of the surface film by surface tension, theFIGURE crests B3– of ter discussing waves. These boxes provide students with and disappear as soon as the puff of wind dies out. Their capillary waves are not peaked but rounded ( presence is indicated by dark patches of water where A2). Furthermore, the elastic nature of this skin of water the puff of wind strikes the water surface,© rippling Jones it and & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC accounts for the almost instantaneous disappearance practical applications144 Chapter 5 The Properties of Seawater key oceanographic principles. causing sunlight to be reflected irregularly. Because they of capillary waves once the slight breeze dissipates. are so tiny and superficial on the water surface, their Also, the speed of capillary waves, unlike that of gravity- restoring force is surface tension rather than gravity. The NOT FORinduced waves, SALE decreases as the wavelength OR increases. DISTRIBUTION THE OCEAN SCIENCES NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION restoring force for the larger waves, including ripples, As the wind intensifies, the capillary waves grow into the swell, breakers, and tides, is gravity. CHEMISTRY more familiar gravity waves (chop and swell) that are the What exactly is surface tension? A waterO molecules surface 2 main topic of discussion in this chapter. can be visualized as a thin layer of H Other relatively smaller waves are found in very Desalination CHEMISTRY that are attracted to one another by hydrogen shallow water. These are called solitary waves because bonds, constituting an electrical force that arises as Fresh water is a precious commodity that is essential for each acts independently of others. In profile, they consist a consequence of the dipolar nature of the water all living organisms. Its distribution on the Earth is variable. molecules. The surface tension results from the fact that Water surface In arid regions, the amount of fresh water is very limited, Saudi Arabia, Israel, Greece, Pakistan, Australia, India, and Chile, as well as in the United States— making desalination, the production of drinkable Water water from seawater, very important. Unfortunately, California, and the Florida Keys— in Texas, southern A molecule desalination requires a great deal of energy, which means by distillation. A large salt water freshpond water is covered is obtained with below plastic, glass, or even canvas. Solar radiation heats the Water surface that it is an expensive process. molecule If seawater consists overwhelmingly of water (about enclosed volume of salt water. Evaporation produces © Jones &at surface Bartlett Learning,B LLC 96.5© percent Jones on the average), why is &it so expensive Bartlett to water vapor, which Learning, rises, cools, and condenses on the LLC purify it into drinkable fresh water? The answer is related covering fabric of the structure ( condensed water then trickles down the underside of to the dipole structure of H FIGURE B3–B). This O molecules, which results the sloping roof and is collected in large receptacles. In NOT FOR SALEWater molecule OR DISTRIBUTION in tightlyNOT bonded clusters FOR that2 must be disruptedSALE for OR DISTRIBUTION Hydrogen bond desalination to occur. Kuwait, the heat of the sun combined with waste heat Desalination relies on five general techniques: generated by petroleum-fired power plants greatly increases evaporation and the production rate of fresh (1) SURFACE TENSION 1. Distillation. The evaporation of seawater produces water at little additional cost. Trough Crest water vapor, which is then cooled to form a liquid- water condensate. 2. Freezing. As seawater begins to freeze, the H molecules arrange themselves into a crystal O structure, leaving behind the salt ions in a highly2 WAVE (2) CAPILLARY concentrated brine. The pure ice must then be separated from the brine. FIGURE B3–A Surface tension of water. (1) Water molecule B in the interior of the liquid is attracted on all sides and on 3. Reverse osmosis. Seawater, under an applied pressure, the top and bottom by hydrogen bonding to surrounding water molecules. Water molecule A at the surface of the is forced through a semipermeable membrane. liquid, by contrast, is attracted only to water molecules to either side and below it by hydrogen bonding. This creates Only the H © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett2O molecules areLearning, able to pass through LLC surface tension, which produces a strong, elastic “skin” at the water surface. (2) The restoring force for capillary waves is the membrane, which separates them from the salt surface tension. The capillary waves with their rounded crests and grooved troughs distort the elastic “skin” of the water ions ( FIGURE B3–A). surface. Note how different the profile of capillary waves is from the profile of swell (see Figure 7–4a). 4. Electrodialysis. Electrically charged, semipermeable NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALEmembranes draw OR salt ions out DISTRIBUTION of the seawater solution, leaving behind fresh water. This technique is most effective for brackish (low-salinity) water. 5. Salt absorption. Chemically active resins or charcoals ■■ Chemistry are used to draw off the dissolved salt ions from boxes review scientific experiments seawater, producing fresh water. All of these techniques are currently in use somewhere FIGURE B3–A Reverse osmosis. At a desalination plant in in the world. Perhaps the simplest, least expensive, and Cyprus, seawater is forced through a series of membranes conducted by oceanographers to investigate the most widely employed one is distillation. In Kuwait, in the blue tubes shown. By the time seawater reaches the last tube, it is fresh enough to drink. chemical processes of the seas, offering students a © Photodisc/age fotostock. Solar chance to explore© Jones the techniques & Bartlett oceanographers Learning, LLC energy ©Plastic Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Condensation

use in the fi ld.NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION EvaporationNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Chapter 10 Biological Productivity in the Ocean Fresh water 316 Seawater FIGURE B3–B Distillation of seawater. A widely used technique for desalination (taking salt out of seawater) involves the evaporation of seawater from a pool, the condensation of fresh water on a covering fabric, andFresh its water collection in a storage vat. BIOLOGY THE OCEAN SCIENCES BIOLOGY

Satellite Oceanography The CZCS is an elaborate, televisionlike instrument FIGURE mounted on satellites that detects and collects different When a biologist at sea takes a water sample or makes bands of visible light—blue, green, yellow, and red ( a plankton tow, the measurements are made at a tiny B3–A)—emitted from the ocean’s surface water layer. The ■ © pointJones in a vast ocean. The & question Bartlett then becomes, how Learning,CZCS converts this radiant energy—the LLC visible light— ■ Biology© Jones boxes & Bartlett spotlight Learning, specific species LLC that representative are these numbers for the study area, into an electronic signal that is transmitted to ground- which may cover thousands of square miles? Also, a ship receiving stations and displayed visually as a colored NOTtakes time toFOR sail between the SALE various sampling stations OR map. DISTRIBUTION From a spacecraft altitude of about 1,100 kilometers dependNOT on FOR the oceans SALE for OR survival, DISTRIBUTION such as penguins in a research area. Can one genuinely compare estimates (~660 miles), a swath of ocean area of more than 1,500 of plankton productivity taken at stations that are days kilometers (~930 miles) can be scanned by the CZCS and even weeks apart? Yet what other recourse is there? system. After making appropriate corrections, variations and blue whales, as well as the unique marine ecol- Biologists have had to assume that the measurements in color reflect mainly differences in the concentration they make at a few sites are representative of the entire of chlorophyll a, the principal photosynthetic pigment ogy of particular regions, including an exploration region—an unlikely possibility given the characteristic in plants. This is an indirect measure of the abundance patchy distribution of marine plants and animals in of phytoplankton and, thus, primary productivity. Large both space and time. Quite clearly, to understand concentrations of phytoplankton are indicated on the of Chesapeake Bay and the Gulf of Mexico. These marine productivity, biologists must be able to conduct images by red, yellow, and green colors and sparse simultaneous measurements over a broad area of the concentrations by blue and purpleFIGURE colors. B3– AnB, inexample which ocean. The application of remote-sensing technology of such images is presented in boxes also discuss events that have impacted the from space is now providing such data. Let’s consider one primary productivity for the entire North Atlantic Ocean © Jones & Bartlettsuch system, Learning, known as the Coastal Zone Color ScannerLLC is compared during the winter and spring seasons. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC (CZCS), that is used to assess variations in the primary seas, including a look into the Deepwater Horizon productivity of the oceans. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE70 Chapter 3OR The Origin of OceanDISTRIBUTION Basins Specific absorption bands covered by the channels on CZCS system oil spill. THE OCEAN SCIENCES COMPLEXITY THEORY

Complex Adaptive Systems mountain range. In effect the ocean basin over hundreds of millions of years was “born” by sea-floor spreading, Earth can be viewed as an entwined array of complex matured, then declined, and finally “died” by closure from adaptive systems (CAS), such as ecosystems, ice sheets, plate subduction. Channel B4–A, which is a stylized abstraction of 4 landscapes, climates, ocean basins, mass extinctions, Examine FIGURE Channel Channel Channel 2 3 cities, economies, social systems, etc. All CAS exist an adaptive cycle. The front loop includes the exploitation 1© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC at the edge of chaos, balanced between order© and Jones(r) and the conservation & (K) phasesBartlett of the juvenile and Learning, LLC mayhem, and interact intricately at a variety of spatial mature stages of ocean-basin evolution, respectively. The and temporal scales. Some cycles are small and fast rigid lithospheric plates of the ocean basin are adapting (e.g., a hurricane striking a coastline), others large and to the flow patterns of the underlying asthenosphere and NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION slow (e.g., rising sea level) and everything intermediateNOT the deepFOR mantle, particularly SALE the mantle plumes. AsOR such, DISTRIBUTION Spectral response of channels 1–4 channels of response Spectral between these two extremes. Moreover, all CAS self- the embryonic and juvenile stages of the ocean basin “red” organize and co-evolve, such that emergent ecosystem occur during the exploitation phase (r). As the ocean “green” “yellow” states are not predetermined. Hence, predicting details “blue” basin widens by sea-floor spreading, it enters into the about the future of CAS is impossible. Many of the above 700 conservation phase (K). In due course, the ocean basin 580 620 660 characterizations may seem opaque at first, but as we enters the back loop of the adaptive cycle, as it breaks work with these concepts, you will begin to realize their 420 460 500 540 apart along subduction zones, and continents abutting Wavelength (nanometers) importance for managing marine ecosystems. So, let’s the sides of the ocean basin converge rather than begin by examining a few basic concepts of CAS. diverge. During this release phase (Ω), the lithospheric Scientists simplify complexity by focusing on three plates of the ocean are consumed and their areal A Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS). The CZCS system detects radiant energy from discrete wavelength FIGURE B3– properties that are critical for the ever-changing integrity extent diminishes. Ultimately, there is a collision of the bands of visible light, emitted from the topmost 2 meters of the ocean. Because these colors largely reflect the of all CAS. According to Lance H. Gunderson and C. S. continents on opposite sides of the lithospheric plate. concentration of chlorophyll a in the ocean, their relative intensities are an indirect measure of primary productivity. Holling (Panarchy: Understanding2002), Transformationsthese are: its potential in This represents the reorganization phase (α) of the © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ©Human Jones and Natural Systems,connectedness & Bartlett, and its resilience adaptive Learning, cycle, whereby the ocean basin is consumedLLC for change, its degree of and the resulting uplifted mountain ranges of the sea over time and across space (meaning the system’s ability floor and oceanic crust undergo erosion by rivers and ■NOT■ Complexity FOR SALE Theory OR DISTRIBUTION NOTto recover fromFOR disturbances). SALEAt this introductory ORglaciers. TheseDISTRIBUTION late-stage processes of a closing ocean boxes introduce two pow- stage, we will simplify and consider two of the system’s basin represent the reorganization phase (α), as colliding properties, specifically potential and connectedness, and continents are rearranged into a mega-continent, like the apply them, not to an ecosystem, but to the Wilson Cycle former Pangea (Figure 3–12). erful techniques for analyzing complex systems— Κ of ocean-basin evolution (Figure 3–11). In subsequent vation α Conser chapters, we will incorporate the resilience property in our Reorganization analysis as we apply the CAS model to marine ecosystems.

panarchies and stability landscapes. These We begin by considering a single, “lazy-eight” adaptive ntial

cycle that describes the “life” of an ocean basin (Figure te Release

Po x 3–11). A juvenile ocean is created by uplift and faulting Ω methods for unpacking complexity are applied of part of a continent. As the juvenile ocean basin widens Exploitation r by sea-floor spreading, it receives a thick pile of sediment Connectedness derived from the erosion of the abutting continents, to a variety of systems, such as plate tectonics, thereby forming the framework for the accumulation FIGURE B4–A A complex adaptive system. In theory, © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlettof thick, continental-margin Learning, deposits. Subsequent plate LLC complex adaptive systems undergo systematic changes divergence along the seafloor-spreading ridge creates over time. Once systems self-organize during the migrating barrier islands, coral reefs, food webs, the basaltic crust that underlies a mature, broadening exploitation phase (r), they emerge and “grow” as they NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALEocean OR basin. Eventually, DISTRIBUTION the wide areal expanse of the travel up the conservation phase (K), both their potential ocean basin becomes unstable and the lithospheric and connectedness increasing over time. Eventually, and fisheries. plates fragment and collapse with the onset of plate systems collapse and, by so doing, rapidly drop into the subduction. Finally, the ocean basin reaches a terminal release phase (Ω), followed by reorganization (í) into a stage, whereby continental fragments on either side of new state of organization. the constricted ocean basin collide and the sea-floor crust and sediments are crushed and uplifted into a majestic © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

xxii The Student Experience

54 Chapter 3 The Origin of Ocean Basins ■■ The Process of Science © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC presents a hypothesis © JonesTHE & PROCESS Bartlett OF SCIENCE Learning, LLC regarding a global issue, such as climate variabil- Seafl or Spreading NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORAn essential SALEpart of the scientific ORmethod is theDISTRIBUTION falsification ity and rising sea levels, and explores the scientific of hypotheses. This means that one should be able to test any valid scientific hypothesis in such a way that it can be was relatively simple to drill through the sediment layers processes employed in gathering and analyzing disproved by the test results. Let’s examine an actual test to the underlying basaltic crust on the flanks of the ocean of a hypothesis. In 1963, ridges. The total thickness of the sediment cover at the and Drummond Matthews the proposed British thatgeologists the symmetrical Fred Vine drilling site could thus be determined and paleontologists information to develop a scientific theory. By magnetic anomaly stripes that lie parallel to midocean could obtain samples of the remains of microfossils ridges in all the oceans were the result of seafloor spreading embedded in the sediment that was deposited directly on (see Figure 3–5 the basalt. At any particular site ). If correct, the hypothesis of seafloor exploring historical research from leading sci- spreading had revolutionary implications for interpreting used to establish the age of the, oldestthe fossils layer could of sediment, then be the geological development of ocean basins. But how which would be very close to the age of the basalt directly entists and current© scientificJones & data, Bartlett students Learning, are LLCexactly to test this radical idea? Actually, this turned out beneath© Jones it. The data obtained & from Bartlettnumerous drill sites Learning, LLC to be quite easy. Marine geologists reasoned that, if all of indicated that both the age of the oldest sediment and the seafloor were created along the crests of spreading the total thickness of the sediment cover increased challenged to thinkNOT critically FOR aboutSALE the OR future DISTRIBUTION ocean ridges, as proposed by Vine and Matthews, then it systematicallyNOT with FOR increasing distance SALE from the ridge OR DISTRIBUTION stands to reason that the age of the ocean crust should axis. The conclusion was inescapable: the hypothesis of landscape of Earth and its seas. increase with distance from the ridge axis. Also, the older seafloor spreading that Vine and Matthews proposed was the basaltic crust of the seafloor, the thicker must be its not falsified by the test. This meant that seafloor spreading sediment cover. In other words, the Vine–Matthews model offered a legitimate new model for interpreting the of seafloor spreading predicts clearly that the crust should geologic history of the Earth’s ocean basins. get older and be buried by a thicker blanket of sediment The map in FIGURE B1–A with increasing distance from the ridge crest. These were of the oceanic crust determined shows from the a globalsynthesis age of pattern all the testable predictions. latest research findings. The youngest oceanic crust (red) To make these observations, geologists on the drilling is associated everywhere with the crest of the spreading ship Glomar Challenger could, for the first time, drill ridges. The age of the basalt increases systematically with © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC anywhere in the ocean in thousands© Jones of meters of water. &It Bartlettincreasing distance from Learning,the ridge crest, with the oldest LLC crust (blue) located far down the flanks of the spreading ridges. 18 ChapterNOT 1 The Growth FOR of Oceanography SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Wave: © Yuri Samsonov/Shutterstock.com, Inc. Science by the Numbers © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Graphs of water from sea surface to sea bottom). The relationship FIGURE B1–A Age of the ocean crust. Age determination indicates that the basaltic crust gets older with increasing between water depth and zooplankton abundance is inverse. distance from the crest of spreading ocean ridges. NOT FOR AsSALE you know, scientists OR strive to displayDISTRIBUTION information clearly To the unsuspecting, the plot suggests that zooplankton NOTCourtesy FORof NGDC/NOAA. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION and accurately. A useful and revealing way to display data is concentrations decrease gradually downward and that to plot the information on a graph. A data plot summarizes significant numbers of zooplankton exist even at depths the information quickly and reveals trends and relationships below 5 kilometers. This impression is not, however, correct Actually, it turns out to be easy to measure rates among variables. Sometimes the relationship between because the zooplankton abundances are plotted on a scale of spreading using magnetic pro variables is direct, meaning that an increase in one leads to that varies as the power of 10. Thus, the minute quantities dicular to the crests of midoceanfi ridgesles measured ( perpen- during unique magnetic reversals. For example, if a an increase in the value of the other, and a decrease leads to of zooplankton found in water deeper than 1 kilometer are The timing of geomagnetic polarity reversalsFIGURE is easily particular anomaly from a strip of ocean fl or formed a corresponding decrease. Other times, the relationship is 3–5b). amplified by the scale chosen to plot them. established by dating basalt fl ws. Th s, then, makes during a reversal that occurred 10 million years ago, inverse, meaning that an increase in one leads to a decrease A conventional plot of the data using a linear scale for it possible to infer the age of the magnetic anomaly then that piece of seafl or, now located 100 kilometers in the other, and vice versa. zooplankton concentrations shows a very different graph stripes of the seafl or because each of these formed (~62 miles) from the ridge crest, must have moved 100 In many cases, relationships between variables are (FIGURE B1–B). This reveals that zooplankton are essentially kilometers flankward since it was extruded and solidi- not linear but are curved in some complicated© way. JonesAlso, confined &to water Bartlett that is no deeper than 1Learning, kilometer below LLC fi d at the ridge© axis. Jones Dividing that distance & of Bartletttransport Learning, LLC scientists may choose not to use linear scales for one or both the sea surface. Below 2 kilometers, there are virtually no ■■ variables plotted on a graph. Oceanographers, for example, zooplankton. Also, the sharp downward curve of the graph To assist students in understanding the basic commonly graph a variable as a power of 10. NOTLet’s look at FORbetween 1 and SALE 2 kilometers is masked OR by plotting DISTRIBUTION the data NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION A. At first glance, it appears as if the concentration FIGURE B1– along a scale that varies as a power of 10 (compare Figures mathematical concepts needed to study ocean- of tiny zooplankton suspended in the water above the B1–A and B1–B). The lesson to be learned from this is that Kuril-Kamchatka Trench of the northwestern Pacific Ocean one must always note the scale intervals that are used for all ography, Science by the Numbers provides a decreases regularly with water depth, except near the sea the variables plotted on a graph. surface, where the zooplankton are a bit more abundant than they are lower down in the water column (the vertical extent 0 step-by-step solution to a specific problem. These 0 1 boxes help improve students’ math skills and pro- ©1 Jones & Bartlett Learning,2 LLC vide the © insights Jones into & oceanBartlett processes Learning, that only LLC 2 3

4 NOT3 FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONve the numericalNOT calculations FOR SALE reveal. OR DISTRIBUTION

Data for water abo Water depth (km) depth Water 4 5 Kuril-Kamchatka Trench ve the Data for water abo Water depth (km) depth Water 3 5 Kuril-Kamchatka Trench 6

0 250 500 750 10 3 3 ) 6 2 10 Zooplankton (mg/m 0 10 11 0.1 3) Zooplankton (mg/m FIGURE B1–B Linear plot.

FIGURE B1–A Nonlinear plot.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC (~5.6 miles). Each specimen was described, cataloged© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC carefully, and preserved Challengerfor later laboratory crew left analysis. no doubt Researchers were jubilant with theTh scientifice crew com suc-- The fi dings of the NOT FOR SALE ORChallenger DISTRIBUTION expedition. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION cess of the that organisms lived at all depths in the ocean, fi ally pleted more than 360 deep-sea soundings and raised demolishing the age-old belief championed by Forbes an equal number of dredged samples off the bottom ey obtained no fewer than 7,000 sea-life that the cold temperature, darkness, and high water The( FIGURE boxes 1–9). Th serve severalkilometers purposes. Some review summary of the Key Concepts. Students can review commonspecimens, research some from as techniquesgreat a depth as 9 employed by oceanog- the summary prior to diving into the chapter to guide raphers to investigate the seas. Some fle h out a con- their focus and can also use it as a study tool to pre- cept merely outlined in ©the Jones text. Others & Bartlett spotlight Learning, case pare LLC for course lectures and © exams. Jones It is& importantBartlett Learning, LLC histories in which the oceanographyNOT FOR ofSALE a specific OR placeDISTRIBUTION for students at this introductoryNOT level FOR to be SALE aware ORof DISTRIBUTION is presented in concrete terms from the standpoint of and understand the terminology oceanographers use an idea introduced in the text. A few featured boxes in their daily discourse. For this reason, a list of Key review a concept that is simply interesting and that Words is also included at the end of every chapter. otherwise© Jones could not & beBartlett integrated Learning, easily into LLC the main Furthermore,© the Jones key words & Bartlett in the chapter Learning, appear LLC in text ofNOT the chapter. FOR SALEThey are OR like DISTRIBUTION eating dessert after bold to draw NOTthe reader’s FOR attention. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION fin shing the main course of a meal. Enjoy them! Seven Most chapters conclude with a series of ques- new boxes have been added to this edition. Check the tions arranged into three groupings. The fi st set, back of this book for a complete listing of the boxes, the Review of Basic Concepts, is just that. The including the chapter in which each appears. questions address the main notions developed in © Jones & ToBartlett ensure Learning, readers thoroughly LLC grasp the import- © Jonesthe chapter. & Bartlett The second Learning, set, the LLCCritical Thinking NOT FORant SALEconcepts, OR each DISTRIBUTION chapter concludes with a detailed NOTEssays FOR, requiresSALE OR more DISTRIBUTION thought because you must © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

The Student Experience xxiii

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC where lithosphere is preserved as plates slip lat- The repeated fl pping erally (strike-slip motion) past one another. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORdrift of the continents. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION6. The vast majority of volcanoes are formed at plate back and forth of the geomagnetic poles causes boundaries. Many lie along subduction bound- basalts ejected at spreading ocean ridge crests to aries where the lithosphere has melted as it was be normally and reversely magnetized,magnetic anomaly giving forced downward into the Earth’s hot interior rise to a symmetric pattern of by an overriding lithospheric plate. Other vol- that run parallel to the ridge axis (Figures stripes canoes form along the crests of spreading ocean 3–5). These magnetic anomaly stripes 3–3 and ridges as well, as lithospheric plates diverge and can be used to date the basaltic rock and calcu- lava spills out of fractures onto the seafl or. In subduction Wave: © Yuri Samsonov/Shutterstock.com, Inc. late the rate of seafl or spreading. contrast, some linear chains of volcanoes form 3. Basaltic crust is being destroyed at on the plate interior, far from its edges,mantle as plume the , zones, which are associated with volcanic arcs - lithosphere drifts slowly over a Science by the Numbers and deep-sea trenches. Here, large slabs of rock or “hot spot,” in the underlying asthenosphere.- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCare being compressed as they converge and over The mantle© plume Jones feeds lava to the plate’s & sur Bartlett Learning, LLC Seafl or Spreading Rates 3–6b). When you divide powers of 10, you merely subtract the ride one another, producingBenioff an zone inclined (Figure plane of face and creates a long, linear chain of volcanoes exponents. So, earthquakes called the 7) that mark the track of the plateese hotspots over the are man now- Lithospheric plates are moving apart at midocean ridges (2− r e global distribution of earthquakes indi- 3–9). Th 27 × 10 km/y 4. Th NOT FORm/10 SALEyears4 OR DISTRIBUTION tle plumeNOT (Figure FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION because of seafloor spreading. Oceanic crust, once created, 41×=0k −5 yr cates the Earth’s surface is broken into a mosaic =×410km/ known to be mobile and not fi ed as was origi- will slowly move away from the axis of the ridge. This means of irregularly shaped plates. Each plate, which that the seafloor will have a speed. Speed is distance (d) nally believed (Figure 3–10). is 100–150 kilometers (~62–93 miles) thick, 3–11). traveled per unit of time (t), or 7. Ocean basins undergo a regular evolutionary is the rate of seafloor spreading for this ridge. consists of the entire crust and the uppermost Let’s now convert this rate to centimeters per year (cm/yr), history related to plate tectonics (Figure mantle, which combined constituteThe lithospheric the litho- speed = d/t. which would make more intuitive sense to us. The trick is to 3–7 and 3–8). A narrow, embryonic basin forms between the sphere (Figures keep tab of the units. splintered pieces of a continent; expands into a The seafloor is moving slowly, such that its speed cannot 2 plates are cold, rigid, and brittle and overlie a 0cm/ m) broad, mature ocean basin by the mechanism of −53r)(10m/km )(1 be measured directly with a stopwatch. Yet we can easily (4×10 km /y hot, ductile (plastic-like) layer of the mantle, the seafl or spreading; declines into old age as the determine its speed (its spreading rate) by noting the age −532)cm/yr. . =×(4 10 )(10 )(10 asthenosphere basin is consumed by subduction; and disap- of the seafloor at any distance from the ridge. The older the 5. Lithospheric plates have three kinds that of are bound under- spreading ridges - pears as colliding continental masses become seafloor is, the farther it will be from the ridge axis. Also, the When you multiply powers of 10, you merely add their aries (Table 3–1): sub faster the rate of seafloor spreading, the farther the seafloor tightly sutured together and form an immense exponents. So, tension, where new lithosphere is formed; mountain belt on land (Figure 3–12). © Jonesof a particular age will & be from Bartlett the ridge axis. Let’s calculate Learning,( −++532LLC) r that© are under Jones compression, where, & Bartlett Learning, LLC 10 cm/y duction zones transform faults a seafloor spreading rate. −5320)cm/yr4× (4×=10 )(10 )(1 0 yr. First, assume that we obtain a piece of basalt 400 =×410cm/ lithosphere is destroyed; and NOTkilometers FOR from the ridge SALE axis and determine itsOR age to DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION be 10 million years old. This implies that this rock took 10 102 (i.e., 4 times Because any number raised to a power of zero is 1, Questions million years to travel a distance of 400 kilometers. The7 c. the Red Sea number 400 can be expressed as 4 × 0 4cm/yr. (4 ×=10 )cm/yr Review of Basic Concepts d. the San Andreas Fault 100). The number 10 million can be expressed as 10 1. Explain the concepts of continental drift, sea- e. the Hawaiian Islands (i.e., 10 times itself seven times). The rate of the seafloor This is the spreading rate for that side or flank of the fl or spreading, and global plate tectonics. How spreading is 5. Where in the oceans would you go to collect a 27yr. midocean ridge. are they similar and how are they different? 410km/10 sample of basalt? A sample of andesite? Give the ingrate/dt=× speed ==spread 2. What exactly is a magnetic anomaly, and why reason for your choices. that seafl or spreading did not occur before 200 does it appear as a stripediff oner the among seafl a or? spreading 6. Account for the formation and symmetry of million years ago? 3. How do plate motions magnetic anomaly stripes associated with mid- 3. In which ocean is the oldest oceanic crust likely ridge, a transform fault, and a subduction zone? ocean ridges. to be found? Why? 6. If the Atlantic, Indian, and Arctic Oceans areWhich all of the three is characterized by the stron- 4. Examine Figure 7. Cite a variety of evidence that support the expanding over time, what will be the fate ofgest the earthquakes, the deepest earthquakes? Why? fl or Spreading.” ConsiderB1–A in the featuredage of the box basaltic “Sea- notions of (a) continental drift, (b) seafl or © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Pacific cean© in theJones distant future? Explain. &How, specifiBartlett ally, have the following Learning,originated? LLC crust. Is the North Pacific spreading at a faster 4. spreading, (c) subduction. 7. Refer to the maps in Figures or slower rate than the North Atlantic? a. the Mid-Atlantic Ridge Predict how the Red Sea basin will evolve over Study Guide Indian Ocean? Explain your reasoning. b. the Himalayan Mountains NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION the next fewNOT hundred million FORyears.3–7a Explain.and SALE ORSelected DISTRIBUTION Readings 5. Assume that you discover a series of large sub- B2–A2. Than the 8. Refer to the maps in Figures marine volcanoes on the deep-ocean fl or of Anderson, R. N. 1986. 2. It is unlikely that magnetic anomaly stripes 2. Studies of the magnetic properties of the seaWhere- will Baja end up several hundred millionCritical-Thinking Essays Key Concepts the Pacific. How would you determine whether New York: John Wiley.Marine Geology:older A Planet than Earth about Perspective 200 .million years will be found fl or reveal that the crests of the midocean years into the future? Explain. 3–7a and Why do magnetic anomaly stripesBindeman, of similar I. N. 2006. age Geologic and paleontological evidence supportsor not these volcanoes had been created by a 9. B3–A.1. anywhere in the oceans. Why? Does this mean 1. ridges are sites where new oceanic crust is Examine Figure American The secrets of supervolcanoes. 3–1b).mantle plume? e divergence of the basaltic crust have the same magnetic polarity,Bloxam, regardless J., and 294 Gubbins, (6):of 36–43. D. 1989. Kelemen, P. 2004. Unraveling the tapestry of ocean crust. the existence in the geologicPangaea past (Figure of an immense forming. Th for the 3–9a. How do you account diff where they are discovered in themagnetic ocean? fi ld. Scienti landmass known as erence in the trend of the Hawaiian Scientifi 42 (2): 40–43. away from the crestline of the ridge—a processRidge and the Emperor Seamount Chain? In Bonatti, E. 1987. Th c Discovering with Numbers —leads to the expan- fic American 261e evolution (6): 68–75. of the Earth’s Kunzig, R. 2000. Beginning about 150 million yearsifted ago, across Pangaea the seafloor spreading Figure 3–9a, has the rate of seafl or spreading Th called 3–2a) and to the (3): 96–103. e rifting of continents. Ocean Science. MappingSort of Books the Deep:. W. W. Norton & Company.Oceanus Bonatti, E., and Crane, K. 1984. Oceanic fracture zones. broke apart, and the pieces dr 1. Convert 33 kilometers into centimeters, and varied over the past 70 million years? Explain. Scienti Mathez, E. A., ed. 2001. Th sion of ocean basins (Figure fic American 256 e Extraordinary Story of Earth’s surface to form today’s continents.ft. Th4.1 s× 10 American of Natural History. Earth: Inside and Out. New York: Museum 6 cm into kilometers (see Appendix II). Buff 250 (5): 40–51. Murphy, J. B., and Nance, R. D. 1992. Mountain belts and the process is called continental dri 2. Assume that magnetic anomaly C in Figure ett, B. A. 2000. Earth’s core and the geodynamic. 2007–2012. Scienti fic supercontinent cycle. Scienti is 650,000 years old. Calculate a spreading rate Clift, . 2004. Moving earth and heaven. Oceanus Oceanus the spreading rate in centimeters per year for . 2000. Th for the seafl or. Now, use the calculated seafl or Dalgiel, I. W. D. 1995. Earth before Pangaea. Science Oceanus e Mid-Ocean Ridge:fic American Part I. Special266 (4): issue 84–91. 41 (1). this midocean ridge. 288: . 2000. spreading rate to estimate the age of magnetic3–3 271 (1): 58–63. Oreskes, N., ed. Th2003.e Mid-Ocean Ridge: Part II. Special issue 41 (2). © Jones & Bartlett Learning,4. LLC © 42Jones (2): 91–94. & Bartlett Learning, LLC In Question 3 above, how many kilometers from Detrick, R. 2004. Motion in the mantle. Oceanus anomaly B in Figure 3–3. Scienti Modern Plate Tectonics: An Insider’s History of the the ridge crest would you have to sail to the east Dick, H. J. 2004. Earth’s complex composition. fic American Theory of the Earth. Cambridge, M.A.: Westview 3. Assume that you are conducting geophysical Press. in order to be positioned over ocean crust that 36–39. Pinet, P. R. 2017. work on the 42 (2): 6–12. Frohlich, C. 1989. Deep earthquakes. Norton & Company.Shadowed by Deep Time NOT FORfl SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONis 15 million years old? NOTOceanus FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION that trends directlyank of north–south. a spreading As ocean the capridge- Pratson, L. F., and Haxby, W. F. 1997. Panoramas of the seafl or. 5. Examine Figure 48–55. 42 (2): . Author House. tain steers the vessel to the east, your magne- Glatzmaier, G. A., and Olson, P. 2005. ProbingScienti the geodynamo. fic American 260 (1): Scientifi W. W. Red Sea.” If the RedB2– SeaA2 began in featured to develop box “ some Scienti Redfern, R. 2001.c American 276 (6): 82–87. tometer measures a series of magnetic highs fic American 292 (4): 50–57. 20–30 million years ago, calculate a spreading Gurnis, M. 2001. Sculpting the Earth from inside out. Origins: and lows. A strong, broad magnetic high is Th and Life Th rate in cm/yr. e American Simpson, S. .2010. Norman: Violent University originse Evolution of continents.Oklahoma of Continents, Press. Oceans, positioned directly over the ridge crest. It is 284 (3): 40–47. 6. Consult Figure Hinshaw, D. P. 2000. Shaping the Earth. New York: Clarion. 302 (1): 60–67. followed to the east by a magnetic low of mod- Hodges, K. 2006. Climate and the evolution of mountains. Scienti Stock, J. 2003. Geophysics—hotspots come unstuck. latitude equals about3–9a. 1,110 Given kilometers, that 10 degrees calcu- of fic est width and, at 45 kilometers from the ridge Scienti Scientifi late an approximate rate of seafl or spreading in fic American 295 (2): 72–79. 1059–1060. c American crest, a narrow but prominent magnetic high. Hoffman, K. A. 1988. Ancient magnetic reversals: clues to the Stow, D. A. V. 2010. cm/yr for the North Pacific plate, assuming that Determine the age of this latter magnetic high geodynamo. World Vanished Oceans: How Tethys ReshapedScience the mantle plumes do not drift ver time. Hyndman, R. D. Scienti1995. Great earthquakes of the Pacific Northwest. . Oxford University Press. W. W. Norton & Company. 301: by consulting Figure fic American 258 (5): 76–83. Tarduno, J. A. 2008. Hotspots unplugged. 7. Scienti Now assume that the mantle plume is dr fic American 276 (6): 68–75. 298 (1): 88–93. 3–4c, and then determine Kelemen, P. 2009. Tivey, M. A. 2004. Paving the seafl or—brick by brick. the southeast at ~4 cm/yr. What then would be Scienti Key Words the seafl or spreading rate of the lithosphere in American The origin of land under the sea. 42 (2): 44–47. fic American ifting to 302 (2): 52–57. Winchester, S. 2005. this case? Explain your reasoning. andesite Scienti HarperCollins. A Crack in the Edge of the World. NewOceanus York: © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlettfic Learning, LLC asthenosphere Benioff z ne mantle plume complex adaptive systems normal fault NOT FOR SALEcompression OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION normal polarity continental drift rift v lley ocean basin scarp lithosphere paleomagnetism lithospheric plate seafl or spreading paleontology seismicity magnetic anomaly Pangaea magnetometer strike-slip plate subduction zone plate tectonics tectonism reverse polarity tension thermal convection transform fault © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC synthesize ideas, NOTsometimes FOR drawingSALE ORfrom DISTRIBUTION concepts computation and are includedNOT FOR in most SALE chapters. OR DISTRIBUTIONThe developed in previous chapters. In other words, ver- trick to answering math questions is to understand batim answers might not be found anywhere in the conceptually what it is you are trying to solve. These book. However, you can develop an answer by think- math boxes will help you upgrade your math skills ing© Jones deeply & about Bartlett the question Learning, posed LLC and applying and develop© Jones self-assurance & Bartlett aboutLearning, reasoning LLC with commonNOT FOR sense SALE and logic OR to DISTRIBUTION the information provided numbers.NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION in this book. The third set of questions, Discovering A reading list is provided at the end of each chapter with Numbers, deals with making straightforward and includes both classical, but still relevant, references calculations about ocean processes. The questions and more recent writings on the ocean’s dynamic pro- rely on basic mathematics, the kind that any high cesses and diverse habitats. Some are books; most are © Jones & Bartlettschool graduate Learning, has mastered. LLC In order to assist you,© Jones articles. & Bartlett They should Learning, prove valuable LLC for delving deeper NOT FOR SALEthe Science OR DISTRIBUTION by the Numbers boxes teach the artNOT of FORinto SALE an area OR of oceanographyDISTRIBUTION that intrigues you and © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

xxiv The Student Experience

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