;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;

Geography 494 parks. The findings of my research include a limitation on the build up and continuation Land Tenure and its of subsidence agriculture in the national parks located on customary land, and a more Effect on the National aggressive management and recreational utilization on privatized land. Park system: A Cross Background section Comparative Study of Geographical history of Sämoa and American American Sämoa and Sämoa The Sämoan Archipelago is comprised Sämoa of 13 volcanic islands, 9 of which are Genell Howell inhabited, and 2 atolls located 14 degrees south of the equator in the Pacific Ocean. The archipelago is oldest to the northwest at the island of Savaii and decreases in age to the southeast at the island of Ta‘ü (Craig, 2009). These islands are basaltic in nature and contain an intricate network of coral reef systems throughout their near shores. The natural vegetation on these islands consists mostly of lowland and montane rainforests with smaller patches of habitat that are categorized as cloud, riverine, swamp, mangrove and beach forests. According to Schuster, the primary conservation areas Map 1. from national park of American Sämoa. are montane rainforests as they are rich in (October 1997) General Management Plan (pg 3) endemic flora and fauna and have high rates of biodiversity. Introduction Political History of Sämoa and AS Land tenure greatly affects natural Uanasa Va‘a, a professor at the Sämoan resource management within the national University, describes Sämoa as, “One nation parks of the Sämoan archipelago. This paper’s with two separate flags.” Though the islands primary objective is to cross analyze and are politically separated they are similar in compare theses differences in both American traditions, practices and share both a common Sämoa and Sämoa. Although the Sämoan language and culture which varies in degrees archipelago is geographically and culturally and intensity. The islands of Sämoa have similar, it remains politically separated historically had division and turmoil which with two land tenure systems operating in sometimes resulted in island-to-island warfare; the region; the first is a traditional practice this was compounded by the Treaty of Berlin of communal land and the second, more in 1889 and the inception of colonialism (via recent method of privatized land that began the Tripartite Convention) in 1899. This accord with colonialism. Included in this paper separated the island chain with the islands is the impact of the land tenure system of Savai‘i and ‘Upolu under the colonial rule on management plans within the national of Germany and later New Zealand, while 43 the island of Tutuila and the Manu‘a islands different types of land that could potentially came under the colonial power of the U.S. add to the restrictions of the management This division afforded Sämoa a land area plans in the park. In Sämoa the parks are that is fifteen times larger totaling 1,099 located on government owned lands, whereas sq miles, as opposed to its counterpart of in American Sämoa the parks are located on American Sämoa which totals 77.1 sq miles customary lands. Stipulations of the customary (Craig, 2009). Sämoa received its status as an lands in American Sämoa are based on a independent nation in 1962, while American 50 year lease that was signed in September Sämoa is still subject to the colonial rule of of 1993 between the governor of American the United States as an unincorporated part Sämoa, who was acting on behalf of the of the U.S. (Schuster). A strong variance that village landowners, and the NPS (NPAS, occurs between the Sämoas is found in their 1997). economic infusions; while American Sämoa is underneath the wing of the US government Management differences between the and receives a variety of grants and stimulus National Parks packages, Sämoa, due to their independent status, must self govern and write a variety of Sämoa proposals and grants in order to supplement As reported by the Conservation the revenue generated from tourism. International there are a total of five national parks in Sämoa; two are on the island of Land Appropriation ‘Upolu, totaling in 11,613 acres, and three In the Sämoa islands land tenure is are located on the island of Savai‘i which considered an integral portion of the social accounts for a total of 28,640 acres. The organization tied to a kinship system and first National Park, O Le Pupu Pu‘e, was village network (Stover, 1999). Communal established in 1978 and is located on the tenure refers to the rights of the environmental Southern portion of ‘Upolu (Division of resources, while the lands and waters are held Environment and Conservation, 1998). As in common. These land rights belong to an stated in the National Parks and Reserves ‘aiga, or extended family, and are overseen by Act of 1974, the purpose of a national the appointed matai, or chief, within that ‘aiga park is to ensure the preservation and “the (NPS and ASG, 1987). According to an article benefit and enjoyment of the people of by Stover, there are two concepts that support Sämoa” (2008). This Act also asserts that the the matai in their decision making process benefits of the park range from inspiration, over the land usage. The first is the pule, aesthetic appreciation, enjoyment and otherwise known as authority, as the matai recreation. Within the park, management has exclusive power to make administrative has elected the right to alter roads and decisions over the family lands. The second tracks, set aside camping and picnic areas, is the tautua, otherwise known as service, vehicle lots, authorize the construction of which refers to the obligations of the matai permanent buildings and structures, perform to their ‘aiga (1999). Uanasa Va‘a stated maintenance, provide a place for scientific that ninety percent of the land in American and archeological research and lastly to Sämoa is considered communal under the implement the incorporation of interpretive matai system, while a total of eighty percent signs, which educate, instruct or guide of land in Sämoa is customary (Division of visitors (MNRE, 2008). In recent years there Environment and Conservation, 1998). This has been a push from the Ministry of Natural separation of land tenure is substantially Resources and Environment (MNRE) towards important when comparing the national parks the preservation and conservation of the in the Sämoas as they are contained on two biodiversity within the natural areas, and

44 as a result new rules and regulations have from around the world(1998). accompanied the way that the parks are managed. For instance, huge efforts are being While there has been some build up in made in order to ensure the conservation the parks in the form of trails and signage of watersheds, reforestation of the national there remain very strict regulations set by park, and the eradication of harmful invasive the management plan that prohibits the species that may degrade and threaten the construction of new structures and roads in rehabilitation of conservation areas (MNRE, the park. Furthermore, based on the lease 2010). stipulations, subsistent agriculture that had occurred in areas that now fall under park American Sämoa jurisdiction can continue, however not According to American Sämoa’s expand (NPS and ASG, 1988). Natural History Guide, the national parks in American Sämoa total 10,520 acres on the Methodology islands of ‘Ofu, Ta‘ü and Tutuila (Craig, 2009). The methodology used and This amounts to a total of three national parks implemented within this research project with one park on each of the aforementioned consisted of participant observation in the islands. The park on the island of Tutuila National Parks headquarters and the National consists of 2,500 acres and is located on Parks of both American Sämoa and Sämoa. the north central part of the island. The The participant observation was performed in boundaries comprise all land that is 200 ft order to ground truth already preconceived and up in elevation following the Mt. Alava/ notions regarding research questions. The Maugaloa Ridgeline. On the island of Ta‘ü consultation of a variety of scholarly journals the park encompasses a total of 5,400 acres and government-assessed proposals regarding and includes the southeastern portion of the the management and implementations of island. Finally, the park on ‘Ofu makes up a programs within the Park systems was carried total of 70 acres of both sandy beach on the out. I also conducted informal interviews/ southern shore, a transit corridor, and the consultations with a total of 6 individuals southern slopes of the Sunu‘itao Peak (NPAS, within the National Park systems. This informal 1997). The management objectives of the interviewing allowed me to gain knowledge national park are to preserve and perpetuate and insight regarding the implementation the cultural integrity and natural resources of a variety of management policies by the within the tropical rainforests including the administrators and workers in the National plants, animals, waters, soils, topographic Parks. features, geologic features, air quality and scenic vistas. As stated in the General Discussion Management Plan issued by the NPAS the In the following section I will discuss purpose of a national park is to: my overall findings and conclusions based on all of the information gleaned through my Preserve and protect the tropical forest research. This section has been broken down and archeological and cultural resources into a total of three sections; the first focuses of American Sämoa…to maintain the on the findings in Sämoa National Park and is habitat of flying foxes, preserve the further broken down into subsections for each ecological balance of the Sämoan island visited. The second section consists tropical forest, and, consistent with the of findings pertaining to American Sämoa preservation of these resources to provide National Park and is further broken down into for the enjoyment of the unique resources 3 subsections for each island visited. The final of the Sämoan tropical forest by visitors section focuses on the limitations presented

45 over the duration and analysis of this research process.

Sämoa Savai‘i On the island of Savai‘i there are a total of 3 national parks that amount to an area greater than on any other island; however, the parameters of the parks and common knowledge of their whereabouts is vague and unidentifiable (refer to map 2 for specific locations). Our guide on this island, Warren Jopling, took us on a nature-guided tour of the island where we were able to visit preservation lands that would be in similar condition to the national parks on this island. The largest issue present was the damage Map 2: Conservation International: Pacific Islands. incurred by the 1990 cyclone Ofa and the Sämoa national parks, reserves, MPAs and community 1991 cyclone Val. The overall detrimental conservation areas. effects of these cyclones severely impacted the population of the flying foxes, reducing ‘Upolu their numbers from the thousands to under The island of ‘Upolu has a total of a hundred. In addition, the cyclones caused two national parks that account for 11,613 a substantial loss of canopy cover which sq acres. According to Annie Mauga, the allowed the successive invasive species Planning and Policy officer with the forestry Merremia and mile-a-minute vine, or fue, to division at the MNRE, funding for the National disperse widely and negatively impact native Parks came through international agencies vegetation. This is extremely detrimental as the such as FAO, UNDP, JICA and the MNRE. fue covers the native biota and prohibits the Annie reaffirmed my findings that the national secondary regeneration of native vegetation. parks within Sämoa are placed on government The final issue that was present in the national owned lands and therefore are able to utilize parks and preservation lands on this island the land to different degrees and impose was the infringements by the local population stricter policies on natural resource use as in the form of subsistent farming and opposed to the ASNPs. The O Le Pupu Pu‘e resource utilization. This is a huge problem National Park is in the shape of an ahupua‘a on this island as the parks’ boundaries are and covers the land from mountain to sea. poorly defined and the continuation of As a result of its shape it spans a variety of native indigenous practices is hard to limit ecosystems and encompasses a montane and or control. According to the MNRE’s Annie lowland tropical forest (refer to map 2). The Mauga, the national parks are areas that were most striking dissimilarity between the park once utilized for agriculture when the policy systems is the implementation of a visitor was that of sustainable utilization of the land; center in the national park. This center allows however in recent years the lands have been for visitors to sign in and receive information re-appropriated to the Department of Forestry regarding the programs that are implemented with the focus of conservation thereby by park rangers on behalf of the MNRE in prohibiting any additional further use of the addition to providing a visual representation land by the local community. of the park itself. The trail systems are standard hiking trails bordered with planted ginger, an invasive species and vegetation 46 that was chosen strictly for its aesthetically sites. According to Craig, as a result of budget pleasing nature as opposed to its endemicity. limitations the park is limited to 10 permanent Permanent structures in the form of parking staff and a total of 40 VIPs (volunteers in the lots, roads, picnic tables, fales, barbeque pits park) within the entire ASNP system. The and a fallen tree jungle gym were present in purpose for the VIPs is to maintain park areas the park. While hiking we crossed the paths and remove invasive species. At the current of 3 other visiting groups, one of which were time the primary project for the VIPs is the jumping into the swimming area and drinking removal of the invasive species tamaligi alcohol. These observations combined to palagi, otherwise known in Hawaii as Albizia. produce the conclusion that the national park The removal of this large tree is labor intensive in Sämoa is utilized as a tourist destination, as it involves the girthing of the trunk and and much more recreational use occurs here traversing steep terrain. The VIPs in the park than in the ASNP. An informal interview with are contract employees whom earn a stipend Loto, the head ranger of the park, revealed amount of $25 per day. As reported by Craig another startling difference; as a government they are usually short-term employees whom employee he has job security, a full benefits are hired on a project-by-project basis. This package and housing provided from Monday is dissimilar to the government-employed through Friday. This is strikingly different workers found in the Sämoan system. The from American Sämoa as their employees are visitor’s center, while in a temporary location contracted and receive a stipend on a per day due to the damage incurred by the tsunami, basis with no job security. According to Loto was very different from the Sämoan visitor’s the main focus in the park is the maintenance center in the fact that it is located outside of the trails and the removal of invasive of the park. However, both visitors’ centers species, specifically the removal of fue, the provided similar information pertaining to climbing invasive plant. As reported by Steve hiking trails, maps of park boundaries, current Brown, the Assistant CEO at the Ministry projects that the national parks are working of Natural Resources and the Environment on, endemic flora and fauna found in the Services, there is a prevalent issue currently parks, and culturally important traditions of in the national parks in regard to boundary American Sämoa. After speaking with Sarah identification as fences and parameters of Fone, an interpreter and manager of the the park are either vague or nonexistent. As a ASNP, I identified the transient nature of the result of this issue cattle or subsistent farmers staff within the parks higher echelons. Sarah from surrounding villages encroach on the has been with the park for a total of 1 year, parkland and degrade or utilize the natural and based on our discourse she seemed vegetation. disconnected from the cultural traditions of American Sämoa. The turnover rate was American Sämoa further described to me by Epi Suafoa, an Tutuila archeologist who worked for 17 years with On the island of Tutuila Peter Craig, ASNP. She informed me that during her tenure the head marine biologist for the national the position of superintendent changed hands park, informed me that the primary purpose five times. All of the superintendents were for the national park system is not only to palangis (foreigners) from the mainland of the protect the natural resources of the park, but U.S. and were accustomed to a very different the cultural traditions as well. The cultural way of working with the local community as component is addressed with interpretive opposed to embracing the traditional customs signs in the park that pertain to culturally in American Sämoa. While it is a part of the relevant traditions within AS such as weaving, ASNP policy to preserve and continue the or signs that emphasize culturally relevant tradition and culture of American Sämoa

47 I can argue that it is unfeasible that the again followed a previously established trail amount of turnover seen in the park system following the ridgeline that was initially would ensure the fairest objectivity, and that created to provide access for subsistent cultural practices are beings followed and farming and passage for the local villagers utilized. According to park officials many of who inhabited the ridgeline. Staying true to the limitations exist due to the land tenure the management plan there is noticeable situation. The land is leased to the government subsistent farming that occurs on the side of from the local villages for a total of 50 years the trail. The subsistent farming that occurs with the option for either party to cancel or in the ASNP is all in accordance with the opt out of their lease with one year’s notice. lease agreement and based on the land tenure As a result of this uncertainty of park stability system. While the habitat the NP is preserving the implementation of permanent structures in is ecologically fragile the agreement stipulates the park is not viable. that traditional farming that was already in the area of the parks at the signing of the lease can continue, however not expand. While hiking the trail we failed to cross the path of any other person. This was extremely different from the observations of Sämoa where we crossed the path with not only workers of the park but also several tourists. This reaffirms the fact that the parks in Tutuila see substantially less tourists as opposed to those of Sämoa. The trail also reaffirms the commitment of the park to ensure that the conservation of the rainforest is the most important purpose as no additional buildings or facilities on the park Map 3: National Park of American Sämoa. Tutuila grounds exist that would contribute to the Island, American Sämoa degradation of the fragile ecosystem. On the island of Tutuila the national park is Ta‘ü located on the northern side of the island The National Park visitor’s center in (refer to map 3). The hiking trail for this park Tutuila provides information regarding the is the Mount Alava Trail which follows the parks on the Manu‘a islands and home stay Maugaloa ridgeline overlooking the Pago opportunities as there are no accommodations Pago harbor. The trailhead is located on the on the island of Ta‘ü. These islands are remote Fagasa Pass and the parking lot is merely the and located 60 miles south of Tutuila and side of the road. The park is noted by a sign require traveling on a small plane in the which contains some interpretive information interisland air fleet. This tyranny of distance pertaining to invasive species removal is personified through the extremely pristine education as well as cultural components such condition of the parks on these islands as women weavers and a map that depicts as they receive very few visitors. On the the terrain and the trail distances. The trail island of Ta‘ü the park consists of the entire is a 4x4 standard trail that is a remnant of a Southern portion of the island and over half service road that allowed for the TV station to of the island’s mass (refer to map 4). While gain antenna access at the peak of Mt Alava. in Ta‘ü I consulted Mauga, who has been the There seems to be little to no build up of this head VIP for the area for a total of 15 years. trail. According to the General Management According to Mauga this park has a total of 3 plan the trail extends after the peak of Mt VIPs who care for it. Their primary focus is the Alava down to the village of Vatia. This once

48 maintenance of the park and trail building. There is one main trail in the park that is again in the form of a reclaimed 4x4 all access road that extends down the eastern side of the park bordering on the coast. The entrance to the park is identified with a main sign and contains a handful of interpretive signs pertaining to the flying foxes, native biota and a cultural sign explaining the significance of the Saua archeological site. On the side of the trail is a 1000-year-old stone foundation and remnants of a village. The entire park is Map 4: The national park of American Sämoa. The extremely pristine and seems to have had little Manu‘a Islands impact from the cyclones of 1990s. Mauga stated that they are currently working on a ‘Ofu trail that leads to a waterfall; however, this The island of ‘Ofu is a part of the knowledge hasn’t been updated on the NP Manu‘a islands and is only accessible by map and in order to access any other part of chartering a fishing boat for the hour journey the park a guide is needed. This observation that traverses a total of 10 miles from Ta‘ü over runs true with the conservation methods and open ocean. As a result of its inaccessibility vision of the purpose of the park, reaffirming it remains beautifully pristine. On this island the fact that it was established in order to there is a park ranger’s home for the national conserve the natural biota and that only park in Va‘oto and a total of 70 acres of minimal buildup would be permissible within terrestrial park that encompass the southern the grounds. The final piece of information shoreline and Sunu‘itao Peak (refer to map 4). that I found interesting was the lack of The ranger Darin is in charge of maintenance monetary payments for the services rendered and preservation of both of the Manu‘a by Mauga who has used his personal vehicle islands. While I was unable to attain an for the last 15 years and is the person in interview with him I did find that he has been charge of managing the maintenance of the stationed on the island for a total of 6 months park on the entire island. Even though he has and that he is already planning a transfer to a huge responsibility he is still considered a another location within the National Park VIP and contract employee. Apparently he is System. This reaffirms the findings that the to report to the ranger on ‘Ofu, Darin, who administrators and permanent staff of the park hasn’t visited the park of Ta‘ü except once his are inconsistent and transient in nature, and entire career. Based upon my analysis this as a result would have a narrower scope in reasserts the huge divide that occurs in the regards to park management. Without regard national park of American Sämoa between the for indigenous cultural traditions and belief local workers and the transient administration. structures they impose mainland procedures and processes in situations where it is considered culturally deficient and incorrect. While walking along the unpaved road of the southern side of ‘Ofu there is a sign that denotes the entrance of the national park. Aside from an interpretive sign pertaining to the coral biodiversity located in front of the ranger’s home there were no interpretive signs that denote the cultural relevance or the park allocation as were present in all other parks 49 on each other island. The Sunu‘itao peak is held conversations with individuals tied to able to be traversed on a standard hiking trail the national parks I would have liked to track that borders the shoreline. All of the building, down Darin on ‘Ofu. It is my belief that this including trails and roads, remains consistent paper would have been greatly enhanced if with my findings regarding the limitations the schedule had allotted for extensive time of build up in park areas. According to park intensive research within each of the National officials many of the limitations exist due to parks within both Independent and American the land tenure situation. Sämoa. I believe that the work performed was adequate for undergraduate level research; Limitations however, the topic could be expanded to a The limitations of this research project master’s thesis or PhD dissertation with the consisted of restrictions in the intensity of incorporation of additional research and scope, time and positionality. While the topics addressed. This paper, though limited entire trip was substantially beneficial in in its scope, merely scrapes the surface of the order to ground truth previously held notions topics addressed. and assumptions regarding the effects of the land tenure on the national parks, the time Conclusion allotted specifically to the project while in Based on the research conducted the field was limited. I also believe that my I found that the National Park System and positionality affected the viability of the paper management greatly differ from American as it is from the perspective of an outsider as Sämoa to Sämoa primarily due to land tenure opposed to a native Sämoan. It is my belief issues. Both parks are focused on a variety that this project would be greatly enhanced of programs that deal with the preservation with additional fieldwork and observational and conservation of the natural habitat and analysis within both of the Sämoas in addition fauna. However, dissimilarities included the to the incorporation of additional subjects utilization of the land by the local community varying from indigenous species to the in regards to subsistence agriculture and effects of economic disproportion. While I cultivation in addition to the buildup of performed numerous informal interviews and structures on the land.

50 References Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment- Sämoa. (2008). National parks Arutangai, S et R. G. Crocombe. (1987). Land and reserves act 1974. Retrieved July 1, tenure in the pacific. Fiji, USP: University of 2010, from http://www.paclii.org/ws/legis/ the South Pacific. consol_act/npara1974278/

Conservation International: Pacific Islands. National Park of American Sämoa. Tutuila Sämoa national parks, reserves, MPAs and Island, American Sämoa community conservation areas. National Park of American Sämoa. (October Craig, P. (Ed.). (2009). Natural history guide 1997). General management plan: NPAS to American Sämoa (3rd ed.). Pago Pago: territory of American Sämoa United States National Park of American Sämoa. Department of the Interior/ National Park Service. Depart of Lands, Surveys and Environment. National forest resource conservation policy National Park Service and the American Sämoa (NFRCP). Retrieved July 1, 2010, from http:// Government. (July 1988). National park www.mnre.gov.ws/biodiversity/documents/ feasibility study: America Sämoa.http:// Policies/Policy%20-%20Forest.pdf www.nps.gov/npsa/parkmgmt/upload/ FeasStdynpsaweb%20.pdf Division of Environment and Conservation, Department of Lands Survey and Schuster, C. Western Sämoa. Apia, Sämoa: Environment. (December 1998). Department of Lands and Environment. Government of Sämoa: National report to the convention on biological diversity. Stover, M. (1999). Individual land tenure in American Sämoa. The Contemporary Ministry of Natural Resources and the Pacific, Volume 11(1) Environment. Forestry department. Retrieved July 1, 2010, from http://www. The Ministry of Natural Resources and the mnre.gov.ws/biodiversity/protected.cfm Environment- Sämoa. National policy on the conservation of biological diversity Ministry of Natural Resources and the (NPCBD). Retrieved July 1, 2010, from Environment (MNRE). (July 2004- July http://www.mnre.gov.ws/biodiversity/ 2007). National invasive alien species documents/Policies/Policy%20-%20 implementation action plan Biodiversity.pdf

The National Park of American Sämoa. The Manu'a Islands

51 Appendices

Informal Interviews or discussions These where conducted with a total of 6 individuals whom are intertwined to the National Park System in both of the Sämoas. In American Sämoa the individuals consulted and their titles are as follows: Peter Craig; a chief marine biologist employed with the ASNP (American Sämoa National Park) for a total of 17 years, Epi Suafoa; a former archeologist employed with the ASNP for a total of 17 years and Mauga; a VIP located on the island of Ta’ü employed with the ASNP for a total of 15 years. In Sämoa I consulted the following individuals; Annie Mauga; a Planning and Policy Officer with the Forestry Division, Steve Brown; the Assistant CEO at the Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment Services and Loto; a ranger within the O Le Pupu Pu‘e National Park.

52