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John of the

This article is about the Spanish . For the national personification of the Philippines, see Juan dela Cruz.

Saint , O.C.D. (Spanish: San Juan de la Cruz; 1542[1] – 14 December 1591), was a major figure of the Counter-, a Spanish mystic, a Roman saint, a Carmelite and a priest who was born at Fontiveros, Old Castile. John of the Cross was a reformer of the Carmelite Order and is considered, along with Saint Teresa of Ávila, as a founder of the . He is also known for his writings. Both his poetry and his studies on the growth of the are considered the summit of mystical and one of the peaks of all Spanish lit- erature. He was canonized as a saint in 1726 by Benedict XIII. He is one of the thirty-five Doctors of the Church.

1 Life

1.1 Early life and education Statues in Fontiveros of John of the Cross, erected in 1928 by He was born Juan de Yepes y Álvarez[3] into a converso popular subscription by the townspeople. family (descendents of Muslim or Jewish converts to Christianity) in Fontiveros, near Ávila, a town of around 2,000 people.[4][5] His father, Gonzalo, was an accoun- Spaniard St. . In 1563[11] he en- tant to richer relatives who were silk merchants. How- tered the Carmelite Order, adopting the name John of ever, when in 1529 he married John’s mother, Catalina, St. Matthias.[8] who was an orphan of a lower class, Gonzalo was re- The following year (1564)[12] he professed his religious jected by his family and forced to work with his wife as vows as a Carmelite and travelled to , where [6] a weaver. John’s father died in 1545, while John was he studied theology and philosophy at the prestigious Uni- [7] still only around seven years old. Two years later, John’s versity there (at the time one of the four biggest in Europe, older Luis died, probably as a result of insufficient alongside Paris, Oxford and Bologna) and at the Cole- nourishment caused by the penury to which John’s fam- gio de San Andrés. Some modern writers claim that this ily had been reduced. After this, John’s mother Catalina stay would influence all his later writings, as Fray Luis took John and his surviving brother Francisco, and moved de León taught biblical studies (, Hebrew and first in 1548 to Arévalo, and then in 1551 to Medina del ) at the University: León was one of the foremost [8][9] Campo, where she was able to find work weaving. experts in Biblical Studies then and had written an impor- In Medina, John entered a school for around 160[10] poor tant and controversial translation of the children, usually orphans, receiving a basic education, into Spanish. (Translation of the Bible into the vernacu- mainly in Christian doctrine, as well as some food, cloth- lar was not allowed then in .) ing and lodging. While studying there, he was chosen to serve as acolyte at a nearby monastery of Augustinian .[8] Growing up, John worked at a hospital and stud- 1.2 Joining the Reform of Teresa of ied the humanities at a Jesuit school from 1559 to 1563; the was a new organization at the time, John was ordained a priest in 1567, and then indicated his having been founded only a few years earlier by the intent to join the strict Carthusian Order, which appealed

1 2 1 LIFE

and on that same day John changed his name to John of the Cross. Soon after, in June 1570, the found the house at Duruelo too small, and so moved to the nearby town of Mancera de Abajo. After moving on from this commu- nity, John set up a new community at Pastrana (Octo- ber 1570), and a community at Alcalá de Henares, which was to be a house of studies for the academic training of the friars. In 1572[18] he arrived in Ávila, at the in- vitation of Teresa, who had been appointed prioress of the Monastery of the Visitation there in 1571.[19] John became the spiritual director and for Teresa and the other 130 nuns there, as well for as a wide range of laypeople in the city.[8] In 1574, John accompanied Teresa in the foundation of a new monastery in , Statues representing John of the Cross and Teresa of Ávila in Beas de Segura returning to Avila after staying there a week. Beyond this, though, John seems to have remained in Ávila between 1572 and 1577.[20] to him because of its encouragement of solitary and silent . A journey from Salamanca to , probably in September 1567, changed this.[13] In Medina he met the charismatic Carmelite Teresa of Jesus. She was in Medina to found the second of her con- vents for women.[14] She immediately talked to him about her reformation projects for the Order: she was seeking to restore the purity of the Carmelite Order by restarting observance of its “Primitive Rule” of 1209, observance of which had been relaxed by Pope Eugene IV in 1432. Under this Rule, much of the day and night was to be spent in the recitation of the choir offices, study and de- votional reading, the celebration of Mass and times of solitude. For the friars, time was to be spent evangelizing the population around the monastery.[15] Total abstinence from meat and lengthy was to be observed from the Feast of the Exaltation of the Cross (September 14) until Easter. There were to be long periods of silence, es- pecially between and . Coarser, shorter habits, more simple than those worn since 1432, were to be worn.[16] They were to follow the injunction against the wearing of shoes (also mitigated in 1432). It was from this last observance that the followers of Teresa Drawing of the crucifixion by John of the Cross, which inspired among the Carmelites were becoming known as “dis- Salvador Dalí calced”, i.e., barefoot, differentiating themselves from the non-reformed friars and nuns. One day at some point between 1574 and 1577, while praying in the Monastery of the Incarnation in Ávila, in Teresa asked John to delay his entry into the a loft overlooking the sanctuary, John had a vision of the and to follow her. Having spent a final year studying in crucified Christ, which led him to create his famous draw- Salamanca, in August 1568 John traveled with Teresa ing of Christ “from above”. In 1641, this drawing was from Medina to , where Teresa intended to placed in a small and kept in Ávila. This found another monastery of nuns. Having spent some drawing inspired the artist Salvador Dalí's 1951 work time with Teresa in Valladolid, learning more about this Christ of Saint John of the Cross. new form of Carmelite life, in October 1568, accompa- nied by Friar Antonio de Jesús de Heredia, John left Val- ladolid to found a new monastery for friars, the first for 1.3 The height of Carmelite tensions men following Teresa’s principles. They were given the use of a derelict house at Duruelo (midway between Ávila The years 1575-77, however, saw a great increase in the and Salamanca), which had been donated to Teresa. On tensions among the Spanish Carmelite friars over the re- 28 November 1568, the monastery[17] was established, forms of Teresa and John. Since 1566 the reforms had 1.4 Imprisonment, writings, torture, death and recognition 3

been overseen by Canonical Visitors from the , with one appointed to Castile and a second to . These Visitors had substantial powers: they could move the members of religious communities from house to house and even province to province. They could assist religious superiors in their office, and could depute other superiors from either the Dominicans or Carmelites. In Castile, the Visitor was Pedro Fernández, who prudently balanced the interests of the against those of the friars and nuns who did not desire reform.[21] In Andalusia to the south, however, where the Visitor was Francisco Vargas, tensions rose due to his clear prefer- ence for the Discalced friars. Vargas asked them to make foundations in various cities, in explicit contradiction of orders from the Carmelite General against their ex- pansion in Andalusia. As a result, a General of the Carmelite Order was convened at in Italy in May 1576, out of concern that events in Spain were get- ting out of hand, which concluded by ordering the total [8] suppression of the Discalced houses. 's landscape of Toledo depicts the priory in which John This measure was not immediately enforced. For one was held captive, just below the old Muslim alcázar and perched on the banks of the Tajo on high cliffs thing, King Philip II of Spain was supportive of some of Teresa’s reforms, and so was not immediately willing to grant the necessary permission to enforce this ordinance. Moreover the Discalced friars also found support from lived.[23][24] John was brought before a court of friars, the papal to King Philip II, Nicolò Ormaneto (it), accused of disobeying the ordinances of Piacenza. De- Bishop of Padua, who still had ultimate power as nun- spite John’s argument that he had not disobeyed the ordi- cio to visit and reform religious Orders. When asked nances, he received a punishment of imprisonment. He by the Discalced friars to intervene, Ormaneto replaced was jailed in the monastery, where he was kept under Vargas as Visitor of the Carmelites in Andalusia (where a brutal regimen that included public lashing before the the troubles had begun) with Jerónimo Gracián, a priest community at least weekly, and severe isolation in a tiny from the University of Alcalá, who was in fact a Dis- stifling cell measuring ten feet by six feet, barely large calced Carmelite friar himself.[8] The nuncio’s protection enough for his body. Except when rarely permitted an oil helped John himself avoid problems for a time. In Jan- lamp, he had to stand on a bench to read his by uary 1576, John was arrested in Medina del Campo by the light through the hole into the adjoining room. He some Carmelite friars. However, through the nuncio’s in- had no change of clothing and a penitential diet of wa- tervention, John was soon released.[8] When Ormaneto ter, bread and scraps of salt fish.[25] During this impris- died on 18 June 1577, however, John was left without onment, he composed a great part of his most famous protection, and the friars opposing his reforms gained the poem , as well as a few shorter poems. upper hand. The paper was passed to him by the friar who guarded his cell.[26] He managed to escape nine months later, on 15 August 1578, through a small window in a room adjoin- ing his cell. (He had managed to pry the cell door off its 1.4 Imprisonment, writings, torture, hinges earlier that day.) death and recognition After being nursed back to health, first with Teresa’s nuns in Toledo, and then during six weeks at the Hospital of On the night of 2 December 1577, a group of Carmelites [27] opposed to reform broke into John’s dwelling in Ávila Santa Cruz, John continued with reform. In Octo- and took him prisoner. John had received an order from ber 1578 he joined a meeting at Almodóvar del Campo some of his superiors, opposed to reform, ordering him of the supporters of reform, increasingly known as the to leave Ávila and return to his original house, but John Discalced Carmelites. There, in part as a result of the had refused on the basis that his reform work had been opposition faced from other Carmelites in recent years, they decided to demand from the Pope their formal sep- approved by the Spanish nuncio, a higher authority than [8] these superiors.[22] The Carmelites therefore took John aration from the rest of the Carmelite Order. captive. John was taken from Ávila to the Carmelite At this meeting John was appointed of El Cal- monastery in Toledo, at that time the Order’s most im- vario, an isolated monastery of around thirty friars in the portant monastery in Castile, where perhaps 40 friars mountains about 6 miles away[28] from Beas in Andalu- 4 2 VENERATION

sia. During this time he befriended the nun Ana de Jesús, superior of the Discalced nuns at Beas, through his visits every Saturday to the town. While at El Calvario he com- posed his first version of his commentary on his poem, The Spiritual Canticle, perhaps at the request of the nuns in Beas. In 1579 he moved to Baeza, a town of around 50,000 people, to serve as of a new college, the Colegio de San Basilio, to support the studies of Discalced friars in Andalusia. This opened on 13 June 1579. He remained in post there until 1582, spending much of his time as a spiritual director for the friars and townspeople. 1580 was an important year in the resolution of the dis- Reliquary of John of the Cross in Úbeda, Spain putes within the Carmelites. On 22 June, Pope Gregory XIII signed a decree, titled Pia Consideratione, which au- January 1582, she set up a monastery of nuns, while John thorised a separation between the Calced and Discalced stayed in the friars’ monastery of Los Martires, beside the Carmelites. The Dominican friar Juan Velázquez de las Alhambra, becoming its prior in March 1582.[31] While Cuevas was appointed to carry out the decisions. At here, he learned of the death of Teresa in October of that the first General Chapter of the Discalced Carmelites, in year. Alcalá de Henares on 3 March 1581, John of the Cross was elected one of the “Definitors” of the community, and In February 1585, John travelled to Málaga and estab- wrote a set of constitutions for them.[29] By the time of lished a monastery of Discalced nuns there. In May 1585, the Provincial Chapter at Alcalá in 1581, there were 22 at the General Chapter of the Discalced Carmelites in houses, some 300 friars and 200 nuns in the Discalced , John was elected Provincial Vicar of Andalusia, a Carmelites.[30] post which required him to travel frequently, making an- nual visitations of the houses of friars and nuns in Andalu- sia. During this time he founded seven new monasteries in the region, and is estimated to have travelled around 25,000 km.[32] In June 1588, he was elected third Councillor to the Vicar General for the Discalced Carmelites, Father Nicolas Do- ria. To fulfill this role, he had to return to Segovia in Castile, where in this capacity he was also prior of the monastery. After disagreeing in 1590-1 with some of Doria’s remodeling of the leadership of the Discalced Carmelite Order, though, John was removed from his post in Segovia, and sent by Doria in June 1591 to an iso- lated monastery in Andalusia called La Peñuela. There he fell ill, and traveled to the monastery at Úbeda for treatment. His condition worsened, however, and he died there on 14 December 1591, of erysipelas.[8]

2 Veneration

The morning after John’s death, huge numbers of the townspeople of Úbeda entered the monastery to view John’s body; in the crush, many were able to take home parts of his habit. He was initially buried at Úbeda, but, at the request of the monastery in Segovia, his body was secretly moved there in 1593. The people of Úbeda, how- ever, unhappy at this change, sent representative to peti- Saint John of the Cross’ and reliquary, Convent of tion the pope to move the body back to its original rest- Carmelite Friars, Segovia ing place. Pope Clement VIII, impressed by the petition, issued a Brief on 15 October 1596 ordering the return In November 1581, John was sent by Teresa to help Ana of the body to Ubeda. Eventually, in a compromise, the de Jesus in founding a convent in . Arriving in superiors of the Discalced Carmelites decided that the 5 monastery at Úbeda would receive one leg and one arm of the corpse from Segovia (the monastery at Úbeda had already kept one leg in 1593, and the other arm had been removed as the corpse passed through Madrid in 1593, to form a relic there). A hand and a leg remain visible in a reliquary at the Oratory of San Juan de la Cruz in Úbeda, a monastery built in 1627 though connected to the original Discalced monastery in the town founded in 1587.[33] The head and torso was retained by the monastery at Segovia. There, they were venerated until 1647, when on orders from designed to prevent the veneration of remains without official approval, the remains were buried in the ground. In the 1930s they were disinterred, and now sit in a side chapel in a marble case above a spe- cial altar built in that decade.[33] Proceedings to beatify John began with the gathering of information on his life between 1614 and 1616, although he was only beatified in 1675 by , and was canonized by Benedict XIII in 1726. When his feast day was added to the in 1738, it was assigned to 24 November, since his date of death was im- peded by the then-existing of the Feast of the Im- maculate Conception.[34] This obstacle was removed in 1955 and in 1969 Pope Paul VI moved it to the dies natalis (birthday to heaven) of the saint, 14 December.[35] The commemorates him as a “Teacher of The Ascent of , as depicted in the first edition of [38] the Faith” on the same date. In 1926, he was declared a 1618 by Diego de Astor. by Pope Pius XI after the definitive consultation of Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange O.P., pro- fessor of philosophy and theology at the Pontifical Uni- 4 Literary works versity of Saint , Angelicum in Rome.[36] St. John of the Cross is considered one of the foremost poets in the Spanish language. Although his complete poems add up to fewer than 2500 verses, two of them — the Spiritual Canticle and the — are widely considered masterpieces of Spanish po- etry, both for their formal stylistic point of view and their 3 Editions of his works rich symbolism and imagery. His theological works often consist of commentaries on these poems. All the works were written between 1578 and his death in 1591, mean- His writings were first published in 1618 by Diego de Sal- ing there is great consistency in the views presented in ablanca. The numerical divisions in the work, still used them. by modern editions of the text, were introduced by Sal- ablanca (they were not in John’s original writings) in order The Spiritual Canticle is an eclogue in which the bride to help make the work more manageable for the reader.[8] (representing the soul) searches for the bridegroom (rep- This edition does not contain the Spiritual Canticle how- resenting Jesus Christ), and is anxious at having lost him; ever, and also omits or adapts certain passages, perhaps both are filled with joy upon reuniting. It can be seen for fear of falling foul of the . as a free-form Spanish version of the Song of Songs at a time when translations of the Bible into the vernacular The Spiritual Canticle was first included in the 1630 were forbidden. The first 31 stanzas of the poem were edition, produced by Fray Jeronimo de San José, at composed in 1578 while John was imprisoned in Toledo. Madrid. This edition was largely followed by later ed- It was read after his escape by the nuns at Beas, who itors, although editions in the seventeenth and eigh- made copies of these stanzas. Over the following years, teenth centuries gradually included a few more poems and [37] John added some extra stanzas. Today, two versions ex- letters. ist: one with 39 stanzas and one with 40, although with The first French edition was published in Paris in 1622, some of the stanzas ordered differently. The first redac- and the first Castilian edition in 1627 in Bruselas. tion of the commentary on the poem was written in 1584, 6 5 INTELLECTUAL INFLUENCES

at the request of Madre Ana de Jesus, when she was pri- of the Song of Songs on the Spiritual Canticle has often oress of the Discalced Carmelite nuns in Granada. A sec- been noted, both in terms of the structure of the poem, ond redaction, which contains more detail, was written in with its dialogue between two lovers, the account of their 1585-6.[8] difficulties in meeting each other and the “offstage cho- The Dark Night (from which the spiritual term takes its rus” that comments on this action, and also in terms of name) narrates the journey of the soul from her bodily the imagery of pomegranates, wine cellar, turtle dove and lilies, for example, which echoes that of the Song of home to her union with God. It happens during the night, [39] which represents the hardships and difficulties she meets Songs. in detachment from the world and reaching the light of In addition, John shows at occasional points the influ- the union with the Creator. There are several steps in this ence of the Divine Office. This demonstrates how John, night, which are related in successive stanzas. The main steeped in the language and rituals of the Church, drew idea of the poem can be seen as the painful experience at times on the phrases and language here.[40] that people endure as they seek to grow in spiritual ma- turity and union with God. The poem of this title was likely written in 1578 or 1579. In 1584-5, John wrote a 5.2 Early studies commentary on the first two stanzas and first line of the third stanza of the poem.[8] In order to gain a better understanding of the intellec- tual influences to which John was exposed in his for- The is a more systematic study mative years (and so to isolate what shaped his unusual of the ascetical endeavour of a soul looking for perfect theology), many scholars have tried to reconstruct John’s union, God and the mystical events happening along the likely course of studies while he was at Salamanca be- way. Although it begins as a commentary on the poem tween 1563 and 1567, living at the Carmelite College of “The Dark Night”, it rapidly drops this format, having San Andrès and studying at the . commented on the first two stanzas of the poem, and be- It has been widely acknowledged in the 20th century to comes a treatise. It was composed sometime between be most likely that John would have received teaching 1581 and 1585.[8] both from the College of San Andres and from Salamanca A four-stanza work, Living Flame of Love, describes a University.[41] greater intimacy, as the soul responds to God’s love. It If taught at the College of San Andrès, John would have was written in a first redaction at Granada between 1585- been exposed to the teachings of both of Bologna 6, apparently in two weeks,[8] and in a mostly identical and , with the Spanish Carmelites of second redaction at La Peñuela in 1591. the day concentrating more on Baconthorpe’s thought.[42] These, together with his Dichos de Luz y Amor (or “Say- There are, however, no clear signs of the influence of ings of Light and Love”) and St. Teresa's writings, are either writer in John’s works. Perhaps no more can be the most important mystical works in Spanish, and have said of the influence of Baconthorpe than that, given that deeply influenced later spiritual writers all around the he was a “subtle and eclectic scholar who did not hesi- world. Among these are T. S. Eliot, Thérèse de Lisieux, tate to disagree with Aquinas on many important issues”, (Teresa Benedicta of the Cross) and Thomas it might be “that acquaintance with his works may have Merton. John has also influenced philosophers (Jacques helped John to avoid any slavish adherence to Thomistic Maritain), theologians (), pacifists doctrines”.[43] (, Berrigan and ) and In the University itself, there is widely acknowledged to artists (Salvador Dalí). Pope John Paul II wrote his theo- have existed a range of intellectual positions. Academic logical dissertation on the of Saint John positions in John’s time included Chairs of St. Thomas, of the Cross. Chairs of Scotus and Durandus.[44] Typically, it is as- sumed that John would have been educated here in the thought of Thomas Aquinas, explaining the influence of 5 Intellectual influences Thomas on much of the scholastic framework of his writ- ings. Working out the main influences on John’s thought has However, the belief that John was taught at both the been an ongoing debate. Carmelite College of San Andrès and at the University of Salamanca has been criticised.[45] He argues, firstly, that it is unclear whether there were in fact lectures in 5.1 Scripture arts and theology at the College of San Andrès before 1571, that a reconstruction of the typical timetable of In the first place, John was clearly influenced by the Bible. teaching at the University of Salamanca shows that there Scriptural images are common in both his poems and would have been little time for extra teaching at the Col- prose—in total, there are 1,583 explicit and 115 implicit lege of the San Andrès, and that what therefore happened quotations from the Bible in his works.[39] The influence at San Andrès (if indeed it happened at all) is therefore 5.5 Secular Spanish poetry 7 likely to have taken the form of rehearsals, preparation of though there is much debate about the exact thought classes, and not in an official form — making the idea that which may have influenced him, and about how he might John received systematic exposure to Baconthorpe less have been exposed to their ideas. [46] likely. More controversially, Bezares calls into ques- The possibility of influence by the so-called “Rhineland tion whether John even studied theology at the Univer- mystics” such as , , sity of Salamanca. The philosophy courses John probably and John of Ruysbroeck has also been took in logic, natural and moral philosophy, can be recon- mooted by many authors.[53] Others have seen Tauler structed, but Bezares argues that John in fact abandoned alone as most influential.[54] Alongside the Rhineland his studies at Salamanca in 1568 to join Teresa, rather mystics, others have argued for the influence of the Vic- than having graduated, meaning that he did not study the- torines and .[55] Most recently, Peter Tyler ology in Salamanca.[47] has argued that John adopts a style of writing, a “per- Another claim frequently made about John’s time in Sala- formative discourse”, which works on both the reader’s manca, by scholars trying to explain the origins of John’s affect and intellect, in a tradition following a lineage mystical thought, is that it was here he was exposed in from Pseudo-Dionysius, the Victorines, Jean Gerson and detail to mystical thought. In the first biography of John, through intermediaries such as .[56] published in 1628, it is claimed, on the basis of informa- It is unclear, though, how John might have had access to tion from John’s fellow students, that he in 1567 made a the works of the Rhineland mystics. These works were special study of mystical writers, in particular of Pseudo- [48] only translated into Latin in the second half of the six- Dionysius and Saint Gregory the Great. Much weight teenth century. This means that copies would hardly have has been put on this evidence by later writers. However, been easily available for John. In addition, if it is ac- others have doubted the veracity of this anecdote, even knowledged that an influence on John was Francisco de though they do not dispute that John may have studied [49] Osuna (who clearly cannot have read the Rhineland mys- mystical theology in this period. tics since they were not known in Spain in the 1520s), In short, there is little consensus from John’s early years then another problem is raised. on potential influences on him. Although a list of certain theologians about whom John may well have been taught can be drawn up, the evidence is not sufficient to make 5.5 Secular Spanish poetry firm judgements on who may have influenced John. However, a strong argument can also be made for con- temporary Spanish literary influences on John. This case 5.3 Pseudo-Dionysius was first made in detail by Dámaso Alonso,[57] who be- lieved that as well as drawing from scripture, John was It has rarely been disputed that the overall structure of transforming non-religious, profane themes, derived from John’s mystical theology, and his language of the union of popular songs (romanceros) into religious poetry; Alonso the soul with God, is influenced by the pseudo-Dionysian argued that John was particularly influenced by the works tradition.[50] However, it has not been clear whether John of the Spanish poets Garcilaso de la Vega might have had direct access to the writings of pseudo- and Boscán. Certainly, John does appear to have used Dionysius, or whether this influence may have been me- Garcilaso’s verse forms in his own poetry, in particular diated through various later authors. in the Spiritual Canticle, Dark Night, and Living Flame of The main conduit of Dionysian spirituality into ascetic- Love. Alongside the various biblical images noted above, mystical literature on contemplative prayer in sixteenth- for example, exist in John’s poems many new Renaissance century prayer (such as that by John of the Cross and symbols of pastoral love, prominent in the poetry of Gar- Teresa of Ávila) appears to have been through the cilaso and Boscán, such as sirens, nightingales, nymphs, [39] recogido tradition of Francisco de Osuna, Bernardino doves and shepherds. Moreover, in the Prologue to the de Laredo and others.[51] Osuna’s focus on recogimiento Living Flame, John states that “the composition of these (recollecting or gathering of the senses) as a means of lyric lines is like those that in Boscán are given a religious [8] prayer, bears similarity to John’s discussion of prayer, and meaning”. may have been an influence.[52] In terms of Spanish writ- Others, though, have questioned the evidence for pre- ing, it is notable that although the second half of the six- cisely how John might have been influenced by Boscan teenth century produced many great mystics, and Garcilaso. Dámaso Alonso argued that John must was not common in Spain before that. have read the newly published 1575 edition of the poets in Ávila, shortly before his imprisonment in Toledo, and that this must have been the key influence which rekindled 5.4 Medieval mystics in John memories of his own reading of Garcilaso as a young student of the Jesuits in Medina del Campo. How- It is widely acknowledged that John may well have been ever, Peter Thompson disputes this, arguing it is not def- influenced by the writings of other medieval mystics, inite John would have been familiar with Garcilaso from 8 8 FURTHER READING an early age, and even so the influence has been overem- • Miguel Asín Palacios phasised by other commentators.[58] • Saint Kalinowski, the first friar to be canon- ized (in 1991 by Pope John Paul II) in the Order of 5.6 Islamic influence Discalced Carmelites since Saint John of the Cross • literature A possible but controversial theory of the origins of John’s mystical imagery is that he was influenced by Is- • Secular Order of Discalced Carmelites lamic sources. This was first proposed in detail by Miguel Asín Palacios and has been most recently put forward by the Puerto Rican scholar Luce Lopez Baralt.[59] Argu- ing that John was influenced by Islamic sources on the 7 Books peninsula, she traces Islamic antecedents of the images of • the “dark night”, the “solitary bird” of the Spiritual Can- John of the Cross, Dark Night of the Soul, London, ticle, wine and mystical intoxication (the Spiritual Canti- 2012. limovia.net ISBN 978-1-78336-005-5 cle), lamps of fire (the Living Flame) and so on. • John of the Cross, Ascent of Mount Carmel, London, Peter Tyler, though, puts forward a number of coherent 2012. limovia.net ISBN 978-1-78336-009-3 objections to this line of enquiry. Firstly, as he points • out, these metaphors, while present in certain Islamic John of the Cross, Spiritual Canticle of the Soul and sources in other parts of the Muslim world, are not al- the Bridegroom Christ, London, 2012. limovia.net ways prominent in the Andalucian and North African Is- ISBN 978-1-78336-014-7 lamic sources. Secondly, in any case, John is using them • The Dark Night: A Masterpiece in the Literature in different ways from the Islamic sources. Thirdly, and of Mysticism (Translated and Edited by E. Allison crucially, there seems to have been little cultural interplay Peers), Doubleday, 1959. ISBN 978-0-385-02930- between Islamic culture and in Spain by 8 the late sixteenth century, with sources existing in differ- ent languages, not being translated, and of course all Mus- • The Poems of Saint John of the Cross (English Ver- lims already having been forced to leave Spain. Rather, sions and Introduction by ), Indiana Tyler concludes, there “are sufficient Christian Press, 1968, revised 2nd ed. New Direc- antecedents for many of the metaphors John employs to tions, 1972. ISBN 0-8112-0449-9 suggest we should look for Christian sources rather than Muslim sources”.[60] As José Nieto indicates, in trying • The Dark Night, Saint John of The Cross (Translated to locate a link between Spanish and by Mirabai Starr), Riverhead Books, New York, Islamic mysticism, it might make more sense to refer to 2002, ISBN 1-57322-974-1 the common Neo-Platonic tradition and mystical experi- • ences of both, rather than seek direct influence.[61] Poems of St John of The Cross (Translated and Intro- duction by Kathleen Jones), Burns and Oates, Tun- bridge Wells, Kent, UK, 1993, ISBN 0-86012-210- 5.7 Ahistorical theories 7 • The Collected Works of St John of the Cross (Eds. Jean Baruzi claimed that the created their K. Kavanaugh and O. Rodriguez), Institute of decisive symbols independently of the historical condi- [62] Carmelite Studies, Washington DC, revised edition, tions of the time. This theory, however, has not been 1991 widely pursued.

8 Further reading 6 See also • Howells, E. “Spanish Mysticism and Religious Re- • Book of the First newal: Ignatius of Loyola, Teresa of Avila, and John of the Cross (16th Century, Spain)", in Julia A. • Byzantine Discalced Carmelites Lamm, ed., Blackwell Companion to Christian Mys- • Calendar of (Church of England) ticism, (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012)

• Carmelite Rule of St. Albert • Kavanaugh, K. John of the Cross: doctor of light and love (2000) • • Matthew, Iain. The Impact of God, Soundings from • Constitutions of the Carmelite Order St John of the Cross (Hodder & Stoughton, 1995) 9

• Nau, Sr. Pascale-Dominique. When God Speaks: [11] Kavanaugh (1991) names the date as 24 February. How- in Saint John of the Cross and the Lad- ever, E. Allison Peers (1943), p. 13, points out that al- der of Monks (Rome: Lulu.com, 2011) though this, the Feast of St. Matthias, is often assumed to be the date, Father Silverio postulates a date in August or • Payne, Stephen. John of the Cross and the Cognitive September. Value of Mysticism (1990) [12] At some point between 21 May and October. See E. Alli- • Stein, Edith, The Science of the Cross (translated son Peers, Spirit of Flame: A Study of St John of the Cross by Sister Josephine Koeppel, O.C.D. The Collected (London: SCM Press, 1943), p. 13 Works of Edith Stein, Vol. 6, ICS Publications, [13] E. Allison Peers (1943, p. 16) suggests that the jour- 2011) ney was in order to visit a nearby Carthusian monastery; • Williams, Rowan. The wound of knowledge: Chris- Richard P. Hardy, The Life of St John of the Cross: Search for Nothing (London: DLT, 1982), p. 24, argues that the tian spirituality from the to St. John reason was for John to say his first mass of the Cross (1990) • [14] E. Allison Peers, Spirit of Flame: A Study of St John of the Wojtyła, K.. Faith According to St. John of the Cross Cross (London: SCM Press, 1943), p. 16 (1981) [15] Desmond Tillyer, Union with God: The Teaching of St John of the Cross (London & Oxford: Mowbray, 1984), 9 References p. 8 [16] Richard P. Hardy, The Life of St John of the Cross: Search [1] The day is unknown. The registers were destroyed for Nothing (London: DLT, 1982), p. 27 by a fire in 1546, and the only serious evidence is an in- scription on the font in the church, dated 1689. Midsum- [17] The monastery may have contained three men, according mer Day is sometimes cited as the date of John’s birth, to E. Allison Peers (1943), p. 27, or five, according to but since this is also the Feast of St , this Richard P. Hardy, The Life of St John of the Cross: Search may simply be conjecture. See E Allison Peers, Spirit of for Nothing (London: DLT, 1982), p. 35 Flame: A Study of St John of the Cross, (London: SCM Press, 1943), p. 11. [18] The month generally given is May. E. Allison Peers, Com- plete Works Vol. I (1943, xxvi), agreeing with P. Silve- [2] In 1952, the Spanish National Ministry for Education rio, thinks it must have been substantially later than this, named him of Spanish poets. The same min- though certainly before 27 September. istry repeatedly authorized and approved the inclusion of John’s writings among the canon of Spanish writers. [19] http://translate.google.com/translate?&u=http%3A% 2F%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FJean+de+la+ [3] Rodriguez, Jose Vincente (1991). God Speaks in the Croix&sl=fr&tl=en Night. The Life, Times, and Teaching of St. John of the Cross’. Washington, DC: ICS Publications. p. 3. [20] Richard P. Hardy, The Life of St John of the Cross: Search for Nothing (London: DLT, 1982), p. 56. [4] C. P. Thompson, St. John of the Cross: Songs in the Night, London: SPCK, 2002, p. 27. [21] He is possibly the same Pedro Fernández who became the Bishop of Ávila in 1581. It was he who appointed Teresa [5] Norman Roth, Conversos, Inquisition, and the Expulsion in 1571 as prioress in Ávila, but who also enjoyed good of the Jews from Spain, Madison, WI: The University of relations with the Carmelite Prior Provincial of Castile. Wisconsin Press, 1995, pp. 157, 369 [22] Bennedict Zimmermann. “Ascent of Mt. Carmel, intro- [6] Desmond Tillyer, Union with God: The Teaching of St ductory essay THE DEVELOPMENT OF MYSTICISM John of the Cross, London & Oxford: Mowbray, 1984, IN THE CARMELITE ORDER”. Thomas Baker and In- p. 4 ternet Archive. Retrieved 2009-12-11. |pages = 10,11

[7] Gerald Brenan, St John of the Cross: His Life and Poetry [23] C. P. Thompson, St. John of the Cross: Songs in the Night (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973), p. 4 (London: SPCK, 2002), p. 48. Thompson points out that many earlier biographers have stated the number of friars [8] Kavanaugh, Kieran (1991). “General Introduction: Bio- at Toledo to be 80, but this is simply taken from Criso- graphical Sketch”. In Kieran Kavanaugh. The Collected gono’s Spanish biography. Alain Cugno (1982) gives the Works of St John of the Cross. Washington: ICS Publica- number of friars as 800 — which Thompson assumes is a tions. pp. 9–27. ISBN 0-935216-14-6. misprint. However, as Thompson details, the actual num- [9] Matthew, Iain (1995). The Impact of God, Soundings from ber of friars has been reconstructed from comparing var- St John of the Cross. Hodder & Stoughton. p. 3. ISBN ious extant documents that in 1576, 42 friars belonged to 0-340-61257-6. the house, with only about 23 of them resident, the re- mainder being absent for various reasons. This is done [10] C. P. Thompson, St. John of the Cross: Songs in the Night, by J. Carlos Vuzeute Mendoza, 'La prisión de San Juan London: SPCK, 2002, p. 31 de la Cruz: El convent del Carmen de Toledo en 1577 y 10 9 REFERENCES

1578', A. García Simón, ed, Actas del congreso interna- [40] This occurs in the Living Flame at 1.16 and 2.3. See John cional sanjuanista, 3 vols. (Valladolid: Junta de Castilla y Sullivan, 'Night and Light: the Poet John of the Cross and León, 1993) II, pp. 427-436 the Exultet of the Easter Liturgy', Ephemerides Carmelit- icae, 30:1 (1979), pp. 52-68. [24] Peter Tyler, St John of the Cross (New York: Continuum, 2000), p. 28. The reference to the El Greco painting is [41] This is contrary to the seventeenth-century biographies, also taken from here. The priory no longer exists, having which do not mention any classes at the College of San been destroyed in 1936 — it is now the Toledo Municipal Andrès. This thesis was proposed by both Jean Baruzi, car park. Saint Jean de la Croix (1924), and Crisgono de Jesus Sacramentado, San Juan de la Cruz (1929). [25] Desmond Tillyer, Union with God: The Teaching of St John of the Cross, (London & Oxford: Mowbray, 1984), [42] Crisogono, 1958, p. 35 p. 10 [43] Steven Payne, John of the Cross and the Cognitive Value of Mysticism: An Analysis of Sanjuanist Teaching and its [26] Dark night of the soul. Translation by Mirabai Starr. ISBN Philosophical Implications for Contemporary Discussions 1-57322-974-1 p. 8. of Mystical Experience (1990), p. 5 [27] Peter Tyler, St John of the Cross (New York: Continuum, [44] Crisogono (1958), pp. 33-35 2000), p. 33. The Hospital still exists, and is today a mu- nicipal art gallery in Toledo. [45] By L. Rodríguez-San Pedro Bezares, 'La Formación Uni- versitaria de Juan de la Cruz', Actas del Congreso Interna- [28] C. P. Thompson, St. John of the Cross: Songs in the Night, cional Sanjuanista (Valladolid, 1993) London: SPCK, 2002, p. 117 [46] Bezares, pp. 14-23 [29] “Jean de la Croix”. Retrieved 2012-10-13. [47] Bezares, p19 [30] CP Thompson, St. John of the Cross: Songs in the Night, [48] The 1628 biography of John is by Quiroga. The informa- London: SPCK, 2002, p119 tion is from Crisogono (1958), p. 38 [31] Richard P. Hardy, The Life of St John of the Cross: Search [49] Eulogio Pacho (1969), pp. 56-59; Steven Payne, John of for Nothing (London: DLT, 1982), p. 90. the Cross and the Cognitive Value of Mysticism: An Anal- ysis of Sanjuanist Teaching and its Philosophical Implica- [32] C. P. Thompson, St. John of the Cross: Songs in the Night, tions for Contemporary Discussions of Mystical Experience London: SPCK, 2002, p. 122. This would have been (1990), p. 14, n. 7) largely by foot or by mule, given the strict rules which gov- erned the way in which Discalced friars were permitted to [50] John mentions Dionysius explicitly four times—S2.8.6; travel. N2.5.3; CB14-15.16; Ll3-3.49. Luis Girón-Negrón, 'Dionysian thought in sixteenth-century Spanish mystical [33] Richard P Hardy, The Life of St John of the Cross: Search theology', Modern Theology, 24(4), (2008), p699 for Nothing, (London: DLT, 1982), pp113-130 [51] Luis Girón-Negrón, 'Dionysian thought in sixteenth- [34] Calendarium Romanum (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, century Spanish mystical theology'. Modern Theology, 1969), p. 110 24(4), (2008), pp. 693–706.

[35] Calendarium Romanum (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, [52] Nieto, Mystic, Rebel, Saint: A Study of St. John of the 1969), p. 146 Cross, (1979), p. 130

[36] http://www.avvenire.it/Cultura/Pagine/ [53] However, there is little precise agreement on which partic- il-tomista-assalto.aspx Accessed 17 Feb., 2014 ular mystics may have been influential. J. Orcibal, S Jean de la Croix et les mystiques Rheno-Flamands (Desclee- [37] The Complete Works of Saint John of the Cross. Translated Brouwer, Presence du Carmel, no. 6); Crisogono (1929), and edited by E. Allison Peers, from the critical edition I, 17, believed that John was influenced more by German of Silverio de Santa Teresa. 3 vols. (Westminster, MD: mysticism, than perhaps by , Pseudo- Newman Press, 1943). Vol. I, pp. l-lxxvi Dionysius, Saint Augustine, Saint Bernard, the School of Saint Victor and the Imitation. [38] Eric Truman Dicken, The Crucible of Love, (1963), pp. 238-242, points out that this image is neither a true rep- [54] Liz Carmichael, “Appendix”, in Norbert Cummins, Free- resentation of John’s thought, nor is it true to the image dom to Rejoice: Understanding St John of the Cross, drawn by John himself of the 'Mount'. This latter image (1991). Carmichael argues that John’s three signs by was first published in 1929, and is a 1759 copy from an which the “night of sense” may be recognised are derived original (now lost) almost certainly drawn by John him- from the “Institutions”, attributed in John’s time to John self. It is the 1618 image, though, which was influential on Tauler, although actually a compendium of excerpts from later depictions of the 'Mount', such as in the 1748 Venice various German writers of Tauler’s time. The Institutions edition and 1858 Genoa editions of John’s work. was published in Latin in 1548, and Castilian in 1551. Her hypothesis is that John must have had contact with [39] Tyler, Peter (2010). St John of the Cross. New York: Con- this work at Salamanca, especially if he did indeed write tinuum., p. 116 a short thesis on contemplation while there. 11

[55] A Benedictine of Stanbrook Abbey, Mediaeval Mystical Tradition and John of the Cross,(London: Burns & Oates, 1954) argues for the influence of (a) the Victorines (b) Bonaventure (c) the German and Flemish mystics.

[56] Peter Tyler, St John of the Cross (New York: Continuum, 2010).

[57] Dámasco Alonso, La poesía de San Juan de la Cruz (Madrid, 1942)

[58] Tyler, p. 117, Peter Thompson, St. John of the Cross: Songs in the Night (London: SPCK, 2002)

[59] Luce Lopez Baralt, Juan de la Cruz y el Islam (1990)

[60] Peter Tyler, St John of the Cross (2010), pp. 138-142

[61] José Nieto, Mystic, Rebel, Saint: A Study of St. John of the Cross (Geneva, 1979)

[62] Jean Baruzi, Saint Jean de la Croix et la problème de l'experience mystique, (Paris, 1924)

10 External links

• John of the Cross on

• Works by or about John of the Cross in libraries (WorldCat catalog)

• The Metaphysics of Mysticism: The Mystical Phi- losophy of Saint John of the Cross Biography of St. John of the Cross

• Works by St. John of the Cross at Christian Classics Ethereal Library

• on St. John of the Cross • Lectio divina and St John of the Cross

• The Life and Miracles of St. John of the Cross, Doc- tor and Confessor of the Church

• Verse-translation of The Dark Night of the Soul at Poems Found in Translation

• http://www.mercaba.org/FICHAS/Santos/ juandelacruz.htm 12 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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