Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence
Thesis
by
Esha Kamath
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Bachelor of Arts
in
Psychology
State University of New York
Empire State College
2015
Reader: Dr. Judith Gerardi, Ph.D.
Acknowledgment
First and foremost, the biggest thank you goes to my mentor, Dr. Judith Gerardi, for guiding me and constantly supporting me through each and every step of the thesis madness. She calmed my every confusion and directed me towards the right direction every time I lost my way- with the indecisiveness, change in topics, silly queries- everything. Second, I would like to thank Prof. Humberto Aguilera for being so patient and kind and guiding me through the entire process of the statistical analysis of this study. This research would not have seen the light of day without him. I would also like to thank my parents without whom I would not have received the opportunity to travel and study abroad and expand my horizons. A major thank you goes to my lovely sister who has stood by me through every situation and tolerated my every outburst throughout this process, despite the long distance. And lastly, I would like to thank all of my friends who have helped me and supported my work the entire time.
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
Abstract………………………………………………………………………4
Introduction…………………………………………………………………..5
Birth Order as a Research Variable…………………………………………..5
Emotional Intelligence as a Research Variable……………………………..17
Gender and Cultural Differences in Emotional Intelligence………………..22
Overview of Current Study…………………………………………………26
Methodology………………………………………………………………..29
Results………………………………………………………………………35
Discussion…………………………………………………………………..46
Conclusion………………………………………………………………….57
Appendix 1…………………………………………………………………61
Appendix 2…………………………………………………………………65
Bibliography………………………………………………………………..69
Works Cited………………………………………………………………...79
Abstract
The topic of birth order is a popular research variable in the field of psychology, and emotional intelligence, although relatively new, is being vigorously studied by researchers in the field. Adler described birth order as the ordinal position one attains within the family. Emotional intelligence, on the other hand, can be reduced down to one common definition of understanding and interpreting one’s own as well as others’ emotions. This study aimed to explore the relationship between these two variables and the differences one may experience in levels of emotional intelligence based on birth order. Hypotheses developed assumed that mean differences will be observed in the
(five) competencies of emotional intelligence based on birth order. A target population of
40 Indian students from the city of Mumbai participated in the study and nominated 3 raters each as well. However, the results of the study yielded no significant mean differences between the two variables, and all five hypotheses were negated. Additional analysis of gender partially supported the hypothesis that gender would produce mean differences in emotional intelligence. Although vast research exists on the two variables separately, more research is necessary on the variables and their relationship to each other. Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 5
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Birth Order as a Research Variable:
Birth order is a topic being explored vigorously by researchers. A relatively new introduction to the field of psychology, the birth order theory has gained a significant amount of attention from researchers and theorists in the past few decades. One primary reason for its popularity can be credited to the fact that individuals from almost all cultures can relate to it. It is theorized that our birth order begins to define us since early childhood. For instance, we may hear a mother explain that her little one has difficulty sharing because he or she is an only child, or that younger siblings must respect their older siblings as if they were their parents. One may expect or notice that a first-born child shows greater respect towards older family members, shows greater sense of responsibility, is more ambitious, and sometimes, even dominant or authoritative towards his or her younger siblings. These noticeable aspects provide a general basis for speculation of an individual’s behavior to laymen. We will explore these aspects in depth below.
Eisenman (2014) points out that the behavior of parents towards their children creates a significant effect on the child’s behavior and can influence the development of Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 6 his or her personality as well. For instance, in the case of the first-born child, research
(mentioned below) has found that they are more inclined to showing higher levels of anxiety in comparison to their later-born siblings. Why is this the case? This can be explained by the parents’ behavior towards the first-born child- they are new to idea of raising a child, they have never experienced parental anxiety before and are therefore, more cautious towards every action related to the first-born child. By the time they have a second or third child, they are habituated to the routine of caring for a child and tend to ease up their hold on the chains of anxiety that bound them at the time of their first-child experience. However, we cannot, of course, believe that every first-born child will show an anxious personality as exceptions to such cases are bound to exist.
Adler on Birth Order:
Alfred Adler was one of the first psychologists who theorized that the sequence in which we are born into a family may play a vital role in the development of our personalities. He suggested that “first born children are more likely to be conscientious, serious, goal-directed, aggressive, rule-conscious, competitive, high in self-esteem, etc.”
(Alfred Adler Research on Birth Order) “Whereas, middle-borns may have a range of different personalities” (Alfred Adler Research on Birth Order). One may notice, middle- born children show aspects of overachievement, or the exact opposite of it, in their personalities. This can be a result of them being unable to “fit into” the family. They may typically be very social and may have a number of friends and social interactions due to Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 7 the attention they receive from those outside of their family. It is commonly understood as a means of compensating for the lack of attention parents provide to the middle-born children. They are constantly struggling for the attention of their parents. Therefore, middle-borns also tend to be extraverted due to their yearning to carve a niche for themselves within the family. While the older sibling tends to live the life of an overachiever, and the younger as the “star”, it is only logical that the middle-born child will want to establish a status for himself or herself within the family dynamic. Adler explains that lastborn children usually take up the status of the “entertainer” of the family. They are typically laid back, and dependent on their parents or others. Even though this may not be true of all last-borns, it is commonly observed that these children are treated as the “baby” of the family and are coddled and pampered a lot; which in turn leads to their dependent behavior (Alfred Adler Research on Birth Order).
Adler also provides explanations of typical behaviors observed in twins and single children, however, throughout this study, focus is placed on only first- and last-born individuals, with both parents in common.
Birth order research has explored a large number of variables related to it such as self-esteem, intelligence, personality traits, leadership, etc. Although there is much discussion over the influences of birth order on personality, with some researchers arguing there is no effect, studies have found slight differences between first-born and Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 8 later-born children; the chronological order of children’s births has also been found to influence how the parents treat them (Eisenman, 2014).
As a research variable, Kenneth Kammeyer (1967) points out that the influence or importance of birth order is discovered by researchers while being engaged in other research. He notes that birth order is usually “stumbled upon” as a factor or indicator of some dependent variable. However, hardly any research explains “why”. This feature of the variable of birth order tends to confuse those trying to interpret previous research about it. He stresses that it is vital that researchers begin to explore the reason behind
“why” birth order tends to affect behavior (if it does). We must begin exploring it as an intrinsically meaningful variable rather than just an indicator of “something” (Kammeyer,
1967). And while one conducts research on birth order as a predictive variable, there is no strong research which provides reason as to why it may or may not predict something.
Rather, most researchers turn to theories provided by Adler or Freud to explain their stance.
Kammeyer (1967) believes that “the thing most needed is some outline or framework which will allow the systematic categorization and assessment of the already advanced theoretical interpretive links between ordinal position and the various dependent variables”. He believes that any differences in behaviors or characteristics between children of different ordinal positions, is most likely a result of their possibly different social and familial experiences. Therefore, he proposes a framework for the Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 9 systematic analysis of the influence of birth order i.e. by focusing on the most basic level.
By this, he means that studies must focus on the patterns of behavior occurring within nuclear families, and find the most obvious and noticeable characteristics of these interactions. Once we have established a foundation, we can move on to studying higher levels of interactions such as those with extended families, peers, etc. This, will provide us a basis for further research, and will help us understand and interpret past research, and possibly more abstract variables which may have a link to birth order. However, his ideas cannot disregard the findings presented by some studies on birth order and its relationship with a number of other variables.
Kammeyer (1967) recognized that there are no specific rules or guidelines as to how to rank birth order. Four different methods of ranking birth order have emerged in a review of birth order studies. A study by Mills and Mooney (2013) refers to them as the
(1) Adlerian, (2) dichotomous, (3) serial, and (4) continuous methods. They note the limitations of each of these methods. The Adlerian method fails to consider the fact that being older of 2 siblings might be different compared to being the oldest of 10. This method, while providing specific positions for the first and last born, tends to combine all children in between in a general category of “middle-borns”. (Mills, 2013) The dichotomous technique can be beneficial in the fact that there is a limited comparison that could reveal precise dissimilarities amongst first-born children, who have at one time had all parental resources to themselves, and later-born children, who have only experienced mutual sharing of parental resources and have always had the presence of another sibling in their lives. However, the use of the dichotomous method, once again, raises the issue Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 10 of loss significant information, such as the impact of being the last-born child of many children as opposed to being the second-born child of two (Mills, 2013). The serial method disregards the importance of the youngest child's birth order, but, regardless, is still very useful in being a good marker of the number of children within a family, which may impact other variables, such as socioeconomic status, etc. (Mills, 2013). These three are the most frequently used methods of using birth order as a variable in research, of which some studies will now be stated below.
Birth Order and Leadership:
An empirical study by Valerie Hudson (1990) explored whether the personal characteristics and foreign policy behavior of world leaders correlated with their birth orders. 46 world political leaders and their traits were compared to one another. Among those included in the sample were Margaret Thatcher, Indira Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru,
Moammar Qaddafi, Richard Nixon, etc. Although limited and small, their sample showed a clear predominance of first-born and middle-born politicians in leadership positions.
While some results showed consistency with the birth order theory, some did not. The results for only-borns and middle-borns were significantly inconsistent with the birth order theory, therefore, suggesting modifications in the birth order theory and its prevalence.
Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 11
Last-borns were found to rate higher on the trait of nationalism, need for power and affiliation. Their results also suggested lack of trust in others and affectual orientation in last-borns. First-borns and only-borns showed considerably higher self-confidence than other birth order categories. However, no significant differences were found between these birth order categories on personal characteristics. And, in addition to that, no differences at all were found on foreign policy orientations among any of these groups
(Hudson, 1990).
Although two of these findings display consistency with the birth order theory, it is rather surprising that these leaders and their birth orders showed no significant differences on personal traits other than self-confidence. Except with last-borns, who were the group that deviated from the norm, revealing quite extreme results as above mentioned on several traits. Besides this, the study found no differences among leaders on their foreign policy orientations, which reveals that political leaders, may be quite controlled and discreet about making decisions regarding foreign policy, despite their personal choices and/or motives (Hudson, 1990).
Sulloway and Darwinian Evolutionary Theory:
Besides leadership, sibling relationships and birth spacing has also been studied in relation to birth order. For instance, Darwin suggested that differences amongst siblings are a result of survival mechanisms in first-borns which tend to be stronger and bigger, Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 12 leading them to have a greater reproductive value to their parents (Sulloway, 1995).
According to Darwinian evolutionary psychology, sibling rivalry was explained in terms of the theory of “survival of the fittest”, wherein siblings fight in order to persist and integrate into their familial environment. After Darwin, sibship and birth order studies reemerged through Adler’s theory of birth order. However, it was Frank Sulloway’s book
Born to Rebel (1996) which is credited with bringing attention to the topic of birth order in popular psychology and encouraging further research on it. Although significant research has been carried out regarding birth order, not all of the studies have found evidence of birth order effects. However, it is safe to assume that the effects of birth order can be attributed to not just one single variable, but many conflicting variables.
For instance, a study conducted by Whiteman, McHale, and Crouter (2003) found that parents usually learn to balance their parenting behavior better with their later-born children from their experiences with the first-born child. Parents were found to have improved parenting strategies in handling adolescent behavior with the later-born children, which lead to healthier parent-child relationship with the later-born child. They also found that second-borns at age 11 had greater conflicts with parents compared to their older siblings while between ages 11 to 13. This could be a result of parents’ comparison between both siblings and their behaviors. Parents expect the younger sibling to learn and adopt the “good” behavior of the older sibling, but the younger child probably does not appreciate this comparison of behaviors. One must keep in mind that middle childhood is considered as a relatively calm developmental period. During this time, the older siblings require less discipline and are provided more freedom and Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 13 privileges compared to their later-born siblings who are still in the pre-teenage phase with lesser levels of maturity.
However, Sulloway (1996) presents the argument of socio-economic status of the family. He mentions in his book that parents tend to place greater expectations on the first-born child during financial crisis. Additionally, during this time, younger siblings tend to want to gain parental attention by acting out in ways which leads to the parents emotionally investing greatly in the younger sibling, therefore, helping them secure their position in the family.
Another mechanism Sulloway (1996) discusses is that of de-identification. We will often times find that the first-born child tends to mirror the likes, dislikes, and behaviors of the parents. However, later-born individuals tend to deviate and typically adopt traits opposite to those of the parents as a means of attracting greater parental attention. This, Sulloway describes as behaviors siblings adopt while competing against each other for the attention of their parents, for the sake of establishing a strong position within the family for survival purposes, regardless of the existence of parental child favoritism (in consistency with the Darwinian evolutionary theory).
Age Spacing:
Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 14
Sometimes, certain studies also tend to overlook operational factors such as age spacing. The results of a study by Rosenzweig (1986) discovered that the immediacy of the birth of a second child is dependent on the ease experienced by the parents in caring for the first born. Whereas, the existence and age spacing of the third child depends highly on the sex ordering and composition, and on the aftermath of the births of the previous children. We may not find results consistent with birth order literature if the age space between the first and second sibling is more than 8 years, as compared to if the age space was lesser than 2 years. Siblings growing up less than 2 years apart are usually nurtured in similar domestic environments, as compared to those with greater age differences. If the age space exceeds 7 to 8 years, there is a possibility that the later born sibling feels like they have been cared for as a single child due to the lack of interactions with their older sibling. Therefore, their behavior may not be as consistent as one would expect with that of a second-born sibling.
Approximately a decade earlier, a study was conducted by Belmont, Stein, and
Zybert (1978) which explored whether birth order and age spacing between pairs of siblings in families with only two children correlated to the intellectual abilities of these children. Their hypothesis challenged that of Robert Zajonc who postulated that “the association of birth order with intelligence is a reflection of the spacing between the siblings” (Belmont, Stein, Zybert, 1978). What he meant by this is that first born children are born into a family with adults only. This provides an advantage to the first born child in the sense that social and cognitive interactions with adults will lead to a higher IQ score. Additionally, this improves with the introduction of a new child in the family, who Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 15 the first child can tutor. However, as the second child is born into a family with a mixed adult-child environment, they may not develop a high IQ. And, as the family size increases, the overall IQ of the family falls, and the last child is most disadvantaged due to the inexistence of a younger sibling to care for and teach. The results of Belmont et al.’s (1978) study did not support Zajonc’s hypothesis and found that an increased age space was advantageous to the intellectual abilities of the second-born, but it did not improve the abilities of either of the two siblings.
Birth Order, Achievement, Risk Taking, Creative and Gender Differences:
First-born children tend to present high Intelligence Quotients (IQ) and many adult-like interests than their later-born siblings (Eisenman, 2014). This can be attributed to the fact that before the birth of the second child, the first-born child achieves all parental attention and identifies with these adults as role models. Therefore, they develop interests that may be well beyond their age and this may lead to higher scores on IQ Tests and other intelligence measures. This effect may account, in part, for the fact that firstborns achieve at a greater rate than later-borns. For example, there are more famous firstborn scientists (for their proportion in the population) than would be expected by chance (Eisenman, 2014).
Risk taking behavior can also be explained in a similar fashion. As noted earlier, first-born children have a higher chance of developing anxious personalities. Their later- Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 16 born counterparts, on the other hand, receive much freedom due to the reduced anxiety and cautious behavior on the part of the parents. This may lead to greater participation by later-born siblings in sports and risk taking behavior. First-borns, on the other hand, tend to participate in activities which they believe they are well-equipped to handle. Therefore, however risky the profession of an astronaut may sound, first-born individuals will engage in such behavior as they will tend to believe that harm can be avoided by good quality training and skills (Eisenman, 2014).
Creativity can be defined as a mixture of originality and usefulness, and there are tests developed to measure it (Eisenman, 2014). It has been discovered that first-born males tend to be more creative than later-borns. Whereas, opposite results are found in the case of females. This discovery could be justified by the parental treatment and behavior towards their first-born child and also from how parents treat their female children- females tend to have a more restricted lifestyle and more so, if they are first- born. Other researchers have discovered that first-born females are likely to grow up with traditional morals and ideals, which some researchers believe tends to limit growth of creativity. (Eisenman, 2014)
A sufficient amount of research exists on birth order and variables on which it may have some level of influence. As a greater understanding of birth order has been gained, it has become possible to conduct research based on what is known rather than to treat birth order as simply one more variable (Eisenman, 2014). As noted from the studies Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 17 mentioned so far, self-esteem, leadership behavior, intellectual quotient, etc. and a vast number of personality traits are associated with emotional intelligence as a means of understanding individuals and their emotions. Therefore, this thesis utilizes emotional intelligence as the second variable.
1.2. Emotional Intelligence as a Research Variable:
The term emotional intelligence has received much attention in popular psychology in the past few decades. Research studies are being carried out on emotional intelligence more often than before. Emotional intelligence can be described as the ability to understand and interpret the distinct emotions of not only ourselves, but of others as well, and utilize these emotions to direct our thinking and behavior in everyday life
(Coleman, 2008).
Edward Thorndike in 1920, presented a theory which stated that a type of intelligence exists within us human beings which helps us understand and manage other individuals and behave in accordance to human relations. He called this a kind of intelligence which is distinct from what is known as general intelligence. He named it social intelligence.
Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 18
Further investigation into this topic continued with the work of Mayer and
Salovey (1997). Based on their definition, emotional intelligence seems to possess three distinct aspects:
1. The ability to verbally and non-verbally evaluate emotions in oneself and in
others.
2. The ability to regulate and operate emotions of oneself and others.
3. The ability to utilize these emotions to appropriately direct thoughts and navigate
through life.
The four-branch model developed by them describes emotional intelligence as four interrelated abilities namely, perceiving, using, understanding, and managing emotions. The theory guides us in studying and understanding how individuals differ in abilities which require emotional information processing.
Perceiving emotions is the capacity to recognize and interpret emotions through facial expressions, voices, images, etc. This includes perceiving our own and others’ emotions. For example, recognizing almost immediately the change in mood or the type of emotion an individual is feeling by reading and identifying the expression on their face. Using emotions consists of cognitively understanding and applying these emotions in order to successfully navigate through everyday life and situations. Understanding emotions helps us grasp the slight differences in two seemingly similar emotions, such as the difference between sadness and grief. It also helps us understand how emotions Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 19 evolve overtime. One of its main aspects is the ability to label and describe appropriately the emotional state of oneself. Managing emotions consists of the ability to control not just our own, but others’ emotions and its expression as well. (Salovey and Grewal, 2005)
Some of the earlier tests developed for measuring emotional intelligence were self-report scales which participants would answer themselves. However, the main drawback with these tests is the fact that the experimenter can never know if the participants really are aware of their emotions, or whether they answer the questionnaires in ways they deemed socially desirable (Salovey and Grewal, 2005).
Emotional Intelligence plays an important part in an individual’s understanding of his or her social relationships and behaviors. Mayers et al. (2008) mention a number of research which has found that individuals with higher emotional intelligence levels are more inclined to possess better social skills, share better and healthier relationships, and are perceived as more interpersonally perceptive and responsive in comparison to those with low emotional intelligence. Higher emotional intelligence is a predictor of better social outcomes, whereas lower emotional intelligence levels predict interpersonal inconsistencies and maladjustments (Mayers et al., 2008). High emotional intelligence has been found to correlate with better work relationships as well. Managers who possess high emotional intelligence have an inclination towards developing healthy working relationships with their colleagues. They also cultivate a productive working environment, and are supportive of the goals of the organization (Mayers et al., 2008). Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 20
Lopes et al. (2003) draw attention to a large amount of research literature which suggests that emotional skills play an influential role in the social and emotional adjustment in an individual’s life. They mention Damasio’s (1994) studies on individuals with brain damage which found that in order to navigate through life with ease, the ability to integrate rational methods of thinking with emotional information is rather essential.
Research studies with children have also discovered that as children develop and grow with age, a development in their abilities to identify and interpret emotions and emotional expressions are connected to social competence and adaptation.
It was also discovered that college students who scored low on emotional intelligence, engage in drug and alcohol use. These participants also reported sharing unsatisfied relationships with friends (Salovey and Grewal, 2005).
However, the significance of emotional intelligence is an issue that is still being dealt with in the world of psychology. While some theories state that it plays a vital role in our daily function, maybe even more than intelligence quotient does, the magnitude of its worth is still questionable.
For example, Matthews et al. (2004) address what they understand as seven myths regarding emotional intelligence, wherein the sixth myth states that successfully dealing Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 21 with stressful situations is vital to the concept of emotional intelligence. They argue that
Mayer and Salovey are unclear whether emotional intelligence includes managing and dealing with emotions, or coping with the events that cause the emotions.
Matthews et al. (2004) also raise questions on the myth that emotional intelligence is necessary for succeeding in the real world, namely, in the workplace and educational environment. They argue that we cannot fully assume that this is true as we do not have proof of whether or not emotional intelligence provides us with effective strategies to deal with practical issues that may arise in these environments. In addition to this, no empirical data exists to support the claim that possessing a high emotional quotient is more beneficial than a high intelligence quotient for achieving success within the workplace. Although some theorists explain that a high IQ is essential for attaining a job position, others argue that emotional quotient is essential for success within the office environment.
Research has also been conducted on emotional intelligence in relation to gender.
A study conducted by Naghavi and Redzuan (2011) found a meaningful association between gender differences and emotional intelligence. Girls are generally expected to be more expressive of their emotions, as opposed to boys. This can be generally observed in a patriarchal society wherein we may constantly hear individuals use the phrase “crying like a girl”. Men are conditioned to believe that the expression of emotions does not make them masculine enough, and hence, refrain from doing so. Studies have also shown that Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 22 girls rate higher compared to boys in emotional intelligence levels, but high emotional intelligence in boys is a better predicts achievement (Naghavi and Redzuan, 2011).
In another study conducted by Jagpreet Kaur (2010) in an Indian adolescent population, male adolescents scored higher on emotional intelligence and its dimensions than their female counterparts. Other studies conducted by Petrides and Furnham (2000) are also consistent with these findings.
The current study will also focus on individuals of Indian nationality as the target sample population. Since no research exists on the relationship between birth order and emotional intelligence, this study will be purely exploratory in nature. As previously noted, theorists such as Alfred Adler, Frank Sulloway, and Daniel Goleman have stressed the importance of both variables individually, and have signaled towards the probable link between them. To what extent can birth order be related to one’s emotional intelligence?
1.3. Gender and Cultural Differences in Emotional Intelligence:
Factors such as culture and gender also significantly impact an individual’s emotional development and therefore, their level of emotional intelligence. Cultures are commonly understood and divided based on their individualistic or collectivistic Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 23 character. In general, collectivistic cultures place greater importance on societal values, togetherness, maintenance of harmony and social networks, and other social factors
(Sinha and Verma, 1994). Whereas, individualistic cultures, on the other hand, tend to give more importance to self-expression of emotions (Kitayama et al. 2000). In relation to this, it is possible that a healthy balance between the positive and negative emotions of an individual from a collectivistic society largely depends on societal approval of their emotional expression.
Culture determines the norms and values that an individual lives by. What is regarded as important is therefore determined to a great degree by culture (Gunkel et al.,
2014). Although emotions are innate possessions which are biologically encoded in our systems, controlling their expression is largely determined by culture (Matsumoto, 1989).
Expression of emotions is, to an extent, shaped by the culture one is raised in. Matsumoto
(1990) found that individualistic cultures tend to emphasize the expression of individual emotions, since they stress the needs of individuals. However, collectivistic cultures
(usually Eastern cultures) place greater emphasis on relationships with peers rather than one’s individual emotional world. In addition to this, we must also bear in mind that various cultures depict emotions differently, therefore, interpreting emotions and the cognitive techniques one applies to do so, may also vary from culture to culture. Triandis and Gelfand (1998) state that conflict inducing behavior is minimized in collectivistic cultures, whereas individualistic deviance is generally well tolerated in individualistic cultures. Hence, it is safe to assume that the emotion regulation strategies employed by individuals from different cultures will be linked to their emotional intelligence as well. Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 24
With regard to these cultural differences in emotions and its use and expression, this study may present some interesting findings consistent with the little research that exists on the topic.
One's norms and values determine the central importance in life, and thereby, influence the manner in which emotions are appraised, recognized, and used (Gunkel,
2014). As cultural beliefs tend to have an influence on one’s emotions, we can derive that culture also has an influence on an individual’s emotional intelligence.
India is a typically collectivistic society. Social support and familial ties hold vital places in people’s lives. The culture predominantly lays emphasis on values such as concerning the self with others and their surrounding environment, being grounded in and a part of an in-group (which may even be considered as a defining character of the individual), and strong emotional and social reliance on family (Mishra et al. 2006; Misra
2001). Since individuals from collectivistic cultures are more concerned with the presence and maintenance of healthy relationships, they might utilize their emotional capabilities to obtain greater social support and enhance their social networks. In order to verify this, this study focuses on a target population of students between the ages of 18 to
26 years from a city in India. The results are expected to show an overall high score in the competencies of Teamwork and Empathy rather than the others mainly because these are the traits which assist an individual in behaving in a socially acceptable manner the most. Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 25
Ang et al. (2007) propose that a person, who is emotionally intelligent in one culture, might not be that in another one (Gunkel et al., 2014). As we may have learned through cultural studies, one’s cultural environment and beliefs have a significant impact on behavior and emotions, implying that culture may have an influence on emotional intelligence. Consequently, the societal rules also determine the meaning of emotions and the controlling of them (Eid and Diener, 2001). This includes the expression as well the communication of emotions, which is also determined by the type of society one lives in.
Emotional intelligence, therefore, plays a vital part in the understanding of one’s own as well as others’ emotions which are displayed within a certain society- emotions which are governed by display rules in the particular culture. However, there is little research on the cross-cultural influence of culture on emotional intelligence. While previous studies suggest that emotional intelligence is defined by cultural standards and values
(e.g., Mayer and Geher, 1996, Mayer et al., 2000 and Offermann and Phan, 2002), the literature on the variable in question, is short on a theoretical understanding of the process on how national culture influences emotional intelligence (Gunkel et al., 2014).
This study aims to explore just that by studying a purely Indian population, and attempting to cement the existing gap with the hope to establish a foundation off which further research can be conducted.
Sometimes, social norms are also gender-specific. Therefore, a difference in emotional intelligence of individuals is expected to be impacted due to their gender. A rising concern, in this case, is whether the self-report of an individual’s emotional Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 26 intelligence is affected by gender stereotypes. Personality characteristics such as sensitivity or affection are considered as more typical of women, whereas character traits such as aggression, courage, or bravery are considered as more typical of men (Williams and Best 1990; Williams et al. 1999). Emotional phenomena is often associated with women, rather than with men, given that the concept of emotionality is connected with
“feminine” characteristics such as focusing on one’s relations with others, being attentive to other’s needs or being intimate with others (Fischer 1993; Hall et al. 2000).
A vast fraction of research on emotional intelligence in relation to gender states that women possess greater emotional intelligence than men. Mandell and Pherwani
(2003) discovered that women scored higher than men on emotional intelligence.
Whereas, Goleman (1998) examined the influence of gender differences on emotional intelligence and found no significant differences between the two variables. He found no differences between males and females in their levels of emotional intelligence.
As we may expect, a sample population hailing from collectivistic and predominantly patriarchal society with high power distance and high context culture such as India, is not expected to be absolutely unaffected by the gender stereotypes that exist in their culture. And, therefore, this is expected to reflect in the results of this study.
1.4. Overview of the Current Study: Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 27
The purpose of this thesis is to investigate the topic of birth order and its influence
(if any) on an individual’s emotional intelligence. Birth order is operationally defined, herein, as the rank or sequence in which an individual is born into a family in relation to his or her sibling(s). Throughout this study, the participants’ birth orders will be classified into two levels: first-born and last-born. All participants will have both parents in common and will have not more than one sibling. The examination of the possible relationship between birth order and emotional intelligence will be carried out through the scores the participant receives on an emotional intelligence questionnaire.
This study hypothesizes that first-born individuals will possess a higher emotional intelligence score compared to last-born individuals, and will possess a greater ability to understand and interpret emotions of their own as well as the emotions of other individuals in the environment around them. The basis for this hypothesis rises from not only personal experiences, but also from the Adlerian theory of birth order. As Adler explains that first born individuals usually rate highly on self-esteem and tend to achieve greater success in life, one can expect that in order to navigate through life, while constantly interacting with different personalities, a good sense of emotional understanding of oneself and others is important. However, due to the lack of research and literature existing on this topic, the hypothesis presented is also primarily exploratory.
Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 28
The context of emotional intelligence organizes a collection of literatures referring to emotional competencies. Therefore, this study will be conducted with the use of the ESCI (Emotional and Social Competence Inventory) which measures 12 competencies of emotional intelligence classified into four groups- Self-Awareness, Self-
Management, Social Awareness, and Relationship Management. However, this study rates participants on Emotional Intelligence which is consisted of five competencies alone. In order to rate each participant on emotional intelligence, they will be scored on five competencies, namely, Emotional Self-Awareness (Self-Awareness), Adaptability
(Self-Management), Emotional Self-Control (Self-Management), Empathy (Social
Awareness), and Teamwork (Relationship Management). Each have a similar hypothesis:
H1: A higher score on Emotional Self-Awareness will correlate with the level of birth order, i.e. first-born individuals will demonstrate higher scores on levels of Emotional
Self-Awareness compared to last-born individuals.
H2: A higher score on Adaptability will correlate with the level of birth order, i.e. first- born individuals will demonstrate higher scores on levels of Adaptability compared to last-born individuals.
H3: A higher score on Emotional Self-Control will correlate with the level of birth order, i.e. first-born individuals will demonstrate higher scores on levels of Emotional Self-
Control compared to last-born individuals. Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 29
H4: A higher score on Empathy will correlate with the level of birth order, i.e. first-born individuals will demonstrate higher scores on levels of Empathy compared to last-born individuals.
H5: A higher score on Teamwork will correlate with the level of birth order, i.e. first- born individuals will demonstrate higher scores on levels of Teamwork compared to last- born individuals.
This study will also analyze differences in emotional intelligence based on gender and age as additional, informational analyses, which may provide basis for further research on the topic. The hypothesis developed, in this case, is:
H1: Women will score greater than men on the competencies of emotional intelligence.
H2: Age will influence differences in emotional intelligence levels.
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. Participants: Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 30
The study sample consisted of 40 students from the city of Mumbai, India, between the ages of 18 to 26 years. An equal amount of males and females were approached to participate in the study. The sample was recruited by the method of purposive sampling, which is a non-probability sampling strategy. A purposive sample is one that is selected based on the purpose of the research study being conducted, and on the judgement of the researcher. The subjects must fulfill certain requirements or criteria, or must possess specific characteristics, in order to be selected to participate in the study.
In this study, the selection of participants depended on whether the participants had only one sibling (older or younger) with both parents in common i.e. the biological roots of these sibling pairs must be identical.
The study was a quantitative exploratory research and its objective was to find the possible differences, if any existed, in the emotional intelligence levels of these individuals based on their birth order, that is, whether they were first- or last-born.
2.2. Research Design:
The research design for this study was quasi-experimental, consisting of one independent variable of birth order with two levels: first-born and last-born, and one dependent variable of emotional intelligence. The dependent variable is further divided Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 31 into five competencies. This design was chosen as this study attempted to determine the level of differences between birth order and emotional intelligence within a specific population.
2.3. Data Collection:
Data was collected from 40 individuals and their colleagues or friends. Twenty males and twenty females were requested to complete a self-report questionnaire (the
ESCI Self Survey), rating themselves on their level of emotional intelligence. In order to minimize the possibility of a personal bias, the participants were requested to provide three other individuals i.e. raters (friends or colleagues from work), with the ESCI 360 °
Survey. These individuals rated the main participant on their level of emotional intelligence. Every participant and rater was provided with an informed consent form. All participants voluntarily agreed to be a part of the research study.
2.4. Instrumentation:
The Emotional and Social Competence Inventory (ESCI) was developed by Dr.
Daniel Goleman and Dr. Richard Boyatzis in association with Hay Group, Inc. It is a
360° assessment scale and is also one of the most widely used instrument for behavioral measurement of emotional and social intelligence. It combines twelve competencies on Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 32 which the individual is rated. Following are the psychometric properties of the ESCI as mentioned by Daniel Goleman. The ones relevant to this study are-
1. Emotional Self-Awareness with a Cronbach’s Alpha reliability of 0.83.
2. Adaptability with Cronbach’s Alpha reliability of 0.76.
3. Emotional Self-Control with the reliability of 0.80.
4. Empathy with Cronbach’s Alpha reliability of 0.79.
5. Teamwork with reliability of 0.87.
A principal axis Exploratory Factor Analysis with promax rotation6 showed the factor analytic properties of the instrument to be outstanding. Four out of five competencies (Emotional Self-Awareness, Emotional Self-Control, Empathy, and
Teamwork) had all questions loaded on the expected factor. Whereas, Adaptability showed four out of six questions loaded on expected factor. Most competencies have an additional reverse-scored item.
All questions report responses on a five-point Likert scale plus a “not applicable” option. The Likert scale options include “never”, “rarely”, “sometimes”, “often” and
“consistently”. If any item does not apply to the participant, they can choose the option of
“don’t know’.
Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 33
Participants and their raters were also requested to answer certain sociodemographic questions such as their age and gender. They were also requested to indicate whether they were first- or last-born. The raters were required to indicate that they have known the participant for at least a minimum of one year, if not more.
2.5. Procedure:
Collection of data for the study occurred over a span of two months i.e. July and
August 2015. The participants were approached in groups as well as individually. Many participants were recruited through word of mouth and snowballing. Participants were provided with a brief verbal explanation of the study, and were requested to also read through the informed consent for a more detailed understanding. All participants were students of the Mumbai University. Participants were requested to read each question carefully, and that there were no right or wrong answers, and also that they could choose to stop answering the survey at any time if they felt uncomfortable in doing so. They were also asked to nominate three individuals as raters for the study.
The participants were assured of their anonymity and were handed out the surveys in an envelope so as to preserve complete confidentiality. Any other questions or queries on behalf of the participants were answered to their complete satisfaction.
Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 34
2.6. Data Analysis:
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (IBM SPSS Statistics 18) was utilized in order to input, analyze, and interpret the data obtained. The inferential statistics used were- the Independent Samples T-test, Mann-Whitney U test, Kruskal-Wallis H test, and one-way ANOVA (based on the results of normality testing) as the study involved one independent variable of birth order with two levels, and five dependent competencies.
The two means of the two levels of independent variables had to be compared.
Variables:
In the following study, there existed one independent variable with two levels-
1. First-born individuals
2. Last-born individuals
3. The aim of the study was to find the differences, if any, between the emotional
intelligence levels of these two groups of individuals. The dependent variable of
emotional intelligence are categorized into five competencies.
Operational Definitions of Variables:
Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 35
Birth Order- The sequence in which participants are born into a family.
Participants must have both parents in common with their sibling and must have no more than one sibling.
Emotional Intelligence- Individuals’ scores attained on the ESCI measure of emotional intelligence.
2.7. Assumptions:
It was assumed that the participants would answer the questionnaire truthfully and so would the raters they nominated. The participants and raters were expected to be completely unbiased in answering the surveys.
3. RESULTS
In order to compare and contrast the scores achieved by the participants in this study, four main analytical tests were conducted on the data set- Independent Samples T- test, Mann-Whitney U test, Kruskal-Wallis H test, and one-way ANOVA- based on the tests of normality.
Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 36
The Independent Samples T-Test compares the means between two separate groups on one continuous dependent variable. Three main assumptions based on which this test is used in this study state that no significant outliers must exist, the dependent variable must be approximately normally distributed, and homogeneity of variances must exist. A Levene’s test for homogeneity of variances has therefore been carried out for every analysis that has been conducted using the Independent Samples T-Test. (H.
Aguilera, personal communication, 2015)
When two variables are not normally distributed, a Mann-Whitney U Test is used to analyze the data. This test also helps us to compare differences between two independent groups. This test forms the basis for the Kruskal-Wallis H Test which is a series of pairwise U-Tests. It is also called the one-way ANOVA on ranks and is used to determine any statistically significant differences between two or more groups of an independent variable. One main assumption of this test is the independence of observations, meaning that no relationship must exist between the two groups or the observations between them. (H. Aguilera, personal communication, 2015)
In order to interpret the results from a Kruskal-Wallis H test, it is important to know whether the distributions in each group have the same variances. In the case of this study, the distributions are not equal and therefore, we use the test to only compare the mean ranks of the various groups. (H. Aguilera, personal communication, 2015)
Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 37
Lastly, a one-way ANOVA has been used to uncover and verify the differences in means between unrelated groups as well. The dependent variable in every group must be normally distributed in order to use this test. (H. Aguilera, personal communication,
2015)
In this study, the main analyses of the five dependent competencies of emotional intelligence and birth order have been conducted using either the Independent Samples T- test or the Mann-Whitney U test, provided the assumptions for either of the tests have been met.
Every competency was rated and analyzed separately based on the scores achieved by the participants on self and rater reports. The results are presented in
Appendix 1 and 2.
3.1. Descriptive Statistics:
A total of 40 subjects participated in the study, of which 17 were males and 23 were females. However, more importantly, exactly half of the participants were first-born individuals and the other half were last-born individuals. The age of participants ranged from the youngest being 18 years of age and the oldest, 24 years old. The Emotional and
Social Competency Inventory (ESCI) was used in order to calculate the emotional Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 38 intelligence levels of the participants. Participants rated themselves on a self-report scale.
Each participant also received scores from three others raters who, they nominated themselves, to answer the questionnaire (the ESCI 360° Survey) for them. A total of 120 raters answered the surveys provided (three per participant). Any question left unanswered or which was answered with the option of “Don’t Know” was calculated as missing data.
Table 1: Number of First- and Last-Born Participants
First-Born Last-Born Total
20 20 40
Table 2: Number of Male and Female Participants
Males Females Total
17 23 40
3.2. Adaptability:
An independent samples t-test helped us determine the mean differences in the level of adaptability that participants acquired based on the scores they received from the raters. There were no outliers in the data, as assessed by inspection of a boxplot. Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 39
Adaptability scores for each level of birth order were normally distributed, as assessed by
Shapiro-Wilk's test (p > .05), and there was homogeneity of variances, as assessed by
Levene's test for equality of variances (p = 0.33). Adaptability obtained for the first group
(first-born) was higher (M=3.42, SD= 0.40) whereas the second group (last-born) was lower (M=3.28, SD= 0.48). There were no significant mean differences found between first- and last-born individuals in their levels of adaptability [t (38) = 0.98, p = 0.33].
A similar analysis on the self-reported data for adaptability found no outliers as assessed by inspection of a boxplot. Adaptability scores for each level of birth order were normally distributed, as assessed by Shapiro-Wilk's test (p > .05), and there was homogeneity of variances, as assessed by Levene's test for equality of variances (p =
0.53). Adaptability obtained for the first group (first-born) was lower (M=3.35, SD=
0.43) whereas the second group (last-born) was higher (M=3.45, SD= 0.48). There were no significant mean differences found between first- and last-born individuals in their levels of adaptability [t (38) = -0.63, p = 0.53].
3.3. Empathy:
An independent samples t-test analysis on rater-reported data for empathy, found no outliers as assessed by inspection of a boxplot. Empathy scores for each level of birth order were normally distributed, as assessed by Shapiro-Wilk's test (p > .05), and there was homogeneity of variances, as assessed by Levene's test for equality of variances (p = Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 40
0.73). Empathy obtained for the first group (first-born) was higher (M=3.51, SD= 0.40) whereas the second group (last-born) was lower (M=3.46, SD= 0.40). There were no significant mean differences found between first- and last-born individuals in their levels of empathy [t (38) = 0.33, p = 0.73]
In order to acquire results for the self-reported scores for this competency, a
Mann-Whitney U test was conducted. No outliers were found as assessed by inspection of a boxplot. Empathy scores for each level of birth order were not normally distributed, as assessed by Shapiro-Wilk's test (p < 0.05). The group consisting of last-born individuals achieved a higher mean rank [21.30] compared to that of the first-born individuals [19.70]. However, no statistically significant mean differences were found between the two groups in their level of empathy. [U = 184, p = 0.66]
This shows us that the second competency of Empathy also does not differ according to an individual’s birth order.
3.4. Self-Awareness:
No outliers were found as assessed by inspection of a boxplot. Self-Awareness scores for each level of birth order were not normally distributed, as assessed by Shapiro-
Wilk's test (p < 0.05), A Mann-Whitney U analysis on the rater reports showed a higher Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 41 mean rank in the first-born group [21.08] than the last-born group [19.93]. However, no statistically significant mean differences were found between first- and last-born individuals in their level of self-awareness. [U = 188, p = 0.75]
Similarly, an independent samples t-test on the self-reported data for this competency found no outliers as assessed by inspection of a boxplot. Self-Awareness scores for each level of birth order were normally distributed, as assessed by Shapiro-
Wilk's test (p < 0.05), and there was homogeneity of variances, as assessed by Levene's test for equality of variances (p = 0.65). Self-Awareness for the first group was higher (M
= 3.28, SD = 0.96) and lower for the second (M = 3.15, SD = 0.70). No significant mean differences were found between the two groups. [t (35) = 0.44, p = 0.65]
Therefore, the high or low level of possession of this competency also does not necessarily depend on an individual’s order of birth.
3.5. Self-Control:
An independent samples t-test analysis on the rater reports for this competency found no outliers as assessed by inspection of a boxplot. Self-Control scores for each level of birth order were normally distributed, as assessed by Shapiro-Wilk's test (p >
0.05), and there was homogeneity of variances, as assessed by Levene's test for equality Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 42 of variances (p = 0.46). Self-Awareness mean obtained for the first group was higher
(M= 3.16, SD= 0.47) whereas the second group was lower (M= 3.04, SD= 0.51). There were no significant mean differences found between first- and last-born individuals in their levels of Self- Control based on rater reports [t (38) = 0.74, p = 0.46].
Similar analysis on self-reported data found no outliers as assessed by inspection of a boxplot. Self-Control scores for each level of birth order were normally distributed, as assessed by Shapiro-Wilk's test (p > 0.05), and there was homogeneity of variances, as assessed by Levene's test for equality of variances (p = 0.74). Self-Awareness mean obtained for the first group was lower (M= 3.15, SD= 0.64) whereas the second group was lower (M= 3.20, SD= 0.67). There were no significant mean differences found between first- and last-born individuals in their levels of Self- Control [t (38) = -0.24, p =
0.81].
3.6. Teamwork:
No outliers were found by inspection of a boxplot for the competency of
Teamwork as rated by raters. Teamwork scores for each level of birth order were not normally distributed, as assessed by Shapiro-Wilk's test (p < 0.05). A Mann-Whitney test conducted on the rater reports revealed a higher mean rank in first-born individuals
[21.30] compared to last-born individuals [19.70] on the competency of Teamwork. Also, Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 43 no statistically significant differences were found between the two groups. [U = 184, p =
0.66]
No outliers were found by inspection of a boxplot for the competency of
Teamwork as rated by raters. Teamwork scores for each level of birth order were not normally distributed, as assessed by Shapiro-Wilk's test (p < 0.05). A similar Mann-
Whitney U analysis on the self-reported data for this competency showed a higher mean rank in first-born individuals [23.00] than last-born individuals [18.00], and no statistically significant differences were found in the same. [U = 150, p = 0.17]
3.7. Looking back on our Hypotheses:
H1: A higher score on Emotional Self-Awareness will correlate with the level of birth
order, i.e. first-born individuals will demonstrate higher scores on levels of Emotional
Self-Awareness compared to last-born individuals.
We reject this hypothesis as no significant differences were found.
H2: A higher score on Adaptability will correlate with the level of birth order, i.e.
first-born individuals will demonstrate higher scores on levels of Adaptability
compared to last-born individuals. Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 44
We reject this hypothesis as no significant differences were found.
H3: A higher score on Emotional Self-Control will correlate with the level of birth order, i.e. first-born individuals will demonstrate higher scores on levels of Emotional
Self-Control compared to last-born individuals.
We reject this hypothesis as no significant differences were found.
H4: A higher score on Empathy will correlate with the level of birth order, i.e. first- born individuals will demonstrate higher scores on levels of Empathy compared to last-born individuals.
We reject this hypothesis as no significant differences were found.
H5: A higher score on Teamwork will correlate with the level of birth order, i.e. first- born individuals will demonstrate higher scores on levels of Teamwork compared to last-born individuals.
We reject this hypothesis as no significant differences were found. Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 45
Therefore, all of the five main hypotheses have been rejected as no significant
differences were found in the emotional intelligence competencies of first- and last-
born individuals.
3.8. Additional Analysis (Age/Gender):
A further peek into other contributing factors such as age and gender and their impact on these competencies yielded some interesting results as well. Rater reported data showed no statistically significant differences between males and females in their levels of emotional intelligence based on the five competencies. In addition to this, no significant differences were found between the two genders in their self-reported data for
Adaptability, Empathy, and Self-Control. However, significant differences between men and women were found in the competencies of Self-Awareness and Teamwork. Women were found to be more aware of their emotions than men. [t (35) = -2.66, p = 0.012]
Additionally, females had a higher mean rank [24.02] in the self-reported competency of teamwork compared to males [15.74]. And statistically significant differences were found between males and females in the same. [U = 114.5, p = 0.02]
Besides gender, the age of an individual seems to have a slight influence on their level of self-control (as per rater-reported data). A One-Way ANOVA on the same Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 46 provided statistically significant differences between age and self-control. [F (3) = 5.15, p
= 0.005] A further Post-Hoc analysis between the various age groups within this study showed a statistically significant difference between 22 or 23 years old individuals and
24 years old individuals in their level of self-control. However, no significant differences were found for the same when the self-reported data was analyzed.
4. DISCUSSION
The aim of this study was to explore whether or not differences exist in the levels of emotional intelligence between first- and last-born individuals. The study hypothesized the level of emotional intelligence would be higher in first-born individuals compared to last-born individuals. Another research problem the study aimed to examine was the relationship between the two variables of birth order and emotional intelligence, and attempted to establish a foundation for further research on the topic.
As participants acquired scores from raters as well as themselves, they were scored on five competencies which, together, operationally defined the variable of emotional intelligence- Adaptability, Empathy, Self-Awareness, Self-Control, and
Teamwork.
Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 47
The results for the five hypotheses showed no significant differences between first- and last-born individuals in their emotional intelligence competencies, namely,
Adaptability, Empathy, Self-Awareness, Self-Control, or Teamwork, based on self- reports or ratings by others. This means that their birth order did not play a significant part in determining their level or ease in accepting change or adapting to changing situations or environments. Neither did the order of birth determine how high or low an individual’s level emotional understanding of the self or social environment was.
The findings of this study are coherent with the results of Ernst and Angst’s
(1983) study that birth order effects on personality do not exist. Their between-family design showed no effects of birth order on personality and it was Frank Sulloway’s
(1996) book that later negated these ideas. He conducted a study wherein he discovered that first-born CEOs did not differ significantly from later-born CEOs when tested on a self-report scale. However, when the same business leaders were requested to rate themselves in relation to a sibling, a number of birth order effects were discovered
(Sulloway, 2000). He conducted similar studies measuring the influence of birth order on personality and learned that direct sibling studies tend to yield results consistent with his hypotheses, rather than outside-the-family comparisons. Theorists like Sulloway are constantly exploring this field of study and new results are being discovered.
Sulloway (2000) explains that differences between individuals of varying birth orders is not restricted only to the family environment, but can also be observed outside Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 48 of the family dynamic. The effects of birth order may be more obvious and evident in adulthood and may also present themselves in varying degrees. They tend to express themselves not only around family, but also around spouses or roommates, and to some extent, around peers. Situations demand certain behaviors and these behavioral contexts may determine the expression of an individual’s birth order effects.
This supposition by Sulloway (2000) does have some reason to it. Individuals tend to develop certain behavioral strategies in order to successfully perform their role in the family and also in order to maintain harmony with other members of the family.
However, these strategies may not always be applicable to situations outside of the family environment. Examples of these external environments may refer to behaviors we resort to around peers, romantic partners, colleagues at work, etc. The effects of birth order on an individual’s personality, in such cases, may express or present themselves only if the situation reminds them of a past family experience wherein the effect may have manifested itself. For instance, Sulloway holds that first-born individuals are less empathic, more dominant, and more respectful of authority figures- however, mere observance of peer relations may not prove this. In addition to this, dominance or authoritative behavior within the comfort of a family environment may not necessarily mean that similar behavior strategy occurs in a foreign environment without family members.
Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 49
One may observe, however, that a number of birth order studies (such as the ones mentioned above) are conducted in relation to its effects on personality or personality traits. A vast number of Sulloway’s work itself studies the effects of birth order on an individual’s personality. However, we must bear in mind that personality, or its traits, cannot be confused with emotional intelligence.
Emotional intelligence is often misunderstood for or as a part of personality traits such as agreeableness, happiness, optimism, etc. These character traits, however, have no relation whatsoever with emotions or intelligence (Mayer, 2009). Mayer et al. (2008) believe that there is a lack of perspective on personality as a whole in the field of psychology- what central traits define personality, what are the major areas of personality, etc. The theoretical value and understanding of the labels or of terms such as
“emotion” and “intelligence” is usually more important than its incremental legitimacy.
However, it cannot be denied that the term “emotional intelligence” is very often misused or used incorrectly. Mayer et al. (2008) believe that emotional intelligence and personality or its traits (Big Five) are nowhere close to similar in meaning and the lack of explanation is problematic to the understanding of both, personality and emotional intelligence, and therefore, weakens and challenges good scientific practice and research.
They emphasize that emotional intelligence is a fairly new introduction to the field of psychology as a research variable. It must be utilized and understood in research as a construct that involves the identification, understanding, management, and utilization of emotions. It must be limited to the abilities that involve the reasoning and using of emotions. They do not believe that self-related concepts such as self-control should be Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 50 conceptualized as emotional intelligence. In order to ensure discriminant validity of the term “emotional intelligence”, it is essential that a narrow definition of the term is retained, which is focused on skills rather than traits (Lopes et al., 2003). However, we must keep in mind that skills and traits may most likely be interconnected.
Personality traits may be rather stable over the span of a lifetime, however, skills, on the other hand, can be lost or acquired throughout life. An individual’s adult personality may also not be quite the same as it were when they were a young child. The attainment and/or drop of skills through experience and learning tends to shape our personalities as we develop in life.
Despite of theorists such as Alfred Adler and Frank Sulloway stating otherwise, this study failed to achieve the expected results and the hypotheses were negated. This means that the study found no relevant results consistent with Alfred Adler’s idea that an individual’s ordinal position in a family tends to influence the development of his or her personality. This can be attributed to some drawbacks within the process of conducting this study.
Firstly, the questionnaire used to conduct the study, the Emotion and Social
Competency Inventory (ESCI), had limitations of its own. The means of the scores were quite misleading in the sense that two individuals sometimes scored one participant completely opposite on some questions. The average score achieved then, is a moderate Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 51 score on the competency and renders the result meaningless. Such results used to compare or correlate variables often leads to inaccurate results.
A larger sample could have helped in producing more interesting results as the target population of 40 subjects is quite small in studying the effects of one variable on another. Additionally, a higher number of raters would probably produce more reliable results. Also, the use of both self-reports and multi-rater reports are prone to producing unreliable and misleading results. Self-reports are susceptible to self-reporting bias wherein raters answer the surveys in a manner which they deem socially desirable and will make them “look good”.
Another possibility for error results from the raters’ understanding of the questionnaire itself along with their own level of emotional intelligence. The scores they appoint an individual may be easily flawed if they themselves have a low level of emotional intelligence.
Language could be regarded as another source of error for the study. Even though the participants were all students of an English-speaking university, the same cannot be guaranteed for the raters nominated by them. Sometimes, some meanings are lost in translation and raters find it hard to understand what the question really attempts to find answers to. Reversed questions sometimes used double negations which is hard to decipher for some other participants. Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 52
Besides this, it was assumed that participants and raters will answer the questionnaires truthfully. Such may not have been the case. The length of the survey could have been reduced from 68 questions to only those that were truly relevant to the study. Although the participants were provided with approximately two to three months of time to complete the questionnaires, many only returned them a few days before the deadline. The stress felt, then, of having to complete a survey out of what may be considered as an obligation, may have affected their answers.
It is best, in such cases, to measure emotional intelligence accurately through tasks such as recognition of facial expressions and emotions, auditory recognition of emotions, etc. This reduces room for error originating from the measures used to conduct the study. Ernst and Angst have also repeatedly criticized the use of self-ratings and paper-and-pencil tests to study emotional intelligence (Sulloway, 1995). According to
Sulloway’s (1995) meta-analytic review, only 31% of studies involving self-ratings yielded results in the predicted direction, whereas 55% of studies reported significant results with real-life situations or data collected through observations. Some birth order literature includes studies which report null findings with data collected via self-reports, but yielded significant results in real-life situations using the same sample (Sulloway,
1995). This shows us that birth order results are especially strong when analyzed through observation in real-life situations.
Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 53
Mayer et al. (2008) suggest the use of the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional
Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) to assess emotional intelligence without the use of paper- and-pencil tests. The tasks in the MSCEIT include recognition of emotions through pictures, artworks, etc. An Understanding Emotions task evaluates an individual’s capability to reason with emotions.
Mayer et al. (1999; 2000) argue that the emotional skills recorded by their test model can be viewed as intelligence, because:
“a) They represent an intercorrelated set of competencies that can be statistically inferred as a single factor with four subfactors plotting onto the four spheres of the theoretical model; (b) they are not similar to, but are meaningfully related to, abilities such as verbal intelligence; and (c) they develop with age. Studies with the MEIS provided preliminary evidence that emotional intelligence, measured as a set of abilities, shows convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity.” (Mayer et al., 2000)
In addition to this, the results yielded for this study may have differed if the target sample was focused on siblings with a within-family design, rather than individuals who have no familial ties (between-family design) and have been raised in completely different environments with different family dynamics. As mentioned earlier, Sulloway
(2000) found that vast differences in the effects of birth order on first- or later-born individuals exist when they are expected to answer surveys in relation to their siblings rather than just by themselves. Additionally, birth order effects on emotional intelligence Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 54 may yield greater and more significant results when the age space between siblings is significantly greater, and if the number of siblings within a family is high. For instance, in the case of this study, a bigger sample which compared and analyzed the effects of birth order on the emotional intelligence between siblings (three or more) within one family would probably have produced interesting and significant results. This could be due to the vast age spacing between the first- and later-born siblings. Age spacing is an important variable in this case which needs to be studied more in depth by researchers.
Additional analysis in this study presented a significant difference between men and women in their levels of Self-Awareness and Teamwork. A common stereotype suggests that women work better in teams compared to men. This result is consistent with the findings of Tucker’s (2014) study which found that women received higher scores on individuals contributions to teamwork as compared to men based on peer assessments.
These results are also consistent with the studies mentioned by Shumaila and
Nasir (2013) which states that women score significantly higher than men in factors such as emotional self-awareness. Whereas, men, on the other hand, have been found to score better on components such as self-control. A large portion of research conducted on gender and emotional intelligence regards women as being better than men, with a higher emotional intelligence overall.
Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 55
The study conducted by Shumaila and Nasir (2013) in Pakistan also produced similar results. They discovered that females rated higher than males on emotional self- awareness and also on empathy. They trace the roots of these differences in the common social behaviors and societal expectations. Emotional behaviors are learned by females as parents engage in emotional conversations and utilize emotional terminology with their daughters more than they do with their sons. Brody (1997) affirms that social processes tend to influence these results as there exist different expectations for both genders, and also an imbalance between power and status.
In consistence with the current research study, Shumaila and Nasir’s (2013) study also found no significant difference between males and females in overall emotional intelligence. This means that both, males and females, are easily able to adapt to changes.
These results correspond with the views of Goleman (1998) who argues that neither females nor males outdo each other as far as their emotional intelligence is concerned. He concluded that both women and men are equally intelligent emotionally, but they are strong in different domains. Every individual has a personal level of emotional intelligence with one’s own strengths and weaknesses (Shumaila and Nasir, 2013).
Fernández-Berrocal, Extremera, and Ramos (2004) discovered that studies which utilize self-report measures did not generally find significant differences between males and females. Previous research studies have provided inconsistent results regarding the differences in emotional intelligence levels between men and women. Where some Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 56 studies found greater emotional intelligence in females than males, others such as Kaur’s
(2010) study with the Indian adolescent population and Petrides and Furnham’s (2000) study presented opposing results- men scored higher on emotional intelligence and its dimensions than women. There are limited number of research studies that have been performed on the emotional intelligence variable in general, and particularly on gender differences (Salman and Nasreen, 2012).
In addition to all of that mentioned above, the influence of culture on an individual’s emotional development and level of emotional intelligence cannot be disregarded. Culture played a very important part in this study as the research was conducted on an Eastern (Indian), collectivistic culture, rather than a Western, individualistic culture.
As mentioned earlier, Gunkel (2014) shed light on the role of culture and its influence on one’s emotional intelligence. Though emotions are biologically programmed, controlling the expression of emotions is determined by culture
(Matsumoto, 1989). Matsumoto (1990) pointed out that Eastern, collectivistic cultures tend to place greater importance on relationships with family and friends. Owing to the existence of a collectivistic culture in Pakistan, Shumaila and Nasir (2013) believe that the parents of daughters in the nation tend to prepare them from a young age, to learn to survive and live in a joint family situation post marriage, which is a traditional family Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 57 dynamic in the country. They also believe that females possess a motherly nature which further trains them to exhibit patience throughout their lives.
Though a lack of in-depth research exists on the impact of culture and gender on emotional intelligence, this study hoped and attempted to provide a head start to other researches that may want to study these variables and their interaction.
5. CONCLUSION
This study aimed to find any existing differences that may be found in an individual’s emotional intelligence levels based on their birth order. All of the five hypotheses were negated as none yielded significant results. However, a significant difference was found between men and women on the competencies of Self-Awareness and Teamwork, with females scoring higher than males on both competencies. This result was found to be consistent with some other previously conducted studies, however, much deeper research in the topic is necessary. Both the variables of birth order and emotional intelligence, as well as the additional factors calculated in this study are being studied vigorously in the field of psychology, and the introduction of emotional intelligence has also kick started much use of it in training and interventions. The applications of these variables are explained in depth below. The implications and further paths of research suggested by the results of this study are also discussed below. Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 58
Application of Birth Order and Emotional Intelligence in Research and Training:
Since its inception, the concepts of birth order and emotional intelligence have been used in a wide variety of research studies, but mostly, separately. Emotional intelligence has managed to attract the attention of many in the field of psychology and has now been established as a popular topic of research which holds promising implications which will help individuals understand not only themselves, but also others, and help them successfully navigate through life.
Emotional intelligence has proved to be especially beneficial in relationship training. It has a strong emphasis on empathy and on helping one understand how emotions as a whole impact individuals (Wicks et al., 2014). Through relationship training, the use of emotional intelligence and its concepts help individuals traverse through the difficulties of life and also achieve a sense of understanding the working of their own emotions, which consequently helps them make sense of the working of others’ emotions.
Emotional intelligence has also been applied in schools and educational institutions by incorporating appropriate emotional modeling which in turn helps children regulate and understand emotions (Wicks et al., 2014). Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 59
Where Should Research Proceed Next?
A study similar to the current research can be carried out with a larger population after correcting the flaws in this study. A larger sample with a higher number of raters will probably yield more significant results.
Future researchers will need to abundantly address the potential impact- positive and negative- of introducing emotional intelligence training programs (Salovey and
Grewal, 2005). However, primary research calls for a strong focus on the cross-cultural aspect of emotional intelligence: how an individual’s national culture influences his or her level of emotional intelligence and its development. How does gender relate to emotional intelligence? We have found some research relevant to the topics, however, none strong enough to conclude and confirm the impact of various factors on emotional intelligence.
Most importantly, this study was conducted to fill the gap between the inexistence of research regarding the variables of birth order and emotional intelligence in relation to one another. There is a lack of research on the topic of birth order when related to emotional intelligence. Most studies have focused their work on the influence of birth order on personality factors, specifically the Big Five, or other specific variables such as Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 60 intelligence quotient. However, as indicated earlier, personality and emotional intelligence are not similar concepts. Much greater research is needed to find the relationship between these variables separately as well as together. In addition to this, other variables such as age and gender should be considered as factors that influence emotional behavior and further research must be conducted in order to find what differs people emotionally from one another. It is quite clear from the reviewed literature that a connection between the variables of emotional intelligence, gender, age, culture, and birth order exists, and it is important that this topic is explored further in a planned manner.
Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 61
Appendix 1: Rater Data Results
Table 3: Adaptability Tests of Normality
Shapiro-Wilk Statistic Df Sig. adaptability raters .959 40 .149
Table 3.1: Adaptability Mean Scores
Table 3.2: Adaptability Independent T-Test Levene’s Test for t-test for Equality of Means Equality of Variances f Sig. t df Sig. (two-tailed) adaptability raters 2.039 .161 .986 38 .331
Table 4: Empathy Tests of Normality
Shapiro-Wilk Statistic Df Sig. adaptability raters .976 40 .544
Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 62
Table 4.1: Empathy Mean Scores
Table 4.2: Empathy Independent T-Test Levene’s Test for t-test for Equality of Means Equality of Variances f Sig. t df Sig. (two-tailed) empathy raters .208 .651 -.080 38 .936
Table 5: Self-Awareness Tests of Normality
Shapiro-Wilk Statistic df Sig. self awareness raters .934 40 .021
Table 5.1: Self-Awareness Ranks
birthorder N Mean Rank self awareness raters First born 20 21.08 Last born 20 19.93 Total 40
Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 63
Table 5.2: Self-Awareness Mann-Whitney U
self awareness raters Mann-Whitney U 188.500
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .755
Table 6: Self-Control Tests of Normality
Shapiro-Wilk Statistic df Sig. self control raters .951 40 .079
Table 6.1: Self-Control Mean Scores
Table 6.2: Self-Control Independent Samples T-test
Levene’s Test for t-test for Equality of Means Equality of Variances f Sig. t df Sig. (two-tailed) self control raters .021 .884 .741 38 .463
Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 64
Table 7: Teamwork Tests of Normality
Shapiro-Wilk Statistic df Sig. teamwork raters .880 40 .001
Table 7.1: Teamwork Ranks
birthorder N Mean Rank teamwork raters 1 20 21.30 2 20 19.70 Total 40
Table 7.2: Teamwork Mann-Whitney U
teamwork raters Mann-Whitney U 184.000 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .665
Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 65
Appendix 2: Self-Report Data Results
Table 3.3: Adaptability Tests of Normality
Shapiro-Wilk Statistic df Sig. adaptability .946 40 .057
Table 3.4: Adaptability Mean Scores
Table 3.5: Adaptability Independent Samples T-test
Levene’s Test for t-test for Equality of Means Equality of Variances f Sig. t df Sig. (two-tailed) adaptability .411 .525 -.633 38 .530
Table 4.3: Empathy Tests of Normality
Shapiro-Wilk Statistic df Sig. empathy .904 40 .003
Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 66
Table 4.4: Empathy Ranks
birthorder N Mean Rank empathy 1 20 19.70 2 20 21.30 Total 40
Table 4.5: Empathy Mann-Whitney U Test
empathy Mann-Whitney U 184.000 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .661
Table 5.3: Self-Awareness Tests of Normality
Shapiro-Wilk Statistic df Sig. selfawareness .942 40 .055
Table 5.4: Self-Awareness Mean Scores
Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 67
Table 5.5: Self-Awareness Independent Samples T-test
Levene’s Test for t-test for Equality of Means Equality of Variances f Sig. t df Sig. (two-tailed) selfawareness 3.330 .077 .449 38 .656
Table 6.3: Self-Control Tests of Normality
Shapiro-Wilk Statistic df Sig. self control .974 40 .486
Table 6.4: Self-Control Mean Scores
Table 6.5: Self-Control Independent Samples T-test
Levene’s Test for t-test for Equality of Means Equality of Variances f Sig. t df Sig. (two-tailed) selfcontrol .107 .746 -.240 38 .812
Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 68
Table 7.3: Teamwork Tests of Normality
Shapiro-Wilk Statistic df Sig. teamwork .932 40 .018
Table 7.4: Teamwork Ranks
birthorder N Mean Rank teamwork 1 20 23.00 2 20 18.00 Total 40
Table 7.5: Teamwork Mann-Whitney U Test
teamwork
Mann-Whitney U 150.000
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .172
Effects of Birth Order and Gender Differences on Emotional Intelligence 69
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