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High Purity Germanium, a Review on Principle Theories and Technical Production Methodologies

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High Purity Germanium, a Review on Principle Theories and Technical Production Methodologies Journal of Crystallization Process and Technology, 2017, 7, 65-84 http://www.scirp.org/journal/jcpt ISSN Online: 2161-7686 ISSN Print: 2161-7678 High Purity Germanium, a Review on Principle Theories and Technical Production Methodologies Danilo C. Curtolo, Semiramis Friedrich*, Bernd Friedrich IME Institute of Process Metallurgy and Metal Recycling, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany How to cite this paper: Curtolo, D.C., Frie- Abstract drich, S. and Friedrich, B. (2017) High Purity Germanium, a Review on Principle Theories Since the early 1950’s the use of Germanium has been continuously growing and Technical Production Methodologies. as new applications are being developed. Its first commercial usage as the Journal of Crystallization Process and Tech- main material, from which the semiconductors were made, was later replaced nology, 7, 65-84. https://doi.org/10.4236/jcpt.2017.74005 by Silicon. The applications were then shifted to a key component in fiber op- tics, infrared night vision devices and space solar cells, as well as a polymeri- Received: June 11, 2017 zation catalyst for polyethylene terephthalate (PET). With the advance devel- Accepted: August 19, 2017 Published: August 22, 2017 opment in new technologies, the attentions have been brought back to Ger- manium due to its excellent semiconductor properties. New applications on Copyright © 2017 by authors and the field of high efficiency solar cells, SiGe based chips, LED technologies, etc., Scientific Research Publishing Inc. are being developed and show a great potential. According to DERA (Deutsche This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International Rohstoffagentur/German Mineral Resources Agency), the demand for Ge will License (CC BY 4.0). grow considerably by 2030, pushed mostly by the increase in the fiber optics http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ market and advanced materials sector [1]. Therefore, this paper focuses on an Open Access overview of the production chain of Germanium, especially from its concen- trate up to the single crystal growth of its valuable ultra-pure metallic form to be used in high technological applications. Keywords Germanium, Fractional Crystallization, Crystallization, Refining, High Purity, Zone Melting, Czochralski 1. Primary and Recycling Sources of Germanium, Worldwide Production and Prices Germanium (Ge) is a dispersed element and has been estimated at 6.7 ppm in the earth’s crust [2]. Only found as trace amounts within many common metal- DOI: 10.4236/jcpt.2017.74005 Aug. 22, 2017 65 Journal of Crystallization Process and Technology D. C. Curtolo et al. lic ore minerals, Germanium constitutes an uncommon element in earth and doesn’t exist as native metal. In the few minerals in which Ge is the essential component, its amount is rarely feasible commercially. Principal minerals asso- ciations with Germanium are Arsenic, Gallium, Silicon, Tin, Zinc, and other ele- ments [3]. The industrial production of Germanium nowadays comes from two main sources: zinc ores processing and coal fly-ashes. While most of Germanium produced is a by-product of zinc processing, some Germanium is extracted from the fly ash at coal-burning power plants [3]. The contribution of coal as a source in the overall supply of Germanium worldwide can be estimated in the range be- tween 20% and 30% [4]. Within all producers, China remains the main supplier of Germanium, spread through several companies. However a company located in Canada is by far the biggest world producer, contributing to about 25% of the worldwide market supply of Germanium from its trail smelter and refinery plant in British Columbia [4]. Additionally, as important contributors in world’s Germanium supply, Belgium, Russia and United States can be mentioned [5]. The following Figure 1 shows the main Germanium suppliers worldwide and their production in 2016 according to the USGS 2017 report [6]. Germanium has been always considered as a strategic metal for most govern- mental agencies and its supply and prices are often controlled in the form of stockpiles. Worldwide supply of Germanium ranges around 100 tons per year, with around 60% coming from zinc refining sources, and the rest mostly originated from fly-ash processing. The Figure 2 illustrates that despite of the prices fluctu- ation of Germanium metal, its primary production is constantly increasing, reaching 140 tons in 2008 and 160 ton in 2015 [5] [8]. Germanium producers are always focusing on the development of recy- cling processes to recover Ge from its own internal scrap and from end-of-life products. Recycled Germanium sources are mainly end-of-life as well as broken Figure 1. Production of germanium worldwide in 2016 according to USGS 2017 report [6] [7] adapted. DOI: 10.4236/jcpt.2017.74005 66 Journal of Crystallization Process and Technology D. C. Curtolo et al. The worldwide production of Germanium and its unit value [1990 - 2015] 2,500,000 200 2,000,000 150 1,500,000 100 1,000,000 500,000 50 Unit Value (98$/t) World production (t) production World 0 0 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Unit value ($/t) World production (t) Figure 2. The worldwide production of germanium and its unit value, based on [8]* (*The consumer price index conversion factor, which is used to adjust the unit value in current US dollars to the unit value in constant 1998 US dollars). Germanium lenses, semiconductor solar cells trimmings or optical fiber wastes. Furthermore, some Germanium contained products can be re-used within the manufacturing process as in the case of PET additives used in the plastic indus- try [3]. Although the contribution of internal scrap recycling is sometimes greater than 50% of total secondary sources, for post-consumer scrap (i.e. end-of-life products) this value is much smaller. It varies according to Germanium market prices and is controlled due to the complexity and costs of the recycling processes [3] [4] [9]. In spite of its constant efforts towards recycling, the amount of Germanium re- cycled from post-consumer scrap is not a significant contributor to world supply of Germanium [5]. 2. Main applications of Germanium Germanium applications rely on its intrinsic material properties: It is a semi- conductor if it is in a pure metallic form and is able to perform at high frequen- cies and low operating voltages. Additionally, in crystal or glass form it is trans- parent to most of infrared light spectrum. It has also exceptional glass properties such as high refractive index and low chromatic dispersion. Another property of Germanium in its oxide form is to catalyze the polymerization process without giving undesirable color to the plastic products [9]. Therefore, the application of Germanium can be divided into five main cat- egories, including polymerization catalysts, fiber-optic systems, infrared optics, electronics & solar applications and other minor uses (e.g. metallurgy, phos- phors and chemotherapy) [6]. The information about its distribution varies across the years. According to Melcher, et al. [1], the distribution of the main end-uses of Germanium worldwide during 2010 can be observed as in the Fig- ure 3. DOI: 10.4236/jcpt.2017.74005 67 Journal of Crystallization Process and Technology D. C. Curtolo et al. Figure 3. Worldwide end-use of germanium in 2010 [1]. Within its main applications, it’s possible to separate three distinguished prod- ucts in the production chain of Germanium: Germanium tetrachloride (GeCl4), Germanium dioxide (GeO2) and metallic Germanium. The pure Germanium te- trachloride finds its main application in the fiber-optic industry, where it is used as a dopant to the core of optical fibers [6]. The Germanium dioxide is used main- ly as catalysts in the PET polymerization process-mostly in Japan and in the Infra- red optic industry as an additive for glass. Although the PET industry is constant focusing its research towards finding an alternative for the expensive GeO2 in the polymerization process by using for example Ti-based catalysts, the Infrared sec- tors are still highly dependent of GeO2 due to its intrinsic characteristic as trans- parent to infrared radiation. The applications include a wide range from micro- scope objective lenses to night vision devices, finding its way deeper into military use, leading its definition as a strategic metal [10]. Being the first commercial use of Germanium and one of its most important applications in industry, the ultra-pure metallic form of Germanium is widely used due to its inherent semiconductor behavior [6] [9]. When doped with mi- nor amounts of As, Sb, Ga, In, P and other elements, it is employed in many high- frequency and high-power electronics applications, as well as in space solar cells [11] [12]. Its utilization as semiconductor though represents the most important indus- trial uses of Germanium and has also the biggest future growth potential, espe- cially on thin-film technologies for SiGe chips, Ge-based semiconductors and many other electronic applications. Many efforts are being made to replace GaAs by SiGe in wireless telecommunication devices, opening an important market to benefit from Germanium products. Additionally, Ge-based LED, Ge substrates as a replacement for Si on miniaturized chips, and many other implementations are constantly being investigated and developed in the electronic industry to ex- plore the future potential of Germanium [4] [13]. DOI: 10.4236/jcpt.2017.74005 68 Journal of Crystallization Process and Technology D. C. Curtolo et al. Finally, Germanium can also be used as alloying element in metallurgical in- dustries or in chemotherapy, as several organometallic compounds of Germa- nium are of interest in medicine due to its toxicity to certain microorganisms [10]. 3. Production of Ultra-Pure Germanium from Its Concentrate As described previously, Germanium appears as minor amounts in different min- erals, mainly zinc ores and coal. Therefore, its cycle begins firstly with the pro- duction of Germanium concentrate (Germanium sulfide or oxide), followed by its chlorination and subsequent distillation/purification, producing ultra-pure Ger- manium tetrachloride as end product, then Germanium dioxide and subsequently the reduced metallic form.
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