DOCSLIB.ORG

The Bill Forced a Re-Examination Of

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Bill Forced a Re-Examination Of DOCUMENT RESUME HE 000 100 ED 024 330 24 by-Olson, Keith W. A Historical Analysis of the G.I. Billand Its Relationship toHigher Education. Syracuse Univ., N.Y. Research Inst. Bureau of Research. Spons Agency-Office of Education(DHEW), Washington, D.C. Report No-CRP-S-436 Bureau No- BR-5-8386 Pub Date 68 Contract- OEC-6- 10- 104 Note- 23p. EDRS Price MF-$0.25 HC-$1.25 *Higher Education,*Military Personnel, Descriptors-Educational Opportunities,*Enrollment, FederalAid, *Opportunities, *Veterans Education Identifiers-*G I Bill the narrow interestsit A study of the G.I.Bill's genesis andreception reveals Designed as a reward toservicemen and as adevice wasoriginally intended to serve. impact upon economic effectsof demobilization,the Bill made a great to lessen the of opportunityunparalleled in the American higher education.() IT provided equality could Veterans demonstratedthat far more ofAmerican youth nation's history. (2) Veterans helped toalter the benefit from educationthan had previouslydone so. (3) and privateenrollments. (4) Popularattention,unprecedented balance between public the Bill forced are-examinationof the enrollments and theobvious success of (5) The married oblectives, facilitiesand methods ofthe highereducation system. accepted part ofacademic life. (6)Increased federal aid was student became an scholarships and 2 moreG.I. Bills. Neither made possible, especiallyfor construction, media anticipated itssignificance. The number the sponsor of theBill nor the popular and some attended collegeunder the Billfar exceeded expectations of G.I.s who educational standards.This proved to be educators fearedthe influx would lower underestimated inits another of many erroneousassumptions. TheC.I.Bill was broadest conceptionand in its operationaldetail. (JS) 4rt 17; and "A Historical Analysisof the G.I. Bill its Relationshipto HigherEducation" Af'n- Cooperative ResearchProject No. S-436 Keith W. Olson Syracuse UniversityResearch Institute 201 MarshallStreet Syracuse, NewYork 13210 1968 WELFARE U.S. DEPARTMENT OFHEALTH, EDUCATION & OFFICE OF EDUCATION RECEIVED FROM THE THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEENREPRODUCED EXACTLY AS POINTS OF VIEW OROPINIONS ;PERSON OR ORGANIZATIONORIGINATING IT. , 1 REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICEOF EDUCATION ; STATEDDO NOT NECESSARILY POSITION OR POLICY. supported by theCooperative Research The researchreported herein was U.S. Departmentof Health,Education, Program of theOffice of Education, and Welfare. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH.EDUCATION. AND WELFARE OE6000 (REV. 9.-66) ...yr-1....m....,mi.........m;iviv ERIC ACCESSION NO. ERICREPORT RESUME P) NOES iS DOCUMENTCOPYRIGHTED? YES 0 CLEARINGHOUSE RESUME DATE p. A. T.A. NO0 'ACCESSION NUMBER REPRODUCTION RELEASE? YES 06- 29- 68 ERIC )1 TITLE . to 30 G.I. Bill andits Relationship "A HistoricalAnalysis of the 01 Higher Education." 02 03 PERSONAL AUTHOR(S) . Olson, Keith W. SOURCE CODE 00 . INSTITUTION (SOURCE) Syracuse NewYork Syracuse UniversityResearch Institute ,00 i * SOURCE CODE REPORT/SERIES NO. 1C) OTHER SOURCE r 120 OTHER REPORT N. SOURCE CODE )30 OTHER SOURCE , 340 /4 OTHER REPORTNO. 350 NUMBER G&W:M.:a& ._.. ... CONTRACT/GRANT 400 PUBL. DATE PAGINATION, ETC. 500 14 pages -.--- 501 RETRIEVAL TERMS 600 . G.I. Bill . 601 Higher Education 602 Impact of WorldWar II 603 604 605 . 606 IDENTIFIERS 607 ABSTRACT , 800 and operationof the G.I.Bill A study of thecenesis reception, 801 its broadestconception and . indicates that it wasunderestimated in 802 detail. 803 in its opeeational 804 device tolei6en the tesigned as areWard toservicemen and as a 805 Bill's impact onhigher economic effects ofdemobilization, the 806 contribution todemobilization. education probablyequalled its 807 808 809 810 811 812 , 813 814 815 816 817 . 818 819' 820 : . 821 . 822 Act of 1944 that The provisionof theServicemen's Readjustment accomplished theobjectives of dealt with highereducation not only that results, generaland particular, its sponsorsbut also produced wereunexpected. the G.I. Billof Rights, re- The Act of 1944,better known as their memory ofthe depressionof flected its sponsorsself interest, the veterans ofWorld War I. President the 1930's, andtheir memory of the AmericanLegion playedthe major Franklin D.Roosevelt, who with concerned himselfwith post-war role in passageof the G.I.Bill, first A. Delano,chairman of education in July1942, when hisuncle, Frederic Board, urged him toundertake a"full- the NationalResources Planning Roosevelt declined onthe grounds fledged" study of post-warproblems. of divertingpeople's attention from that it wouldinclude "the danger told his unclethere was the winning ofthe war."Instead, Roosevelt preliminary examine- harm in a whollyunpublicized,'off the record' "1 later, however,Roosevelt made tion of thesubject Four months the post-wareducation of veterans. his first publicstatement about signed into lawthe SelectiveService On November 13,1942, the day he eighteen, Rooseveltannounced that a bill lowering thedraft age to under the auspicesof the War presidential"committee of educators, the programneeded to enable"the and NavyDepartments," would study interrupted to resumetheir schooling young menwhose educationhas been other the trainingand education of and afford equalopportunity for 2 their service in thearmed forces has come young menof ability after 2 opposition to draftingteenagers, Roosevelt to an end." Considering the about the educationof made a wisepolitical move byexpressing concern "the danger of divertingpeople's attention," the boys he wasabout to draft, to the contrary. to Rooseveltthe The National ResourcesPlanning Board presented June 30, 1943,while the recommendations of itsoff-the record study on EducationalOppOrtunities for public Armed ForcesCommittee on Postwar Osborn Committee inhonor of its Service Personnel,also known as the submitted itsPreliminary chairman Major GeneralFrederick H. Osborn, later.3 In a firesidechat Report to thePresident exactly onemonth people about the on July 28,1943, Rooseveltspoke to the American comprehensive programof progress ofthe war and alsocalled for a he transmittedthe Osborn benefits for veterans.Three months later its/ideas.When Report to Congressand urgedlegislation incorporating next JuneRoosevelt commentedthat he signed the G.I.Bill into law the of the recommendationsmade by me in it "substantiallycarries out most specifically in messagesto the Con- a speech onJuly 28, 1943,and more u4 1943. gress datedOctober 27, 1943and November 23, First, he Roosevelt wanted a G.I.Bill for at leastfour reasons. gratitude to itsreturning felt the country was"determined to show its opportunities."5 Second, veterans byproviding educationaland vocational Democratic nominationand else- Roosevelt, in his acceptanceof the 1944 aid to veterans wasgoodpolitics.6 where, demonstratedthat he realized warned Roosevelt'spersonal friend A presidentialaide, for example, once unless something isdone soon on the and adviser, HarryHopkins, "that 3 legislation for the educationof returning soldiers,the opposition may restock the nation's steal the thunder."7 Third, the President wanted to had depleted.And fourth, supply of college-educatedcitizens which the war Roosevelt viewed the G.I.Bill as a partial curefor postwar economic considered "something likethe problems. At one point Roosevelt even problem."8 C.C.C. program" to helpsolve the expected"post-war employment it satisfied Roosevelt's view of educationalaid to veterans waslimited: personnel; it was goodpolitics; the moral obligation hefelt toward service all veterans to and it would reduceunemployment. The initiative to assist do college work, earn theirdegrees, even those withthe minimum ability to he sub- did not come from thechief executive. Under the recommendations and women mitted to Congress only"a limited number of ex-service men receive a second, selected for their specialaptitudes" would be allowed to of the G.I. third,.and fourth yearofcollege09Roosevelt never conceived to the major problem Bill as anything but apractical political response of what to do with veterans. the G.I. Bill was equally The American Legion,whose contribution to generous bill substantial, campaigned andlobbied long and hard for a more Their reasons for doing than the Osborn Committeeand Roosevelt suggested. so, however, were morelimited. adopted a resolution At their convention inSeptember 1942, the Legion urging Congress to enactlegislation for the educationand training of the lack of Congressionalaction, veterans. A year later, impatient at On January 11, 1944, the convention established acommittee to write a bill. the first National Bennett Champ Clark, DemocraticSenator from Missouri and introduced the Legion Commander of the Legion,along with nine co-sponsors, 4 introduced a bill competedwith the bill bill in theSenate. The Legion which incor- Elbert D. Thomas,Democrat of Utah, month earlierby Senator Roosevelt signed abill in June1944 that porated theOsborn suggestions. the more generous but whichincluded most of contained featuresof both bills features demandedby the Legion. the credit in claimingits share of The Legion has neverbeen bashful and pub- 10 three-part article,written in 1949 for the G.I.Bill. In his blessingdof the National Magazine withthe lished in TheAmerican Legion Bill: "rhe this conclusionabout the G.I. Commander, DavidCamelon drew "11 drafted it, andfought for it. Legion conceivedit, the Legion Legion's activity onbehalf of Their was only onereasonbehind the the G.I. Bill wrote that"The idea behind veteraneducation, David Camelon the opportunity to give
Load more

Recommended publications
  • SECOND WORLD HEALTH ASSEMBLY A2/62 ^ 15 June 1949
    WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION MONDIALE ORGANIZATION DE LA SANTÉ SECOND WORLD HEALTH ASSEMBLY A2/62 ^ 15 June 1949 ORIGINAL: FRENCH /vORL D INFLUENZA CENTRE (provisional Agenda Itera 8.16.4.2) 1. The influenza epidemic which rafted durirg the winter of 1948-49 would seem to have originated in Sardinia in October 1948. It appears that the disease broke out simultaneously in various parts of the island, affecting even shepherds living in isolation - an epidemio- logical fact worthy of mention. From Sardinia, influenza spread to the peninsula where virus В was identified in northern Italy, the causal agent, however, remaining unknown in most cases. At the begimirfe of January 1949, at which time the epidemic had reached France, an expert from the Centre went to London, to the Pasteur Institute in Paris, and brought back throat washings from which the influenza virus was isolated. In the middle of January, the Centre received virus batches from Italy by air. Shortly afterwards, strains were obtained from Leyden, Geneva, Paris, Rome and Ireland. All such viruses, after numerous egg assays, were studied from the serological point of view; ferrets, mice and hamsters were inoculated with a view to obtaining immunizing sera. Various previous reports suggested that certain strains could belong to a new type, but it now seems clear that most are of the "A" type and are related to the "A" strains of 1947. A few scattered cases noted in Italy, France and England were attributable to virus B; suóh was also the case for a small focus which broke out in Czecho- slovakia.
    [Show full text]
  • World War II-Related Exhibitions at the National Gallery of Art
    National Gallery of Art: Research Resources Relating to World War II World War II-Related Exhibitions at the National Gallery of Art During the war years, the National Gallery of Art presented a series of exhibitions explicitly related to the war or presenting works of art for which the museum held custody during the hostilities. Descriptions of each of the exhibitions is available in the list of past exhibitions at the National Gallery of Art. Catalogs, brochures, press releases, news reports, and photographs also may be available for examination in the Gallery Archives for some of the exhibitions. The Great Fire of London, 1940 18 December 1941-28 January 1942 American Artists’ Record of War and Defense 7 February-8 March 1942 French Government Loan 2 March 1942-1945, periodically Soldiers of Production 17 March-15 April 1942 Three Triptychs by Contemporary Artists 8-15 April 1942 Paintings, Posters, Watercolors, and Prints, Showing the Activities of the American Red Cross 2-30 May 1942 Art Exhibition by Men of the Armed Forces 5 July-2 August 1942 War Posters 17 January-18 February 1943 Belgian Government Loan 7 February 1943-January 1946 War Art 20 June-1 August 1943 Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Drawings and Watercolors from French Museums and Private Collections 8 August-5 September 1943 (second showing) Art for Bonds 12 September-10 October 1943 1DWLRQDO*DOOHU\RI$UW:DVKLQJWRQ'&*DOOHU\$UFKLYHV ::,,5HODWHG([KLELWLRQVDW1*$ Marine Watercolors and Drawings 12 September-10 October 1943 Paintings of Naval Aviation by American Artists
    [Show full text]
  • Two Ice Glaze Storms Over U. S. Interior Plains, January, 1949 GORDON B
    ACADEMY OF SCIENCE FOR 1963 316 Two Ice Glaze Storms Over U. S. Interior Plains, January, 1949 GORDON B. SCHILZ, Southeastern State College, Durant After driving, January 1st, 1948, from Detroit to St. Louis on Ice glazed highways from which more than 50 telephone and power line crews were clearing broken poles and tangled wires, it seemed worthwhile to ascertain the area, duration and damage cost of. such a storm. A year later first­ hand observation and experience during four days of January without water, light, telephone, or newspaper, caused by severe ice glaze damage in southeastern Oklahoma stimulated this study. Ice glaze storms may result from (1) a moist air mass Which is present over a region being uplifted by an inrushing polar continental air mass; or (2) from warm moist air over-running the cool dry mass; with temperature of surface air mass between 10°-33° F. while the upper moist air reaches a condensation point above 32°. During January 9-12, 1949, such conditions were charted by the Weather bureau (Map I, Frontal Action, 1st Ice Glaze Storm) as cPK pushed from Canada towards Texas and Kentucky. The trend of the cold front action (designated on the map by heavy black lines) was influenced (1) by a slow movement of the low over the Great Lakes on the 9th and 10th and (2) by "high" on the 11th and 12th over Alabama­ North Carolina. This ice glaze storm was characterized by the Des Moines meteorologist as "caused by a wide stream of warm moist air overrunning a shallow cold air-mass that covered the mid-west" (1).
    [Show full text]
  • September 30, 1949 Letter, Syngman Rhee to Dr. Robert T. Oliver [Soviet Translation]
    Digital Archive digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org International History Declassified September 30, 1949 Letter, Syngman Rhee to Dr. Robert T. Oliver [Soviet Translation] Citation: “Letter, Syngman Rhee to Dr. Robert T. Oliver [Soviet Translation],” September 30, 1949, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, CWIHP Archive. Translated by Gary Goldberg. https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/119385 Summary: Letter from Syngman Rhee translated into Russian. The original was likely found when the Communists seized Seoul. Syngman Rhee urges Oliver to come to South Korea to help develop the nation independent of foreign invaders and restore order to his country. Credits: This document was made possible with support from the Leon Levy Foundation. Original Language: Russian Contents: English Translation Scan of Original Document continuation of CABLE Nº 600081/sh “30 September 1949 to: DR. ROBERT T. OLIVER from: PRESIDENT SYNGMAN RHEE I have received your letters and thank you for them. I do not intend to qualify Mr. KROCK [sic] as a lobbyist or anything of that sort. Please, in strict confidence get in contact with Mr. K. [SIC] and with Mr. MEADE [sic] and find out everything that is necessary. If you think it would be inadvisable to use Mr. K with respect to what Mr. K told you, we can leave this matter without consequences. In my last letter I asked you to inquire more about K. in the National Press Club. We simply cannot use someone who does not have a good business reputation. Please be very careful in this matter. There is some criticism about the work which we are doing.
    [Show full text]
  • University Archives Inventory
    University Archives Inventory Record Group Number: UR001.03 Title: Burney Lynch Parkinson Presidential Records Date: 1926-1969 Bulk Date: 1932-1952 Extent: 42 boxes Creator: Burney Lynch Parkinson Administrative/Biographical Notes: Burney Lynch Parkinson (1887-1972) was an educator from Lincoln, Tennessee. He received his B.S. from Erskine College in 1909, and rose up the administrative ranks from English teacher in Laurens, South Carolina public schools. He received his M.A. from Peabody College in 1920, and Ph.D. from Peabody in 1926, after which he became president of Presbyterian College in Clinton, SC in 1927. He was employed as Director of Teacher Training, Certification, and Elementary Education at the Alabama Dept. of Education just before coming to MSCW to become president in 1932. In December 1932, the university was re-accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, ending the crisis brought on the purge of faculty under Governor Theodore Bilbo, but appropriations to the university were cut by 54 percent, and faculty and staff were reduced by 33 percent, as enrollment had declined from 1410 in 1929 to 804 in 1932. Parkinson authorized a study of MSCW by Peabody college, ultimately pursuing its recommendations to focus on liberal arts at the cost of its traditional role in industrial, vocational, and technical education. Building projects were kept to a minimum during the Parkinson years. Old Main was restored and named for Mary Calloway in 1938. Franklin Hall was converted to a dorm, and the Whitfield Gymnasium into a student center with the Golden Goose Tearoom inside. Parkinson Hall was constructed in 1951 and named for Dr.
    [Show full text]
  • Ratification Status of International, American and Caribbean Treaties
    RATIFICATION STATUS OF INTERNATIONAL, AMERICAN AND CARIBBEAN TREATIES International Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide 19481 Participant Date of Signature Date of Ratification (Accession – a), (Succession – d) Antigua and Barbuda 25 October 1988 Argentina 5 June 1956 a Bahamas 5 August 1975 d Barbados 14 January 1980 a Belize 10 March 1998 a Bolivia, Plurinational State of 11 December 1948 14 June 2005 Brazil 11 December 1948 15 April 1952 Canada 28 November 1949 3 September 1952 Chile 11 December 1948 3 June 1953 Colombia 12 August 1949 27 October 1959 Costa Rica 14 October 1950 a Cuba 28 December 1949 4 March 1953 Ecuador 11 December 1948 21 December 1949 El Salvador 27 April 1949 28 September 1950 Guatemala 22 June 1949 13 January 1950 Haiti 11 December 1948 14 October 1950 Honduras 22 April 1949 5 March 1952 Jamaica 23 September 1968 a Mexico 14 December 1948 22 July 1952 Nicaragua 29 January 1952 a Panama 11 December 1948 11 January 1950 Paraguay 11 December 1948 3 October 2001 Peru 11 December 1948 24 February 1960 St. Vincent and the Grenadines 9 November 1981 a Trinidad and Tobago 13 December 2002 a United States of America 11 December 1948 25 November 1988 Uruguay 11 December 1948 11 July 1967 Venezuela 12 July 1960 a 1 The Convention entered into force on 12 January 1951. Source: http://treaties.un.org/. Updated to 04-11-2012. <UN> <UN> International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination of 19652 Participant Date of Signature Date of Ratification (Accession – a),
    [Show full text]
  • August 9, 1949 Issue of the Congressional Record
    11104 CONGRESSIONAL RECORD-HOUSE AUGUST 9 The good offices of the Secretary General are An armlstfoe has been achieved in Pales­ ing the Governments of the countries con ~ always available to facilitate such consul­ tine, and the terms of a peaceful settlement cerned, their peoples, and the world as' a tations. are being negotiated. Nine hundred thou­ whole, would certainly benefit if all the UNITED NATIONS FIELD. SERVICE sand Arabs are receiving assistance from the applicants were to be admitted to the organi­ With a view to strengthening the work of United Nations; many of them must be re­ zation at the next session of the General mediation and conciliation. I suggested to settled or repatriated. The new State of Assembly. the last session of the General Assembly the Israel has yet to establish its economic via­ I commend to the member governments, establishment of a United Nations guard. bility. Both Israel and the Arab States need and to the peoples of the world, the study of This guard would have no military duties a substantial, coordinated effort in economic the full record of the United Nations during but would assist United Nations missions on development to raise their living standards. the 12 months ending June 30, 1949, as set their peaceful errands to the world's troubled I believe . that this area should be given forth in the chapters that follow. It ls a rec­ areas. In the light of suggestions made by high priority in the proposed United Na­ ord of achievement in the prevention of war member governments I have modified that tions program of technical assistance for un­ and in the steady construction of the foun­ proposal.
    [Show full text]
  • Facts on File News Services
    Facts On File News Services http://www.2facts.com/PrintPage.aspx?PIN=1949007140 Issue Date: June 25, 1949 Far East: News in Brief Story Contents China 'Blockade' Ship Bombed Hong Kong Reinforced U.S. Policy Communist Plans U.S. Consulate Accused Communist Broadcasts Paper Quits Dutch Quit Jogjakarta Japanese Prisoners Viet Nam-French Pact China 'Blockade' The Nationalist Government in Canton June 20 declared all Communist-controlled ports closed to traffic effective June 26. The word "blockade" was not used. The affected area will extend from the Min River, Foochow, in the south north-ward along the entire China coast to the Liao River in Manchuria. Foreign ships were warned to stay away. Warnings were also issued that the Communist-held ports would be bombed. The Nationalist Navy has about 100 ships. Ship Bombed On June 21 and 22 the 8,287-ton British freighter Anchises was bombed in the Whangpoo River at Shanghai by Nationalist planes from Formosa. Four persons aboard were wounded in the first attack. After the British Government protested to Canton, the Chinese said the ship had been mistaken for a Communist one. On June 23 the Egyptian ship Star of Suez headed for Japan from Shanghai was intercepted by a Nationalist warship off the mouth of the Yangtze River and its Chinese river pilot taken off. It was then allowed to proceed June 24. [See 1949 Far East: MacArthur Scores Russia; Other Developments] Hong Kong Reinforced Britain announced June 22 that 2,000 troops were being sent to reinforce Hong Kong. [See 1949 Far East: News in Brief] U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • Dollar Shortage and Oil Surplus in 1949-1950
    ESSAYS IN INTERNATIONAL FINANCE No. II, November 1950 DOLLAR SHORTAGE AND OIL SURPLUS IN 1949-1950 HORST MENDERSHAUSEN INTERNATIONAL FINANCE SECTION - DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS PRINCETON UNIVERSITY Princeton, New Jersey The present essay is the eleventh in the series ESSAYS IN INTERNATIONAL FINANCE published by the International Finance Section of the Department of Economics and Social Institutions in Princeton Uni- versity. The author, Dr. Horst Mendershausen, has been associated with the National Bureau of Economic Research, Bennington College, and the United States Military Government for Germany. He is now an economist with the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. Nothing in this study should be considered an expression of the views of that institution. While the Section sponsors the essays of this series, it takes no further responsibility for the opinions therein expressed. The writers are free to develop their topics as they will and their ideas may or may not be shared by the editorial committee of the Section or the members of the Department. • GARDNER PATTERSON, Director International Finance Section DOLLAR SHORTAGE AND OIL SURPLUS IN 1949-1950 BY HORST MENDERSHAUSEN* , I. SURVEY OF ISSUES ECOVERY from the effects of World War II led the Western European countries on to a broad issue: Should they seek eco- nomic viability in a progressive integration of the non-Soviet world or in narrower frameworks implying some discrimination against United States commerce? Since their dollar needs showed a persistent tendency to exceed dollar availabilities during the recovery period and their dollar reserves proved either too small or too volatile, many coun- tries, in particular Britain, found it necessary to make preparations for the latter alternative.
    [Show full text]
  • HODGES, COURTNEY HICKS: Papers, 1904-65
    DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER LIBRARY ABILENE, KANSAS HODGES, COURTNEY HICKS: Papers, 1904-65 A70-86 Processed by: BSR, SMM Date Completed: 4-7-70 The personal papers of General Courtney H. Hodges, a career army officer, were deposited in the Eisenhower Library in March, 1970 by his widow, Mildred Lee Hodges. In December 1969, Mrs. Hodges executed an instrument of gift for these papers. Linear feet of shelf space occupied: 12.8 Approximate number of pages: 25,600 Approximate number of items: 8,500 Literary rights in the unpublished writings of Courtney Hodges are reserved to Mrs. Mildred Lee Hodges during her lifetime, and thereafter, to the people of the United States. By agreement with the donor the following classes of documents will be withheld from research use: 1. Papers relating to private business affairs of individuals and to family and personal affairs. 2. Papers relating to investigations of individuals or to appointments and personnel matters. 3. Papers containing statements made by or to Courtney H. Hodges in confidence unless in the judgement of the Director of the Dwight D. Eisenhower Library the reason for the confidentiality no longer exists. 4. All other papers which contain information or statements that might by used to injure, harass, or damage any living person. SCOPE AND CONTENT NOTE The personal papers of Courtney H. Hodges span the years 1904 to 1965 but the bulk and most significant parts cover the period from 1938 to 1949 particularly while he was head of Third Army and the Southern Defense Command at Fort Sam Houston, Texas controlling the Louisianan Maneuver area (February 1943-March 1944); while Deputy Commander to General Omar Bradley, First Army (March- August 1944); and as Commanding General of the First Army (August 1944-January 1949).
    [Show full text]
  • No. 541 BELGIUM, CANADA, DENMARK, FRANCE, ICELAND
    No. 541 BELGIUM, CANADA, DENMARK, FRANCE, ICELAND, ITALY, LUXEMBOURG, NETHERLANDS, NORWAY, PORTUGAL, UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND and UNITED STATES OF AMERICA North Atlantic Treaty. Signed at Washington, on 4 April 1949 English and French official texts communicated by the Permanent Representa tive of the United States of America at the seat of the United Nations. The registration took place on 7 September 1949. BELGIQUE, CANADA, DANEMARK, FRANCE, ISLANDE, ITALIE, LUXEMBOURG, PAYS-BAS, NORVEGE, PORTUGAL, ROYAUME-UNI DE GRANDE-BRETAGNE ET D©IRLANDE DU NORD et ETATS-UNIS D©AMERIQUE Trait de l©Atlantique Nord. Sign Washington, le 4 avril 1949 Textes officiels anglais et français communiqués par le représentant permanent des Etats-Unis d'Amérique au siège de l'Organisation des Nations Unies. L'enregistrement a eu lieu le 7 septembre 1949. 244 United Nations — Treaty Series_________1949 No. 541. NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY1. SIGNED AT WASH INGTON, ON 4 APRIL 1949 The Parties to this Treaty reaffirm their faith in the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations and their desire to live in peace with all peoples and all governments. They are determined to safeguard the freedom, common heritage and civilization of their peoples, founded on the principles of democracy, individual liberty and the rule of law. They seek to promote stability and well-being in the North Atlantic area. They are resolved to unite their efforts for collective defense and for the preservation of peace and security. They therefore agree to this North Atlantic Treaty: Article 1 The Parties undertake, as set forth in the Charter of the United Nations, to settle any international disputes in which they may be involved by peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and security, and justice, are not endangered, and to refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force in any manner inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations.
    [Show full text]
  • History Workshop
    UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND, JOHANNESBURG HISTORY WORKSHOP STRUCTURE AND EXPERIENCE IN THE MAKING OFAPARTHEID 6-10 February 1990 AUTHOR: Iain Edwards and Tim Nuttall TITLE: Seizing the moment : the January 1949 riots, proletarian populism and the structures of African urban life in Durban during the late 1940's 1 INTRODUCTION In January 1949 Durban experienced a weekend of public violence in which 142 people died and at least 1 087 were injured. Mobs of Africans rampaged through areas within the city attacking Indians and looting and destroying Indian-owned property. During the conflict 87 Africans, SO Indians, one white and four 'unidentified' people died. One factory, 58 stores and 247 dwellings were destroyed; two factories, 652 stores and 1 285 dwellings were damaged.1 What caused the violence? Why did it take an apparently racial form? What was the role of the state? There were those who made political mileage from the riots. Others grappled with the tragedy. The government commission of enquiry appointed to examine the causes of the violence concluded that there had been 'race riots'. A contradictory argument was made. The riots arose from primordial antagonism between Africans and Indians. Yet the state could not bear responsibility as the outbreak of the riots was 'unforeseen.' It was believed that a neutral state had intervened to restore control and keep the combatants apart.2 The apartheid state drew ideological ammunition from the riots. The 1950 Group Areas Act, in particular, was justified as necessary to prevent future endemic conflict between 'races'. For municipal officials the riots justified the future destruction of African shantytowns and the rezoning of Indian residential and trading property for use by whites.
    [Show full text]