ESOFT Metro Campus International Journal

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Publication of ESOFT Metro Campus

Volume 1, Issue 1, November 2014

No: 29/1, Milagiriya Avenue, Colombo 4, Sri Lanka

Editorial and Review Board

Dr. Dayan Rajapakse - Group Managing Director, ESOFT Metro Campus Mr. Nishan Sembacuttiaratchy - CEO, ESOFT Metro Campus Dr. Dilina Herathn- Academic Dean, ESOFT Metro Campus Dr. Shamitha Pathiratne - Head of Special Projects, ESOFT Metro Campus

Editorial Coordinator

Dr. Shamitha Pathiratne

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisherexcept as permitted under theIntellectual Property Act of Sri Lank, No. 36 of 2003.

ISSN 2386-1797

When referring to this publication, please use the following: Name, title (2014). ESOFT Metro Campus International Journal, 2(1), pp. (use the online version pages).

Table of Contents Group Managing Director’s Message 5 C.E.O’s Message 6 Academic Dean’s Message 7 Editor’s Column 8 Extended Embedding Capacity with Minimum Degradation of Stego Image Naveed Mustafa, Muhammad Bilal Iqbal Muhammad Asif and Abdul Jawad 9 Effectiveness of Governance and Accountability Mechanism for Local Governments in Sri Lanka – Interconnectivity Development Program M .M. Sarath Kumara 22 An Investigation of the Functions of Code Switching as an Instructional Strategy in Teachers’ Classroom Discourse at Tertiary Level W.I.Ekanayaka 34 Anthropogenic Impacts on Urban Coastal Lagoons in the Western and North-western Coastal Zones of Sri Lanka Jinadasa Katupotha 39 Sociological study on the success of the Activity Based Oral English L. G. N. Neththanjali Liyanage, D. G. Kanchana and M. G. L. Mahesh Premarathna 57 Perspectives on Inflationary Open Economies of Nigeria and Sri Lanka: Phillips Curve Framework Adeyi Emmanuel Ola 68 Krishi-Prabha: Digital Repository for Agricultural Research Scholar: A Study S.M.Rokade 85 A study on Organizational Citizenship Behaviour and Performance of 1C Schools in Batticoloa District Mrs.Subathini Priyadharsan and Ms.S.Hareniya 95 Demographic profile of the Lois population of Manipur Kangabam Sonia Devi and Dr.Benrithung Murry 110 Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s Assertiveness towards e-shopping Shamitha Pathiratne 118 Garnering Information: World Wide Web as an instrument to develop self-governing research skills of Sri Lankan Students Shamitha Pathiratne 126 What is an Invention? A Critical Analysis on ‘Invention’ as Provided by the Intellectual Property Act of Sri Lanka H.A. MenakaHarankaha 140 Consumer Shopping Preference towards Organized Retailing in Bangladesh Robaka Shamsher 155

An econometric model between velocity of money and unemployment rate in Sri Lanka A.G.K.N.Alupotha, A.A.I.Perera and P.M.L.K.Karunaratne 180 Stakeholders’ Perception on Grade Five Scholarship Examination in Sri Lanka: A Case Study Shalika Sachithrani Perera and Chandana Kasturi Arachchi 185 The Impact of Globalization on Sri Lankan Foreign Trade Adeyi Emmanuel Ola and Oteikwu .A. Michael 198 Timely Delivery of 9 to 5 Branded Gents’ Trousers Nipuna Subasinghe 208 Empirical Study on Effective Brand Strategies and their Impact on SME Service Providers profitability & market share in Sri Lanka. Aluthgamage Hasintha Sharmen Pemerathna 215 Impact on managerial awareness & attitude on implementing green marketing practices in consumer markets in Sri Lanka Aluthgamage Hasintha Sharmen Pemerathna 230 Surfing the Internet- Your online data may be at a stake! : A Legal perspective

W.A.D.J. Sumanadasa 248 The Effect of Women Entrepreneurial Characteristics for Successful Development of Brands Pamudya Sumanasekara 261 Develop a digitized Phoneme to Grapheme conversion model for Sinhala language P.H.V.R Karunananda 268 Temple Paintings Technology in Sri Lanka T.A.C.J.S.Bandara 280 Bureaucratic Paradigms and Customer Satisfaction in Formal Governmental Organizations of Sri Lanka Nelum Weerasekara 286 Determining the Suitability of E-learning approach to a Sri Lankan Higher Education Institute Reshan Liyanage 297

Group Managing Director’s Message

A research and development effort is a mandatory requirement for any higher education institution as it is this effort that drives the development of new thinking and technology, and therefore I am indeed happy to see ESOFT Metro Campus taking the next step by launching this International Journal.

This being the inaugural edition, I am indeed happy to hear that a large number of articles and work were submitted for review, resulting in the best ones being selected and published including those submitted from international researchers as well.

ESOFT being a multi-disciplinary educational institution, there are many different areas from which submissions could be made, not necessarily being restricted to the areas of Computing and ICT, and this enhances our potential of sharing knowledge among the various fields, thereby contributing to the goal of making research open to debate and knowledge sharing.

I would like to congratulate all those who worked tirelessly to have this publication compiled and published and I look forward to seeing the future publication growing in all aspects.

I wish you all, the very best in your academic pursuits.

Dr. Dayan Rajapakse Group Managing Director ESOFT Group of Companies

Message from the CEO of ESOFT Metro Campus

I am indeed happy and honoured to be penning a few words on the occasion of launching our International Journal.

Many months of hard work and dedication went into this, and I am indeed grateful to those that worked on this. I must thank Dr. Shamitha Pathiratne for heading this effort and also the contributors of the academic and scholarly work that is presented and published herein. The opportunity was made available to both Sri Lankan and international contributors and I am happy to see several international contributions being present in the inaugural edition itself. This shows the level of confidence that they have in the efforts of ESOFT Metro Campus.

ESOFT started as a small organization 14 years ago, but today has emerged as the largest private sector higher education network in Sri Lanka. Partly, this is due to the partnerships and relationships that we have established over the years with leading international bodies in order to provide world class learning and education opportunities to those in Sri Lanka. Today, we have transformed ourselves into a tertiary education provider with our entry into the post-graduate sphere with the introduction of our Post Graduate Diploma as well as the Masters in Business Administration.

Taught work is only one aspect of a University. The other area is research and development, and it is with the interest and ambition of developing this area that the international research journal is being launched herewith.

Entry criteria had to be satisfied, and the submissions had to be peer reviewed by our panel in order to be selected for publication. This took many months of dedication, and I am happy to see the final result that has been produced.

I would like to wish all concerned all the best, and would also like to wish the best to the Contributors of scholarly articles for their further academic pursuits.

Nishan Sembacuttiaratchy CEO - ESOFT Metro Campus CEO / Director - ESOFT International Education

Aademic Dean’s Message

The International Journal of the ESOFT Metro Campus is a unique opportunity for international research community to demonstrate their research capabilities and to share their academic work and findings with the rest of the academic community. This is an opportunity to publish the research findings of senior academics and to encourage aspiring young researchers to follow the long standing research traditions. Abstracts submitted by the members of the international research community have addressed an array of issues ranging from social, community and human perspectives to information technology diffusion. Theme of the journal is truly international in nature, addressing a cross section of issues that professionals in multitude of careers, academic and non-academic, can share. I would like to use this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Samitha Pathirathne who worked tirelessly to get (no.) abstracts submitted and reviewed in time. Those who submitted abstracts are also gratefully acknowledged. From submission of abstracts, to peer reviewing and getting them polished in a journal involves much effort, as does organizing especially when an institution is launching its very first journal. This is a team effort. Many were involved in the different stages of this process and must be acknowledged with gratitude. Without their dedication and interest, this publication would not have been a reality. I hope ESOFT International Journal will pave the way to uncover new ideas and new ways of thinking.

Dr.Dilina Herath Dean Academic Affiares ESOFT Metro Campus

Editor’s Column

The question of for what, or for whom, a journal is intended is one that is infrequently explored in detail preserve for a curt and often general verbal expression of aims on the website homepage. For the author, the answer may be relatively simple. It is an opportunity to publish pristine work that furthers debate or understanding and withal reaches a wider and, hopefully, receptive audience. More instrumentally, it is additionally an expedient to achieve the requisite number of outputs in the Research Excellence Framework that ensures (again hopefully) perpetuated institutional support for further inditing and other academic activities.

But the question of 'why publish?' is seldom asked of a journal. This editorial addresses that directly by reflecting on why People, Place and Policy was set up and what it hopes to achieve. Rather than an exercise in navel gazing, we have indited it as an endeavor to stake out a claim for validity in the increasingly crowded and competitive world of academic publishing. If we can indulge a cliché, the answer to the question of what we are for is captured by "the name on the tin". ESOFT Metro Campus International Journal will emerge from a concern among research-focused academics in Sri Lanka and the world based at ESOFT Metro Campus to provide a forum for debate about the way in which about new findings.

Frequently cutting across this is a concern to understand the challenges (and less often) opportunities facing disadvantaged groups and areas. At the peril of engaging in the scarcely normative verbal expressions that would have our reviewers furrowing their brows, we aim in some minute way to publish research that makes a difference. Furthering understanding of empirical, methodological and academic debates is both a terminus in itself and an expedient to establish change. Of course, lofty ambitions do not automatically translate into practice. A sceptic would be entitled to ask what difference looks homogeneous to, how it could be demonstrated and, for those of a post-structuralist bent, who are we to decide what kind of difference matters anyway.

A commencement point is to contemplate impact in terms of coverage. ESOFT Metro Campus International Journal is cross-disciplinary in scope and has received contributions from academics working in a broad range of fields including technology, convivial policy, sociology, political science, economics, geography and languages.

The twenty five articles of the journal covers the full gamut of technology, social and economic policy from welfare through to regeneration, regional development, education, health, housing, crime and anti-social behavior.

Dr. Shamitha Pathiratne, Chief Editor, ESOFT Metro Campus International Journal

Extended Embedding Capacity with Minimum Degradation of Stego-Image (Naveed Mustafa, Muhammad Bilal Iqbal Muhammad Asif and Abdul Jawad)* *‘Scientific Officer’ Climate Change, Alternate Energy and Water Resources Institute (CAEWRI), National Agricultural Research Center (NARC), Park Road Chak Shahzad, Islamabad. [email protected]

Abstract:

The major objective of steganography is to embed maximum information in a Stego-image with minimum change in its appearance. In this paper, we present a strategy of attaining maximum embedding capacity in an image, in a way that maximum possible neighboring pixels are analyzed for their frequencies, to determine the amount of information to be added in such pixel. The technique provides a seamless insertion of data into the carrier image and reduces the error assessment and artifacts insertion required to a minimal.

We justify this approach with the help of an experience evaluation on a prototypic implementation of the proposed model. There also improves Security of data using the Cryptography Technique ECC instead of RSA, DES.

General Terms: Security

Keywords: Cryptography, ECC (Elliptic Curve Cryptography), Embedding Capacity, LSB (Least Significant Bit), Steganography, and Transposition.

1. Instoduction:

Steganography is a flourishing area of study within computer science and covers a broad range of specialties. In addition, the increasing use of digital images and image processing techniques makes the study of digital image processing an important sub discipline of computer science. These two fields are brought together in a specialized application of steganography whereby secret messages are imperceptibly embedded in digital images.

Steganography can be defined as "the art of concealing the existence of information within seemingly innocuous carriers. Steganography, in an essence, 'camouflages' a message to hide its existence and

9 make it seem 'invisible' thus concealing the fact that a message is being sent altogether. An encrypted message may draw suspicion while an invisible message will not" [9].

Steganography can utilize various mediums as carries of the message. These medium may include the classical methods of Steganography using text, like character marking, invisible ink, using pin pictures, type writer correction, images, and audio [10], video signals [10]. Most of the Steganography techniques use images a stego-medium. Information can be hidden in images through many different ways. The most common approaches to information hiding in images are: Least significant bit (LSB) insertion [5], masking and filtering techniques [1], Algorithms and transformations [1]. Masking and filtering techniques hide information by marking an image in a manner similar to watermarks [2]. Because watermarking techniques are more integrated into the image, they may be applied without fear of image destruction from lossy compression.

2. Background

This section provides the technical background necessary for understanding basic steganographic techniques. The technique described here is the well known least significant bit (LSB) approach [9]. The LSB approach is easily accessible for programming and directly addresses fundamental issues of data representation and processing.

2.1 Digital Images

A digital image at the most abstract level is a two-dimensional array of colored pixels or dots. When these pixels are displayed on a high-resolution monitor and viewed at an appropriate distance, they appear to be a continuously colored image. Each pixel is a certain color which is typically defined, using the red green- blue (RGB) color model, as a combination of varying amounts of red, green, and blue light.

A color image is therefore said to contain three bands, each of which represents the amount of red, green, or blue light in the image. Whereas a color image contains color and intensity information, a grayscale image is composed of pixels that vary only in intensity, not color. Grayscale images therefore have only a single band. Without loss of generality, the remaining discussion will focus on

10 grayscale images. The discussion is easily extended to cover color images by noting that a color image is the composition of three individual grayscale images representing the red, green and blue bands.

The typical grayscale image has an 8-bit depth which is sufficient to represent 256 unique intensity values ranging from black to white. We have learn about the binary representation of numeric data early in the CS curriculum but are rarely confronted with any low-level issues arising from such a representation.

A brief review of binary representation will be instructive when interpreting bit-level pixel data in the context of a digital image. An 8-bit binary numeral has the general form A7 ·27+A6 ·26+...+ A1 ·21+A0 ·20 where A represents a single binary digit. In a digital image it is clear that A7 is the most significant bit and indicates whether the pixel value is greater than 127.

A common means of converting a grayscale image to a binary (i.e. black-and-white) image is to extract the A7 bit from each pixel. By contrast, A0 embodies relatively little information and, in the context of a digital image, can generally be understood as a noise channel.

Figure 1 (a) 8-bit grayscale source image (b) most significant bit plane A7 of the source where white indicates an ON bit and black an OFF bit (c) bit plane A4 and (d) least significant bit plane A0 of the source image

This is illustrated in Figure 1 where the most significant and least significant bit planes are extracted from an 8-bit image. It is obvious that the more significant bits of each pixel embody greater structural information than the least significant bits. [9]

2.2 Steganography

The human eye has a resolution far below 8-bits and is typically able to simultaneously discern only one or two dozen intensity levels. This implies that much of the information contained in a digital image is imperceptible to a human observer and that small modifications to a source image will not be perceived.

Steganography, in the simplest case, capitalizes on this overabundance of information by replacing the noise channels (i.e. the least significant bit channels) with an arbitrary secret message figure 2.

A source image, hereafter referred to as a cover, is viewed as 8 information carrying channels. A secret message is spread over the least significant channels (in this case the three least significant channels) with the modified channels re-combined to obtain an output, hereafter referred to as the stego image, that visually resembles the cover image and contains he injected message.

Figure 2 Embedding of a secret message into the three least significant channels of a cover image modified channels re-combined to obtain an output, hereafter referred to as the stego image, that visually resembles the cover image and contains he injected message.

The degree to which the resulting stego image visually resembles the cover is dependent upon the number of channels that are used to encode the secret message. In practice, the fidelity of the stego image quickly degrades if more than three channels are used as secret message carriers. While beyond the scope of this article it is worth noting that adaptive techniques exist that allocate carrier channels on a per-pixel basis through evaluation of image texture or morphological structure.

2.2.1 Example

Consider a 2 row by 8 column image with pixel values as shown in Table 1 below. The image can be visualized as generally light gray towards the left descending, dark-gray towards the right of the image. Table 2 represents the same information as Table 1 but uses binary notation.

Table 1 A 2 row by 8 column grayscale cover image

Table 2 The grayscale cover image from Table 1 Represented using binary notation

The secret message "HI" is then embedded into this image. The message, when represented in ASCII text corresponds to the sequence of numerical values {72, 73} or, represented in binary notation, {01001000, and 01001001}. The secret message is then viewed as a sequence of 16 individual bits which need to be injected into the original cover image. Since the cover image contains 16 pixels the single least significant bit of each pixel is designated as a carrier of the secret message. In other words, the cover image dedicates a single channel towards carrying the secret message.

Table 3 gives the result of the embedding where the secret message has been distributed over the least significant bits as indicated by underscoring. Note that many of the cover pixel values have not been altered at all in the process. Only the highlighted entries of the table contain pixels that have been modified by the embedding process where the cover pixel has been altered by a single, imperceptible grayscale value.

Table 3 Stego image with embedded ASCII "HI"

While in this case the secret message was textual in nature, any serializable data can be embedded into a digital image using this technique. A practical steganographic tool would include header information prior to the secret message itself all of which has been encrypted and compressed in a preprocessing phase. [9]

The least significant bit insertion (LSB) is the widely used image Steganography technique [2]. It embeds message in the least-significant bits of each pixels. In order to increase the embedding capacity, two or more bits in each pixel can be used to embed message, which has high risk of delectability and image degradation [8].

The LSB technique might used a fixed least significant bit insertion scheme, in which the bits of data added in each pixel remain constant, or a variable least significant bit insertion, in which the number of bit added in each pixel vary on the surrounding pixels, to avoid degrading the image fidelity.

In this paper we discuss the embedding of text into an image through variable size least significant bit insertion. The process of insertion of text in our proposed approach is not a sequential; rather it follows a random order, based on random algorithms.

The technique proposed aims at providing not only maximum insertion capacity, but also performs a maximum analysis of surrounding pixels to determine the embedding capacity of each pixel. The process results in a stego-image which is very much similar in appearance to the original image. [9]

3. PROPOSED TECHNEQUE OF ENCRPTION

In this paper we propose that plain text obtained can be encrypted with ECC (Elliptic Curve Cryptography) to provide additional amount of security in the process. The ECC offers considerably greater security for given key size. It also makes possible that it consists of smaller key size, faster operations, run on smaller chip, more compact software, less amount of heat production, and less power consumption.[6],[3].

4. PROPOSED STEGANOGRAPHY MODEL:

In this section, [1] proposed steganography model that ensures maximum embedding of information in both gray scale and colored images, and also ensures that maximum pixels are analyzed to determine the embedding capacity. This would lead to a reduction of the overall error induction in the image.

The stego-image obtained after application of this analysis would not only have maximum amount of information, but would also have the maximum difference in appearance with the original image. [1]

The approach used in the model requires a random/pseudo-random number generation algorithm and a transposition algorithm. For simplicity, they use one of the simplest algorithms for random number generation to explain the model. In practice the model can utilize any of the other well- accepted random generation algorithms [1], depending on the nature of the message and security

15 requirements. Following is a discussion of different steps involved in the model: According to the proposed model following procedure shall be followed at the sender end:

4.1 Sender Side

The procedure followed at the sender end described as follows.

4.1.1 Encryption of the Plain Text

The plain text obtained can be optionally encrypted to provide additional amount of security in the process. The model does not propose any restriction on the type of technique utilized. Any of the symmetric or asymmetric key cipher can be applied. For public key based ciphers we can utilize the ECC or RSA, while the block cipher that can be applied may include the DES to be used is purely the user- based decision, and any one may or may not even apply any encryption procedure.

4.1.2 Binary Conversion

In this step, the alphabetic plain text is concerted into its corresponding binary string. The conversion depends on the standard being followed at the user end.

4.1.3 Transposition

In this step, the binary text obtained from the previous step is transferred based on a suitable key. The transmission is on the binary key, so that the transformation would remove the occurrence of text character in a sequence. Any of the standard transposition technique can be applied to transpose the data [3, 6, and 7].

Figure 3 Steganography Model

4.1.4 Random Location Number Marking

This step requires the carrier image; the transposed binary text, and the initial seed, which would determine the permutation combinations, as input. Based on the carrier image the seed is calculated, so as to produce random distinct combinations of locations in the image. Every pixel corresponding to location is marked.

The function RNNDOM generates a pseudo-random value based on a seed [1]. The algorithm takes care that for each pixel location (x, y), not more than four neighboring pixels are marked. If the RANDOM function generates such a number, then the number would be discarded and next random number would be generated. Any standard pseudo-random number generation function can be used in place of RANDOM function. One of the functions to generate the random number is shown below:

RANDOM

Xn+1= (Seed*Xn+C^2) mod m,

Where m is the total length

C is capacity of Image.

4.1.5 Error Assessment and Embedding

Error assessment in the proposed model would be dependent on the number of neighboring pixels that are being analyzed for each marked pixel. Greater the number neighboring pixels being analyzed smaller would be the amount of error induction.

The embedding process determines the embedding capacity of each pixel from the neighboring pixels and inserts the transposed binary in to the image. The text is inserted in the embedding capacity of each marked pixel and would also remove the check of having at least four unmarked bits in neighbor of each mark pixel, thus increasing the overall insertion Algorithm for the sequent ional insertion process [1]. Image in each marked pixel in a sequent ional order. We could have opted for a random insertion, but the sequent ional insertion allows us to have a run-time analysis of variable

According to sequential insertion algorithm, the pixel marked is picked. All unmarked neighboring pixels are analyzed, which would also include the four preceding pixels that have already been analyzed. The four proceeding pixels are highlighted in fig 4. The analysis process used is similar to the processes followed in [2], but the variation is that the authors of one restricted their frequency analysis only the four preceding pixels but our model allows a possibility of analysis of all unmarked neighboring pixels.

For Gray scale 8-bit images following process is followed. Compute the intensity f(x, y) to calculate the embedding capacity E(x, y). Then compute maximum [Max(x, y)] and minimum [Min(x, y)] from the upper and left neighboring pixels of, y location pixel, and all available unmarked neighboring pixels.

Max(x, y) = Max {f(x-1, y-1), f(x-1, y), f(x-1, y+1), f(x, y-1), f(x, y+1), f(x+1, y-1), f(x+1, y), f(x+1, y+1)} And Min(x, y) = Min {f(x-1, y-1), f(x-1, y), f(x-1, y+1), f(x, y-1), f(x, y+1), f(x+1, y-1), f(x+1, y), f(x+1, y+1)} [Min(x,y)]., Now Compute the difference [Diff(X,Y)} between maximum [Max(x,y)] and Minimum

Now calculate the embedding capacity using the procedure shown in [2]. Due to the inclusion of pixels, other than the four preceding pixel in the capacity assessment allows us to have more precise

18 judgment of embedding capacity and minimizes the error assessment required in the proposed methodology.

After the embedding process is complete, the stego-image is transferred to the receiver, who then obtains the plaintext using the procedure shown in fig 4.

Fig 4 Eight Neighboring Pixels (with 4 Proceeding Pixels highlighted)

4.2 Receiver End

The procedure followed at the receiver end described as follows.

4.2.1 Random Location Marking

In this step the random location in the stego-image are marked using the same algorithm and the same seed used at the sender’s end. This step would result in the marking of location that actually includes the binary text obtained using the same algorithm as at the sender’s side (fig. 3). After the embedding transposition performed on it before the actual retrieval of alphabetic text capacity of each marked pixel is obtained, sequential retrieval of data from pixel is performed. The binary text obtained is transposed originally, so the process of inverse

4.2.2 Inverse Transposition

In this step the binary text is passed through an inverse transposition sequence, using the same permutation and key as done at the sender end.

4.2.3 Alphabetic Conversion

In this step, the binary obtained is converted to the corresponding string of alphabets, based on the standard mutually agreed between the sender and the receiver.

4.2.4 Decryption

This step is optional and is performed only if encryption process was conducted at the sender’s end. The decryption process is the inverse of the encryption process performed and reveals the original plain text message.

5. Conclusion

The presented steganography model that attains the maximum LSB capacity and utilizes the maximum number surrounding pixels to attain an optimal embedding capacity those ensure the seamless inclusion of data into the image. It has transposed the binary equivalent of data and has selected the pixels for the insertion of data in random order to remove the tracking of sequential data in the image.

References

[1] Z.Z Iqbal, T.M Shah, S.Malik, “Improving Embedding Capacity with Minimum Degradation of Stego-Image” submitted a The IEEE International Conference on Emerging Technologies (ICT). [2] T.M Shah, S.Malik, “A Frame work to Attain Optimal Embedding Capacity in Image Steganography using Dynamic LSB Technique,” Submitted at the IEEE International Conference on Emerging Technologies (ICT), June 2005. [3] B.Schnier, “Applied Cryptography,” Wiley, New York 1996, 2nd Edition. [4] Emir Ganic, A.M.Eskicioglu, “Robust DWT-SVD Domain Image Watermarking Embedding Data in All Frequencies” submitted at ACM 2004. [5] Khizar HaYayat Khan, “Investigation of Inherent Robustness of Images for LSB Steganography” Minimum Degradation of Stego-mage” Submitted at MAJU as Final Thesis August 2004. [6] William Stallings, “Cryptography and Network Security Principals and Practice” 3rd Edition, Prentice-Hall. [7] S.A Bhatti, N.A Bhatti, “A first Course in Numerical Analysis with Fortran and C” 3rd Edition, Shaharyar Publishers Al-Fazal Market, Urdu Bazar Lahore. [8] Memon, N., Avcibas, & Sankur, B. (C.2001). “Steganalysis using Image Quality Metrics”, EDICS: 5- AUTH Retrieved From http://citseer.ist.psu.edu.

[9] Dr. Kenny Hunt,”A Java Framework for Experimentation with Steganography” ACM February 23–27, 2005. [10] Johnson, N., and andSushil, J., Steganography: Seeing the Unseen, IEEE Computer, and February 1998: 26-34.

EFFECTIVENESS OF GOVERNANCE AND ACCOUNTABILITY MECHANISM FOR LOCAL GOVERNMENTS IN SRILANKA- INTERCONNECTIVITY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

M .M. Sarath Kumara [email protected] Department of Commerce & Financial Management, Faculty of Commerce & Management Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka.

ABSTRACT This research study is aimed to investigate the effectiveness of governance and accountability mechanism of Local Governments Interconnectivity Infrastructure Development Project program. The study has focused on local government’s interconnectivity program. Program has been established in six districts namely, Kegalle, Moneragala, Badulla, Rathnapura, Hambantota and Polonnaruwa.

The study has four specific objectives. Firstly, to measure the local governments risk areas, secondly, to determine the success level of governance and accountability mechanism, thirdly, to examine problem areas in the governance and accountability mechanism and finally, to identify the relationship between each other risk areas. The study was designed as a descriptive correlation research. Selected all population local governments of interconnectivity program.

According to the results of governance and accountability mechanism, overall malfunctions in inter-local governments. Governance systems progress (institutional), financial management progress (financial), is higher than the Project expected targets. The overall irregularities in procurement and assets management, weakness in disclosure policies and procedures progress (procurement) weakness in disclosure policies and procedures and poor communication progress (communication) and the inactive complaint and grievance redress mechanism progress (grievance) was lower than the Project expected targets.

According to the problem areas in the governance and accountability mechanism of local governments interconnectivity program, one of the major finding not using clear reporting structure and to address the identified issues and how to provide feedback on these actions from LG’s to national level. It was unclear whether the process takes into account the actions at various levels to address the problem. In overall, the system appeared to be disjointed and conducted in an ad hoc fashion and high ground level political intervention for the procurement and assess management activities it was serried problem to continuance this program. Finally, the researcher has presented three types of recommendation process owners of program. The study also suggests some recommendations for the future studies.

Key word: Local Government Governance and Accountability

1. INTRODUCTION

The. Community Development and Livelihood Improvement Project is the Phase two of the Adaptable program loan (APL) agreed by the government of Sri Lanka (GOSL) and the World Bank (WB). The Local Governments (LG) Interconnectivity development Pilot program which was started in phase one of the project, is the main component of the Phase two. Four Local Governments selected as pilot projects namely Angunakolapelessa (Hambantota district), Passara and Lunugala (Badulla district), Siyambalanduwa (Moneragala district), and Kuruwita (Ratnapura district) are being continued during the Phase II and Six new Local Governments; Daraniyagala (Kegalle) Madulla

(Moneragala) ,Haldumulla (Badulla) Madulla (Moneragala), Madirigiriya (Polonnaruwa) Kalawana (Rathnapura), Katuwana (Hambantota) as the batch.

Local Government Vision of the program is to develop Local Government as a strong local government institution that will enable sustainable utilization of investment results generated at intra village development activities. Villages will no longer isolated, as all the villages become stronger with interconnected to the towns and service centers, having better road networks, transport, trade and communication services, resources and improved technologies. The Government has observed that village level development activities have been confined to village boundaries itself. Therefore, the government has recognized the importance of isolated village communities linking with outside markets, service centers, resources, new technologies (including ICT) and accesses other facilities. The inter village connectivity program will help to remove constraints for development of livelihoods. In view of this, it proposes to connect the villages to outside markets and other connectivity such as roads, transport, trade, commercial and services by providing connectivity of infrastructure and social services.

Figure 01.The overall institutional structure The overall institutional structure for implementing interconnectivity activities is explained in Figure 01. LOCAL GOVERNMENT INTER CONNECTIVITY DEVELOPMENT FUND

Institutional Development Fund

(SLR 10 Million) LG, Interconnectivity Development Fund (Rs.210 million)Figure 02.Sub components of Local GovernmentInfrastructure Interconnectivity Development Fund Project Fund Statement of Problem (SLR: 200 Million)

There are less number of research papers done on the subject of Governance and Accountability mechanism effectiveness, as well as on the Local Government Interconnectivity program Governance and Accountability Mechanism already established, but there are no reported evidence on,  Malfunctions in inter- Local Government governance systems;  Financial management weaknesses;  Irregularities in procurement and assets management;  Weaknesses in disclosure policies, procedures and poor communications;  Ineffective complaint and grievance redress mechanism. One of the major problems in community development programs is that there was no proper follow up evaluation of the projects. At the beginning there are so many assessments, feasibility studies and planning, but when it starts there is no specific evaluation process adopted. Likewise the effectiveness of the mechanism of governance & accountability of the Local Government Interconnectivity program has never been assessed to date. Hence, researcher intends to fill this gap through this research on the Effectiveness of Governance & Accountability Mechanism. 1.2 Objectives of the Study 1. To measure Local Governments risk areas of Interconnectivity Program. 2. To determine the success level of governance and accountability mechanism established by the Local Governments. 3. To examine problem areas in the governance and accountability mechanism 4. Identify Relationship between each other risk areas.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW The present regime of the country is highly emphasizing of good governance practices and accountability concepts. It believes the devolution of power in order to involve people in decision making process. In addition, Mahinda Chintana promotes all government programs and projects to incorporate these concepts into them. Good governance practices are prerequisite in a project of this nature to enable target communities and their organizations to get things done logically and in harmony with the principles, approach, strategies, norms and values of the project. Also, it helps all stakeholders involved in project implementation to thrust toward the utilization of limited and available resources in the best possible way in order to resolve the prevailing issues in target communities. The existence of good governance will be the only mean in empowering local communities, entrenching the strong institutions at village level for effective and efficient project implementation, sustaining project goals and ensuring civic engagement in project implementation. These concepts are well compatible with the underpinning principles of the LG’s and therefore the project will implement these concepts as usual.

2.1 Governance This chapter provides the literature review of the research study. Governance is very important to the success of any organization from small domestic organizations to large international organizations (Kumara, M.M.S. and Wickramasinghe, C.N, 2013) but what exactly is governance in its simplest form is governance refers to group decision-making that addresses shared problems. Hence, governance focuses on future directions and long-term strategic consideration it addresses the issues

24 of policy in relation to internal programming (Tandon, R, 1991). Other evident and reason for researcher argument A public policy issue where the heart of the matter is a problem of governance” become defined implicitly as a problem of government with the corollary that the onus for “fixing” it necessarily rested with government (Granham,J, 2003). Within the context of international organizations, governance describes the processes and institutions that guide and control the collective activities taken by an international organization and its members. In addition, governance is more about the process through which a decision is made, rather than the substance of the decision itself. In other words, governance is not necessarily about making an international organization stronger, rather governance describes an international organization’s rules and procedures that the organization uses to fulfill its goals. “Governance as decision making processes, policy formulation and implementation capacity, development of personnel, information flows and the nature and style of leadership (Ogundia ,I, 2010).Whatever ends an international organization may decide to pursue, governance describes the mechanisms through which the organization implements its policies. Contemporary theories on governance make a fundamental distinction between governance and government.”An even more fundamental point is whether it is appropriate to even propose a universal of governance principle. Some argue that emphasis given to different aspects of governance will vary in different settings because societies value outcomes differently. (Graham,J, 2003). 2.2 Accountability Accountability and governance are flip sides of the same coin. In general, holding international organizations, “accountable” means, to ensure that their internal policies and procedures are lawful and reflect the best interests of its stakeholders, and the organizations acts according to its particular governance arrangement (Kumara, M.M.S. and Wickramasinghe, C.N, 2013). In particular, the international financial institutions have implemented various mechanisms such as transparency initiatives and inspection panels to hold themselves accountable for their actions. Accountability exists when there is a relationship where an individual or body and performance of tasks or function by that individual or body are subject to another’s oversight direction or request that they provide information or justification for their action (Stapenhurst,R & Brien,M. 2005). and other evident for researcher argument Accountability is not only way in which individuals for their action it also provide a way for organizations and individuals to take responsibility for developing policies and values and for assessing performance in relation to goals (Burall , S and Neligan , C. 2004). The international financial institutions accountability mechanisms reveal two types of accountability applicable to international organizations. Vertical accountability refers to the power of oversight held by the stakeholders of an international organization. For example, member countries may express their approval or disapproval of the International Finance Institutional by changing the composition of an international financial institution’s Board of Governors or the Executive Board. This vertical accountability mechanism is often criticized for its narrow. Hence Evident for researcher argument “horizontal accountability is the capacity of state intuitions to check abuses by other public agencies and branches of government, or the requirement for agencies to report sideways. Alternatively, vertical accountability is the means through which citizens, mass media and civil society seek to enforce standards of good performance ( Stapenhurst.R, 2006).

Governance and Accountability Mechanism of Local Government.

The Government of Sri Lanka highly believes in good governance practices and accountability concept. It also believes in devolution of power as a major approach to involve people in decision making process and managing resources. The concept of Mahinda Chintana policies promote above concepts and practices in all government programs and projects. Good governance practices are prerequisite in a project of this nature to enable target communities and their organizations to get things done logically and in harmony with the principles, approach, strategies, norms and values of the project. Governance and accountability practices help stakeholders involved in project implementation to trust toward the utilization of limited and available resources in the best possible way in order to resolve the prevailing issues in target communities. The existence of good governance will be the only mean in empowering local communities, entrenching the strong institutions at village level for effective and efficient project implementation, sustaining project goals and ensuring civic engagement in project implementation. A risk management tool called Governance and Accountability mechanism will be implemented. Financial management and inadequate accounting are identified as a main risk area within which detailed risks have been identified. 3. METHODOLOGY The aim of this study was to explore the Effectiveness of Governance and Accountability Mechanism of the Pradasiya Saba Project (Kumara, M.M.S. and Wickramasinghe, C.N, 2013). This chapter presents and justifies the research methods used in the research study. It is aimed to describe how the data has been collected and analyzed, what research methods have been used to collect the data, and what research techniques have been used to analyze that data. In this research quantitative methods have been applied. (Kandhro.H.2011).

3.1 Introduction to Research Methods Generally, there are two broad approaches for conducting research study, the quantitative approach and qualitative approach. Quantitative research was an early form of research applied in the natural sciences. This approach is concerned with the phenomenon which one can observe and measure in some way, and many observers have made such observations repeatedly. The qualitative research is related with finding the answers to questions that begin with why, how and in what way. Qualitative research is related with developing explanations for social phenomenon while, on other hand, quantitative research is more related with the questions about how many, how much, how often, and to what extent. Qualitative research is an inductive approach to develop theory while quantitative research is a deductive approach. It tests theories which have been already developed (Creswell, J, 2003). In quantitative research, the aim is to determine the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent or outcome variable in a population. Quantitative research designs are either descriptive in which subjects are usually measured once or experimental in which subjects are measured before and after a treatment (Kumar ,R, 2005).

The analytical framework of this research has been based upon theoretical concepts developed By SCDLIP Managers, the Government authorities and the World Bank Implementation Support Missions (SCDLIP Managers, The Govermment Authorities & The World Bank Implementation Support Missions, 2009). Discusses in the theoretical discussion with particular emphasis on assessing governance risks that may threaten the attainment of the project objectives and result at various level of the project implementation. Under Local Governments. Governance and Accountability Mechanism the identified

26 five risk areas and calculated that risk areas in VOs level. One VO calculates five risks areas by using the following equation. Risk Score = Likelihood * Consequences (SCDLIP Manager.Government authorities, 2009) Consequence Consequence is one of risk factors of LG’s Governance and Accountability Machanism of Local Government. It is divided into five classes of different consequence level as followes. Likelihood Likelihood is one of the risk factors of LG’s Governace and Accountability Machanism of Village Local Government. it is divided into five classes of different lkelihood levels as followes.

Mode of Weighing Consequences Mode of Likelihood weighing Very serious 5 Very high 5 serious 4 High 4 Moderate 3 Medium 3

Minor 2 low 2 insignificant 1 Very low 1

Likelihood should be 05 or less Risk Assessment. Risk Score =Likelihood x Consequence ,Deciding of Risk level As per the scores received from the risk assessment decisions can be taken as follows:

Risk, Assessment Decision Scores Received

Less than 06 Risk is Low

Between 08 – 12 Risk is Moderate

Between 14 – 20 Risk is High

More than 20 Risk is Top

The risk areas are, Malfunctions in intra-village governance systems risk, Financial management weaknesses risk ,Irregularities in procurement and assets management risk, Weaknesses in disclosure policies and procedures and poor communications risk and ineffective complaint and grievance redress mechanism risk.

3.2 Population and sampling In social research, the participation of people in research is taken under study for the purpose of collection of data. The group of people selected for the study is often called the population of the study. A sample is a group of people that is selected for a research study. A sample of units or people; it supplies one or more responses. A response is a specific measurement value that a sampling unit supplies. Researchers receive the responses from the respondents of the population. The researcher should have clear understanding about research population. Hence, the researcher must have a good understanding of the target population (Wickramasinghe. N, 2012). In this research study, the population of Eleven LGs has been taken under the study; that population has been distributed in sizes districts of Sri Lanka namely, Badulla, Hambantota, Monaragala, Ratnapura, Polonnarauwa and Kegalle. 3.3 Data collection The data for this research study collected from by using “Governance and Accountability Mechanism Questionnairs” Therefore, during the last week of November 2013, the researcher sent Questionnaires LG’s chairmen, Zonal Committees, Directors and Project staff. By the end of December 2013, the positive response rate was 100% of the target population. After the field visit, the researcher selected all respondents of LGs for the survey.

Figure 03: Conceptual Framework for the Statistical Path Analysis Figure 03. Show Conceptual Framework I. Risk, F.Risk, P.Risk, C.Risk and G.Risk mean institutional, finance, procurement, and communication and grievance risk respectively.

4. DATA ANALYSIS AND RESEARCH FINDING 4.1 To measure Local Government level risk areas The Local Governments are measured under the following risk areas. i) Malfunction in inter- Local Government governance system ii) financial management weakness iii) irregularities in procurement and assets management iv) weakness in disclosure policies and procedures and poor communication v) inactive complain and grievance redress mechanism. Measure the above five risk areas by using the following equation. (SCDLIP Manager. Government authorities, 2009). Refer the risk culculation method in Chapter 3.

Risk scores = Likelihood X Consequence

4.2 Success level of governance and accountability mechanism of Local Government

Expected Risk Level Insitutional

Finance LEVEL OF RISK OF LEVEL

Procurement

NAME OF LOCAL GOVERNMENTS Communiction

Figure 04: Success level of governance and accountability mechanism of Local Governments

Figure 04: show overall Local Government wise success level of governance and accountability mechanism. According to Project Appraisal Document one of the key results of governance and accountability mechanism risk areas, the output should be low risk. (The World Bank, 2009n). All local governments were unable to achiever expected Grievance, Communication and Procurement progress. In Kuruvita, Agunukola, Siyabalanduwa and Passara local government were unable to achiever expected Institutional and Finance progress. Other local governments’ achiever the program expected targets.

Actual Risk Scores, Communication , 17 Actual Risk Scores, Actual Risk Scores, Procurement , 13 ExpectedGrievance Risk Scores , 12 Actual Risk Scores Actual Risk Scores,

RISK SCORES RISK Actual Risk Scores, Insitutional , 5.7 Financial, 5.5 RISK AREAS

Figure 05: National Success Level of Governance and Accountability Mechanism Figure 05; presents the National Success level of governance and accountability mechanism. According to governance and accountability mechanism risk areas. Overall Malfunctions in inter-Local Governments governance systems progress (institutional) and financial management progress (financial) higher than the program expected targets. Irregularities in procurement and assets management, weakness in disclosure policies and procedures (procurement), Weakness in disclosure policies and procedures and poor communication (communication) and the inactive complain and grievance redress mechanism progress (grievance) were lower than the Program expected targets. 4.3 Problem areas in the governance and accountability mechanism of Local Governments There are no proper system for greater attention to high risk Local governments. The executive team shared guidelines of governance and accountability mechanism which were reviewed by the author. It was noted that a comprehensive exercise had been conducted in identification of risks at the Cluster level and local government level of project implementation. An action plan format had been prepared and that showed a clear disaggregation of responsibilities starting from local government levels up to the national level including a column for a time frame within which identified issues were to be resolved. What the guidelines did not provide is a clear reporting structure of what actions have been taken to address identified issues and how to provide feedback on these actions from Local Government to national level and vice-versa. The system appeared to be disjointed and conducted in an ad hoc fashion. Interconnectivity program were not using tracking system for the identify Communications and Grievances weakness. Author review internal and external audit report and pointed out this program violated the project procurement procedures and National procurement procedures (Internal Audit Report, 2012) main reson for that graound level poltical intervention. 4.4 Identify Relationship between each other risk areas Based on the hypothetical and practical evidences of the correlates of each other risk areas, researcher developed the Conceptual framework of the study.

Table 01: Pearson Bivariate Coefficients Correlation of Variables in Conceptual Model institution Finance Risk Procurement Communicati Grievance Details al Risk Risk on Risk Risk Pearson Correlation 1 .801** .621* .311 .612* institutional Risk Sig. (2-tailed) .003 .041 .353 .045 N 11 11 11 11 11 Finance Risk Pearson Correlation .801** 1 .591 .295 .402

Sig. (2-tailed) .003 .056 .378 .221 N 11 11 11 11 11 Pearson Correlation .621* .591 1 .667* .344 Procurement Risk Sig. (2-tailed) .041 .056 .025 .300 N 11 11 11 11 11 Pearson Correlation .311 .295 .667* 1 .344 Communication Sig. (2-tailed) .353 .378 .025 .300 Risk N 11 11 11 11 11 Pearson Correlation .612* .402 .344 .344 1 Grievance Risk Sig. (2-tailed) .045 .221 .300 .300 N 11 11 11 11 11 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). In this section, the researcher presents the vicariate analysis of the correlation between each risk factor with rest of other four risk factors and the calculated Pearson correlation coefficients are depicted in table 01.Institutional risk is positively related to finance, procurement, and grievance risks either at 0.05 and 0.01 significant levels. Financial risk has positive correlations with Institutional risk, with 1% significant level. Procurement risk positively correlated with institutional and Communication risk at 0.05 significant level. Communication risk positively correlated with procurement risk at 0.05 significant levels. Grievances risk positively correlated with institutional risk at 0.05 significant levels.

Table 02: Relationship between Total risk and individual risk areas Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized t Sig. Coefficients B Std. Error Beta (Constant) -40.569 8.522 -4.760 .005 Institutional Risk 1.166 3.766 .051 .310 .769 Finance Risk 6.293 2.942 .290 2.139 .085

Procurement Risk 6.108 3.308 .250 1.847 .124 Communication Risk 6.735 2.751 .275 2.448 .058 Grievance Risk 13.450 2.675 .533 5.028 .004 a. Dependent Variable: TR

Model R R Square Adjusted R Std. Error of the Square Estimate 1 .985a .969 .939 4.693 a. Predictors: (Constant), G RISK, C RISK, F RISK, P RISK, I RISK

Table 02 shows; The regression results shows that total risk has positive relationship with all five risk areas and goodness of fit of the model is very high as adjusted R2 is 0.94. It says that 94% of the variation in the total risk is explained by the variation of five risk areas. Among five risk areas Grievance risks is positively related to total risks with 5% α level and increase of the risk factor by one score by keeping other risk factors constant, total

31 risk will increase by 13.4, Even though Institutional, Financial, Procurement and Communication risks. they are not significant at 5% α level.

5. GENERAL CONCLUTION AND RECOMANDATION FOR FUTURE RESEARCH General conclusions Researcher mentions that, there are less number of research papers done on the subject of governance and accountability mechanism effectiveness, as well as on the Local Governments. Governance and accountability mechanism already established; but there is no reported evidence on that. Therefore, the Researcher had filled this gap through this research on the effectiveness of governance and accountability mechanism. According to research finding, one of the major problems in local government’s interconnectivity programs is that there was no proper follow-up evaluation of the Project. At the beginning there are so many assessments, feasibility studies and planning. Even though, it was unclear whether the process take into account the actions at various levels to address the problems. In overall, the system appeared to be disjointed and conducted in an ad hoc fashion. The overall procurement assess management , weaknesses in disclosure policies and procedures and poor communication progress (communication) and the inactive complain and grievance redress mechanism progress (grievance) were lower than the Project’s expected targets. High ground level political intervention for the procurement and assess management activities it was serried problem to continuance this program. Process owners of Local Governance not used the tracking system to identify communication and grievances issued. Implications for the body of knowledge I. Procurement progress, Communication progress and grievances progress lower than the project expected targets therefore, should give special attention to this matter by program Process owners. II. Grievances risk high influence to Local Governments total risk; hence the Program Process owners, should given special attention to this. III. This study have been provided new knowledge and guidance to program Process owners, to minimize the inefficiencies in the process of governance and accountability mechanism therefore, before implementing the 3rd Phase of the Project stakeholders follow this study. Implication for the policy development I. Reported Low Communication progress. Hence the Project must recruit a Communication expert. II. Governance and accountability mechanism risk mitigation measures activated by The Appraisal and Monitoring Teams, Internal Auditors, External Auditors, Independent Monitors team and The Social Audit Committees at the Village organizations there have not been use communication and grievances weakness tracking system. Therefore, Program Process owners must develop and implement tracking system to communications and grievances. III. Governance and accountability mechanism guidelines not provided how to given attention of high risk areas of the local governments; therefore, must develop and include that in the governance and accountability mechanism. Implication to the practice

I. All officers of program staff should align with the governance and accountability mechanism. II. One of the major finding. Governance and accountability mechanism not using clear reporting structure and to address the identified issues and how to provide feedback on these actions from ground level to national level. The researcher proposed to implement the follow-up process through project management information system. Suggestions for the Future Research I. Why Ground level political leaders are intervened for the interconnectivity program? II. What is the final result? The ground level political intervened of the interconnectivity program?

6.REFERANCE Burall, S and C, Neligan. (2004). The Accountability of International Organizations. GlobalPublic Policy Institute, Global Public Policy Institute. Berlin Germany: One World Trust. Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Method Approach 2nd ed. . Calif: Sge.: Thousand Oaks,. Granham,J. (2003). Governance principles for protected areas in. the 21st century.Institute On Governane, In Collaboration with Parks Canada & Canadian International Development Agency. Durban South Africa: Institute On Governane. Internal Audit Report. (2012). 1st Quater Internal Audit Report of Second Community Development & Livelihood Immprovement Project. Colombo: Management Frontiers Chartered Accountants of Colombo Sri Lanka. Kandhro,S. (2011, March). Roles of E-Government in Enhancing Good Governance Of Public C Sectors Organizations In Pakistan. Roles of E-Government in Enhancing Good Governance Of Public C Sectors Organizations In Pakistan , 1-86. Kumara, M.M.S. and Wickramasinghe, C.N. (2013). Effectiveness of Governance and Accountability Machanism Second communty development and livelihood improverment project. ICSS Social Sciences. colombo: university of kelanya-Srilanka. Kumar ,R. (2005). Research Methodology: A Step- by -step guide for Beginners. 2nd ed. London:: Sage. Lee,H ,Enrique,R and Carrington,W. (2008, December). Governance and Accountability:The Regional Development Banks. Governance and Accountability: The Regional Development Banks The University of Iowa College of Law University of Iowa Legal Studies Research Paper Number 08-47 , 1-75. Ogundia ,I. (2010, April 10). Democracy and good governance: Nigeria’s dilemma. African Journal of Political Science and International Relations Vol. 4(6), pp. 201-208, June 2010 , 1-208.

SCDLIP Managers, The Govermment Authorities & The World Bank Implementation Support Missions. (2009). Governance and Accountability Machanism for Sri Lanka - Community Development & Livelihood Improvement APL-2. Gemidiriya Foundation, Government. Colombo in Sri Lanka: SCDLIP Managers. Stapenhurst , R and Brien , M. (2005). Social Accountability in the Public Sector Washinggton DC WBI Workong Paper No.3641. World Bank Institute, World Bank Institute. Washinggton: Senior Public Sector Management Specialist World Bank Institute. Stapenhurst,R. (2006). Corruption: A Key Challenge for Development. The Role of Parliaments in Curbing Corruption. Ed. Riccardo , 1-125. Tandon, R. (1991). Governance and Accountability in Non Government Organizations.Hyderabad: Board Games. The World Bank. (2009). Project Appraisal Document on a Proposed Credit Second Community Development & Livelihood Improverment Project in Support of the Sconde PHASE Adaptable Program Loan. Colombo: Democratic Sociialist Republic Of Sri Lanka. Wicramasinghe , N. (2012, April). Grassroots Level Invetors in Sri Lanka. Relationship Betwwen Demographic, Psychological, Technical, Social Domain Factors & Success of Grassroots Level Invetors in Sri Lanka: Colombo , 1-403. World Bank Support Mission. (2012). Aide Memoire: Second Community Development & Livelihood Improvement Project. Colombo: Worl Bank Support Mission.

An Investigation of the Functions of Code Switching as an Instructional Strategy in Teachers’ Classroom Discourse at Tertiary Level

W.I.Ekanayaka

English Language Teaching Unit, University of Sri Jayewardenepura

[email protected]

Abstract

Among the language contact phenomena which include switching, mixing, interference, borrowings, etc, code switching, which is, a bilingual phenomenon is more or less employed in the second language teaching. The main objective of the paper is to explore the employment of code switching as an instructional strategy in the teachers’ discourse at tertiary level with reference to the second language teaching context in the English Language Teaching Unit of the University of Sri Jayewardenepura. The data was gathered through the recordings of 35 teaching hours from the 10 classrooms selected randomly. Moreover, the respondents including 10 teachers and 30 students were interviewed to find out the intentions and expectations of the subjects with regard to the use of code switching in second language classroom. The findings of the study can be analysed under seven instructional purposes, namely; introducing new vocabulary, introducing complex grammar, clearing erroneous reading, explaining ambiguous sentences, clarifying communication complexities and using culture specific sayings. Thus, the judicious integration of code switching when giving instructions in the language teaching can be identified as a pedagogical strategy that can be employed to address the language issues in the second language classroom. Moreover, it is believed that the study conducted can illustrate the ways teachers can incorporate code switching to make the language teaching effective while employing it as the last resort, specially in their own personalised methods of teaching a second language.

Keywords: Code switching, Second Language Teaching, Instructional Purposes

An Investigation of the Functions of Code Switching as an Instructional Strategy in Teachers’ Classroom Discourse at Tertiary Level

Introduction

Considerable weight has not yet been placed on improving four skills: reading, speaking, listening and writing in the second language teaching/learning within the exam oriented education system prevailing in Sri Lankan government school system while some courses related to the division of humanities and social sciences in most of the state universities in Sri Lanka are still offered in Sinhala

35 or Tamil, the native languages of Sri Lankans. Thus, the dominant role played by Sinhala1 in most of the Sri Lankan education contexts has become the major reason for utilising bilingualism2 as one of the optional linguistic phenomena in second language teaching.

Among the language contact phenomena which include switching, interference, borrowings, etc, code switching, which is, a bilingual phenomenon is defined as ‘an alternate use of two languages in speech’ (Haugen, 1956). In bilingual contexts, code switching is recognised as a mechanism which serves diverse purposes such as scio-psychological (Metila,2009, 46), communicative tasks (Wettewe, 2009, 272), academic and non -academic purposes (Uys, 2010, P.43,44,45).

In the light of these studies, the functions of employing code switching in teachers’ classroom discourse are identified as a controversial linguistic aspect which is more or less prominent in bilingual/multy-lingual teaching contexts. Thus, the paper intends to explore the functions of employing code switching as an instructional strategy in teachers’ discourse with reference to the second language teaching context in the English Language Teaching Unit of the University of Sri Jayewardenepura.

1.1 Research Methodology The study will be based on the data collected from 10 English classes of first year students in the English Language Teaching Unit of the University of Sri Jayewardenepura. 10 English classes of first year students enrolled in 2013 were randomly selected to obtain data for the study while the lessons and activities related to all four skills: reading, listening, writing and speaking were intentionally focused when gathering data. Accordingly, 36 teaching hours were observed to gather necessary data. Out of the 18 teaching sessions of 36 teaching hours that were observed, 8 teaching sessions were observed and documented while 10 teaching sessions were recorded and observed by means of a recorder. In order to produce transparent data analysis in the study, the respondents including 10 teachers and 20 students were interviewed to identify the teacher’s intention and the students’ perception of the employment of code switching as an instructional strategy. The data gathered through the interviews enables the study to explore not only the functional usage of employing code switching but also the pedagogical importance of the instances.

1.1.1 Analysis Results

1 Native language of the Sri Lankans

2 Use of at least two languages by an individual

The findings of the study can be analysed under seven instructional purposes, namely; introducing new vocabulary, introducing complex grammar, clearing erroneous reading, explaining ambiguous sentences, clarifying communication complexities and using culture specific sayings.

It was identified that the second language teachers tend to switch to the students’ first language when she/he fails to illicit the meaning of a particular word providing synonyms. According to the students, it enables them to comprehend and memorise the meaning of a difficult word/phrase if they are presented it with an equivalent term in the native language. Nevertheless, the teachers in some instances had to illicit the meaning of the target language without providing the Sinhala equivalent since students more or less tend to depend on the meaning provided using their native language. Thus, the data reveals that the switching is employed as the last resort when explaining the meaning of a word/phrase. Further, the conducted study indicates that most of the teachers employ switching when explaining complex grammar structures such as passive structures. Since most of the students find passive structures difficult, they personally request the teacher to explain them using their native language.

Moreover, it is apparent that the teachers compel to employ switching when the students in the low proficiency level fail to grasp the instructional massage or the contextual meaning of a particular term properly. Supporting Suleiman’s view of the pedagogical weight of code switching, the teacher maintains the strategic value of cs by making ‘the appropriate language choice at the right time’ (1985, p.54) to avoid erroneous reading of an utterance or a word in a particular context.

Furthermore, it is interesting to note that the teachers utilise code switching to explain culturally transmitted language productions such as idioms and proverbs such as “wakkade hakuru hanguwa wage”. The teachers’ intention of switching to explain the figurative term can be identified not only as an effort to stimulate the learners by presenting it in their mother tongue, but also a way of establishing equal prestige for both the languages. In the study, majority of the students and the teachers agreed that code switching plays as an effective instructional strategy in the second language classroom.

Interestingly, it was apparent that the switches didn’t occur haphazardly or mistakenly. The teachers’ choice of the code is motivated by affective factors, psycho-linguistic factors , teaching method and the aims of the lesson. According to the data, the switching was employed as the last resort by majority of the teachers, specially when explaining most difficult vocabulary and grammatical concepts.

Nevertheless, it was identified that some of the switches are made without having any pedagogical weight. Therefore, one of the conclusions that can be made after examining the data is that the teacher’s choice of language in the bilingual classroom should be governed to a certain extent by a structured and judicious approach of employing code switching so that the teacher can avoid

37 unnecessary switching instances in the classroom. This unofficial or official guidance should not have an impact on teacher and learner autonomy in the classroom. Most of the teachers have been selective in their language choice which is strictly governed by a personalised approach of code switching in order to meet the goal oriented criteria in the second language classroom.

In conclusion, code switching as an instructional function can be assured only if switching is employed diplomatically and strategically to facilitate the language learning but only as the last resort when 3 addressing the language issues in the L2 classroom. Thus, the use of code switching can be identified as an effective instructional strategy in teachers’classroom discourse at tertiary level. Hence, even 4 though, the use of L1 is highly criticised, it is acknowledged that it plays an active role in the L2 classroom only if it is applied for pedagogical tasks appropriately.

References

Haugen, E. (1956) Bilingualism in the Americas: a bibliography and research guide, University of Alabama Press: Alabama. Metila A. R. (2009) ‘Decoding the Switch: The Functions of Code switching in the Classroom’, U.P. College of Education, Vol. 67 (1), p.44-61 , http://Journals.upd.edu.ph , (08th , August, 2013) Suleiman S. M. K. (1985) Jordanian Arabic between Diglossia and Bilingualism: Linguistic analysis, Jordan: Jordan Benjamin publication. Wettewe C.D. (2009) ‘Sinhala-English code-mixing in Sri Lanka’, A sociolinguistic study, LOT Uys D.(2010) ‘The functions of teachers’ code switching in multilingual and multicultural high school classrooms in the Siyanda District of the Northern Cape Province’, Dissertation at Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10019.1/4361/Uys,%20D.pdf (20th September 2013)

3 Second Language

4 First Language

Anthropogenic Impacts on Urban Coastal Lagoons in the Western and

North-western Coastal Zones of Sri Lanka

Jinadasa Katupotha

Department of Geography, University of Sri Jayewardenepura

Gangodawila, Nugegoda 10250, Sri Lanka

[email protected]

Abstract

Six lagoons from Negombo to Puttalam, along the Western and North Western coast of Sri Lanka, show signs of some change due to urbanization-related anthropological activities. Identified activities have direct implications on morphological features of lagoons, elimination of wetlands (mangrove swamps and marshy lands) and pasture lands, land degradation due to encroachment for shrimp farms, shrinking of lagoons, and production of higher nutrient and heavy metal loads, decline in bird and fish populations and degradation of the scenic beauty. As a result, the lagoon ecosystems have suffered to such a degree that numerous faunal and floral species have disappeared or have diminished considerably over the last few years. All these anthropogenic impacts were identified by the author during 1992, 2002, and 2006 as well as in a study on “Lagoons in Sri Lanka” conducted by IWMI between 2011 and 2012.

Keywords: Anthropogenic Impacts, Urban Coastal Lagoons, Garbage accumulation, Awareness program

Introduction The island of Sri Lanka has 82 coastal lagoons that support a variety of plants and animals, and the economy [1]. Anthropogenic impacts, particularly lagoon fishing, human occupation of the land and water contamination have considerably reduced the faunal and floral population to a point that some of them are in danger of extinction. Such danger of extinction has been accelerated in urban lagoons of the western and northwestern coastal zones e.g. Negombo, Gembarandiya, Chilaw, Muthupantiya, Mundal and Puttalam. These are water bodies with a total 432.87 km2[1] where the present study was conducted emphasizing such anthropogenic impacts especially from Negombo Lagoon to Puttalam Lagoon (Figure 1). Issues related to anthropogenic activities, the development of urban centres on both sides along the Negombo Lagoon to Puttalam Lagoon is prominent. Among the other impacts are the use as fishing anchorages and high density of fishing crafts (Negombo, Chilaw and Puttalam Lagoons); land reclamation for road construction, settlements, expansion of agriculture (all Lagoons); conversion of marginal lands of lagoons for shrimp farms (Gembarandidiya, Chilaw,

Mundal, Puttalam); salterns (Mundal and Puttalam); use as municipal waste disposal sites (Negombo, Chilaw and Mundal); and inflows of inorganic fertilizer herbicides/weedicides/insecticides runoff from inland agricultural areas (Negombo, Mundal and Puttalam) are significant.

Study area from Negombo Lagoonto Puttalam Lagoon

Figure 01

The lagoons of the study area are surrounded by residential and highly populated urban areas with various human activities. The rivers and streams that previously fed the lagoon had terrestrial water of good quality, but now these sources are polluted. Diverse stakeholder groups are exploiting lagoons and other wetlands creating a state of eutrophication and pollution. As a result, the ecology of the lagoons has suffered to such degree that a number of faunal and floral species namely reptiles, mammals, avifauna, fish, mangrove and salt marsh vegetation have diminished considerably in the last 2-3 decades.

The infective anthropogenic activities are not unique to the bodies of water of the study area, but the selected lagoons in the west and northwestern coastal zone have shown excessive levels of nitrates and phosphates,

40 increasing levels of salinity, heavy metals and hydrocarbons [2], [3],[4], and[5]. Studies of urban lagoons have shown that pluvial water is an important instrument in the introduction of heavy metals and organic compounds to their waters. Some of the main sources of these contaminants are the rusted laminated roofs and weather proof insulations and street sewers that carry oils and combustion particles [6]. Other sources are automobiles, fishing crafts and different sizes of automobiles and fishing crafts repairing centres as well as runoff from agricultural areas. But it is not very easy to measure and calculate such pollutants in our lagoons. Gamboa-Rodríguez et al [6] pointed out that there are other factors that deserve to be studied such as winds, rains, geomorphology, subterranean waters, phytoplankton etc., which too have a great importance in determining the behaviour of heavy metals and pollution. Therefore, Gamboa-Rodríguez et al [6] analyze metals dissolved in the water from Las Ilusiones lagoon, located in Villahermosa city, Mexico. Water samples taken from different sites in the lagoon were analyzed to determine the content of lead, chromium, manganese, nickel and zinc using atomic absorption spectroscopy. Results showed values significantly above the detection limits for some of these metals, namely lead and zinc. The presence of these metals can be explained by pluvial discharges from the city around the lagoon that wash rusted metal roofs and carry domestic discharge, paint and roof insulation debris from buildings as well as oils and combustion particles from automobiles. The present study highlights similar issues related to anthropogenic impacts on lagoons in Sri Lanka and tries to reveal the consequences of these impacts.

1.1 Research methodology

During the field visits for “Human impact on wetland ecosystems” [7], “Vulnerability of land use to environmental impacts” [8], “Palaeoenvironmental evidence in North-West Sri Lanka [9] and for IWMI study by Silva et al[1], between November 2011 and March 2012, lagoon communities in the study area were consulted to understand their dependency on lagoons and to identify issues related to anthropogenic activities. Identified issues and anthropogenic activities have direct relationship with morphological features and dimensions of various artificial structures of selected lagoons. The main morphological features were measured using Google Earth path and line ruler. Coordinates taken in situ, using GPS (GARMIN Etrex), and were compared with Google readings for accuracy. The area of the lagoon was calculated using Arc GIS 9 (Arc

Map Version 9.3) package whereas shoreline development (DL) was computed by Microsoft Excel using the formula DL = L/(2*√π*Ao); where L and Ao are perimeter and surface area, respectively [1]. The IWMI study [1]estimated freshwater inputs to coastal lagoons using available information on river discharges and also basin dimensions. Basin characteristics were correlated to explain the magnitude of flow regulation.

1. Geographical setting of the study area

Sri Lanka is a tropical island with wave dominated micro-tidal coasts. The coast of this island harbours a fair number of coastal water bodies. Coastal lagoons in Sri Lanka are shallow, shore parallel water bodies, separated from the ocean by barriers or barrier spits, perennially or seasonally tidal and connected to the sea

41 through one or more restricted entrances. A majority of them are incorrectly categorized as ‘basin estuaries’ without considering their origin and evolution. But a recent, benchmark study was conducted in order to understand the formation and evolution of coastal lagoons in Sri Lanka [1]. This study points out that there are eighty two lagoons skirted by 3032 km perimeter on the 1338 km coastline of the island which amount to a total extent of 1536 km2. In the study area, from Negombo to Puttalam, six lagoons have 432.87 km2 (Figure 1 and Table 1).

Location (coordinates) and some physical parameters in lagoons of the study area

Name of the Longitude Latitude A PM SLD AEZ WME Lagoon (km2) (km) (km)

1.Negombo 7°12' 31"N 79°49 39"E 33.34 101.31 15.55 WL3- 0.404 WL4

2. Gembarandiya 7°25' 57"N 79°48' 39"E 2.41 13.86 7.91 IL1 0.610

3. Chilaw 7° 36' 24"N 79°47' 13"E 7.21 44.59 14.71 IL1 0.254

4. Muthupanthiya 7°43' 47"N 79°47' 36"E 0.71 5.94 6.25 IL1 0.065

5.Mundal Lake 7° 44' 57"N 79°47' 24"E 31.5 75.59 11.94 DL3 0.150

6. Puttalam 8° 23' 01"N 79° 48' 3"E 357.7 263.9 12.89 DL3 6.562

A = Area, PM = Perimeter, SLD = Shoreline development, AEZ = Agroecological Zone, WME = Width mean entrance. Source: [1].

Table 01

A majority of the scientific studies on coastal lagoons in Sri Lanka have been focused on fringe mangroves whereas least emphasis has been laid on salt marsh vegetation. Bathymetry and hydrography, fish fauna or fish productions of some lagoons have been studied. Negombo Lagoon on the west coast, Chilaw Lake, Mundal Lake and Puttalam lagoon located on the northwest coast have been subjected to a fair number of studies leaving huge gaps and lacunae in science-based knowledge on lagoon ecosystems (Table 2).

The evolutional history of the coastal zone from Negombo Lagoon to Puttalam Lagoon is very complex. It is possible to recognize a cycle with several stages during the Holocene Epoch in their development of the coastal landforms [10]. The first stage is the formation of a barrier beach or, it attached to the land at one end, a barrier spit, which grows in length as more sand is added to its seaward end forming “Zeta form” beaches along the Western and Northwestern Coastal Zones. Cooray and Katupotha [10] stated that the coastal stretch

42 from Negombo to Puttalam will be a salt marsh in the future due to hydrological changes that have taken place over several decades.

In several places beach-rock shoals are extending for example around Colombo and Kelani River cut off former mouth to Deduru Oya mouth and these have been formed by the lowering of sea level during the Late Holocene Epoch [11], and they protect the Negombo and Chilaw lagoons from severe southwest monsoon winds and ocean waves. The landward side of the study area is covered by Red-Yellow Podzolic Soils with soft or hard laterite. Lagoon beds and surrounding marshes are underlain on Bog and Half-Bog Soils. Along the coast, the lagoons and their surrounding marshes discontinue the relationship with the sea by Latosols and Regosols on old Red and yellow sand [12]. Miocene limestone deposits are found as basement rocks from Deduru Oya mouth to northwards [13].

Science-based Information on Lagoons in the study area T a Lagoon: West and BM HG NT PP PL BT FH SG MG SM AF b Northwestern Coast l e x x x x x x x x x 1. Negombo 0 2. Gembarandiya 2 x x x x 3. Chilaw

4. Muthupanthiya The x x x x x x x x x x x coast 5. Mundal al x x x x x x x x 6. Puttalam area Bathymetry = BM, Hydrography = HG, Nutrients = NT, Primary Production = PP, Plankton = PL, unde Benthos = BT, Fish-FS, Sea-grass = SG, Mangroves = MG, Salt Marches = SM. Source [1]. r this study has a tropical climate and is subject to the annual weather cycle in the country. The south-west monsoon (from May to August) brings rains to the southern and western coastal regions, and the Central Hill country. The dry season in these regions is from December to March; the north-east monsoon (from October to January), brings rain to the north and east of the island. This is weaker and shorter-lived than the southwest monsoon whilst there are also two inter-monsoon periods in October and November and in March and April respectively when rain and thunderstorms can occur in many parts of the country [13]. These climatic features have consequences for fisheries and marine resources as well as for lagoon ecosystems.

Hydrographic parameters such as depth contours, temperature, salinity, pH, visibility, and stratification of a lagoon are determined by morphometric, climatic, hydrological, and watershed characteristics of the lagoon and tidal fluxes and wave actions of the adjacent ocean. Of the climatic parameters, the direction and the magnitude of winds play an important role with respect to mixing, stratification, oceanic currents, water movement and littoral erosion and, in turn, nutrient dynamics and primary productivity [14] and[15]. Therefore, the configuration of the lagoon and the alignment of its fetch with monsoonal wind direction are also important in tropical countries experiencing monsoonal wind. The importance of hydrography on water chemistry and nutrient dynamics are also very significant [1].

The seas around Sri Lanka are micro-tidal and predominantly semi-diurnal. The rise and fall of the tides is within 0.7 m at spring tides and 0.05m at neap tides [14],[11]and [15}. The highest tidal range is generally around Colombo (west coast), while the lowest is around Delft and Trincomalee (east coast). This small tidal range forms little change in the level of water in most lagoonal inlets, leading to the formation of mudflats and mud banks, and helps the existence of mangrove ecosystem, and prominent salinity layers develop in deep areas of Puttalam Lagoon under calm conditions [Table 3, 16].

Salinity levels and average depths of the lagoons in the selected area, Source: [1]

Name of the A (km2) Entrance Middle Inflow Area Depth (m) Lagoon

1.Negombo 33.34 4.5 33.8 0 30.2 0 6.5 < 2.0

2. Gembarandiya 2.41 ------

3. Chilaw 7.21 - - 0 35.4 - - 1.1

4. Muthupanthiya 0.71

5.Mundal Lake 31.5 20 55 9 109 22 34 1.2

6. Puttalam 357.7 22 36 22 34 4 40 < 4.5

Table 03

2. Result and discussion Anthropogenic impact on urban lagoon is not only limited to Sri Lanka. Gamboa-Rodríguez et al [6] recently shows that without a steady source of water, contaminants inflowing a lagoon through residual and pluvial water drain from populated areas that surround it, and garbage accumulated on banks of the lagoon, have caused an alteration in its auto-purification capacity, producing eutrophication of its waters (based on Las

Ilusiones lagoon located in Villahermosa city, Mexico). Likewise, Briton Bi et al [17] evaluated the Abidjan lagoon pollution emphasizing the physicochemical and biochemical characteristics of effluents pouring into it. Further Briton Bi et al[17] state that the demographic pressure of the town of Abidjan, is appeared in great part at the origin of many environmental problems. The lagoon which crosses the city receives the industrial and domestic wastewaters coming from various districts of the city.

During the past 2-3 decades severe changes occurred along the western and northwestern coastal zones of Sri Lanka influencing the depredation of lagoon ecosystems in ways very similar to those in Mexico and West Africa, and also other urban lagoons in the world due to the increase of population pressure; development of Metropolises; industrial and commercial zones and agricultural practices. In the Sri Lankan context,

a) Rapid urban development on both sides of the Negombo, Chilaw and Puttalam lagoons and Mundal Lake (by Bopitiya, Pamunugama, Pitipana, Ja-Ela, Katunayaka, Negombo, Marawila, Koswadiya, Mahawewa, Mattakotuwa, Toduwawa, Kakkapalliya, Chilaw, Arachchikattuwa, Battulu Oya, Udappuwa, Polichchikulama, Mundalama, Kottantivu, Madurankuli, Mukkutoduwawa, Nuraicholai, Palavi, Puttalam townships and Ekala and Katunayaka Free Trade Zones)

b) Establishment of anchorages and landing of a large number of fishing craft including Multi-day boats in Negombo, Chilaw and Puttalam Lagoons

c) Land reclamation for road construction, settlements and expansion of agriculture in Negombo, Gembarandiya, Muthupantiya, and Puttalam lagoons and Mundal Lake

d) Conversion of marginal lands into shrimp farm ponds in Gembarandidiya, Chilaw, Muthipanthiya and Puttalam lagoons and Mundal Lake, and in addition into salterns in Puttalam lagoon and Mundal Lake

e) Use as municipal solid waste disposal sites (e.g., Negombo and Chilaw lagoons)

f) Inflows of inorganic fertilizer, herbicides/weedicides/insecticide runoff from inland agricultural areas (Negombo, Mundal and Puttalam areas)

The Negombo Lagoon has an area of 33.88 km2 (Table 1), which connection to the sea is by a single narrow opening at its northern end. There is dispersed freshwater input through the marsh at the southern end by Dandugam Oya (Attanagalu Oya), J-Ela and Hamilton Canal, particularly during the rainy seasons centred on April and October. Salinity ranges of the Negombo Lagoon area are shown in Table 3. Most of the lagoon perimeter is fringed mangrove dominated by Rhizophora spp, Bruguiera spp, Avicennia marina and Lumnitzera racemosa; also lagoon bed is dominated by Halodule, Zostera, halassiodendron, Najas and Padina. It is an important area for a wide variety of waterfowl including resident species of cormorants, herons and egrets, and migratory species of shorebirds, gulls and terns. The rich fish fauna includes Mullets (Mugil spp), Etroplus suratensis, and a popular aquarium fish indigenous to Sri Lanka. Invertebrates include a wide variety of polychaetes and molluscs, the crabs Scylla serrata, Portunus pelagicus,and prawns of the genera Penaeus and Metapenaeus [18], [19] and [1]. Development of Fishery and Management Plan (DFMP) for Negombo Lagoon [20] shows that there are 11 species of true mangroves in the Negombo Lagoon, and the extension has been reduced by 10% during the period between 1981 and 1992.

Establishment of anchorages and landing of a large number of fishing craft including multi-day boats are continuing in Negombo lagoon. Polluted water due to anthropogenic activities has completely destroyed the fringe mangroves for housing projects, firewood and poles. Further, such destruction has extended to sea grass beds, marshes and mudflat habitations. The DFMP Report [20] indicates that about 250 kg of coliform are added to the Negombo lagoon from the canal area and about 90 tons are added per year from the western margin of the lagoon. This amount is released by 2000 families who do not have sanitary facilities. Further, this report emphasized that by 2005, there were 943 illegal houses along the Negombo Canal. Beside the above, all off-cuts of the Dry Fish Industry are removed to the lagoon especially from Pitipana and Duwa areas. Likewise, off cut some parts of fish are used for “Crab Cages”. Similarly, off cuts and other debris and blood of fish directly add to the lagoon (Photographs 1 and 2)' By these means lagoon water becomes polluted affecting the livelihood of lagoon fishermen.

Water pollution occurs due to remove the garbage, oil from fishing craft,fish off cuts, debris and bloods directly to the Negombo lagoon

Photograph 01 Photograph 02 46

Similarly, the land reclamation for road construction, settlements, rice paddies, grassland and coconut plantations; conversion of marginal lands for shrimp farm ponds; encroachment of associated wetland including Muthurajawela by private companies, use the area as private and municipal solid waste disposal sites and inflows of polluted terrestrial water from inland agricultural and industrial areas are the main anthropogenic impacts. Illicit manufacture of liquor can be identified as other threats.

Due to above impacts, nutrient overload and breakdown of chemical cycling occur in all lagoons. Reduction of water depths in the narrow inlet/exit channels of the lagoon, sedimentation leads to reduction in the tidal exchange and flushing, which decreases the lagoon’s water quality. This has resulted in the increased growth of the filamentous green algal Chaetmorpha spp. The algal is an indicator of the presence of high levels of nutrients in an estuary [5]. Further, Lagerblad emphasizes that the levels of organic matter (measured as BOD and COD), nutrients, pathogens and suspended solids in Dandugam Oya are very high. Phosphorus and nitrogen can all cause lack of oxygen. This could be arising from industries and uncontrolled domestic sewage, which gradually mix with lagoon water.

Gembarandiya is a small lagoon with 2.41km2. There is no science based information in relation to this lagoon, and it appears as neglected wetland. However, Senadheera and Pathiratne [3] have discussed the toxic heavy metal levels in northwestern lagoons including Gembarandiya. This lagoon has extensive mangrove swamps. Much of the southern part of the lagoon has been converted into shrimp farm ponds. The marginal wetlands associated with Gembarandiya Lagoon extend up to Toduwawa Mouth, which is the southern part of the Chilaw Lagoon, completely encroached for construction of tourist hotels, extending coconut cultivation and home gardens. Due to the formation of high berms at the lagoon mouth, there is no moving of sea water to the lagoon. During the rainy season, terrestrial water received by precipitation and floods by Lunu Oya a fresh water body gathers in the area. Informal discussions with local people reveal that about 15-20 years ago, the lagoon supplied good prawn harvests. But lack of moving sea water, pollutants from marginal lands, and activities of tourism and land reclamation destroyed the lagoon ecosystem. As mentioned in Senadheera and Pathiratne [3] such activities would have increased the levels of lead, chromium and cadmium in the muscle tissue of the shrimp.

Chilaw Lagoon is an intermittently closed lagoon on the northwest coast of Sri Lanka. The lagoon has 7.21 km2 [1]and the average width is 1.6 km. The lagoon is shallow with an average depth of 1.1m from MSL. It is connected to the open ocean through two narrow and long restricting channels, located at the extreme north and south ends of the lagoon. The length of the northern channel is 8 km with an average width of 80 m and a mean depth of 1.5m. The southern entrance is already closed due to the formation of high berm formation at the mouth at Thoduwawa. Even the northern entrance of the Deduru Oya may close

intermittently during the northeast monsoon. However, the mouths are generally kept open by dredging to avoid floods upstream and also to allow for boat traffic. Over 7000 fishing boats daily pass through the entrance of Chilaw Lagoon [21]. There are no rivers discharging directly into Chilaw Lagoon. However, the lagoon occasionally receives freshwater from the Deduru Oya during periods of sandbar formation at the Deduru Oya mouth and floodwater from the Demure Oya via Lunu Oya. Salinity ranges of lagoons are shown in Table 3.

Chilaw is a bustling town with a famous fish market and beach. In the last few years several hotel developments have emerged in order to cater to the needs of tourists. Rapid urban development on both sides of the Chilaw lagoon, establishment of anchorages and landing of a large number of fishing craft and fish market are directly related with the lagoon' The photographs 3 and 4 show that the rapid development of fishing activities and the fish market are evidently responsible for the removing of the fringe mangroves, water pollution and illicit constructions. Similarly, clearing of mangroves for housing projects, cutting for firewood, using as a shelter for illicit manufacture of liquor and converting mangrove patches for shrimp farm ponds are the major threats. All mud flats, marshes, patches of mangrove swamps and other marginal lands at both ends of the Chilaw lagoon have been converted into shrimp farm ponds. Such activities clearly impact on the lagoon water, fish population, avifauna and the scenic beauty.

2006 1992 Expansion of fish market (Photograph 3) and landing of fishing craft (Photograph 4) along the lagoon channel.

Photograph 03 Photographs 04

Likewise, the lagoon mouth at the Deduru Oya estuary is under considerable threat from the dumping of urban refuses by Chailaw Urban Council (Photographs 5 - 8). During the rainy seasons sewage water is added to the lagoon channel and flows up to the southern end. Such polluted water and refuse threaten the mammals, reptiles, fish and avifauna in and surrounding areas of the lagoon. All these and especially shrimp ponds can increase the levels of lead, chromium and cadmium in the Chilaw lagoon as mentioned by

Senadheera and Pathiratne [3]Stagnant patches of water supply breeding grounds for dengue and other mosquitoes'

2012 2012

Photograph 5 Photograph 6

2012 2012

Photographs 5 – 8 showing the Chilaw lagoon mouth at the Deduru Oya estuary are under threat from the huge dumping mounds. The area uses as municipal solid waste disposal site by Chilaw Urban Council. Polluted water patches and dumping mounds supply breeding grounds for mosquitoes and flies

Photographs 07 Photograph 08

Muthupantiya is a small lagoon with 0.71 km2. As a lagoon ecosystem it also appears as a neglected water body, and no science based information on it exists. Although there are a few mangrove patches located southern part of the lagoon, all other areas have been converted to shrimp ponds. Similarly, land reclamation for road construction, expansion of settlement schemes and agriculture are the major threats. These threats

49 have completely destroyed the mud flats, marshes and mangrove fringes of the lagoon and stretches along the Dutch channel, which is close to the lagoon. Ariyananda and Silva [4]explain the reasons for the presence of dissolved oxygen, suspended solids, nitrates, nitrite, phosphorus, COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand), BOD5 (Biological Oxygen Demand) and Chlorophyll-a from Deduru Oya to Mundal Lake area including Muthupantiya Lagoon of extensive shrimp farming stretch.

Mundal Lake covers an area of 31.47 km2 (Silva et al2013) with an average depth of 0.75m. The west margin of the Mundal Lake consists of a straight coastline with wide beaches, berms and sand dunes, while the old raised dune ridges bound the eastern margin of the lake. The morphological sequence from west (sea) to east, across the lagoon, consists of different landforms (Figure 2). But most of these are encroached, removed and converted for various purposes. Accordingly, mundal Lake has no extensive mangrove swamps. All surrounding lands have been converted into shrimp farm ponds. The boundary of the shrimp ponds can be considered as co-extensive with the former lagoon boundary, about 30 - 35 years ago. The lagoon and ponds are surrounded by a region containing rice paddies, coconut plantations and scrubland. The rivers (from eastward) including three catchments namely, the Madurankuli Aru, the Kalagamu Oya and the Ratambala Oya supply a considerable amount of terrestrial waters during the rainy season. The tidal creeks stretch along the narrow corridor and both terrestrial and tidal waters deposit layers of fine silt and mud forming up of mud and thin tidal flats. The Tide Tables for the past 30-year period indicate that the average tidal amplitude along the west coast is about 80 cm [11].

A = Near-shore Zone (submerged), B = Dune sand (Holocene), C = Coarse sand with gravel, D = Lagoonal mud, E = Red Beds (Late Pleistocene), F= Well rounded gravel and pebble layer, G= Transported and/or weathered deposits mantled by windblown sand, H = well-compacted precipitated colloidal silica stratum (Late Miocene ?) and I = Weathered bedrock.

1 = Shallow near-shore zone, 2 = Coast line, 3 = Beach berms, 4 & 5 = Runnels, 6 – 9 = High dunes, 10 & 11 = Mud/Tidal flats, 12 = MundalLake, 13 = Mud/Tidal flats (inland), 14 = DutchCanal, 15 = Chilaw – Puttalam Road, 16 = Red Beds ridge, 17 = Flood plain (paddy fields) and 18 = Low hills and rises (undulating terrain).

Extension of micro landforms from near-shore zone towards inland across the Mundal Lake and its environs. Source: [22]; modified by [9].

Figure 02

Salinity ranges of lagoons in the Mundal Lake area are shown in Table 3. Failure to receive sufficient freshwater results in natural crystallization of salt during the dry season as occurs in many lagoons in the dry zone, which are categorized as hyper-saline salterns in the study area especially Mundal Lake. About 30 - 35 years ago, fertile patches of coconut lands were located along the sand barrier and old dune ridges, while mangrove associates and salt marsh associates covered the edges of the lagoon and the creeks. But introduction of new development activities such as aquaculture farms in recent years have disturbed the existence of tidal and mud flats, destroyed mangrove patches and salt marshes on a large scale to construct shrimp ponds are the main anthropogenic threats in the area. Damming and destruction of the natural channel network providing water to ponds as well as discharging effluents from the prawn ponds. Construction of dykes, canals, pipe lines and electric wire networks are the other destructive activities [7]. Converting ridge and runnels and reclamation of mud flats as well as marshes into shrimp ponds and the cultivation of coconut and other crops, and extraction of ground water through deep wells to reduce the high salinity of the ponds are also responsible for raising a number of social issues as well as water pollution in the area [7], [3] and [4]. Recent field observation revealed that Marichchikattuwa village in Pubudugama GND and Kadayamotta area solid waste dumping sites. Water pollution of the lagoon is obvious in those areas.

The Puttalam Lagoon is a large 319.97 km2[1], and it is linked to Mundal Lake 15 km to the south by a channel. The lagoon's water is brackish to saline. The lagoon has extensive mangroves, sea-grasses and some salt marshes, attracting a wide variety of avifauna. This lagoon is one of the most productive ones in the northwest coast of Sri Lanka with a water depth less than 1-2m, except in the central part of the lagoon where a depth of 4.5 m has been recorded [23]. The tides on the west coast of Sri Lanka are predominantly semidiurnal and relatively weak. The Puttalam lagoon receives fresh water from two rivers, namely Kala Oya and Mee Oya whose average discharges were estimated to be about 2.2 m3/s and 8.1 m3/s respectively. Water and hydrological characteristics of lagoons receiving stream inputs in relation to Puttalam Lagoon are shown in Table 2. Surface water salinities vary between 0 ppt at the river discharge point to 55.0 ppt at the points away from the river discharge (Table 3). Establishment of anchorages and landing of a large number of fishing craft including Multi-day boats, remove the garbage and oil from fishing craft cause the water pollution in Puttalam Lagoon (Photograph 9)'The lagoon is surrounded by a region containing coconuts, vegetables (in Kalpitiya Peninsula), open forests, grasslands and scrublands. The marginal lands are used for shrimp farm ponds, salt production (Photograph 10) and rice cultivation.

Photograph 9 showing the fishing crafts and oil tanks western margin of the Puttalam

Lagoon and Photographs 10 showing the encroached land for salt production

Photograph 09Photograph 10

During the rainy seasons dumping of domestic and refuses townships from Palavi to Kaipitiya pollute the both sides of main road as well as lagoon coast' By this mean, sewage water is added to the lagoon polluted water and refuse threaten the mammals, reptiles, fish and avifauna in and surrounding areas of the lagoon. All these and especially shrimp ponds can increase the levels of lead, chromium and cadmium all stagnant patches of water supply breeding grounds for dengue and other mosquitoes (Photographs 11 and 12).

Photographs 11 and 12 showing refuses and polluted stagnant water pools among the

Avicennia patches along the western margin of the lagoon

Photograph 11Photographs 12 52

The following consequences can be identified due to the anthropogenic impacts in all selected lagoons. All those gangrene impacts create issues and problems from Negombo Lagoon to Puttalam Lagoon. Such issues and problems are:

 Pollution of well and ground water by shrimp farm activities,  Reduced groundwater table due to over extraction of water from tube/deep wells,  Reduced lagoon fish/crabs/prawns catch due to pollution,  Firewood loss due to mangrove clearance for shrimp farm ponds and agriculture  Restricted access to the lagoon for fishermen  Changing of the lagoon mouths and configuration,  Elimination of wetlands (mangrove swamps and marshy lands) and pasture lands  Shrinking of lagoon,  Production of higher nutrient and heavy metal loads,  Decline in avifauna, mammals and reptiles, and  Degradation of the scenic beauty of lagoons.

Pollution of lagoon water by wastewater from Negombo Lagoon to Puttalam Lagoon is the main issue. The main reason for untreating wastewater from, industrial and domestic, is to eliminate any substances that can cause harm to the environment and human life. Lagerblad [5] emphasized that the municipal sewage and industrial wastewater contains readily biodegradable organic matter (measured as BOD, COD and TOC), inorganic and organic chemicals, toxic substances and disease causing agents which are frequently discharged into aquatic environments without treatment.

3. Conclusions

During the past 2-3 decades severe changes occurred in lagoons and associated wetlands along the western and northwestern coastal zones of Sri Lanka due urban development and population pressure, unplanned tourist activities, establishment of infrastructure facilities and shrimp farm ponds. These anthropogenic activities influenced the devastation of lagoon ecosystems in different ways very similar to those in Mexico and West Africa, and also other urban lagoons in the world due to the increase in population pressure, development of Metropolises, industrial and commercial zones and application of new agricultural techniques. Accordingly, rapid urban development on both sides of the lagoons from Negombo to Puttalam , establishment of anchorages and landing of a large number of fishing craft including multi-day boats in Negombo and Puttalam Lagoons, land acquisition and requisition for road construction, settlements and expansion of agriculture in all lagoon areas, conversion of marginal lands into shrimp farm ponds (Gembarandidiya, Chilaw, Muthupamnthiya,

Mundal and Puttalam) lagoons and Lake and in addition into salterns in Mundal lake and Puttalam lagoon, use as municipal solid waste disposal sites (e.g., Negombo lagoon, Chilaw and Mundal Lakes), and inflows of inorganic fertilizer herbicides/weediside/insecticides runoff from inland agricultural areas (Negombo, Mundal and Puttalam) are identified issues related to wide-ranging anthropogenic actions accountable for the existence of dreadful conditions of lagoons in the study area. As mentioned in many research reports, pollution of lagoon water by municipal sewage and industrial wastewater contains readily biodegradable organic matter (measured as BOD, COD and TOC), inorganic and organic chemicals, and toxic substances. These disease causing agents, which are frequently, discharge into aquatic environments freely without treatment. Release such substances that can cause harm to the environment and human life.

Therefore, it is highly desirable to organize awareness programs based on the “new knowledge” generated by scientists on anthropogenic threats of urban coastal lagoons. Such programs should be targeted at wide range of stakeholders such as Government Officials, staff of Non-Governmental Organizations, officers of Provincial Councils and Local authorities, Legal/Police Officers and school children.

4. Acknowledgments

My profound thanks go to Dr. Herath Manthrithilake, Head, Sri Lanka Development Initiative, International Water Management Institute, who gave me permission to extract some data and information from lagoon study and Professor Ivan Silva for their pertinent suggestions.

5. References

1. Silva, E. I. L, Katupotha, J. Amarasinghe, O., Manthrithilake, H. Manthrithilake and Ariyasena, R 2013. Lagoons of Sri Lanka: From the Origins to the Present. International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Colombo, Sri Lanka. doi: 10.5337/2013.215 (2013).

2. Cattermoul, Nikola and Devendra, Aruna. A Measurement of the ecological footprint of shrimp farming in the Chilaw Lagoon Area. Effective Management for Biodiversity Conservation in Sri Lankan Coastal Wetlands, Fieldwork Report 2.3a:

3. Senadheera, S., Pathiratne, K.A.S 2005. Assessment of toxic heavy metal levels in black tiger shrimp, Peneaus monodon [sic] Penaeus monodon cultured in the northwestern province of Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Journal of Aquatic Sciences, vol. 10, pp 45-54.

4. Ariyananda, T. N & Silva, E.I.I 1998.Water quality of brakishwater ecosystem from Deduru Oya to

Mundal Lake: area of extensive shrimp farming.In National Conference on Status and future direction of Water Research in Sri Lanka, IWMI November, (1998).

5. Lagerblad, Lovisa 2010. Wastewater treatment wetlands – A case study in Colombo, Sri Lanka. Arbetsgruppen för Tropisk Ekologi, Committee of Tropical Ecology, Uppsala University, Sweden Minor Field Study 146 ISSN 1653-5634.

6. Gamboa-RodríguezTere, Gamboa-Adeco1 Roberto, Saldívar-Osorio Liliana & Gómez-Cruz1 Rodolfo 2012. Metals in water samples from an urban lagoon in Tabasco, Mexico, African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 6(3), pp 170-175.

7. Katupotha. J 2002. Human Impact on Wetland Ecosystems: A Case Study – The Mundel Lake and Its Environs – Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the South Asia Regional Workshop on Assessment of Material Fluxes to the Coastal Zone in South Asia and their impacts - A joint APN/SASCOM/LOICZ workshop, 08-11 December, Negombo, Sri Lanka, pp 193-201

8. Katupotha, J 2006. Vulnerability of Land Use to Environmental Impacts: Evidence from the Lower Deduru Oya (River) Basin, Sri Lanka. (Report submitted to Asia Foundation and Green Movement of Sri Lanka).

9. Katupotha, J 2012. Palaeoenvironmental Evidence in North-West Sri Lanka: Evidence from Mundal Lake and its surroundings. Paper presented at the Paleobiodiversity Symposium organized by the Palaeobiodiversity Group, Biodiversity Secretariat, Ministry of Environment, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 4 – December, pp. 98-109.

10. Cooray P.G & Katupotha, J 1991. Geological evolution of the coastal zone of Sri Lanka’. In National Symposium on Causes of Coastal Erosion in Sri Lanka. CCD/GTZ, 9-11 February, Colombo, Sri Lanka, pp 5- 26.

11. Katupotha, J 1988. Evolution of coastal land form in the western part of Sri Lanka. Geographical Science (Hiroshima Univ.), vol. 43(1), pp. 18-36.

12. Survey Department of Sri Lanka 2007. National Atlas of Sri Lanka (Second Edition). Climate, and Soils, pp. 42-53. 13. Katupotha J. and Dias, P 2001. The geological evolution correlated to the stratigraphy of the Kalpitiya peninsula. Journal of the Indian Association of Sedimentologists, Department of Geology, University of Delhi, India (2001), vol. 20 (1), pp. 21-37.

14. Swan, B 1982. The Coastal Geomorphology of Sri Lanka: An Introductory Survey. Armidale, N.S.W.

15. BOBLMEP/National Report Sri Lanka 2004. National Report of Sri Lanka on the Formulation of a Tranboundary Diagnostic Analysis and Strategic Action Plan for the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem Programme. Leslie Joseph (Eds). 16. Arulananthan, K 2003.Hydrography, coastal water circulation and classification of Sri Lankan lagoons,Ph.D. Thesis, PGIS News, 4, (2-4) December, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. 17. Briton BI G. H., Yao, B & Ado, G 2006. Evaluation of the Abidjan lagoon pollution.Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Management, vol, 10 (3), 175-181.

18. Kotagama, S.W., Pinto Leonard and Samarakoon Jayampathi L. Kotagama S.W 1989.A Directory of Asian Wetlands by Derek A. Scott, pp. 583-634.

19. Sanders M., Jayawardena A., Ediriweera S 2000. Preliminary assessment for the shrimp fisheries of the Negombo Lagoon (Sri Lanka).Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.

20. DFMP 2012. Development of Fishery and Management Plan (DFMP) for Negombo Lagoon. unpublished report.

21. Wijeratne, E.M.S., Rydberg, L., Pathirana, K.P.P 2004. Modeling of Sea Levels, Water Exchange and Dispersion in an Intermittently Closed Tidal Estuary: Chilaw Lagoon, West Coast of Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the Tenth Asian Congress of Fluid Mechanics. Pp. 618-625.

22. CEA 1994. Mundal Lake & Puttalam Corridor Channel (Wetland Site Report &Conservation Management Plan).

23. Pathirana, K.P.P., Kamal, A.R.I., Riyas, M.C., Safeek, A.L.M 2008. Management Of Coastal Resources In Puttalam Lagoon, Sri Lanka, COPEDEC VII, 2008, Dubai, UAE Paper No: P-06.

Sociological study on the success of the Activity Based Oral English

L. G. N. Neththanjali Liyanage5, D. G. Kanchana6, M. G. L. Mahesh Premarathna,7 1University of Sri Jayawardenepura - ([email protected]) 2University of Peradeniya - ([email protected]) 3 University of Colombo - ([email protected])

Abstract

The object of this research paper is to present a sociological analysis with reference to the success of the Activity Based Oral English (ABOE) program which has been designed to develop the English knowledge of the Sri Lankan Students and has been implemented in the primary classes. This ABOE programme was designed to develop the English knowledge of the students, based on environmental activity based education by using day to day activities since the early childhood. It aims at improving English language skills through environmental activity based education by utilizing objects that are used in day to day life. The program has been designed for students from grade one to grade five. Meanwhile, special attention has been given to students from the grade one to grade three. This research is based on a study done in three selected schools (according to the school classification) in Kaluthara district since 2012 to 2013. The study was conducted with a sample of 100 respondents consisted of principles, administrative officers, primary class teachers, parents of primary class students of the selected schools. Questionnaires, structured interviews, informal interviews and observation methods were used to collect primary data. The research discusses how the success of ABOE program has been affected by a plethora of factors such as education level of the parents, implementation deficits of this education system in schools, lack of trained human resources and awareness on the importance of the English language. Also, the inabilities to introduce a simple vocabulary in the class and lack of knowledge on how to use this education system to reduce heterogeneity in the class room havehindered the progress of the program. This paper will further discuss on the positive and negative impact of the program whilst presenting suggestions that can be used for the effective implementation.

Key Words: Activity Based Oral English, Heterogeneity,Early Childhood, Environmental Activity Based Education, Environmental Related Activity Themes.

Introduction

The Kannangarareport suggested using the vernacular language as the medium of instruction in the education system in Sri Lanka in 1943. Therefore, English whichwas as the medium of instruction in the education was changed to vernacular language. After that, English was introduced as a second language and as a new subject to the Sri Lankan educational system. Especially after this instruction,it was affected to theEnglish Language Teaching of primary students. At the beginning, it was compulsory to learn mother tongue. But learning of English as a second language was an essential task for primary students. However, at that time nobody had a clear idea such as when to begin and How to begin English teaching as a second language. Anyhow, English was designed to develop the English knowledge of primary students and therefore various programmes were implemented for the success of them. A number of new programmes have been planned and launched in order to develop the achievement level of English Language skills of the primary students. Most of them were unsuccessful at implementing in the classrooms. According to the educationists’ideas, which had suggested approach to learn English through environmental activities could be introduced as the most suitable method for primary schools. Since the introduction, the most recent attempt was introducing communicative English as a part of Environmental related activities in grade one to five. The programme has been named ABOE (Activity Based oral English)which the pilot project was conducted in 1988 in Gampaha district. This had not been implemented for ten years. But in 1999 ABOE was introduced to allgovernment schools. ABOE was mainly designed to provide English for communication to primary grade students (grade01 to 05).Now the ABOE has been in progress formore than ten years.(Rohana,R.M.D 2007) ABOE programme aims to improve the ability and students’ communicative skills through the environmental activitybased education by using objects that are used in day to day life. ABOE has been included as a part of the subject of environmental studies. Given below are the objectives of the ABOE. I. Provide opportunities for students to get familiarize with simple words in English that are necessary for day to day activities. II. Provide an environment that is conductive for the use of simple English both in and out of the class rooms. III. Diminish the reluctance in student. IV. Create an environment of enthusiasm to learn English(Teachers hand book, 2002)(Rohana, R.M.D., 2007).

The teachers are advised to include a six hour period for a week. That is allocated for environmental related activities. ABOE is expected to be implemented according to the steps given below.

Grade 01 – ABOE is introduced in signal words.

Grade 02 – Proceed to use short phrases.

Grade 03–Student would develop the communication to understand how to say thesimple expressions.

Grade 04 / 05 – ABOE Continues along with formal English language lessons(.=re w;afmd; 1998& ^úIh ks¾foaYh 2007&.

This programme is included practical sessions. Hence, ABOE is very popular among the primary students. They would be able to develop their personalities through ABOE programme. Apparently, ABOE was supposed to be provided the English communication and it is very important to play activities. For instance, Primary students are engaged in guided play activities under the environmental related activities.

Student heterogeneity is another major concern that prevails in every class rooms. Especially there are different ability levels, different achievement levels as well as different attitudes of students. Students belong to various cultural aspects. Students’ heterogeneity has been a major problem in class roomsbecause the teachersdo not give their proper attention on thatwhen the time they areteaching their subjects. Also, the students’ heterogeneity can be considered as a natural state in a class.Therefore, the teachers’ duties are very importance and they have to develop the student’scapacity towards the same level at the end of the year. Primary teachers’ dutiesaremost significantfactors rather than the secondary teachers. Heterogeneity concept may have seen among the primary grade students. Hence, Teachers must use ABOE programme as a solution for heterogeneity.

2.Literature Review

Primary Education is the first stage of compulsory education. Primary Education is considered as the most critical factor in a child’s educational and social development. Every primary teacher must be able to plan, implement, assess and evaluate programs of work. Primary students who are in their middle childhood (from 5-9 years) are the lively and rapidly changing group of learners in the school. During these stages, they undergo a considerable progress in their physical, mental, social and intellectual developments. This age, they receive a firmly steady intellectual development. During primary students’ guided play activities, they receive greater emphasis than desk work(http//archive cmb.ac.lk)(w;=fldard<,ã' wd¾( 1991) (fyar;a. à'tka'2009)(Metalis .J.L 2003).

Great child psychologist‘Jin Piaget’ identifies four major stages of intellectual development in an individual’s childhood. According to his theory, the first and two stages of cognitive development included from birth to two years,these stages are called pre early childhood period. All children develop their activities to receive cognitive development within these stages.From two to four years, it is called pre optional period. He mentioned that this stage is very important because the children who develop number of language abilities as well as receive various developments such as social, physical, mental and mathematic etc. Also, in this period, they improve their self-confidence. For his

59 theory, the most important and intuitive phase which continues from age 04 up to age 07 and the kidsfall intostudy in this era. Children who study in grade 01&02 plan the foundation for whole life and build up logical and rational understanding. They begin to think without symbolic. According to Piaget’s view, it was an evident that during this stage they acquire an enormous amount of nouns(f,alïf.a" iS'"2010&" ^,shkf.a" tka' tka'"2010&and (Mukulel, J.C.,1980).It is the stage in which Sri Lankan students pass their key stages in the primary school. They are in grade 01& 02. During this stage, they learn Activity Based Oral English. This programme is introduced very successfully and it includes a lot of vocabulary that is suitable to their age. That ABOE has been designed taking into consideration the cognitive development level of the intuitive period.They need to have extensive experience to develop their skills.

ABOE syllabus is specially designed for the grade 01 &02classes. It is designed basically to assist these teachers to introduce a few English vocabulary items and structures relevant to the particular ERA (Environmental Related Activity) themes. Therefore, Primary teachers who handle the Activity Based Oral English during environmental related activities (ERA) in these classes, must compulsory be aware on the ABOE syllabus.—wOHdmk m%;sixialrK hgf;a m

Teachers are advised to do enrichment activities regarding this Activity Based Oral English programme. As well as the teachers are allowed to use appropriate pictures for suitable opportunities. If the teachers needed to be successful with the Activity Based Oral Englishin the class room, they should follow the appropriate methods continuously. Activity Based Oral English which is expected to be practiced in grade 01&02 studentsis taught by a teacher for two years. Although, the same teacher wasusing simple English Expressions while teaching environmental related activities

60 they were not specially well organized or trained. Fortunately, no separate periodshave been allocated for this programme ^.=re w;afmd;, 1998-1999&(Fernando,R.V.,2003).

Teachers are advised to keep alert on following special facts and not to be followed underthe ABOE process.

I. Not to be used the method of formal English. II. Not to be taught English alphabet, English words and phrases. III. Not to be used special books^úIh ks¾foaYh, 2007&'

Most of the children like to have observations, oral questioning and listening methods.A teacher can take various actions by using this programme andno written papers are expected tobe used in the first and second terms. The teacher can prepare the test papers in the last terms. But teachers are thoroughly advised to refrain from using question papers prepared by the outside organizations. It is an evident that ABOE is a practical subject. At the very beginning, primary teachers were to pay some amount of attention to each individual andthere should be away of reducing the gap in the class. In this regard, the ABOE is very important theory for the primary students.

2.Research Problem of the study

The research problem of this study wasbasically to analyze‘whetherthe ABOE programme is successful at the class room practices and to experiment thathave teachers actually got knowledgeon how to addressthe heterogeneity through the ABOE programme?.

3.Objectives of the Study

Activity Based Oral English Programme was designed to develop the English knowledge and conversation ability of the students based on environmental activity based education by using day to day activities since the early childhood. The main objective of this study was to explore the success of the Activity Based Oral English at class room practices and the specific objectives can be shown as follows;

01. Identify the theoretical basis of Activity Based Oral English (ABOE), 02. Examine how ABOE is being implemented in the primary class rooms, 03. Identify the methods of teaching ABOE lessons, 04. How to be the respondents as the primary teachers in this programme?, 05. Identify the teachers’ and parents’ attitudes of the Activity Based Oral English Programme, and 06. Toidentify how the student heterogeneity is to be addressed through ABOE practices.

4.Methodology

Both primary and secondary data were used in this research and the data collected can be divided into two categories such as qualitative and quantitative. Quantitative data was used to analyze the significant points with regards to the success of the Active Based Oral English Programme.The study was conducted with a sample of 100 respondents consisted of principles, administrative officers, primary class teachers, parents of primary class students of the selected schools. Mainly Primary data was gathered by using observations, structured interviews, informal interviews and Questionnaires. 50 lessons were observed in order to understandhow the ABOE programme was implemented in the class rooms. These 50 lessons consisted of10 lessons in each primary grades (grade 1,2,3,4, and 5).Three schools were selected for the observations and their names and types can be listed as follows;

i. KalutaraMaha Vidyalaya (National level-1 AB) ii. KnanodayaVidyalaya (Provincial level- C) iii. GamagodaJournior School(Provincial level- 2)

Also, books, articles, statistical records and relevant reports, websites were used as the secondary data collecting means. The Descriptive Analysis method has been used to analyze the data and to achieve the final conclusion of this research.

6.Data Analysis

The data collected was analyzed by using tables, charts and graphs. Though there were number of methods using in the data collection the questionnaires and the observations were vast important to analyze how the ABOE programme was put into practice by the teachers in the class rooms. The questionnaires were basically given in Sinhala medium.

The answers which were given in the first and the second questions that were posed by the questionnaire can be shown as follows (figure 01 and 02);

“Are you interested in ABOE programme?”, “How did you get aware of it?”

The Status of teacher's The way of knowing ABOE Interest and not Interest in ABOE Formally Informally Yes No 5% 7%

93% 95%

Figure 01 Figure 02

When the questions were related to the ABOE with environmental activities could reveal that majority of the teachers was able to say “yes” and others said “No”. It means 83% of the teachers were using environmental related activities to teach ABOE. Though the number was highly increased the pathetic situation is that 45% of them were not successful. That state can be simply explained as following graphs;

100 100

80 80

60 60 User User 40 40 Non-user Successf 20 20 ully User 0 0 Usage of the ABOE with Success of the ABOE with environmental activities environmental activities

Figure 03

The researchers also pay the attention to primary classes during the periods of practicing the ABOE programme. It was easy to analyze the situation due to the researcher’s clear observations. Majority of teachers of those classes was unable to control their class rooms because of the ABOE programme is based on different kind of practical activities in English. Moreover, the teacher’s tendency was to spend more time for making books and they were not managing the time for practicing ABOE with environmental related activities. Most of the schools which were covered by the researchers used to have special themes related to ABOE such as “Happy New Year”, “Birds fly in the Sky”, “This is the way we brush” and etc.

Next, the researchers gave the priority to analyze the participation of the teachers, parents and students. Though the teachers had a main role in the implementation of ABOE, were not giving full

63 capacity as shown in the table 01 and due to their lack of participation, it was unable to get the full integration of parents and the students. Teachers always said that the ABOE is an excess task. Because of their negative attitudes, they are not friendly with the ABOE programme. Therefore, they imposed some wrong activities to the students unconsciously and if it happens continuously, it may specially be a bad impression to the students of the grade 01 and 02.

Table 01. Participation of the Teachers to the ABOE Programme

Duration Amount

Before starting the school periods 02 During the interval period 05 After school periods 13 School Holidays 00

Thus, the researchers observed the lesson plans of the teachers related to the ABOE. Most of the teachers were suffering from lack of English knowledge. Therefore, they appeared to be reluctant to show their lesson plans and to answer the questions. The researchers were very keen to collect data in this regard because when the research is going on, it should not be a harmful to any of the participants. Then, the researcher asked whether they are including the ABOE with their lesson plans and they are to be taught to the primary students. Only about 24% of the teachers answered in affirmative. The researcher required the second question to make them to show their lesson plans to read. Then, there were number of excuses not to show them to the researcher. For instances, Some of them said that “I don’t write English words in my lesson plans, but I teach them to the students”, “I forgot to bring them today”, “My hand writing is bad and you won’t be able to read”, “I don’t write them in a particular format”, I made it as a sketch” and etc. Anyhow, the researchers were successful to look into their writing skills and there were only one or two English words in few lessons of them. Also, only three teachers out of 50 gave their lesson plans to the researcher’s hand without having any hesitate and they were successful to some extent.

Though the Active Base Oral English programme had been introduced to the primary classes had not given a proper training to the teachers, principals and to the other supportive staff. They should be trained for ABOE through the second language. When the teachers are suffering from various inabilities of ABOE it is not easy to build their self-confidence as a teacher. Therefore, at first they should give the knowledge on English in the field of writing, listening, pronouncing, and spelling and the way of using ABOE practices to minimize the heterogeneity in the class rooms.

When some schools had the capable teachers to implement the ABOE programme, there were no enough resources and the creativity of using ABOE activities. Teachers are always tried to be strict with the old systems and no flexible with the modern techniques. At least, they didn’t pay their attention to use of gloves, puppets, zig zag books, TV programmes and recordings. Students of the primary classes were always good at learning and doing ABOE but most of the time they were not allowed by the teachers because of their other lessons.

2. Conclusion

Active based Oral English Programme is not a new phenomenon to those schools. But, majority of students, parents, teachers and other staff members do not know the proper meaning of it and its tools to implement. They think it as an extra burden. They had no an idea about how to address to the heterogeneity conceptthrough ABOE. Parents are fond of having ABOE to their students because if they had the desire to make them to learn English they don’t have strong economic back ground to put them to private classes and therefore ABOEwas highly appreciated by those parents.

Most of the teachers in the schools were aware of ABOE through their syllabuses and they were not given a proper training with adequate guidelines. There were some schools that they were suffering from the circulars related to the ABOE reforms. Also, the study revealed that lack of competence and the creativity of teachers and principals resulted in low performances of ABOE in those schools. Though the parents were in favour of ABOE they were lamentingon that as it is not being successful with other commitments. Therefore, parents are always trying to get the outside supports.There was a little of practicing ABOE in some classes but it was not continued along with formal English language lessons.

Thus, the finalsuggestion can be made as to providethe necessary trainings, seminars and workshops for teachers of grade 01 to 05. The preparation should be continued over a specific period. It should also be provided through in service training programmes. The Active Based Oral English Programme is not a single work. It should be a group work. Hence, it is essential to supply specific instructions for relevant officials and to upgrade and guide the school administration. Teachers should be encouraged to engage in many activities that would provide good environment for students. Every school should be given the ABOE related books & equipments such as Teacher Guide Books, Television and Radio facilities and there should be a way to ensure whether those human and physical resources are receiving them.Organizing holiday camps for primary school students and their parents to provide an ample opportunity to indulge in Oral English through immersion in ABOE is better.

Since the establishment of the ABOE, it doesn’t have a good supervision.When there is a good structure or an organization, supervision, accountability and the responsibility could be well seen. So

65 the authority could be divided into the hands of principals, primary principals and directors.They must be able to have visits for all schools especially for primary gradesin those schools monthly or annually. Competitions and Residential training programmes must be organized based on ABOE related environmental activities. Also, the teachers and the students of the primary classes must be motivated through appreciations, medals and giving marks.

Use of multimedia to conduct specific programmes for teachers and students will provide them more opportunity to acquire oral English skills.They should be induced and trained the simple vocabulary. By Suggesting a flexible list of words to be introduced during the ABOE lessons that would help the teachers to adapt easily to the new situation. When the ABOE is implementing in the class rooms, the progress must be displayed in the class. There are three types of activities that are suggested to minimize the students’ heterogeneity. They are whole class activities, group activities and pair activities and whole class activities are to be performed at different levels.

References

Fernando,R.V. (2003), Study of the Implementation of Activity Based Oral English in primary grades 01&02, Nawala: National Education Commission.

Rohan.R.M.D. (2007), The impact of student heterogeneity in implementation of Activity Based Oral English., MED.

Teachers hand book, (2002), Maharagama, National Institute of Education.

Teachers hand book, (1998), Maharagama, National Institute of Education. http//archive cmb.ac.lk access on 20-12-2012. w;=fldard<, ã'wd¾' (1991), uq,a

,shkf.a" tka' tka' ^2010&" uq,a

.=re w;afmd;" ^1998& 1 fY%aKsh" l%shdldrlï mdol jdÑl bx.%SiS w;sf¾l .=re w;afmd;" uyr.u( cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'

úIh ks¾foaYh ^2007& l%shdldrlï mdol jdÑl bx.%SiS" uyr.u( cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh" pkaøfialr tka'tï' ^2006& l%shdldrï mdol jdÑl bx.%SiS" l;D m%ldYk'

Perspectives on Inflationary Open Economies of Nigeria and Sri Lanka: Phillips Curve Framework

Adeyi Emmanuel Ola8 Department of Economics, Gombe State University, Gombe, Nigeria. Email: [email protected]

Abstract High inflation has been a central feature of developing countries since the 1960s, despite the fact that it is undesirable phenomenon. The causing factors of high inflation remained inconclusive by both monetary and fiscal perceptions. This paper seeks to shed some light on the determinants of inflation in Nigeria and Sri Lanka in an open economy Phillips curve framework. The study employed ordinary least squares technique on multiple regression equation model for both countries, utilizing data sourced from secondary sources. The main finding are that monetary variables (money supply, interest rate) as well as import and exchange rate play central role in the inflationary process in these countries, and the election (political activities contribute positively to inflation in Nigeria. The paper then recommends that both the policy makers of countries should develop real political will to overcome corruption as well as fiscal and monetary discipline to be able to have greater control on both domestic and foreign economic activities so as to meet the objective of maintaining price stability.

Keywords: Inflation, Unemployment, Phillips curve, Error correction model, Determinants.

1. Introduction High inflation has been a central feature of developing countries since the 1960s, despite the fact that it is an undesirable phenomenon. The causes of high inflation remain inconclusive by both monetary and fiscal perceptions. This paper seeks to shed some light on the determinants of inflation in Nigeria and Sri Lanka in an open economy Phillips Curve framework. It is generally perceived economically that inflation oils the wheels of economy. However, too much oil can flood the engine. Indeed, while a little/moderate inflation is generally understood to be good for the economy, periods of high or hyper-inflation are seen to have negative repercussions which could cripple an economy as they lead to uncertainty, shorter planning horizons and possibly ever a diversion of resources away from production which are typical characteristics of most of the developing economies including Nigeria and Sri Lanka. As a result, for policy makers, it is not only important to keep inflation at a low and stable level but necessary as well. In order to avoid future prolonged or continue inflation episodes from occurring, it is important for policy makers to study and understand the factors that served as inflation determinants in the past. Generally speaking, the dynamics of inflation can be explained in two ways. One school of thought believes that inflation is largely influenced by non-monetary factors such as supply shocks, which

8 Currently affiliated to the Department of Economics, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka

68 somewhat obscures the roles of demand side factors and hence the monetary transmission mechanism in the inflation process. The other school of thought argues that non-monetary factors affects only the short-run path of inflation while in the long-run, monetary variables determines the inflation rate. As a result, it is argued that the standard output gap model of the Phillips curve should offer a reasonable explanation of the inflation dynamics in the emerging and developing economies. However, given the diversity amongst nations in Africa and Asia, inflation should be treated as a country-specific phenomenon, the determinants of which would differ across countries. Thus, it is crucial to investigate the plausible distinct factors that determine inflation in various nations. To this ends, this paper set out to identify the possible relevant macroeconomic variables that helps in determine the behaviors of inflation in Nigeria and Sri Lanka within the frame work of open economy Phillips curve.

2. Research Problem The last three decades witnessed several monetary and fiscal policies shifts in most of developing countries. Hence, low unemployment and inflation remain a challenge in most of these countries. Some of these countries even experienced increase in both inflation and unemployment rates at the same time (positive relationship), the situation contrary to Phillips Curve theory and it raises the question on the existence and validity of the Phillips Curve as well as the significance of monetary policy and fiscal policy on the inflation and unemployment relation. One would also ask: has the developing countries’ Phillips Curves been stable? If not, what are the implications of the instability for controlling the rates of inflation and unemployment? Aside unemployment, is there any significant explanatory factors of inflation? Would an alternative Phillips curve provide better framework for policy formulation and implementation as regards to controlling the rates of inflation and unemployment and serve as relevant empirical tool for monetary policy conduct? These questions are one of the most important and controversial in macroeconomics which one part of this research attempts to answer. 3. Objectives i. To ascertain the existence or otherwise of the Phillips Curve in Nigeria and Sri Lanka. ii. To identify the relevant variables those are significant in the explanation of Phillips Curve in Nigeria and Sri Lanka. iii. To determine the most significant explanatory factors of inflation dynamics in Nigeria and Sri Lanka.

4.1. Theoretical Consideration

Phillips Curve analysis has hardly stood still since its beginning in 1958. Rather it has evolved under the pressure of events and the progress of economic theorizing, incorporating at each, new elements

69 as the natural rate hypothesis, the adaptive expectation hypothesis etc. Friedman (1968) made a very sharp observation that in the short-run there may be a trade-off between inflation and unemployment rate but in the long-run, there is no trade-off between them. This observation by Friedman propelled many scholars to search for the nature of relationship between these phenomena in the economies. Example of such quest is that of Paul (2009) attempted to find the Phillips Curve for India argued that earlier studies could not get a regular Phillips Curve because they did not adjust for exogenous factors like oil shocks, droughts, and liberalization policy. He demonstrated that a short-run Phillips Curve did exist for India once these factors were included as dummies in the equation. Given the output and inflation trade-off, it may be said that the basic problem of most of the developing countries as many of them experience high rates of inflation and unemployment at the same time is that of achieving high growth in the face of under or un-utilized potentials. 4.1.1Negatively Sloping Phillips Curve (Traditional Phillips Curve) Professional analysis of the relationship between inflation and unemployment has gone through stages since the end of World War II. The first of these stages was the acceptance of a hypothesis associated with the rate of price change of Phillips (1958) that there is a stable negative relation between the level of unemployment and the rate of change of wage- high levels of unemployment is being accompanied by falling wages, low level of unemployment by rising wages. The wage change in turn was linked to price change by allowing for the secular increase in productivity and treating the excess of price over wage cost as given by a roughly constant mark-up factor. Fig 2.0 Early Phillips Curve Wage intcation Rate (%) W Phillips Curve Trade - off relationship

d Frictional (and structural) Unemployment at which overall excess Demand for lobour is zero and wage rate therefore stable. A c b

va o U (Unemployment Rate) UL

Fig 1 Source: A. W. Phillips (1958), The Relationship between Unemployment and the Rate of Change of Money Wages in UK, 1861 – 1957, Economica.

Figure 1 above illustrates this hypothesis where A. W. Phillips had followed the standard practice of relating unemployment directly to price change. This relation was widely interpreted as a causal relation that offered a stable trade-off to policy makers. In fact, once equipped with the foregoing

70 theoretical foundations, the Phillips Curve gained swift acceptance among economists and policy makers alike. It is important to understand why this was so. At least three factors probably contributed to the attractiveness of the Phillips Curve according to Humphrey (1985). One was the remarkable temporal stability of the relationship; stability revealed by Phillips own finding that the same curve estimated for the pre-world war I period 1861-1913 fitted the United Kingdom data for the post-world war II period 1948-1957 equally well or even better. Such apparent stability in a two- variable relationship over such a long period of time is uncommon in empirical economics and served to excite interest in the curve.

A second factor contributing to the success of Phillips Curve at this stage was its ability to accommodate a wide variety of inflation theories. The Phillips Curve itself explained inflation as resulting from excess demand that bids up wages and prices. It was entirely neutral, however, about the causes of that phenomenon. Now excess demand can of course be generated either by shift in demand or shift in supply regardless of the causes of those shifts. Thus a demand-pull theorist could argue that excess demand-induced inflation stems from excessively expansionary aggregate demand policies while a cost-push theorist could claim that it emanates from trade union monopoly power and real shocks operating on labour supply. The Phillips Curve could accommodate both views. Economists of rival schools could accept the Phillips Curve as offering insights into the nature of the inflation process even while disagreeing on the causes of and appropriate remedies for inflation.

4.1.2 The New Keynesian Phillips Curve Theory Fischer (1977) and Taylor (1979) constructed alternative models in which nominal rigidities interacted with rational expectations. This was in such a way as to deliver conclusions about the effects of policy that were much more Keynesian in favour, hence the ‘new-Keynesian’ macroeconomics. The New Keynesian Phillips Curve (NKPC) is relatively the most current and popular theory of inflation and seems to become the cornerstone in monetary policy analysis for inflation targeting Central Banks. New Keynesian Phillips Curve Theory describes how past inflation, expected future inflation, and a measure of real marginal cost or an output gap derive the current inflation rate. The common formulation of the model is presented below:

Πt=k(Yt-Ŷt) + βEtΠt+1+ε………………………………………………………….… (1)

Where Πtis Inflation at time t, Yt is actual output at time t, Ŷt is potential or natural output at time t and EtΠt+1 is the expected inflation for the time period t+1 at time t. ε in equation (1) is the additional variable which takes into account exogenous shocks in the economy. Woodford (2003) support the above relationship by stressing that the objectives of Central Banks should move from output stabilization towards the output gap. In addition, the new Keynesian model is similar to the expectations-augmented Phillips curve of Friedman and Phelps. Thus, the contribution of the new Keynesian models to interpreting the Phillips Curve is to emphasize the role of explicit nominal

71 rigidities in interpreting the model. The outcomes in the labour and production markets would be classical in the absence of rigidities.

The idea behind this Phillips Curve is that the Keynesians believe that a government can lower the rate of unemployment if it were willing to accept a higher level of inflation. However, critics say that the effect is temporary and that unemployment would bounce back up but inflation would stay high. Thus, the natural or equilibrium rate is the lowest level of unemployment at which inflation remains stable also known as the “non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment” (NAIRU). This concept follows naturally from any theory that says that changes in monetary policy and aggregate demand more generally, push inflation and unemployment in the opposite directions in the short-run. Once this short-run trade-off is admitted, there must be some level of unemployment consistent with stable inflation (Ball and Mankiw, 2002).

4.1.3 Expectation-Augmented Phillips Curve (The Monetarists)

The proponents of this theory mostly the monetarists includes, Milton Friedman, Edmund Phelps etc. argued that in the long-run, there is no trade-off between inflation and unemployment. The leading scholar of the theory, Milton Friedman argued that unemployment was not traded with actual inflation but expected inflation, therefore, Phillips Curve is a short-run phenomenon – Changes in the levels of unemployment were affected by expectations of rates of inflation. As a result, the original Phillips Curve equation gave way to the expectation-augmented version in the late 1960s. This monetarist alternative acknowledged the validity of Keynesian manipulation of money supply in the short-run but considered the implication of a vertical Phillips curve. Three innovations ushered in this change according to Humphrey (1985). The first was the re- specification of the excess demand variable which is defined as the discrepancy or gap between the natural and actual rates of unemployment, Un-U. The second innovation was the introduction of price anticipation into Phillips Curve analysis resulting in the expectations-augmented equation

P=a(Un-U)+Pᵉ…………………………………………………………………………………(2)

Where excess demand is now written as the gap between the natural and actual unemployment rates and pᵉ is the price expectations variable representing the anticipated rate of inflation. The third innovation was the incorporation of an expectations-generating mechanism into the Phillips Curve analysis to explain how the price expectations variable itself was determined.

Friedman (1966) was the first to state clearly that ‘There is no long-run trade-off between inflation and unemployment’. Phelps (1967) then joined Friedman to deny the existence of a permanent trade-off between inflation and unemployment with new theoretical work and argued that Phillips Curve did not represent a stable long-run relationship that could be used by policy makers. Friedman’s labour market analysis was that both the demand for and supply of labour depended on

72 the real wage rather than on the nominal wage. Since the nominal wage was evaluated by employers in terms of the current actual product price and by workers in terms of the expected average consumer price level, employment could increase as long as the expected price level lagged behind the actual level. In equilibrium the expected and actual price level were equal and so in equilibrium only one level of employment rate as the natural rate of unemployment (Gordon, 1976). The essence of Friedman’s analysis is a modification of W=f(U)………………………………………………………………………………………..(3) as it contained in the original Phillips Curve. This becomes;

W=f(U)+Pᵉ……………………………………………………………………………………(4)

Where, Pᵉ is the expected rate of change of price. When actual and expected rates of price change are zero, unit labour costs are constant and nominal and real wage are increasing at the rate of productivity growth. The analysis of the Phillips Curve with inflationary expectations suggest that under the assumptions that the prices are set as a mark-up on wages and that productivity change is zero and there is money illusion. Expectations-augmented Phillips Curve is shown as the following by adding expectations of inflation to Phillips Curve; W=f(U)+aPᵉ …………………………………………………………………………………(5)

In the Friedman-Phelps analysis of the long-run defined as the period over which expectations are fulfilled, the absence of money illusion implies a=1. In which given rate of unemployment, workers completely adjust their money wage (adaptive) to compensate for expected inflation and so there is no possibility of trading-off unemployment against inflation. As long as the evidence continues to show 0

Proceeding along those three innovations – the redefined excess demand variable, the expectations- augmented Phillips Curve, and the error-learning mechanism – formed the basis of the celebrated natural rate and acceleration hypothesesthat radically altered economist’ and policy makers’ views of Phillips curve in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

The fundamental idea of the natural rate hypothesis is that the natural rate of unemployment is a real phenomenon determined by other real phenomena. Purely nominal forces such as anticipated inflation cannot change the natural rate. The implication for Phillips Curve analysis is most striking. According to the natural rate hypothesis, there exist no permanent trade-off between unemployment and inflation since the real economic variables tends to be independent of nominal ones in steady-state equilibrium. Trade-off may exist in the short-run. In the long-run when

73 inflationary surprises disappear and expectations are realized such that wages re-establish their pre- existing levels relative to product prices. Unemployment returns to its natural equilibrium rate. This rate is compatible with all fully anticipated steady-state rate of inflation, implying that the long-run Phillips Curve is a vertical line at the natural rate of unemployment.

By rearranging equation (2), this submission is embodies, that is;

P-Pᵉ=a(Un-U)………………………………………………………………………..………(6)

The equation (6) states that the trade-off is between unexpected inflation and unemployment. This equation shows that inflation-unemployment trade-off cannot exist when inflation is fully anticipated.

Friedman (1968) proceeded to argue that the expectation-augmented Phillips Curve would shift in such a way that in the long-run a higher rate of inflation would result in no change in unemployment. This argument is illustrated in figure 3. Suppose the economy is initially at the rate of unemployment U* with zero inflation and constant real and money wages, we are simplifying by assuming no growth in labour productivity. The short- run Phillips Curve for zero rate expected inflation is PCo. Suppose the monetary authority or government which has been told that there is trade-off between unemployment and inflation raise the rate of inflation to 5% by expansionary policies which increase money supply. An expansionary demand policy to keep the economy at point A of the short-run of the Phillips Curve PCo will lead to an increase in the demand for goods and services then employer anticipating higher prices for their goods increase their demand for labour. This excess demand for labour causes the money wages to rise by 5%, unemployed workers, interpret this as an increase in real wage because of zero Inflation expectation.

Figure 2.2: The Expectations-Augmented Phillips Curve

The Expectations - Augmented Phillips curve R L

Long -run Phillips curve

0.10 C

A 0.05 B PC 2 74 PC 1 o U U1 U* Fig 3 PC 0

Source: M. Friedman, “The Role of Monetary Policy”. American Economic Review, March, 1968.

According to the standard interpretation of the Phillips Curve which is static in natural rate, the economy would move along Curve PC0 until unemployment fell to U1 at point A when the economy would stop. Thus, there would be more inflation and less unemployment, a clear trade-off.

In the neo-Classical interpretation of the Phillips relationship, the above phenomenon occurs only because the inflation is unanticipated. Since demand has increased, firms start raising prices and bidding up the money wage rate to attract more labour, because workers’ expectations of inflation are below the actual rate of inflation. They think that the higher money wage now being offered means that real wages have risen. The supply of labour therefore increases.

However, according to Friedman’s dynamic view, as soon as inflation begins to rise, people begin adjusting their expectation of it, causing the Phillips Curve to shift upward. As expectations adjust towards the actual rate of inflation, workers realize that real wages are lower than they had anticipated and therefore require a more rapid increase in the money wage rate and when this is realized the newly employed workers will no longer to remain in their jobs so that unemployment will rise back to U*. Thus, the economy would begin to move out along the initial Phillips Curve PC0, but at the same time the Phillips Curve itself would begin shifting up from PC0 because of the expected rate of inflation is rising.

Ultimately, once inflation has reached its final level of 5% and expected inflation has fully adjusted to this new higher rate of inflation, unemployment is back at its natural rate U* and the economy is now at point ‘B’, on the short-run Phillips Curve PC1. The idea that there is no way in which the rate of unemployment can be permanently held at a different level to the natural rate of unemployment is known as the natural rate hypothesis. Another way of stating the same point is that the long-run Phillips Curve is vertical.

A corollary of the natural rate hypothesis, mentioned by Friedman but first demonstrated by Phelps, is the acceleration hypothesis. This hypothesis states that since there exists long-run trade-off between unemployment and inflation, attempt to peg the former variable below its natural level will produce ever-increasing inflation (Humphrey, 1985). This is to say, if the raising the rate of inflation once and for all lower the unemployment rate temporarily, then the only way to keep the unemployment rate permanently below the natural rate is by continuously increasing the rate of inflation by accelerating prices.

If the government wishes to maintain unemployment below its natural level, then it has to make sure that price expectations do not catch up with actual inflation. In other words, government has to make sure that the newly employed do not appreciate the full neutralizing effect of inflation on their money wage increase. In the next time period, hence, the government must increase the money supply and raise aggregate demand so that the wage increases by more than the expected inflation of 5%. Since the adjustment of expected to actual inflation works to restore unemployment to its natural equilibrium level U* at any steady rate of inflation, the authority must continuously raise (accelerate) the inflation rate, if they wish to peg unemployment at the same arbitrary low level such as U1 in figure 3. As monetary authority tries to reduce unemployment, Phillips Curve and its policy fail. The monetary authority now tries to get to U1 by raising inflation 10%. This policy fails, too, for expectations adjust again. The Phillips Curve shift to PC2 and the economy eventually moves to point C as shown in figure 3. Each time the monetary authority raise inflation rate, it buys a temporary decrease in unemployment. To make this decrease permanent, the authority must continuously increase the rate of inflation.

The authorities could either peg unemployment or stabilize the rate of inflation, but not both. If they peg unemployment, they would lose control of the rate of inflation, because the latter accelerate when unemployment is held below its natural level. Alternatively, if they stabilized the inflation, they would lose control of unemployment since the latter return to its natural level at any steady rate of inflation. Thus, contrary to the original Phillips Curve hypothesis, they could not peg unemployment at any given constant rate of inflation. The expectations-augmented Phillips Curve therefore presents the authorities with rather painful policy choices.

The short coming from the foregoing which can also be termed as adaptive expectation emanated as a result of very strong policy implications of its conclusion, led to the incorporation of alternative rational expectation approach into Phillips Curve analysis. According to the rational expectation hypothesis, individuals will tend to exploit all the available pertinent information about the inflationary process when making their price forecasts. This implies that agents base their expectation on all the relevant information available to them including the economic theory when making their price forecasts and do not make systematic mistakes in the sense that as soon as individuals see that government increase the money supply, they anticipate the price inflation and immediately revise their wages upward and price expectation. If this is true, it then means that forecasting errors ultimately could arise only from random shocks occurring to the economy. Price forecasting errors might also arise, because individuals initially pose limited or incomplete information about an unprecedented new policy regime, economic structure or inflationary generating mechanism.

As incorporated in natural rate Phillips Curve models, the rational expectations hypothesis implies that price expectations would always be correct and economy would always be at its long-run steady-

76 state equilibrium (Humphrey, 1985). If all rational policy actions by government are anticipated, so that price expectations no longer lag behind inflation. Under the rational expectations, systematic policy cannot induce the expectation errors that generate short-run Phillips Curve. Systematic monetary policy cannot affect real variables. To have an impact on output and unemployment the authorities must be able to create a divergence between actual and expected inflation.

The Expectations-Augmented Phillips Curve (natural rate or acceleration or expectations-adjustment Phillips curve) hypothesis – as it has been variously designated – is by now widely accepted by economist, though by no means universally. Thus, the argument presented in this study is in conformity with expectations-augmented Phillips curve Theory. The study therefore is devoted to exploring various aspects of this dynamic theory. However, based on the nature of developing economies that are pruned to various economic shocks, the models to be used will be modified so as to accommodates some economic variables to reflects some of the possible economic shocks in developing economies in general and that of Sri Lanka and Nigeria in particular. It is therefore clear that there are different views as regards to the nature of the relationship that exist between the important macroeconomics variables in understanding inflation dynamics within the Phillips curve frame work in an economy. However, this study based its analysis on the background of Expectations-Augmented Phillips Curve framework.

4.2 Empirical Consideration

Alfred and Ian (2001) employed a band-pass filter approach using US data from 1952 to 2010 and found a positive relationship between inflation and unemployment in the medium to long-run. Even though their statistical approach is a theoretical in nature, but it provides evidence in accordance with the predictions of Friedman (1977) as to the relationship between inflation and unemployment that is positive in the long-run. In his study, Wesche, (2008) revealed that there is close relationship between real output growth, money growth and inflation in Japan but only at low frequencies, these correspond to long-run patterns in time. Output gap is related with inflation at higher frequencies, these correspond to short-run patterns.

Arusha, (2008) modeled for both closed economy and open economy for Sri Lanka, and the estimated regression coefficients based on the variable deletion tests carried out in each model followed by cointegration so as to create the premises for the models to be estimated using Error Correction Mechanism (ECM). The main findings of the study were that the supply side factors were affecting the general level of prices in Sri Lanka. A long-run relationship is found between the price level, real GNP, the exchange rate and import prices. With the opening up of the economy, import prices and exchange rate movements were found to have a significant impact on the general level of prices. The results are consistent with the studies of (Nicholas 1990; Nicholas and Yatawara 1991; Weerasekera

1992; Rupananda,1994) who also find supply side factors as important determinants of the general price level in Sri Lanka.

Harischandra (2007) examine inflation performance in Sri Lanka across different exchange rate regime. The study is carried out with respect to three objectives. First, evidence on the degree of inflation persistence is examined through price inflation process and through Phillips Curve. Second, inflation response to systematic monetary policy actions is examined through correlation between money growth and inflation. Lastly, an unrestricted VAR system identified the inflation response to non-systematic policy shocks through impulse response functions. The main findings were that price- based Phillips Curve suggests a modest shift in inflation persistence providing evidence on parameters instability between regimes. That during flexible regime, inflation has been more persistence than in the fixed regime, however, correlation between money and inflation seems to be modest throughout the sample period. And that inflation response to changes in interest rate provides weak evidence due to emerge of price puzzle.

Fatukasi, (2005), in his work investigated the determinants of inflation in Nigeria between 1981 and 2003, by exploring the multi-dimensional and dynamic factors that affect inflation using multiple regression of the Ordinary Least Square (OLS). The results revealed that all explanatory variables (fiscal deficit, money supply, interest and exchange rates) are significantly and positively impacted on the rate of inflation in Nigeria as they accounted for 72% of the variation in inflation during the period with the error term capturing 28%.

Other Nigeria scholars like (Fakiyesi 1996; Adamson 2000; and Masha, 2000), concluded that backward and forward looking expectations, growth in broad money, rate of exchange of the naira vis-à-vis the dollar, growth of real income, and price volatility were some of the variables that influence inflation behavior in Nigeria. Folorunsho and Abiola, (2000) investigated the long-run determinants of inflation in an error correction framework. Their study revealed a significant effect of exchange rate, money supply, income and fiscal balance on inflation.

Olatunji, Omotesho, Ayinde and Ayinde, (2010) in their work examined the factors that affects and determines inflation in Nigeria with the application of descriptive statistics and co-integration tools of analysis that led to formulation of Error Correction Model (ECM) so as to overcome the problems of spurious regression through the use of appropriate differenced variables in order to determine the short-term adjustments in the model. The findings indicates that previous or lagged export have a negative impact on current inflation while the previous or lagged total import, previous or lagged exchange rate as well as previous or lagged inflation exerts a positive effects on the current inflation and therefore are the determinants of inflation in Nigeria.

In their quest, Omeke and Ugwunyi (2010) tested the relationship between inflation, money and output by employing Cointegration and Granger – Causality test analysis in Nigeria. The findings

78 revealed no existence of a cointegrating vector in the series used. Money supply was seen to Granger cause both output and inflation. The results according to them suggest that monetary stability can contribute towards price stability in Nigerian economy since the variation in price level is mainly caused by money supply and also concluded that inflation in Nigeria is to a large extent a monetary phenomenon. They find empirical support in context of the money – price – output hypothesis for

Nigerian economy. M2 appears to have a strong causal effect on the real output as well as prices.

5. Methodology

The study employed the model that was used by Fumitaka (2007) with some modifications to allow for the incorporation of shocks into the model. The Phillips-Perron (1989) method is used to test the stationarity of the variables, and Trace and the Max-Eigen statistics were use to test for cointegration, with the employment of Error Correction Mechanism (ECM), so as to converges the co integrating relationship of short-run and long-run by bringing them to equilibrium through time path adjustments (Gujarati 2004).

6. Results and Findings

Table 6.1: Result of Error Correction Model for Nigeria

∆INFtn=β0+β1(∆INFt1n)+β2(∆IMtn)+β3(∆EXtn)+β4(∆IRtn)+β5(∆Mtn)+β6(∆UNtn))+β7(∆GDPtn)+β8ELECtn+β9

(ECM-1)+εtn

Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob.

D(INFtn_1) -0.004012 0.052890 -0.075865 0.9402 D(IMtn) -1.37E-07 5.24E-07 -0.261936 0.7958 D(EXtn) 0.012106 0.025312 0.478276 0.6372 D(IRtn) 0.096508 0.073553 1.312089 0.2030 D(MStn) -1.28E-06 3.48E-07 -3.687599 0.0013 D(UNEtn) 0.868305 0.045485 19.08982 0.0000 D(GDPtn) -5.68E-08 3.13E-07 -0.181261 0.8578 DUMMY_V 0.402889 1.033990 -0.389645 0.7005

ECM-1 0.694353 0.177991 3.901055 0.0008 C 1.032136 1.044872 0.987811 0.3340

R-squared 0.972609 Mean dependent var 0.093750 Adjusted R-squared 0.961404 S.D. dependent var 16.01775

S.E. of regression 3.146843 Akaike info criterion 5.380983 Sum squared resid 217.8576 Schwarz criterion 5.839025 Log likelihood -76.09573 Hannan-Quinn criter. 5.532811 F-statistic 86.79814 Durbin-Watson stat 1.642816 Prob(F-statistic) 0.000000

Result Output from E-view 7

The result in the Table 5.1 above shows the short-run relationship of the augmented Phillip curve in Nigeria. The result revealed that unemployment rate, exchange rate, interest rate and election period have a positive impact on the current rate of inflation. While previous inflation, importation, GDP and Money supply negatively impact on inflation. Unemployment and money supply showed significant impact oncurrent inflation just like in the long-run model. The short-run model is linearly dependent, with an F p-value of 0.000. There is no auto-correlation because Durbin-Watson value of 1.64. The R- squared showed a strong positive relationship which means that 97% change in the rate of inflation is caused by the changes in the independent

Table 6.2: Result of Error Correction Model for Sri Lanka

∆INFts=β0+β1(∆INFt-1s)+β2(∆IMts)+β3(∆EXts)+β4(∆IRts)+β5(∆Ms)+ β6(∆UNts))+β7(∆GDPts)+β8ELECts+β9

(ECM-1)+εts

Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob.

D(INFts_1) 0.143908 0.228468 0.629882 0.5353 D(UNEts) 1.643141 1.070605 1.534778 0.1391

D(IMts) 0.000926 0.001725 0.536811 0.5968 D(EXts) 0.111486 0.504433 0.221013 0.8271 D(IRts) -0.130227 0.899299 -0.144810 0.8862 D(MSts) -3.39E-05 4.19E-05 -0.807716 0.4279 D(GDPts) 1.02E-05 1.36E-05 0.744972 0.4642 DUMMY_V 15.33809 4.924593 3.114590 0.0050 ECM-1 0.774058 0.314335 3.066972 0.0056 C -2.408915 2.918628 -0.825359 0.4180

R-squared 0.561206 Mean dependent var 0.396875 Adjusted R-squared 0.381699 S.D. dependent var 10.12443 S.E. of regression 7.961056 Akaike info criterion 7.237307 Sum squared resid 1394.325 Schwarz criterion 7.695349 Log likelihood -105.7969 Hannan-Quinn criter. 7.389135 F-statistic 9.126380 Durbin-Watson stat 2.166032 Prob(F-statistic) 0.014029

Result Output from E-view 7

The result in the Table 5.2 above is the short-run relationship of the augmented Phillip curve model for Sri Lanka. The result shows that previous inflation, unemployment rate, importation, exchange rate, GDP, and election have a positive impact on the current rate of inflation. While interest rate and money supply have negative impact on inflation. Election period has a significant impact on current inflation. The short-run model is linearly dependent, with an F p-value of 0.014. There is no auto- correlation because Durbin-Watson value of 2.2. The R-squared showed a strong positive relationship which means that 56.1% change in the rate of inflation is caused by the changes in the independent variables.

The results of Expectation-Augmented Long-run Phillips curve for Nigeria and Sri Lanka showed that there is positive relationship between inflation and unemployment in both countries, conforming the priori expectation of Friedman and Phelps argument of no trade-off between inflation and unemployment in the long-run. Another important empirical fact that is worthy of mentioning is the positive impact of election activities on inflation during electoral process in the two countries under study, as the estimated parameter for election for the both countries is positive and statistically

81 significant. Furthermore, expected inflation, exchange rates, interest rates, unemployment and GDP impacting positively on inflation in Nigeria, While in Sri Lanka, expected inflation, unemployment, imports, and GDP have positive impact on inflation.

The R-squared which is coefficient of multiple determinations indicates that in Nigeria, 97% of variation in inflation is explained by the changes in explanatory variables in the model. While in Sri Lanka, 56% of variation in inflation is explained by the changes in explanatory variables. Although, the two shows strong positive relationship, the degree of the unexplained variation in dependent variable that is been taken care of by error term (Ԑtn and Ԑts) in Sri Lanka is higher relatively compared to that of Nigeria.

Equally important is that the F-calculated of the F-statistics for the two countries are greater than the F- tabulated value at 5% level of significant with V1=k-1 and V2=n-k degrees of freedom. Implying that, the Expectation-Augmented Phillips curve models for the two countries are statistically significant.

The ECM results after converging cointegration relationship of the short-run and long-run model by bringing them to equilibrium also showed that there is positive relationship between inflation and unemployment in Nigeria and Sri Lanka thereby still conforming to the Expectation-Augmented argument. Although, in Nigeria, only exchange rate, interest rate and unemployment positively impact on inflation, while in Sri Lanka, expected inflation, unemployment, imports, exchange rate, GDP and election activities that positively impact on inflation.

The results of F-statistics showed that the model for the two countries are statistically significant at 5% level of significant with V1=k-1 and V2=n-k degrees of freedom and R-squared which is the coefficient of multiple determinations shows strong positive relationship between dependent and explanatory variables in the two countries. This implies that the explanatory variables in the model are important and significant determinants of inflation in the two countries.

It is however important to know that since the value of ECM-1 is positive for the both countries, it means that inflation rate is above its long-run value. And therefore to bring/adjust to equilibrium, the inflation rate would need to be adjusted downward for the two countries in the next one year period. And this will take 69% and 77% for equilibrium to occur for Nigeria and Sri Lanka respectively.

7. Conclusion

In conclusion, the empirical findings of the study suggest that there is a long-run positive relationship between inflation and unemployment in Nigeria and Sri Lanka. More so, the determinant of inflation in both countries is beyond unemployment. So to control inflation or maintain price stability in both Nigeria and Sri Lanka, maximum attention must be given to exchange rate, interest rate, money supply, imports, GDP as well as the conduct and activities of politicians during electoral process as

82 the empirical results shows that these are some of the major determinants of inflation in both countries.

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WESCHE, K.A. (2008). “Monetary Factors of Inflation in Japan”.Journal of the Japanese and International Economies.Vol.22, No.3.

Krishi-Prabha: Digital Repository for Agricultural Research Scholar: A Study Dr S.M.Rokade University Librarian Gondwana University, Gadchiroli MIDC Road, Complex, Gadchiroli Maharashtra-442 605 , India E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract The paper succinctly describes the concepts of institutional e-repositories, objectives, present status of agricultural education, research and extension education in India, users and their needs, importance of repositories, and role of Krishi-Prabha e-database to enrich the services and users of library. It was observed in a study that the repository is quite useful to the students, academic staff, research scholars, scientists, industrialists, and extension officers devoted in the discipline of agriculture and allied sciences. The study shows that 90% research scholars (Ph.D students), 70% PG students for research project, review of literature and to develop research articles,40% extension officers to develop their extension activities for the better development of agro industrialists and cultivators are accessing information and taking the advantage of the repository.The repository is quite useful and helpful mainly to improve the quality research work, to avoid duplication and poor quality research work, to maintain uniformity in standard of research work, provide broader exposure to students and develop more skill and knowledge of students in discipline. In a study it wasalso found that repositories are important for universities and colleges in higher academic education for helping to manage and capture intellectual assets as a part of their information strategy.

Key words Agriculture,Krishi-Prabha, , repository, doctoral dissertation, library services and users, quality research

Introduction

“Information services” are the keys to the development of agricultural education, research and extension education and are rendered by the agricultural university and ICAR institute libraries in India to the users. The main aim and object of agricultural library is to collect process and disseminate the much needed agricultural information to the users to fulfill the aims of the institute. The agricultural research is the backbone of agricultural growth in the country, demands timely dissemination of knowledge being generated and updated across the globe from time to time. In India 44 state, 1 central and 5 deemed to be agricultural university and their libraries are functioning

85 and preserving approximately 2600 doctoral dissertations everyyear. The Doctoral dissertations are known to be the rich and unique source of information, often the only source for research work that does not find its way into various publication channels.

The digital revolution has presently altered our all walks of life and agricultural libraries are not exception to this. These changes have resulted in the evolution of libraries into digital libraries and institutional repositories. The repositories are important for universities and colleges in helping to manage and capture intellectual assets as a part of their information strategy. A growing number of repository models and systems are available and used by a variety of communities. An institutional repository is an online database of research output of an organization and plays a vital role in the duration of digital materials for preserving and publishing and offer a convenient way to store, manage, reuse and curate a variety of digital materials. Now a day, thesis is also presented in an electronic medium which is called an e-thesis. An ETD is an electronic document that explains the intellectual works or research of a researcher and this is the digital repository of thesis and dissertation.

The ICAR has network connectivity across the institute and state agricultural universities in India. Keeping this broad objective in mind the ICAR has funded to establish various projects to disseminate the information like consortium for e-resources (CeRA), AGROWEB-digital dissemination system for Indian Agricultural Research (ADDSIAR) and Krishi-Prabha,Indian Agricultural Doctoral Dissertations Repository under National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) for the better development libraries and users. This paper describes the importance of doctoral dissertation in view of users, concept of repository and ETDs, role of Krishi-Prabha in the development of library services and users.

2. Objectives

 To verify the present status of agricultural education, research and extension education in India  To observe the agricultural library users and their needs  To know the projects established and funded by the ICAR towards dissemination of information  To find out the importance of research and doctoral dissertation  To survey the use of Krishi- Prabha repository in view of users

3. Methodology

The survey of present status of agricultural librariesin India (agricultural universityand ICAR institute), users and their needs, projects established and funded by ICAR, establishment of Krishi-Prabha, use of Krishi-Prabha has been carried out with the help of visit to Nehru Library, CCSHAU, Hisar, on line access, , questionnaires from professionals and users. The various web sites also accessed to collect data. The special discussion was also held with Dr Prem Singh the then university librarian of Nehru Library, CCSHAU, Hisar and founder of Krishi-Prabha repository in India.

4. Repository Concepts and Definition

Institutional repositories are an emerging trend among institutions of higher education. Providing an exact definition of an institutional repository can be difficult. An institutional repository is broadly defined as a digital archive of the intellectual product created by the faculty, research staff, and students of an institution and accessible to end users both within and outside of the institution, with few if any barriers to access.

4.1 Definition

Lynch defines institutional repository as “Institutional repository is a set of services that a university offers to the members of its community for the management and dissemination of digital materials created by the institution and its community members. It is most essentially an organizational commitment to the stewardship of these digital materials, including long-term preservation where appropriate, as well as organization and access or distribution.” (Clifford Lynch 2003)

5. Present status of Agricultural University and ICAR Institutes in India

5.1 Agricultural Universities in India

Agriculture in India is the pivotal sector for ensuring foodand nutritional security, sustainable development and foralleviation of poverty. It is the key sector for generatingemployment opportunities for the vast majority of thepopulation. Indian agriculture contributes to 8% global agricultural grossdomestic product to support 18% of world population ononly 9% of world’s arable land and 2.3% of geographicalarea.India is a land of agriculture and considering this the government of India has given proper attention and at present there are 44 states, 1 centraland 5 deemed to be agricultural university and their libraries are functioning and rendering services.

5.2 Indian Council of Agricultural Research Institutes in India

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)is an apex body of the national agricultural research andeducation system of the country. It remains vigilant andresponsive to changing scenario through development ofnovel technologies and by promoting problem-solvingknowledge products. Global food demand is expected to be doubled by 2050, while production environment and natural resources are continuouslyshrinking and deteriorating.The Indian National Agricultural Research System is one of the largest in the world with respect to human resource engagement and infrastructure, and the Indian Council of Agricultural Research isan apex body of the National Agricultural Research System. The Counciladministratively is an autonomous organization under the Departmentof Agricultural Research and Education, Ministry of Agriculture,Government of India. The Council is for coordinating, guiding andmanaging research, education and extension in agriculture, includinghorticulture, fisheries and animal sciences, in the country. The ICAR has also fixed vision 2030 is to ensure food and income security for all, through technological innovations and sustainable agriculture.

It has a vastnetwork with 5 deemed to be universities andone Central Agricultural University 50 central, national and Indian institutes, 97 ICAR institutes, 17 national research centers, 23 directorates /project directorates, and 589KVKs spread across the country.

5.3 .1 Agricultural University & ICAR Institutes in India

Chart 5.3.1

6. Main Users of Krishi-Prabha Repository and their Needs

Students Academic staff, Scientists Research scholars Extension workers

6.1 User’s needs Desires to access more and worldwide information With in limited time On various aspects Documents are essential in electronic form Repositories of doctoral dissertations are essential Review of literature To select research topic For scientific report writing To improve the quality of research work To develop research articles and projects for seminar, conferences and workshop To avoid duplication of research work

7.Need of Agricultural Doctoral Dissertation Repository

Theagricultural students, researchers, scholars and scientists are the main users of library and require more information for their research work in Doctoral dissertations are manifestation of result of three to four years of intense work involving huge investment of resources, both mental and physical and infrastructure and other support from the universities. A thesis reflects quality of research work conducted by a student and the ability of an institution to lead and support original work of research in a given discipline. Research is characterized by originality, improvements and innovations. Scientific research, in particular, is cumulative in nature. The present research is built upon the past knowledge. The first and foremost step in research is, therefore “literature search” on the given topic. Scholarly communication system has evolved mechanisms to index past and current research publications through subject-specific bibliographic databases etc.

The old theses are quite useful and helpful to the students and research scholars for planning the research paper, selecting a topic , defining and limiting the problems, consulting source material and reviewing the literature, preparing a bibliography, designing the study and drafting an outline, the mechanics and conventions of scholarly writing, use and format of tables, figures, footnotes, the various referring systems and the format of theses, to avoid duplication of research work and plagiarisms, to know the scope of the study, hypotheses, observations, research methodology,

89 materials, collection of data and system of analysis and testing of hypothesis. The old theses are the indicators for developing and improving the quality of the research work and writing of research dissertations.

The theses are submitted to the university in paper form by the research scholar and one copy of the same is also preserved in the library for the reference use of the users. They are unique and therefore vulnerable. They can even be stolen from the university library and therefore so many times the needy users could not get the references which are more essential for their research work. The main aim and object of university or institute library is to collect process and disseminate the much needed agricultural information to the users and therefore it is necessary to have to increase the access of library in various ways. In the changing scenario the paper dissertations are preserved in the repository with the help of digitization and are accessible anywhere through website to the users and considering this there is a great need of agricultural doctoral dissertation repositories in the country.

8. The First Repository of Agricultural Doctoral Dissertation in India

The first Open Access Repository of doctoral Dissertations was envisaged in India in 1995 under Dr. A.M.Michael, Vice Chancellor of Kerala Agricultural University. This was a subset of the Kerala Agricultural University Library and Information System. The University Library digitized 400 of its 3000 dissertations in 1997-98 at a cost of less than Rs. 3 lakhs under ARIS programme of ICAR, New Delhi. At that time the term was new and special packages for digital libraries were not available in India. UNIX based Tech-Lib Plus was the only package fit for the work, but was beyond the financial powers of Indian University Libraries. For a short period after its launching the KAU archive was available in the Intranet and internet.

8. Institutional Repository of CSKHPKV, Palampur &Dr. Y.S.Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, H.P.

Theses Section is another very important and widely used section of the library. This Section is particularly helpful to the Post Graduate students. Copies of the theses of M.Sc., M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. students of CSK HP Krishi Vishvavidyalaya and Dr. Y.S.Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, are placed in this Section. Apart from the printed copy of the thesis, it is also mandatory for the CSK HPKV students to submit the soft copy of the thesis at the time of thesis submission, which is stored in the Library and being made accessible through Krishi-Prabha. A total of 163 theses were added to the library during the period under report. Total number of theses up to the end of June, 2009 were 3666.

9. Krishi-Prabha-Agricultural Doctoral Dissertation Repository-Nehru Library, CCSHAU, Hisar.

Krishi-Prabha is a full-text electronic database of Indian Agricultural Doctoral dissertations. The project was submitted by the then University Librarian Dr. Prem Singh, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, and Hisar and was approved by ICAR under the programme NAIP in the year 2007. Under this project, theses submitted to all the agricultural universities/deemed universities will be digitized and made available to all the stakeholders through Internet. Metadata and abstract will be made available over internet all over the world through IP address.

9.1 Nature and Objectives of Krishi-Prabha Repository

 Title of Repository : Krishi-Prabha-Indian Agricultural Dissertations Repository  Name of the Component: ICAR as the catalyzing agent for the management of change in the Indian NARS( Component-I)  Leading Centre : Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar

9.1.1 Objectives   To develop, organize and sustain knowledge base on Indian Agricultural Dissertations in digital form and make it accessible on-line.  To develop a standard format for submission of e-theses to the SAUs/DUs.  To upgrade skills of human resources of SAUs/DUs.  To publish a journal in electronic form /hard copy form from the database.

9.1.2 Duration : 2 years from November 2007 to November 2009

9.1.3 Total cost : Rs. 124.33 Lakhs

9.1.4 Overall work programme: The project envisages digitizing all Ph.D. theses numbering over 10,000 submitted since 2000 to the SAUs and DUs of ICAR. The entire work would be outsourced to a common agency so that all the theses would be digitized following uniform and standard protocol. The material after editing, organizing, value addition etc., would be make available on line and through CDs. Capacity building by librarians will be undertaken for sustaining the activity even after the expiry of this project period.

9.1.5 Expected output/impact/deliverables . Integrated database of abstracts of Ph.D theses . Digitised database of over 10000 doctoral theses in agriculture

. Trained manpower in preparation and management of e-theses . Standardized protocol and formats for submission of e-theses by research scholars.

Krishi-Prabha is a full-text electronic database of Indian Agricultural Doctoral dissertations submitted by research scholars to the 45 State/Deemed Agricultural Universities during the period from 1.1.2000 to 31.12.2006. This database, listing about 10500 Dissertations, has been created by Nehru Library, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar (Haryana) with financial support from Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi under its National Agricultural Innovation Project. 1. Open CCS HAU Website (URL: http://www.hau.ernet.in) from 24.2.2009. The workshop was also organized 24-25.2.2009 in the university.

9.1.6 View of a web page of Krishi-Prabha Repository

Source:http://www.hau.ernet.in

10. Accessing Response of Information of users from Krishi=Prabha

The survey of the users of Krishi-Prabha repository was carried out about the accessing of information and use of repository. The received data was collected through various sources and analyzed in the form of chart and drawn conclusion and observation in view of study.

Response to the repository of users

100 90 90

80 70 70 60 54 50 50 40 KrishiPrabha 40 Theses Response Response 30 25 20 15 10 10 0 Students Research Extension Other Users Scholars officers Chart 10.8.1 Users

10.1. Analysis Result

It is observed from the graph 8.1 that out of 120 students 70 students has used Krishi-Prabha web site to search the doctoral research for their use and 50 students has used the various theses. Out of 144 research scholars 90 scholars has used Krishi-Prabha and 54 has used theses, out of 65 extension officers 40 officers has used Krishi-Prabha and 25 has used theses, out of 25 other users the 15 users has used Krishi-Prabha and 10 has used theses. It is found that out of 354 users 215 (60.73) has used Krishi-Prabha and 139 (39.27) has used theses and hence there is more use of Krishi-Prabha web site than theses. As such, the users are aware with the importance of Krishi-Prabha for their research work.

11.. Opinion of Users about repositories Exhaustive collection of doctoral dissertation Helpful to improve research work Save the time and money Save the space of library Useful in developing more skill and knowledge about discipline Avoid duplication and poor quality of work Possible to maintain uniform standard provides broader exposure to research students

12. Conclusion

It is concluded that qualitative research work is available to the users with the help of repositories and can search any where through internet which save the time and money. Krishi-Prabha stimulates to the users and considering this the repository is powerful to provide data and quite useful to enrich the users of agricultural libraries. The programme of ICAR is remarkable to establish such type of repositories for the better development of users.It was observed in a survey that 90% research scholars (Ph.D students), 70% PG students for research project, review of literature and to develop research articles,40% extension officers to develop their extension activities for the better development of agro industrialists and cultivators are accessing information and taking the advantage of the repository.

References 1. Gibbons S. (2004), Benefits of an institutional repository. Library Technology Report 40, No. 4, 11-16. 2. ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) (2006) Guidelines for Intellectual Property Management and Technology Transfer/Commercialization. New Delhi, India. 3. ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) (2014)ICAR Institutions, Deemed Universities, National Research Centers, National Bureaux & Directorate/Project Directorates,http://www.icar.org.in/en/node/325 4. Rokade, S M. 2010. Indian Journal of Agricultural Library and Information Services. V26 (1&2); Jan-Dec. PP 27-34 5. Singh K.P. (2010), Growth and Development of Agricultural Education and Research in India, Souvenir, National Conference on Knowledge Management in the Global Era (ICAR), p.33-43.

A STUDY ON ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOUR AND PERFORMANCE OF 1C SCHOOLS IN BATTICALOA DISTRICT 1 2 Mrs.Subathini Priyadharsan , Ms.S.Hareniya 1Senior Lecturer, G-II, Department of Business and Management Studies, Faculty of Communication and Business Studies, Trincomalee Campus, Eastern University, Konesapuri, Nilaveli [email protected] 2Student, Department of Business and Management Studies, Faculty of Communication and Business Studies, Trincomalee Campus, Eastern University, Konesapuri, Nilaveli [email protected] Abstract Organizational citizenship behaviour can enhance an organization’s success by permitting it to more effectively allocate its financial and human resources. The main purpose of this study is to enrich the understanding of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of teachers in enhancing the performance of the school. The problem statement points out based on the five years from 2008 to 2012 (A/L) results analysis of Zonal Education Department; the performance of 1C Schools in Batticaloa west zone and Pattiruppu zone is poor. The objective of the study is to find out the factors influencing on Organizational Citizenship Behaviour, to identify the relationship between Organizational Citizenship Behaviour and performance and to establish ways to improve Organizational Citizenship Behaviour and performance. Researcher selected variables are Altruism, Conscientiousness, Sportsmanship, Courtesy and Civic Virtue based on Organs dimensions 1988. Dependent variable in this study is performance. 200 teachers (total population) from twenty six (26) 1C schools in Batticaloa west and Pattiruppu zone selected. Analysis based on univariate and bivariate. Variables are moderately supported to the dependent variable. The reasons are, Lack of transport facilities, schools situated far away from the main road, students' attitude regarding private tuitions. The suggestions for improving the performance are developing and expanding Quality circles in schools, providing accommodation facilities and etc.

Key Words: Organizational Citizenship Behavior, Performance, Commitment

1. Introduction Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) has received a great deal of attention in business and organizational studies for several reasons. Organizational citizenship behaviour can enhance an organization’s success by permitting it to more effectively allocate its financial and human resources. Organizational citizenship behaviour is defined in the present study as discretionary behavior directed at individuals or at the organization as a whole, which goes beyond existing role expectations and benefits or is intended to benefit the organization. Mostly the teachers put their much effort on the welfare of the students. In performance evaluation appraisals the academic activities and co-curricular activities mentioned for each teacher. The activities may include counseling, after school classes, competitions, cleaning school environment, religious activities, etc. Therefore, this study tries to explore the issue of Organizational Citizenship Behavior and

95 performance in the educational system. Organizational citizenship behaviour has become paramount because it smoothes the way for schools to make the adaptations and innovations for long term survival and growth.In Batticaloa district, there are 148 government schools. The private schools are few in Batticaloa district. The government schools are categorized based on classes. The categories are 1AB, 1C, Type11 and Type111. 1AB Schools means the schools which have arts, commerce, bio and mathematics streams in their (A/L) level. 1C schools mean the schools have arts and commerce in their (A/L) stream. Type111 schools consist primary section and Type 11schools consists classes only up to grade-8 and grade-1 to grade-11. For this research purpose only 1C schools in Batticaloa district selected because their (A/L) performance is poor. Most of the 1C schools in Pattiruppu zone are situated apart from the town area. The schools face shortage of human resources and lack of other facilities.

2.Problem statement The success of schools fundamentally depends on the teacher’s willingness to go above and beyond the call of duty, namely to exhibit Organizational Citizenship Behaviors. (Anit Somech, Ifat Ron, 2007) Based on G.C.E (A/L) result analysis the performance of the 1C schools in Batticaloa district is poor. Therefore Researcher is going to identify the relationship between Organizational citizenship behaviour and performance. Table-1 G.C.E (A/L) results analysis Zone 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Batticaloa 43.8% 39.2% 63.8% 43.2% 32.5% west Pattiruppu 64.6% 60.3% 51.3% 68.1% 63.1%

(Source- past 5 years G.C.E. (A/L) result analysis from the Zonal education office in Batticaloa)

3. Research Questions The current study seeks to enrich the understanding of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour of teachers in enhancing the performance of the school. In addition to that,  What are the factors influencing on Organizational Citizenship Behaviour?  What are the factors influencing on Job Performance of teachers?  Is there any relationship exists between Organizational Citizenship Behaviour and Performance in schools?  What suggestions can be made in order to ensure improvement of teachers Organizational Citizenship Behaviour and Performance?

4. Objectives of the study   To find out the factors influencing on Organizational Citizenship Behaviour.  To find out the factors influencing on the performance of teachers.  To identify the relationship between Organizational Citizenship Behaviour and performance.  To establish ways to improve Organizational Citizenship Behaviour and performance.

5. Significance of the study

Traditionally thought of as the worker who ‘goes above and beyond’ the minimum requirements, it can also be the employee who takes the initiative and always offers to lend a hand; the knowledgeable, helpful and cooperative colleague; the senior staff member who is able to roll with the punches; or the friendly, approachable manager who shows the new employees around the office and introduces them to other staff. All of these types of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour should be actively encouraged – employees support the organization through enhancing each other’s performance and wellbeing, and this is reflected in reduced costs and increased profitability at the organizational level.

6. Scope of the study

This research will be conducted among the G.C.E (A/L) teachers of 1C schools in Batticaloa district. The total population is selected as a sample. All together 26 1C schools and 200 G.C.E. (A/L) teachers are selected for this research.

7. Limitations  This research focuses on the 26, 1C Schools in Batticaloa district.  This study focuses on only (A/L) teachers in 1C schools.  This research only focuses on the Batticaloa-west and Paddiruppu zone 1C schools as whole.

8.Conceptual framework

Here independent variables influence the dependent variables as shown given below in thisFigure-1 model.

Altruism

Courtesy Job Performance Civic virtue

Sportsmanship

Conscientiousness

(Source- based on Organs dimensions 1988)

9. Operationalization

Operationalization is the process of taking conceptual definition and making it more precise by lining it to one or more specific, concrete indicators or operational definitions. In this session five main variables conceptualize. These are altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, courtesy and civic virtue.

Table 2- Operationalization of variables

Concept Indicators

 Helpfulness  Orienting new people Altruism  Willingness to do things  Attendance  Punctuality Conscientiousness  Obeying rules and regulations  Avoid complaining  Accepting changes Sportsmanship  Tolerance  Being polite  Team work Courtesy  Communication  Responsible  Showing interest and involvement Civic virtue  Participation in administration

 Trait  Behavior Performance  Result Source- Develop for research purpose

10. Methodology

10.1 Study instrument

To carry out undertaken a study, data will collect from its environment clearly and continuously. It is carried in following ways.

 Primary data  Secondary data

Primary data- For this study primary data will be collected by using questionnaires. Questionnaires are the main instruments used to gather relevant data and information for this study. Questionnaires are divided into2 parts.

Part1- personal information

Part11- statements should be answered by individuals to collect their opinions and necessary information about the Organizational citizenship behavior and performance of teachers.

Secondary data- some appropriate data and information which were already gathered and collected by others for different purpose were also taken into consideration as secondary data for this study. The data collected through web sites.

Structure of Questionnaire A Questionnaire consists of a set of questions presented to a respondent in their answers. Under this study questionnaires were issued to (A/L) teachers. The data collected from the 1C schools (A/L) teachers with personal information and research information. This research study has been conducted by researchers in Batticaloa district. Organizational citizenship behavior and performance measured by issuing questionnaires with 36 statements. In this research one of the ordinal measures called five point Likert scale is used to require respondents to order their answers. Indicators of five point Likert scales as follows,  Strongly Disagree-1  Disagree-2  Neutral-3  Agree-4  Strongly agree-5

The questionnaire consists 2 parts.

1. Personal data 2. Research data part1 – It requires some data related to personal information.

Part11- It is related to the research data concerning factors, which determine level of Organizational citizenship behavior and performance of (A/L) teachers in 1C schools of Batticaloa district. This will be measured in the following variables. Questionnaires consist of 36 questions in statement form to measure the following research information.

 Altruism  Conscientiousness  Sportsmanship  Courtesy  Civic virtue

The questions in the questionnaire were prepared, based on the Operationalization and conceptualization.

10.2 Sample Design

According to R. Paneerselvam, 2005 the sampling explains as a process of selecting a subset of randomized numbers of members of the population of a study and collecting data about their attributes. The world population means the entire spectrum of a system of interest. This research focuses on 200 (A/L) teachers of 1C Schools in Batticaloa district. In this study total population is selected as sample design.

Table-3 Sampling framework Name of the school Number of (A/L) Sample teachers

1. Amirthakali sithivinayagar vid 8 8

2. AnaipanthiRKM 8 8

3. Karuvapankeni vipulananda vid 7 8

4. Kallady mugathuvaram vipulanada vid 7 7

5. Mahilaveduvan MV 8 8

100

6. Karadiyanaru MV 7 7

7. Kannakudah MV 7 7

8. Navatkadu namagal MV 8 8

9. Thannamunai punithavalanar vid 8 8

10. Eravur tamil vid 8 8

11. Kudiruppu kalaimahal vid 8 8

12. Kovilporathivu vid 8 8

13. Thettathivu MV 8 8

14. Kurumanvely saraswathi MV 8 8

15. Kurrukalmadam kalaivani MV 7 7

16. Cheddipalayam MV 8 8

17. Mankadu saraswathi MV 7 7

18. Mahillor saraswathi MV 8 8

19. Mandur MV 7 7

20. Eruvil kannaki MV 7 7

21. Kurumanveli sivasakthi vid 8 8

22. Onthachimadam srivinayagar vid 8 8

23. Vellavely kalaimagal vid 8 8

24. Munaithivu shakthi MV 8 8

25. Palugamam kandumani MV 8 8

26. Kottai kallaru vid 7 7

TOTAL 200 200

(Source- Zonal education office/2013, Batticaloa)

101

10.3 Method of Evaluation

The relationship between Variables examined through correlation analysis. Correlation described as low correlation (0.10 – 0.29), moderate (0.30 - 0.49), high (0.50 - 0.60) and very high (0.70 __ 0.99) (Ciarrochi, et al., 2001). The Correlation (r=1) describes the Variety has a significant relationship.

The data are divided into three categories. Low Organizational citizenship behavior level of the response variable is “1” and high Organizational citizenship behaviour level of variables is “5”. The decision criteria are as follows, Decision criteria

If 1 ≤ X ≤ 2.5 Variable devoted low Organizational citizenship behaviour and Performance level

If 2.5 < X ≤ 3.5 Variable devoted moderate Organizational citizenship behaviour and Performance level

If 3.5 < X ≤ 5 Variable devoted high Organizational citizenship behaviour and Performance level

10.4 Data Analysis

Table 4 Summary of Research Variables Variable Mean Standard deviation

Altruism 3.396 0.373

Conscientiousness 2.736 0.748

Sportsmanship 2.441 0.400

Courtesy 3.363 0.437

Civic virtue 3.158 0.391

Performance 3.228 0.372

(Source- Survey data)

Altruism

102

One of the dimensions in Organizational Citizenship Behaviour is Altruism. In this study the indicators of Altruism are Helpfulness, Orienting new people and willingness to do things. According to the data findings, most of the teachers ready to help to students. According to the data, 59 teachers come from more than 7Kms. 153 teachers depend on Bus transportation. The schools in Pattiruppu Zone, namely Kottaikallaru Vidyalaya, Onthachimadam srivinayagar, Munaitheevu ShakthiVidyalaya, Mahilavettuvan Maha Vidyalalaya, are far away from the Batticaloa town. Because of the distance, they cannot spend much time after school to conduct extra classes. Students who are weak in subject matters not ready to attend classes and mostly they depend on the private classes for (A/L) examination. Based on their attitudes, teachers also, aren't considering the special classes or past paper classes for students and not providing classes. Because of the poor participation of students, the teachers also, not encouraging the students to participate in special classes. On the other hand, some schools informed to teachers to conduct classes for weak students in weekends. However, in most cases the teachers not willing to provide extra classes due to lack of transportation and family matters. Teachers generally avoid disadvantaged rural areas and prefer to stay in cities, towns and prosperous urban areas. This leads to overstaffing at urban schools and understaffing in rural areas. Additionally, they mentioned they do not have enough time to spend with new students to orient and discuss about their previous performance and ways to improve performance. In the discussion with teachers, they point out that, they are ready to help students to increase the (A/L) results. Even though agreed to work individually with students, practicing teachers cannot focus each student in a classroom. A teacher student ratio is 1:20. Normally a classroom is fully with students who are with high, moderate and low knowledge level. Based on the data, 76 teachers conduct classes for 31-40 students. It is difficult to spend time with students individually in the large class size. However, they pleasantly welcome the students who knock their doors with subject troubles or doubts.

Conscientiousness Conscientiousness covers the areas of Attendance, Punctuality and obeying rules and regulations. In conscientiousness, most of the teachers agreed to punctuality and obeying rules and regulations of the school.The teachers of the 1C Schools mentioned they face lot of inconvenience in the transportation. 75 percentages of the schools selected in this Research is reachable through bus. There is no sufficient bus transportation for the teachers to reach the school on time. Navatkadu Namagal vidyalaya teachers described they have private bus at morning 6:30 and CTB bus at 7:30. An evening 1:30 they have private bus and 4:30 CTB bus. If they missed the morning private bus, they cannot reach school on time. Some schools not situated near the main road. The teachers need to walk to the particular schools. Schools namely Kallady vipulananda vidyalaya, karuvapankeny vipulananda vidyalaya, Navatkadu Namagal vidyalaya situated in areas, which not near to the main road. The schools far away from main roads are Kurumanvely sivasakthi vidyalaya- 5km. Munaitheevu shakthi vidyalaya- 2 Km, Mahiloor saraswathi vidyalaya - 3 Km. Because of these

103 inconveniences, the teachers cannot arrive the school on time. In some cases, they need to cross the Bridge. Especially Kallady vipulanada, School situated near to the Kallady Bridge. The teachers of the school mentioned, need to wait a long time to cross the bridge in the morning time. The Bridge is full with crowded people. Additionally the teachers of the Karadiyanaru Maha vidyalaya, Kannakuda Maha vidyalaya, Palugamam kandumani vidyalaya, vellavelly kalaimagal vidyalaya also face these difficulties. Kurumanvelly sivasakthi Vidyalaya teachers described their used ferry for the transportation up to 2010. It creates late attendance for teachers. The students attend the schools near to their home by walking or by Bicycle. According to the data of the Institute of Policy studies of Srilanka, The teachers reluctant to work in far way schools due to poor accessibility, inadequacy of teacher's quarters or difficulties in finding alternative accommodation, poor quality of basic facilities such as, (Electricity, drinking water, sanitation facilities). This result in high turnover of teachers.

Sportsmanship

In this study the indicators of Sportsmanship are avoiding complaining, accepting changes and tolerance. Based on their perspectives, the curriculum changes cannot be accepted if it is occurring on and often. The school curriculum changes once in a ten year. But due to several reasons the curriculum change on and often. In 2011 the Tamil subject of the Arts stream changed. It gave pressure for teachers to study the new Syllabus as well as old syllabus. Syllabus changes push the teachers to change their lesson plans, assignments, teaching methodologies, etc. In 2011 (A/L) paper the Educational Department sets two Examinations for the new syllabus and old syllabus. So it puts a burden for the teachers to learn and correct exam papers. They faced problems as, no past paper models for the new syllabus. Most of the teachers did not attend the seminars about curriculum changes held in Colombo, etc. At the same time the senior teachers mostly not willing to accept new changes. The teachers more than 45 age always ready to do the work as usual. Because of their stereotype they not willing to learn new things. Some of them expressed their fear about the changes. Especially the teachers fall into the age group more than 45 do not have adequate computer knowledge. Zonal Education office introduced computer classes for teachers. But the attendance of the teachers is poor. The teachers point out most of them not concern about the announcements, memos or reports regarding the (A/L) results. According to their views, they do not consider the reports from Zonal Education office mostly. The Zonal Education Department publishes (A/L) analysis and performance marks reports of the schools. In case of tolerance, most of them put their effort to get better results. But the teachers described the most of the students in 1C Schools situated apart from the town are weak in subject matters. They can't spend individually with students to find out their problems. In addition to that teacher told they have additional work than teaching in the school environment. Engaging in Administration work, preparing reports, completing forms, writing letters, Organizing functions and work related to private candidates, in school environment

104 reduce the time to spend with students. Sectional heads of schools described because of their administrative work sometime they can't teach to the students. Even though clerical employees in the office, the Administration work given to Sectional head also.

Courtesy

In a classroom it is difficult to focus on each and every student to find out their talents. Mostly in (A/L) stream teaching the syllabus as much as possible In a given period is important. Therefore, they don’t have sufficient time to find out the talents of students. In addition to the teaching the teachers engaged in other activities as Administration work, sports, Religious activities, also. According to the data 97 teachers engaged in Extra curricular activities. The teachers in 1C schools shared that most of the students have personal problems. Family matters and poverty influence on their studies. Some students even though they talented destroyed their life due to personal problems. Most of the teachers described that they ready to hear the problems of students and try their best to solve those problems. Therefore every teacher in the stream puts effort to produce better results. The teachers described most of the students share their personal problems with them. The teachers helped to those students as much as possible. One of the teachers mentioned that she pay the money for a (A/L) student to study well. Teachers believe that producing better results depends on teamwork.

Civic virtue

Teachers described the (A/L) results is mostly depend on the hand of students. Because they are the persons who are sitting the examination. Guidance can be given by the teachers. But students need to put much effort to produce better results. Enthusiastic and hardworking of the student leads to get good results. It means responsibility rely not only teachers, but also in student too. Most of the 1C schools, teachers spend much time in travelling. Therefore, most of them try their best to get transferred in their home town. According to their statements they are not willing to remain with the school for a long time. Most of them already applied for transfers due to personal reasons and inconvenience in travelling. According to the statements of teachers nearly 25 percentage of teachers said that they willing to get transfers. Teachers with kids try their best to get transfers from schools like Kurumanvelysivasakthi Vidyalaya, onthachimadam srivinayagar Vidyalaya, Mahiloor SaraswathiVidyalaya.The teachers compare their results with other schools and find out the percentage of passing students. Some teachers eager to find out the reasons for their failures and how to improve the results. Some of them mentioned they conduct 1AB school teachers and find out their success in increasing performance. They suggest those ideas to their Administration to follow in order to increase the performance like 1AB schools. Senior teachers explained they already made innovative suggestions to the Administration of the school. They said that they suggested to provide past paper classes for students near to the Examination.

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10.4.1Correlation Analysis In the present discussion correlation between variables discussed and the size of the correlation described as low correlation (0.10 – 0.29), moderate (0.30 - 0.49), high (0.50 - 0.60) and very high (0.70 __ 0.99) (Ciarrochi, et al., 2001). Table 5Correlations Conscie ntiousn Sportsm Civic Perfor Altruism ess anship Courtesy virtue mance Altruism Pearson 1 .218** .121 .594** .780** .478** Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .002 .087 .000 .000 .000 N 200 200 200 200 200 200 Conscientiousn Pearson .218** 1 .124 .225** .097 .343** ess Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .002 .081 .001 .170 .000 N 200 200 200 200 200 200 Sportsmanship Pearson .121 .124 1 .026 .160* .304** Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .087 .081 .715 .024 .000 N 200 200 200 200 200 200 Courtesy Pearson .594** .225** .026 1 .591** .401** Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .001 .715 .000 .000 N 200 200 200 200 200 200 Civic virtue Pearson .780** .097 .160* .591** 1 .451** Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .170 .024 .000 .000 N 200 200 200 200 200 200 Performance Pearson .478** .343** .304** .401** .451** 1 Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000

106

N 200 200 200 200 200 200

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). ( Source- Survey data) As per table 5, Performance has a positive significant relationship and moderately correlated with conceptual variables.

11. Conclusions

This study analyses the Organizational Citizenship Behaviour and Performance of 1C Schools in Batticaloa District. According to the Research findings, Organizational Citizenship Behaviour and Performance of 1C Schools in Moderate level.The teachers in Pattiruppu Zone 1C Schools mentioned there are no sufficient transport facilities to reach the school on time. The schools situated far away from the main road (Kurumanvely Sivasakthi Vidyalaya, Mahiloor Saraswathi Vidyalaya, Muanitheevu Shakthi Vidyalaya) face inconvenience and it creates late attendance of teachers. The Schools use the ferry for their transportation in 2011 (Kurumanvely Sivasakthi Vidyalaya) and Bridges (Karadiyanaru Maha Vidyalaya, Kannankudah Maha Vidyalaya, Palugamam).

12. Recommendations

Altruism

 Teachers can spend time with weak students in free time.  The teachers should be oriented to understand the mission, vision of the school, activities, and (A/L) results of past years. It will help to understand the school functions and performance of the school. The school Administration can display charts in the office room. E.g. (A/L) results or University eligible students in every year, Achievements of the school in Extra curricular activities. It will help to orient new teachers as well as new students.  The schools which are producing better (A/L) results can be identified and the teachers of the school can be invited to conduct classes for students. Especially 1AB School teachers or In Service Advisors can conduct classes and deliver modules for students. (Past paper classes, Model paper classes, Revision classes).

Conscientiousness

 In Teachers day function the awards or gifts should be payable for teachers for the regular attendance and Punctuality or for taking less leaves like 1AB Schools. The Administration of the School allocates money to purchase these gifts for teachers.

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 Allocating teachers to schools from the same district to help minimize the problems related to transport and accommodation. Identifying appropriate volunteers from local areas and provide necessary training to serve in remote areas. (Source-http;//www.ips.lk)  Providing Teachers quarters with basic facilities (water and sanitation facilities) reduce the transport difficulties. Based on Sunday times Newspaper february10th 2013, Sabragamuwa Education officials said provincial authorities would provide staff quarters to teachers in rural areas in the Sabragamuwa province. Likewise, these plans can be implemented in Batticaloa District also. (Source- http; //Sunday times. lk)

Sportsmanship  Computer courses for teachers can be conducted to update the computer knowledge of the teachers. The courses should include not only how to use computers, but also how to incorporate them into teaching inclassrooms.  Developing and expanding Quality circles helps to improve Sportsmanship behaviour of teachers. A group of teachers get together and engage in the decision making process regarding their stream problems can be called as Quality circle. The Quality circles can be created for subject wise. It should solve the problems of particular subject teachers and provide solutions on time. The decisions regarding shortage of furniture in the Arts or commerce stream, Preparing lists for needed stationeries in that stream (cupboards, Tables, papers, etc.), Shortage of teachers, Scheduling term activities, writing notes of lesson can be made through this Quality circle. At the same time the suggestions can be informed to the Administration of the school.

Courtesy  Conducting competitions, sports activities, organizing workshops for students help the teachers to find out the students' talents. Not only the studies, but also Extra curricular activities also appreciated by the teachers.  The school administration should ensure a favorable working environment in their respective schools which would help teachers to improve extra role behaviors such as sportsmanship and courtesy.  The establishing Counseling unit may helpful to students to share their personal problems. The teachers with work experience can carry out the counseling unit of the school. The personal problems of the students maintained as highly confidential and solutions should be provided on time.  Appointment of School based Teacher Developers also appreciated. The School based teacher developer's key role would be to assist teachers in learning and applying knowledge and skills necessary to improve the academic performance of all students. They would also have to

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spend a significant portion of their working time in direct contact with teachers, in their schools and classrooms. (Source-http;//www.pdn.ac.lk)

Civic virtue

 Work overload of teachers should be reassured and stress management training programs conducted in schools by the Administration of the school. Meditation or counseling programs can be implemented for teachers, Like Art of living programs in 1AB schools. The school Administration should encourage the teachers through word of appreciation to join all the activities that create a positive image for the school.  The administrative burden of senior teachers can be shared with junior teachers. Completing forms, Analyzing the results, Assignment work can be done by junior teachers.  External supervision should be increased in 1C Schools of Batticaloa District. Monitoring panels can visit the schools twice in a month like 1AB schools and evaluate the performance of the schools. The In Service Advisors can provide necessary information to the teachers about their twice in a month.

References

 Angela W.Little, H.N.Upul Indika, Caine Rolleston, (2011). Access, Attendance and Achievement in Rural areas in Sri Lanka. Available from:http://www.create-rpc.org. (Accessed: 1st December 2013).  Anit Somech, Ifat Ron,(2007). Promoting Organizational Citizenship Behaviour in Schools. Available from: http;//www.eaq.sagepub.com. (Accessed: 2nd October 2013).  Elena Belogolovsky, Anit Somech, (2009).Teachers’ organizational citizenship behavior: Examining the boundary between in-role behavior and extra-role behavior from the perspective of teachers, principals and parents. Available from: http;//www.elsevier.com. (Accessed: 13th November 2013).  John Arnold & Ray Randall, (2010). Work Psychology, Understanding Human Behavior in the workplace. 5th Ed. Person Education Limited.  Namazzi Christine, (2011). Teacher’s competencies, Organizational Citizenship Behavior and performance of Teachers in Secondary schools. Available from: http;//www.mubs.ac.ug. (Accessed: 13th November 2013).  Riiya Ehtiyar.V,(2010). The role of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour on University student’s Academic success. Available from:http;//hrcak.srce.hr. (Accessed: 22nd September 2013).  Shashi K.Gupta., Rosy Joshi, (2005). Organizational Behaviour.Kalyani Publishers.  Wayne F Cascio, Ranjeet Nambudiri. Managing Human Resources. 8th Ed. Tata McGraw Hill Education private Limited.

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Demographic profile of the Lois population of Manipur.

Kangabam Sonia Devi and Dr.Benrithung Murry Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi Delhi-110007. Email id: [email protected] and [email protected].

Abstract:

This paper reflects on the demographic profile with emphasis on determinants of fertility among the Lois women of a Sekmai, Phayeng and Leimaram Village, Manipur. Data was collected from these three Villages by visiting each household having at least one ever-married woman (15-49 age groups). The scheduled comprises information on household and reproductive performance of 354 women with special emphasis on reproductive health. The CWR, CBR, GFR, TFR are calculated and compare with other groups of Manipur. Socio-economic factors have played an important role in determining fertility. There is a need to further investigate in-depth with a view to evolve area specific strategy especially for the women who are in the lower strata of the society like the Scheduled castes.

Keywords:demography, fertility, Lois,sex-ratio andyoung married women

Introduction:

Anthropological demography is a specialty within demography which uses anthropological theory and methods to provide a better understanding of demographic phenomena in current and past populations.Demography is an important aspect of bio-anthropological investigations. It’s primarily concern with the size, composition and distribution of populations and such other aspects like fertility, mortality, sex-ratio, migration etc. Bio-demography is a new branch of human (classical) demography concerned with understanding the complementary biological and demographic determinants of and interactions between the birth and death processes that shape individuals, cohorts and populations. The biological component brings human demography under the unifying theoretical umbrella of evolution, and the demographic component provides an analytical foundation for many of the principles upon which evolutionary theory rests including fitness, selection, structure, and change. Whereas bio-demographers are concerned with birth and death processes as they relate to populations in general and to humans in particular, population biologists specializing in life history theory are interested in these processes only insofar as they relate to fitness and evolution. It is therefore ideally suited – serving as a “looking glass” - to complement, engage and inform research on human aging through theory building using mathematical and statistical modelling, hypothesis

110 testing using experimental methods, and coherence-seeking using genetics and evolutionary concepts.

1.1 Area and people:

Manipur a small hilly state placed in the extreme North-Eastern region of Indian Sub- continent, between 23.5 oN- 25.3 oN Latitude and 93.4 oE- 95.3 oE Longitudes, bordering Myanmar in the east, Nagaland state in the north, and Assam and Mizoram in the west. The total area of Manipur is 22,327 sq. km out of which only 2,238 sq. km are valleys and the remaining areas are covered with hilly tracts. The valley of Manipur is inhabited by a variety of people but the Meiteis comprises about 60% of the total population of the state. In ancient Manipur, it belonged to the seven clans of the Meiteis and most of the Manipuris belong to the Mongoloid group except for the Manipuris Muslims, Manipuris Brahmins and some new migrants from Assam and Bengal like the ‘Lairikyengbams’. The people of Manipur settled in both the hills and valley.

As per Provisional Census 2011, Manipur has a total population of 27, 21,756 persons comprising 13, 67, 764 males and 13, 51, 992 females. The sex ratio of the state is 987 as against the national ratio of 933. Out of the total population, 7.41 lac are Scheduled Tribes (STs) and 6.0 lac are Scheduled Castes (SCs). The people of Manipur are grouped into three main ethnic communities, viz., Meiteis those inhabiting the valley and 33 scheduled tribes in the hills dividing into two main ethno- denominations, namely Nagas and Kuki-Chins. Under the Meiteis, the Meitei Bamon and Meitei Pangans are also included. In addition to Meiteis, the valley is also inhabited by Nepalis, Bengalis, Marwaris and other Indian communities. At present several people from the hill have also migrated and settled in the valley.

1.2 Lois:

The history, origin and development of Lois are still in vague considering different views and opinions of scholars and historians. The Lois, a title applied to the inhabitants of a number of villages which are some distance from Imphal, and which are and have for long been in subjection to the Meiteis, are of various origin. Literally, Loi has two meanings; it may mean one who pays tribute (Loipot) or one who is put into exile. There were three types of Lois namely: ‘Lanngam Loi’ (conquered one), ‘Lanpha Loi’ (captured from war and rehabilitated by the king) and ‘Loi thaba or chanba’ (who were sent into exile as capital punishment). It is accepted by all that ‘chakpas’ who became the ‘Lois’ of the present day were some of the earlier settlers of Manipur. The Lois of Phayeng, Khurkhul, Sekmai and Andro claim that they did not come from anywhere. They believe that they have been living in Manipur since the creation of universe. They also believe that they are

111 the descendants of ‘Soraren’ (king of Gods) and the Lois descended directly from his abode (Devi, 2002).

The Lois consisted mainly of people who were expelled by the king for political dissent or forced to reside in segregated villages for their failure to conform to prevailing norms and practices. To these added were war captives as well as families and groups who refused to convert to Hinduism at the advent of 18th century. Although the large majority of the Lois population is obviously Meitei by origin, sustained segregation gradually reduced them to a community of lower caste with a distinct identity and tradition. There was a time in the Meitei society when the Meitei’s degraded their own community members who did not adopt Hinduism by avoiding mixing, eating or sitting with them. The Lois is such communities who were made to settle down in the far flung places and foothills during the rule of the kings. And for a long time, they have been treated as a separate community even though they belong to the same clans of the Meiteis. This attitude of treating the “Lois” as the lower caste by the Meiteis’ is an important factor for them to be included under the scheduled caste (SC) category, even though their habits are quite different from other scheduled caste in the country. The Lois is specialized in brewing rice beer, silk-making, salt extracting and pottery making but now-a- days most of them took to cultivation (Pebam, 2012).

2. Methodology:

The present study is focus on the Lois population of Manipur which were included in the list of Scheduled Caste (SC) in 1956. Since then they have known as SC. They are distributed in several villages i.e. Sekmai, Khurkhul, Koutruk, Phayeng, Leimaram and Andro of these SC villages (Devi, 2002).

The present study was conducted at three villages namely, Phayeng, Sekmai and Leimaram Village, Imphal West District and Bishenpur District, Manipur. Data was collected as ever-married women of 15-49 age groups were to taken as the unit of the present study. The demographic scheduled consists of questions relating to their name, age, sex, religion, education level, marital status, economic status, fertility, etc. Door to door survey was conducted to collect the relevant demographic data. The collected data were analyzed through various statistical formulae, which helped in objective interpretation of the findings.

3. Result and Discussion:

Table 1 Distribution of demographic profile of the Lois population

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Variables Phayeng Leimaram Sekmai

Sex-Ratio 1017 907.83 1110.09

Total No. of Household 486 477 354

Young Dependency Ratio 42.49 61.24 69.2

Old Dependency Ratio 7.84 5.32 10.2

Total Dependency Ratio 101.14 66.56 79.4

Total Literacy Rate 93.49 95.5 91.29

Mean Age at Menarche 12.42 13.74 14.2.

Mean Age at Marriage 23.57 22.83 24.55

Average No. of Child per Woman 2.16 2.43 2.05

Average Complete Fertility per 2.58 2.74 2.97 Woman

The sex ratios of the present populations were 1110.09, 1017.09 and 907.83 females per 1000 males, which reveal the preponderance of females over males. The highest ratio is observed in the age cohorts 15-49 years indicating that females in the reproductive years are favoured. The decrease in sex ratio in the higher age cohorts i.e. 50-74 years suggests greater longevity of males. Among these three Lois populations, sex ratio of the Phayeng and Sekmai Lois is found to be higher than the Leimaram Loi and as compared to Manipur (992) and India (940) according to Census 2011.

The total dependency ratio among the Phayeng, Leimaram and Sekmai as mention above the table 1 are per 100 economically active persons. The low old dependency ratio indicates a low dependency of aged thereby reflecting the life expectancy of the population while higher young dependency ratio suggesting a large younger population reflecting a growing population. It may be noted that almost half of the present population is economically dependent on the working groups. However, it would be important to note that observed dependency ratio is not completely assessing the economic dependency burden, since children below 15 years also contributed in the agricultural pursuit and other economic activities and aged persons of 60 years above also continue to contribute in the agricultural and other productive activities unless they were too weak to work. In general, the young age dependency is high and the old age dependency is low in almost all developing countries, while the developed countries have a heavier load of old age dependency (Shepard, 2010).

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Table 2: Distribution of some fertility rates among the Lois women and others population of Manipur and India

Population Crude birth rate General Total Child-woman Reference (CBR) fertility rate fertility ratio(CWR) (GFR) rate (TFR)

Phayeng 11.84 49.24 1.29 195.25 Present study

Leimaram 21.34 92.14 2.58 331.53 Present study

Sekmai 22.98 83.9 2.7 526 Present study

Anal 11.4 33.43 4.3 227.96 Khiloni, 2009

Mao Naga 4.97 12.07 65.30 545.45 Maheo, 2004

Ithing 5.18 32.71 NA 363 Devi et al., 2007

Manipur 22.9 116 2.7 448.8 (Census, Census,2001 2001) (SRS, 2011) (Census,2001) (SRS,2007)

India 23.7 81.2 2.4 547.9 Census,2011

(SRS,2011) (SRS,2009)

NA*= not available. CWR*= child women ratio, CBR*= crude birth rate, GFR*= general fertility rate, TFR*= total fertility rate

It has been observed from table 1 that the Phayeng (195.25) and Leimaram Loi (331.53)has lower CWR than other that of Sekmai Loi (526) as compare to the populations Ithing (363), Manipur (449) and India (547.9) excepting the Mao Naga (545). The CBR of Phayeng Loi (11.84) is found to be lesser than the other populations excepting Anal (11.4). The GFR of Leimaram Loi (92.14) is found to be higher than the all other populations except Manipur (116). But the TFR (1.29) of the Phayeng Loi is found to be the lowest while comparing with the other populations of Manipur.

Table 3: Age Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR) of the Lois population of Manipur

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Phayeng

Age cohort in years No. of women No. of live birth ASFR

15-19 13 0 0

20-24 49 5 102.04

25-29 95 24 252.63

30-34 106 26 245.28

35-39 84 3 35.71

40-44 53 0 0

44+ 90 0 0

Total 490 58 118.37

Leimaram

Age cohort in years No. of women No. of live birth ASFR

15-19 2 0 0

20-24 49 29 591.84

25-29 117 43 367.52

30-34 117 24 205.13

35-39 82 6 73.17

40-44 46 0 0

44+ 65 0 0

Total 478 102 213.39

Sekmai

Age group No. of women Number of Life Births ASFR

15-19 6 5 833.33

115

20-24 30 14 466.67

25-29 73 11 150.68

30-34 104 6 57.69

35-39 68 1 14.71

40-44 53 0 0

45-49 19 0 0

Total 354 37 104.52

The reproductive period of the Lois women continued only upto 39 years of age in the present study. The highest age specific fertility rates among the Lois population were found to be in the age cohort 15-19 years (833.33% of Sekmai Loi), 20-24 years (591.84% of Leimaram Loi) and 25-29 years (252.63% of Phayeng Loi) respectively. The total age specific fertility rate of the present population is found to be 104.52, 118.37 and 213.39. In Phayeng, the highest age specific fertility rate is found in those women who are in 25-29 years age groups, followed by 245.28 (30-34 years), 102.04 (20-24 years) and 35.71 (35-39 years). But in Leimaram, the highest age specific fertility rate is found in those women who are in 20-24 years age groups, followed by 367.52 (25-29 years), 205.13 (30-34 years) and 73.17 (35-39 years). And in both the population, women of 15-19, 40-44 and 45-49 age groups does not have any fertility. Thus, women in 25-29 years and 20-24 years are found most fertile among the Phayeng and Leimaram women.

Among those Lois populations, it has been found that the Sekmai Lois people marry before the legal age of marriage of the Indian Constitution. The Child Marriage Restraint Act, which was implemented in 1978 to increase the minimum legal age at marriage from 15 to 18 years for women and from 18 to 21 for men, led to a modest and gradual delay in the age at marriage (S. Padmadas et al, 2004). This suggests that the young mother fertility rate is very high among the Sekmai Lois women. As the age increases the age-specific fertility rate is decreased showing clear inverse relationship.

The teenage pregnancy is one of the major problems in western and many other pacific countries since there are many risks involved with teenage pregnancies for instance teenage mothers usually have poor eating habits, lack of parental skills, irresponsible behaviour like smoking and drinking and often have pregnancy complications like premature birth, anaemic and low birth weight babies, etc. (Makinson, 1985; UNICEF, 2001; Mayor, 2004). By urban-rural locations, it appears that teenage pregnancy is much higher in the rural areas than in urban areas.

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4. Conclusion

The present study shows the demographic profile among the three Lois populations of Manipur. This paper is just highlighting how these three Lois population differences as according to demographic variables, fertility rates and Age Specific Rates of the ever-married women 15-49 years of age.

5. References

1. Devi, L.B. (2002). Lois of Manipur. A Mittal Publication, New Delhi. 2. Khiloni, L. (2009). Fertility Performance of the Anal Women of Lambung Village, Chandel District. Manipur Anthropologist, Vol. 11(4), 277-280. 3. Maheo, L.M. (2004). The Mao Naga Tribe of Manipur-A Demographic Anthropological Study.New Delhi: Mittal Publications. 4. Makinson, C. (1985). The Health Consequences of Teenage Fertility. Family Planning Perspectives, Vol.17, 132-139. 5. Mayor, S. (2004). Pregnancy and Childbirth are leading causes of deaths in teenage girls in developing countries. British Medical Journal, 328 (7449):1152. 6. Ministry of Home Affairs, (2011). Provisional Population Totals: Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India, Paper-1. 7. Census of India. 2001. Provisional Population Totals. Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. New Delhi: Government of India. 8. Pebam Nganthoiba Mangang. (2012). Health Beliefs and Perception of Well-being among the Lois of Thanga in Manipur, India. Research Journal of Recent Sciences, Vol. 1(4), 46-52. 9. Sabu, S. Padmadas. Inge Hutter and Frans Willekens. (March 2004).Compression of Women's Reproductive Spans In Andhra Pradesh, India.International Family Planning Perspectives,Vol. 30, Number 1. 10. Sample Registration System October. (2001). SRS bulletin, Registrar General, India. New Delhi, Vol.35, No.1. 11. Sample Registration System October. (2009). SRS bulletin, Registrar General, India. New Delhi, Vol.44, No.1. 12. Sample Registration System. (2011). SRS bulletin, Registrar General, India. New Delhi, Vol.46, No.1. 13. Somola Devi T.H, Nabakumar W and Jibonkumar S. (2007). Fertility among the Ithing of Manipur, India. The Internet journal of biological Anthropology, Vol.1, No.1. 14. UNICEF. (2001). A league table of teenage births in rich nations. Innocent Report Cart No.3.UNICEF Innocent Research Centre, Florence.

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Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s Assertiveness towards e-shopping

Dr. Shamitha Pathiratne Head of Special Projects, ESOFT Metro Campus [email protected]

ABSTRACT

In recent years, computers and the Internet have become an important part of modern societies. These technologies have influenced almost all aspects of daily life; from education to communication, from entertainment to business. Along with the spread of the Internet use, the acceptance of e-shopping has been growing, especially in the developed parts of the world. However, electronic commerce is still in its infancy in developing countries. In this study, the author explored assertiveness of Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s toward e- shopping and examined the association between assertiveness of Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s toward e- shopping and their demographics variables: gender, age and income. And attitudes of e-shoppers and non-e- shoppers toward e-shopping were compared. Participants of this study were Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s in a public university in Sri Lanka. A paper based questionnaire was used containing five-point Likert type scale to explore Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s’ attitudes toward e-shopping. A total of 314 Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s voluntarily participated to the study. It is found that in general participants have assertiveness toward e- shopping. E-shoppers have more assertiveness than non-e-shoppers toward e-shopping. Generally male Sri Lankan Undergraduates have more assertiveness toward e-shopping than female counterparts. There is a positive correlation between income level and positive attitude toward e-shopping; as monthly family income increases, participants have more assertiveness toward e-shopping.

Keywords: E-shopping, Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s, assertiveness

I. INTRODUCTION E-commers has developed in to a worldwide occurrence (Mahmood, Bagchi & Ford,

2004) [7]. Conferring to Nielsen’s 2008 report, more than 85 percent of the world’s online populace has used the Internet to make a buying (Nielsen, 2008) [10]. The volume of business to-consumer (B2C) e- commerce transactions has perpetuated to increment. According to the United States Census Bureau, the total volume of B2C e-commerce transactions in the United States was estimated to be 298 billion dollars in 2009 with an incrementation of 2.1 percent from 2008 (United States Census Bureau, 2010)[19]. As a developing country, in Sri Lanka, Internet use and B2C e-commerce transactions have also increased. The Central Bank of Sri Lank reported that, in Sri Lanka, while domestic and international e-commerce transactions with domestic cards were total of 1.8 billion Sri Lankan Rupees (Rs.) (The total number of

118 transactions = 17,668,587) in 2005, it reached to 14.1 billion Rs. (The total number of transactions = 96,138,157) in 2010.

E-shopping has become a popular way to purchase almost everything from electronics to books and CDs to tickets and clothing. However there are considerable numbers of people still hesitating to buy online because of various reasons, such as security and privacy. Security issues, online fraud, reduced opportunity for sensory shopping, the postponement of consumption or delectation of tangible products until physical distribution, poor design interface, privacy concerns, circumscribed product cull, and lack of face-to-face interactions with salespeople are some of the challenges that are often cited in the literature as obstacles for B2C e-commerce as in [16]. Barriers to e-shopping can be categorized such as functional and psychological barriers as in [13], as the major barriers which create customer resistance to innovations do as in [11]. According to Ram and Sheth functional barriers are liable to arise if consumers perceive paramount changes from adopting an innovation and psychological barriers arise when the innovation causes some conflict with customers' prior notions. Usage, value and risk barriers refer to functional barriers, whereas tradition and image barriers constitute psychological barriers as in [11]. Demographics and lifestyle characteristics of customers play a paramount role in their buying habits [7]. While gender differences subsist in opting to visit variants of website, possibly predicated on the different personality traits of males and females, these differences additionally subsist in e-shopping experiences as in [20]. Garbarino and Strahilevitz (2004) found that females perceive a higher level of risk in online purchasing than do males. Jen-Hung and Yi-Chun (2010) [4] studied gender differences in adolescents' e- shopping motivations based on utilitarian and hedonic motivations surveying high school students in Taiwan and found that males hold significantly more assertiveness toward e-shopping on utilitarian motivations (for example, convenience, lack of sociality and cost saving) than the females whereas, females put more emphasis on hedonic motivations (for example, adventure, sociality, fashion and value) on Internet consumption. Hashim, Ghani and Said (2009) found that males incline to become more online shopper compared to females. And their study fortifies that while males incline to be accomodation shoppers due to the high commitment on work and study, females incline to be recreational shoppers and would prefer to do their shopping utilizing the conventional way as in [3]. Rodgers and Harris (2003) revealed that females were less emotionally satisfied with e-shopping than males, most likely because females skeptical of e-shopping and did not find it as convenient as males. In their study, males reported greater trust in e-shopping and perceived the Internet as a more convenient shopping outlet than did females. Overall, males had more assertiveness toward e-shopping than females as in [12]. Previous studies have reported that age also affects attitude toward e-shopping. Hashim, Ghani and Said (2009)[3] reported that there is significant difference on the attitude toward e-shopping differentiated by age. Their study results revealed that those who are between 30 to 39 years old do more e-shopping compared to those between 20 to 29 years old and those over 40 years old. Sulaiman, Ng, and Mohezar (2008) discoverd that age is one of the distressing variables in e-ticketing adoption; eticketing is more widespread among customers, age between 26 to 35 years old than 18 to 26 years-old consumers as in [15]. Income levels affect the Internet users’ e-shopping propensity as at [1]. Monsuwe, Dellaert and Ruyter reported that consumers with higher household income intend to shop more online than lower income consumers do as in [9]. Teo (2006) found that e-shopping adopters tend to have higher income level than

119 nonadopters as in [17]. Mahmood, Bagchi and Ford (2004) found that the factors of trust and economic conditions make a significant positive contribution to e-shopping behavior [7]. While security and privacy issues continue to play an important role in affecting customers purchasing decisions online, understanding the attitudes of Internet users toward e-shopping also important for understanding the dynamics of customers’ behavior in online environment. In this study, the author explores the assertiveness of Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s toward e-shopping and examines the association between assertiveness of Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s toward e-shopping and their demographics variables: gender, age income. Attitudes of e-shoppers and non-e-shoppers toward e-shopping were also compared.

II. METHODOLOGY

Instrument A paper based questionnaire was used in order to examine Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s’ attitudes toward e-shopping. Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s’ attitudes toward e-shopping were assessed using eleven five- point Likert-scale questionnaire items (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree) adapted from Yang, Lester and James (2007)[20]. The questionnaire also includes demographic questions.

Participants Participants of this study were business Undergraduate’s in a public university in Sri Lanka. Participants were selected according to convenient sampling. The participation was voluntary and anonymous. A total of 314 respondents completed the questionnaire, of which 311 were used for the purpose of this study. The sample included 194 female Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s (62.4%) and 117 male Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s (37.6%). The average age of the participants was 20.81 excluding missing values. Majority of the participants are experienced Internet users. More than 70 percent of the participants have been utilizing the Internet for more than 3 years. While 55 percent of the participants utilize the Internet less than 9 hours weekly, 19.9 percent of the participants utilize it more than 24 hours weekly. 171 participant Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s (54.98%) stated that they have been shopped online at least once.

III. DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

The respondent Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s generally have assertiveness toward e-shopping. Figure 1 shows the respondents’ agreement with selected statements about e-shopping. Concerning information, majority of the participants agree that Internet provides easy access to information about goods/services (78.8 percent) and Internet provides comprehensive information about goods/services (71.6 percent). Regarding purchasing goods online, 79.6 percent concur that they can authoritatively mandate things from distant places and 78.6 percent accede that they can purchase goods at any time of the day. 68.4 percent agree that they can access to a great variety of products. But concerning price, 55.8 percent believe that they can get better price online. 53.7 percent believe that e-shopping saves walking from store to store. And 53.7 percent agree that they can stay home and shop.

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Figure 1: Respondents’ agreement with statements about e-shopping

Table 1 presents the results of t-test concerning participant Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s’ attitudes toward e-shopping regarding gender. According to the results of t-test, there were significant differences between males and females in their attitudes toward e-shopping in six items. Generally male Sri Lankan Undergraduates have more assertiveness toward e-shopping than female Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s. Males agree that e-shopping saves walking from store to store more than females do. Females do not agree that e-shopping saves walking from store to store, it requires less effort and they can get better prices as much as males do. Male Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s agree that they can order things from distant places; they can purchase goods at any time of the day and they can choose from a greater variety of models of the product more than female Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s do.

Table 1: Differences between gender groups in their attitudes toward e-shopping Mean t Gend Mean SD Diff. p er 1. It provides easy access to F 3.99 0.90 0.14 1.17 0.242 information M 3.85 1.08 2. It provides comprehensive F 3.84 0.99 -0.01 -0.11 0.912 information M 3.85 1.06 3. I can purchase goods and services F 3.76 1.01 0.22 1.76 0.080 faster M 3.53 1.12 4. I can stay home and shop F 3.25 1.18 -0.22 -1.61 0.108 M 3.47 1.10

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5. It saves walking from store to store F 3.21 1.23 1.17 -0.32 -2.28 0.023* M 3.53 6. It requires less effort on my part F 3.43 1.10 -0.33 -2.77 0.006** M 3.77 0.98 7. I can get better prices F 3.33 1.19 -0.30 -2.19 0.029* M 3.63 1.14 8. I can order things from distant F 3.82 1.05 -0.26 -2.49 0.014* places M 4.08 0.77 9. I can purchase goods at any time of F 3.82 1.06 -0.24 -2.21 0.028* the day M 4.06 0.82 10. I can choose from a greater F 3.60 1.08 -0.26 -2.23 0.027* variety of models of the product M 3.86 0.97 11. I can gain access to after-sales F 3.47 1.02 -0.19 -1.55 0.123 services online M 3.66 1.04 SD = Standard deviation, * indicates significant at the 0.05 level, ** indicates significant at the 0.01 level

Table 2: Differences between e-shoppers and non-e-shoppers in their attitudes toward e-shopping Online Mean t shopper Mean SD Diff. p 1. It provides easy access to Yes No 4.04 3.82 0.90 0.22 1.95 0.052 information 1.05 2. It provides comprehensive Yes No 3.94 1.01 0.21 1.84 0.066 information 3.73 1.02 3. I can purchase goods and Yes No 3.86 1.02 0.41 3.44 0.001** services faster 3.45 1.06 4. I can stay home and shop Yes No 3.63 1.11 0.66 5.21 <0.001** 2.97 1.11 5. It saves walking from Yes No 3.55 1.22 0.50 3.69 <0.001** store to store 3.05 1.16 6. It requires less effort on Yes No 3.78 1.01 0.50 4.17 <0.001** my part 3.28 1.07 7. I can get better prices Yes No 3.78 1.11 0.75 5.84 <0.001** 3.04 1.13 8. I can order things from Yes No 4.17 0.87 0.56 5.29 <0.001** distant places 3.61 0.99 9. I can purchase goods at Yes No 4.19 0.87 0.63 5.81 <0.001** any time of the day 3.57 1.00 10. I can choose from a Yes No 3.97 0.93 0.61 5.22 <0.001** greater variety of models of 3.36 1.09 the product

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11. I can gain access to after- Yes No 3.80 0.93 0.58 5.06 <0.001** sales services online 3.22 1.06 SD = Standard deviation, ** indicates significant at the 0.01 level

Table 2 presents the results of t-test concerning differences between e-shoppers and none-shoppers in their attitudes toward e-shopping. T-test indicated that there is a significant difference between e- shoppers and non-e-shoppers. As expected, e-shoppers have more assertiveness toward e-shopping than non-e-shoppers. Regarding age and income, the results of the correlation analysis indicate that there is no significant correlation between age and Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s’ attitude toward e-shopping (see table 3).

Table 3: Results of correlation analysis

However, there is a significant positive correlation between monthly family income and seven attitude items related to e-shopping. It reflects that income levels have a positive effect on Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s’ attitudes on shopping online, as monthly family income increases, Sri Lankan Undergraduates have more assertiveness toward e-shopping.

IV. CONCLUSIONS This study has investigated the assertiveness of Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s toward e-shopping. The findings suggest that in general participant Sri Lankan Undergraduates have assertiveness toward e- shopping. It is found that e-shoppers have more assertiveness than non-e-shoppers, as expected. In general male Sri Lankan Undergraduates have more assertiveness toward e-shopping than female Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s. There is a positive correlation between income level and positive attitude toward e-shopping; as monthly family income increases, participants have more assertiveness toward e- shopping.

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The findings of the present study should be viewed in the light of its limitations. First, the convenience sampling technique was used for the selection of the sample. Second, the survey was conducted among Sri Lankan Undergraduate’s in the Department of Business Administration in a public university in Sri Lanka.

V. REFERENCES 1. Zukowski, T. and Brown, I. (2007) Examining the Influence of Demographic Factors on Internet Users’ Information Privacy Concerns, In Proceedings of SAICSIT Conf.'2007, 197- 204. 2. Garbarino, E. and Strahilevitz, M. (2004) Gender differences in the perceived risk of buying online and the effects of receiving a site recommendation, Journal of Business Research, 57, 768-775. 3. Hashim, A., Ghani, E. K. and Said, J. (2009) Does Consumers’ Demographic Profile Influence Online Shopping?: An Examination Using Fishbein’s Theory, Canadian Social Science, 5(6), 19-31. 4. Jen-Hung, H. and Yi-Chun, Y. (2010) Gender differences in adolescents' online shopping motivations, African Journal of Business Management, 4(6), 849-857. 5. Kim, S., R. Williams and Lee, Y. (2004) Attitude Toward Online Shopping and Retail Website Quality, Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 16(1), 89-111. 6. Lohse, G. L. and Spiller, P. (1999) Internet retail store design: How the user interface influences traffic and sales, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 5(2), Retrieved August 8, 2011, from http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol5/issue2/lohse.htm 7. Mahmood, M. A., Bagchi, K. and Ford, T. C. (2004) On-Line Shopping Behavior: Cross- Country Empirical Research, International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 9(1), 9-30. 8. Mengli, M. (2010) A Study on Factors Affecting Consumers’ Attitude Towards Online Shopping and Online Shopping Intention in Bangkok, Thailand, Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Innovation & Management, 1847-1853. Retrieved May 25, 2011, from http://www.pucsp.br/icim/ingles/proceedings/papers_2010_2.html 9. Monsuwe´, T. P., Dellaert, B. G. C. and Ruyter, K. (2004) What drives consumers to shop online? A literature review, International Journal of Service Industry Management, 15(1), 102-121. 10. Nielsen (2008) Over 875 Million Consumers Have Shopped Online -- The Number of Internet Shoppers Up 40% in Two Years, Retrieved August 8, 2011, from http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/press- room/2008/over_875_million_consumers.html 11. Ram, S. and Sheth, J. N. (1989) Consumer resistance to innovations: the marketing problem and its solutions, The Journal of Consumer Marketing, 6(2), 5-14.

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12. Rodgers, S. and Harris, M. A. (2003) Gender and E-Commerce: An Exploratory Study, Journal of Advertising Research, 43(3), 322-329. 13. Rudolph, T., Rosenbloom, B. and Wagner, T. (2004) „Barriers to online shopping in Switzerland, Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 16(3), 55-74. 14. Seock, Y. K. and Norton, M. J. T. (2008) College Student’ Perceived Attributes of Internet Websites and Online Shopping, College Student Journal, 42(1), 186-198. 15. Sulaiman, A., Ng, J. and Mohezar, S. (2008) E-Ticketing as a new way of buying tickets: Malaysian perceptions, Journal of Social Science, 17(2), 149-157. 16. Tamimi, N., Sebastianelli, R. and Rajan, M. (2004) Examining the relationship between demographics and the frequency of online purchasing, Proceedings of 9th Asia-Pacific Decision Sciences Institute Conference, Retrieved July 23, 2011, from http://iceb.nccu.edu.tw/proceedings/APDSI/2004/pdf/097.pdf 17. Teo, T. S. H. (2006) To buy or not to buy online: adopters and non-adopters of online shopping in Singapore, Behaviour & Information Technology, 25(6), 497-509. 18. The Interbank Card Center (BKM) (2011) E-commerce Transactions, Retrieved July 23, 2011, from http://www.bkm.com.tr/bkm- en/istatistik/sanal_pos_ile_yapilan_eticaret_islemleri.asp 19. United States Census Bureau (2010) E-Stats, Retrieved July 23, 2011, from http://www.census.gov/econ/estats/2009/2009reportfinal.pdf 20. Yang, B., Lester, D. and James, S. (2007) British and American attitudes toward buying Online, Oxford Journal, 6(1), 18-27. 21. Zukowski, T. and Brown, I. (2007) Examining the Influence of Demographic Factors on Internet Users’ Information Privacy Concerns, In Proceedings of SAICSIT Conf.'2007, 197- 204.

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Garnering Information: World Wide Web as an instrument to develop self-governing research skills of Sri Lankan Students

Dr.Shamitha Pathiratne Head of Special Projects, ESOFT Metro Campus [email protected]

Abstract

The exponential magnification of the web, now the depository of the most astronomically immense database of information kenned to humankind, is now posing the potential for incipient forms of learning (Garnered cognizance) through research and self-governing inquiry. This paper reports on a case study in which a group of students were actively edified web probing and research skills. The results demonstrate not only the potential of the web for self-governing learning, but supplementally some of the current quandaries associated with utilizing the medium in this way. The paper show the future of e-learning and the utilization of computer mediated communication in conjunction with cognizance management instruments and systems. The study found that whilst there were many advantages to the World Wide Web as an instrument for self-governing research in this field there were additionally many barriers that obviated the students from utilizing it efficaciously. These barriers included a lack of access to IT, an incognizance about the World Wide Web and the subject domain, a lack of experience in information seeking strategies and diffidence in utilizing computers and dealing with professionals in the outside world. The postures of the learners and the professionals with whom they were endeavoring to communicate were additionally a factor in whether or not they were prosperous in their task.

Keywords: e-learning, World Wide Web, Information seeking, Textiles, Constructivist, search strategies

1. Rationale for the Study

The motivation for the study arose from the vicissitudes that have been occurring in the inculcative system and in particular the moves towards student-centred and resource-predicated learning. In the fashion industry, for example, engenderment and sourcing methods have transmuted dramatically with the prelude of computer predicated UK technology, and these transmutations needed to be reflected within the fashion curriculum as in [3].

The reductions in the time available for contact edifying and an accompanying shift in accentuation from edifying to learning (Barr & Tagg, 1995; Forsyth, 1998) were further drivers for transmutation in the content and distribution of the fashion curriculum [1]. These changes denoted that the student

126 body was expected to spend an incrementing amount of their time in self-directed study and utilizing open access facilities. There has been no systematic research into how efficaciously fashion students have been dealing with this transmutation in study patterns or which resources are most utilizable to them. It became evident that there were a considerable number of students who struggled with this incipient accentuation on self-governing study. The World Wide Web was identified as an instrument that had the potential to avail students with these incipient more flexible approaches to learning because the learner can cull the time, the place and the pace at which they study as in [5]. In an intellect, then, the functions and facilities obtainable from the web include:

 The transmission of knowledge (e.g., e-Iearning programs)  Negotiated knowledge (e.g. listservs and discussion forums)  Garnered knowledge (the web as a large depository of knowledge, data and information).

But the equilibrium between these may be flowing away from the passive conduction of knowledge, to more learner-centred, dynamic and interactive forms of knowledge (see Figure 1). In other words, e-learning may be moving away from the transmission of didactic, teacher - centred courseware (learning materials) to the use of computer mediated communication using, for example, discussion forums, listservs and newsgroups (negotiated learning). The huge growth of the web also allows for (self-governing) learners to hunt the enormous caches of web pages, archives and on-line databases (Garnered knowledge).

Figure 1: From transmitted to negotiated and garnered knowledge

Certainly, the speed at which the technology is transmuting withal makes it consequential for learners to be able to "learn to acclimate to incipient technologies without continual intensive

127 training" as in [14]. It is argued as in [13] that the Web is a subsidiary instrument in peregrinating from edifying to learning and broadening access but many students seem not to be capitalizing on, or have been put off utilizing, the technology that we are striving to make more available to them [11][16].

This study set out to identify whether the World Wide Web was a utilizable instrument to enable fashion students to engage in self-governing research with a concrete focus upon fabric sourcing - Garnering cognizance (of textiles) utilizing the World Wide Web. Given that the students were given tuition in how to probe the web, the study withal sought to address the question of whether "Garnering" skills on the Web can be edified to an adequate functional level.

2. Theoretical Model

The study visually examined both injuctive authorization and constructivist approaches to computer predicated learning. The instructional model draws upon the work of Skinner and Gagné. This model is highly structured and predicated upon the identification of overt deportments and opportune skills that the learner must achieve.

Drill and practice are acclimated to enable the learner to master a adeptness afore moving on to a more involute level (Boyle 1997). Gagné (1992) identifies the different skills and conditions required for learning to take place. He advocates the mapping of learning objectives against this taxonomy to ascertain that the right strategies are being employed to facilitate learning and for the learner to achieve these objectives. The taxonomy is predicated upon a hierarchical arrangement of astute skills from discriminations at the bottom through to quandary solving at the top (visually perceive Figure 2). Figure 2: Gagné's Levels of Complexity of Intellectual Skills: Gagné (1992) p.55

PROBLEM SOLVING involves the formation of HIGH-ORDER RULES which require as prerequisites RULES and DEFINED CONCEPTS which require as prerequisites

CONCRETE CONCEPTS

which require as prerequisites DISCRIMINATIONS

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The taxonomy is subsidiary in identifying the objectives of learning and ascertaining that felicitous tasks are being set for the development of variants of skills. In the context of this study the taxonomy was subsidiary in identifying the types of cognition, cognizance and skills the students required to prosper in their task.

The type of activity being undertaken fitted more proximately to the type of activities utilized in Constructivist approaches to e learning. These approaches are more student-centred and are generally considered to be most efficacious in authentic environments and activities. As this study was simulating an authentic activity, undertaken by professionals in the fashion and textile industry, a constructivist approach was applied to the design of the edification and learning in the edified sessions accentuating to the student the pertinence of the activity to their future vocations.

Students were provided with the felicitous scaffolding to enable them to peregrinate from their subsisting cognizance in order to develop incipient skills. This took the form of a series of tutor demonstrations, peer group dialogues and set exercises that introduced them to advanced information seeking skills and strategies. This fortified approach is advocated by Vygotsky [19][20] in his theory of the zone of proximal development.

3. Methodology

A qualitative approach was adopted for the study because such data can provide affluent descriptions and explications [9]. It is a valid research approach because it is conducted through excruciating contact within a field setting, and includes gaining the perceptions of participants [12]. A case study approach was adopted because this method is felicitous when the researcher is endeavoring to unearth a relationship between a phenonomon and the context within which it is occurring, often utilizing multiple sources of data [21].

Case studies are additionally valuable when the researcher wants to move beyond the 'what' question to 'how' and 'why'. The participants in the study were an accomodation sample (HND fashion students) edified by the researcher. The course, however, provided a longitudinal opportunity for studying the students' skills in utilizing the World Wide Web as a resource instrument.

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As part of the programme the students were introduced to a range of World Wide Web research skills via a series of three practical workshops. Students were shown how to:

 Send and receive email using the college system and the VLE  Access the external links section of the VLE  Use bookmarks  Use the London Institute Library 'I page' as a starting point for an World Wide Web search  Create folders to organise their bookmarks  Download a document  Use a range of search engines, meta search engines and gateways  Use advanced search options and Boolean terms to refine their searches  Search for and save images  Use a URL to identify the source of the information  Use navigation instruments

The students were given selected keywords to search for and the results of the searches on various search engines were discussed as well as the need for selecting appropriate keywords for the search.

The study was in four stages and a variety of research instruments were selected to meet the aims of the study and offer multiple means of data collection. This would enable triangulation of the data and increase the reliability and validity of the study. This triangulation was intended to add complexity to the data and to "reveal different facets of the data [2]. The four stages of the study were:

4. Stage I Research Methods Activity

Nineteen Sri Lankan Students were asked to identify and put in order of priority the research resources that they usually used when researching for a design project.

5. Stage 2 Observations

Eleven Sri Lankan Students from the initial group were observed using the World Wide Web to try and source textiles for their assignment.

6. Stage 3 Interviews Six Sri Lankan Students who had been observed were interviewed using a semi-structured approach.

7. Stage 4 Follow up study  Six Month after the initial study a sample of four students at the same stage in their programme were observed undertaking the same sourcing activity. The purport of this stage of the study was to identify whether, despite the speed of transmutation in the technology, the themes identified in the initial study remained pertinent.

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 The researcher also used the experience of delivering the sessions to gain an insight into what some of the key issues might be for students using the technology as a research instrument. This experience also highlighted some of the issues that lecturers trying to integrate the World Wide Web into their teaching would need to consider. This experience also informed the design of the research instruments in stages two and three of the study. Table 1 illustrates how the instruments used related to the aims of the study. Table 1: The relationship between the aims of the study and the research instruments.

8. Results

The study revealed six main themes, each of which is presented in more detail below. (In order to preserve anonymity, letters of the alphabet replace the names of Sri Lankan Students).

 Knowledge and skills  Experience  Strategies  Confidence  Attitudes  Access

9. Knowledge and skills

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Themes that arose from the data showed that there were several areas in which the Sri Lankan Students had knowledge gaps. These were knowledge of:

 Computers and the associated technical knowledge necessary to use them effectively.  The World Wide Web including, instruments for searching and navigation and sites of interest.  Subject specific knowledge, relating to fabric sourcing and textile terminology.

10. Knowledge of Computers and associated technical skills

The observations designated that some of the Sri Lankan Students lacked fundamental computer skills including in three cases how to control a mouse or utilize a keyboard. Throughout the observations the computers frequently crashed and Netscape performed "illicit operations". Some of the Sri Lankan Students did not ken how to elude from a crash while others did not have rudimentary file management skills or did not understand how to preserve and retrieve documents.

11. World Wide Web Knowledge

Coupled with a lack of technical knowledge about computers there was a lack of knowledge about the World Wide Web, how it functioned, and the instruments available to help them to find appropriate information. Even though the taught classes covered the use of bookmarks, some of the Sri Lankan Students did not know how to use them. Respondent M struggled with how to get into the computer network and how to send emails.

Q: Having done that [sent an email to a supplier] once would you feel confident to do it again? A: I don't know. No I don't think so. Q: And why would that be? A: Because I wouldn't know how to get into the system. (Respondent M)

The same respondent (M) also had major problems with navigation and did not know how to use the back button to return to the previous page. Two Sri Lankan Students (S & J) did not understand how to use links to navigate. They also had problems with using Boolean logic to refine their searches and four were unable to identify from the URL what kind of site they were linking to. Although the taught sessions included them, none of the Sri Lankan Students went to a relevant gateway or the London Institute's Library lpage (http://www.linst.ac.uk/ibrary) to start their search. All of the Sri Lankan Students went directly to a search engine that they usually used or one of the search engines demonstrated in the class. Three Sri Lankan Students (Q, G & J) also had problems with creating folders and two (M & F) had difficulties sending an email.

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12. Knowledge Gaps Textiles

The Sri Lankan Students used a very limited range of terminology in their searches.

They were often unaware of trade names or companies that may have been useful keywords to use. They did not seem to be aware of textile trade associations or organisations that might have been good starting points for a search. This lack of awareness of resources was evident in the data from the Research Methods Activity which showed that Trade associations and CD ROMs were not used by 58% of the Sri Lankan Students; wholesale fabric suppliers and trade directories were not used by 44% of Sri Lankan Students. The Sri Lankan Students did not seem to have planned in advance which keywords may be useful and tended to use generic terms such as "fabrics" and "textiles". The use of generic terms usually resulted in a very large number of "hits", many of which were not relevant to the type if information being sought.

This caused difficulties because the learners were skeptical of the terminology to enter as keywords when conducting a search. It additionally made some of them unconfident about communicating with suppliers and reluctant to send email requests for fabric swatches because they were unsure how to ask for them.

Some of the least confident users had cognizance gaps in all three areas. It is perhaps unsurprising that this connection subsists for some of the users. Many learning theories accept that learners need to build upon subsisting erudition in order to be able to develop higher order quandary solving and metacognitive skills.

Without this rudimental level of erudition, the computer can become a barrier to the cognition activity in lieu of an instrument to facilitate it. This is true of both the Instructional and Constructivist approaches to the utilization of technology in learning and edifying.

The issues relating to experience fell into two categories:

 Experience with computers and the World Wide Web.  Experience in dealing with wholesale (textile) suppliers.

A lack of experience was often accompanied by a lack of technical knowledge.

The ability of an individual to access the computer and spend time building confidence and gaining knowledge seems to be a key factor in their attitude to the media. The most experienced users with access to their own computers displayed the most positive attitudes, (Sri Lankan Students H&D).

13. Strategies

The Sri Lankan Students did not evidence a strategic approach to the way that they probed or to information seeking generally. The interviews fortified the themes identified in the observations.

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There were varieties of strategies that the Sri Lankan Students employed for dealing with different aspects of the task. These have been broken down into strategies relating to probing, technical issues and issues relating to fabric sourcing.

14. Searching Strategies

Sri Lankan Students employed a range of strategies to search the World Wide Web and make choices about the sites to go to. These strategies varied in their effectiveness and in some cases the complete lack of knowledge about how the World Wide Web works (for example, server/client relationships, domain names, address protocols, etc.) led students to employ ineffective strategies. This could be why they felt so overwhelmed with the amount of content on the World Wide Web. The most confident and experienced Sri Lankan Students employed the most effective strategies.

Sri Lankan Students tended to stick to between one and three search engines with which they were familiar. Four of the Sri Lankan Students cited Yahoo, which was the most popular search engine at the time. Reasons given were: friends recommended it, they knew the address, it was easy to use, and that they were familiar with it.

There was overall a lack of strategy in the Sri Lankan Students' approach to searching and to their selection of instruments for searching. This lack of a strategic approach was partly due to a lack of knowledge about gateways, directories, advanced search techniques, image searches and fashion and textile related sites on the World Wide Web. One of the Sri Lankan Students (D) was very experienced and confident but still did not demonstrate a strategic approach or an extended knowledge of search engines, advanced search techniques or sites that may be useful. This indicates that experience with the World Wide Web in itself does not necessarily lead to the use of effective search strategies.

The majority of the Sri Lankan Students had experienced some problems of a technical nature. The strategies they employed to deal with this seem to be instinctive rather than based upon an understanding of the nature of the problem. Respondent H was familiar with some technical terminology and seemed to be aware that running several applications or having many windows open may be part of the problem. Generally, they felt ill equipped to deal with technical issues. One of the strategies they employed to deal with this was to consult a friend or relative who was more erudite. This collaborative approach to quandary solving was withal ostensible in the edified sessions. Some of them felt that they needed more training or more IT classes to avail them feel confident in their utilization of computers.

15. Fabric sourcing strategies

The Research Methods Activity showed that the range of resources that students were using for textile sourcing was limited and that they did not tend to use wholesale suppliers or trade directories

134 and associations. The observations verified this, however by the interview stage (after the taught sessions) the majority of the Sri Lankan Students had tried to contact wholesale suppliers to order textiles for their final major project. This was not always easy nor did it necessarily led to a successful outcome.

Even though they did not all utilize the World Wide Web to source their textiles they visually perceived the value of being introduced to wholesale suppliers and had found the sessions utilizable in availing them to develop their World Wide Web skills albeit they felt that the number of sessions was not sufficient.

16. Confidence

Sri Lankan Students' levels of confidence when using the technology varied from extreme confidence to extreme anxiety. The data from the observations and interviews indicated that the least confident users were often those with little experience of using the World Wide Web and limited access to it. Many factors seemed to have an impact upon levels of confidence. These included quandaries with spelling and rigorous dyslexia. A diffidence in their literacy skills made students nervous, and sometimes prodigiously solicitous, about utilizing the web Literacy issues affected some of the students for whom English was not a first language. The level to which it affected them seemed to depend upon their caliber of ability in English and their ability to employ other resources to avail them (dictionaries, English friends).

Students for whom English was a first language withal faced difficulties caused either by diffidence in their utilization of spelling and grammar or in the case of respondent M, because of her dyslexia. The problem is I'm not very good with anything that's written down. I don't take in what I read. I think that's because I'm dyslexic, so I don't do a search by reading things. (Respondent M) The Sri Lankan Students recognized the role that computers and the World Wide Web could play in research as well as in their future professional lives. However, they had reservations about the time it took to learn the appropriate skills and to find the information that they were looking for. Some of the Sri Lankan Students felt overwhelmed by the volume of information offered on the World Wide Web and felt ill equipped to analyses and evaluate it.

17. Access

Access to the technology and the resources to utilize it efficaciously had a clear impact upon the caliber of experience of the utilizer. Generally, the students who had no access outside of college were the least experienced users and were often the least confident. They additionally had the most inhibited erudition of computers, the World Wide Web and search instruments.

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Some of the Sri Lankan Students clearly felt that not having access at home to a computer with a World Wide Web connection was a disadvantage. They were not always able to access a computer at college at a time that was convenient to them.

It's mainly in the evening when the college is closed, when you are at home. That's why you're restricted. (Respondent F) I don't have access to email at home- I don't like coming into college, into the library to do it. Someone's always on it. (Respondent M)

18. External factors

In additament to these skills and areas of cognizance there are certain external factors relating to the media that need to address in order for the student to be prosperous. These external factors include access to a stable network and the congruous software and hardware, the caliber of technical support that is available and the accessibility of the equipment at times that are convenient for the learners.

The location of the facilities and the arrangement of the rooms to sanction collaborative learning withal need consideration. One of the most astronomically immense external barriers was the posture of suppliers toward students. The World Wide Web provides an excellent medium for students to engage with experts and professionals but this opportunity for the textile industry to engage with and enhearten the next generation of designers will be disoriented if they do not develop a more ancillary replication.

19. Summary

The data from the main study reveal that the Sri Lankan Students were not using a strategic approach to their searching. They generally lacked confidence and experience in the use of computers and were not making use of functions that could speed up or simplify the search process for them. Most were not transferring or consulting information that had already been covered in the taught sessions or in other parts of the course. This meant that the majority of the Sri Lankan Students were not working effectively and were taking much longer than necessary to find relevant information. These results are consistent with results from other studies that have examined the information seeking strategies of novice users of electronic information systems (Marchionini 1995).

20. Results: Follow Up Study

The follow up study identified that all of the themes in the initial study were still valid. The most consequential change was not in the skills and abilities of the students but in the ways in which the World Wide Web had developed. One of the most intriguing aspects of the follow up study was that it denoted that the designers of search engines were perpetually modifying the accommodations on offer in order to avail users to surmount some of the more prevalent quandaries that they

136 encountered. These include ameliorations in spell checking accommodations, phrase matching and the development and expansion of translation accommodations [17]. The size of search engine indexes is additionally perpetually growing. For example in June 2000 Google indexed 250 million pages, but by December 2001 it had indexed a record 1.5 billion documents [17]. This has potential advantages and disadvantages. On one hand a search engine with an astronomically immense index is more liable to include the information that a utilizer is probing for, especially when they are probing for an obscure term. On the other hand, when a utilizer is utilizing a broad or popular term it may engender more hits resulting in information overload [17].

One significant change in the Sri Lankan Students was the level to which those who had their own computers and access to the World Wide Web had become almost totally reliant upon this for their research. They used the World Wide Web even when it may not have been the most appropriate source of the information that they were seeking and it took them much longer to find the information this way than it would have done using traditional resources. There is a danger that these "World Wide Web Dependent" students will be narrowing rather than expanding their range of references through their use of the medium.

21. Discussion

The study has highlighted the wide range of quandaries the students faced whilst endeavoring to utilize the medium. Some of these quandaries were of a technical nature; the instability of the network was a particular issue and led to some students becoming very frustrated with the technology. This was a minuscule-scale study and therefore one has to be cautious about generalising from the results. However there are other studies in which these findings are reflected utilizing other groups of learners. These include Williams, who found that students repined about networking quandaries which restricted their access to their website. Hara and Kling and Felix withal cited technical quandaries as a barrier to learning utilizing technology [10].

Although these technical problems clearly affected some of the Sri Lankan Students the majority of the problems that they faced were due to gaps in their knowledge or a lack of effective information seeking and evaluation strategies. The sheer volume of information available on the WWW was seen as both an advantage and disadvantage and some of the Sri Lankan Students were clearly overwhelmed by the amount of data available. There were very few instances observed where the Sri Lankan Students made use of other instruments that could have assisted them - for example; the history button, book marking facilities or advance search options. Even when they were aware of these facilities they had rarely considered using them, preferring instead to wander deeper into a trail of links or keep returning to a list of hits from a search.

Their cognizance of sites and organisations on the WWW that were categorical to fashion and textiles was astronomically circumscribed and reflected their utilization of physical resources in the college

137 library. This lack of familiarity with the WWW was often linked to a lack of experience and access particularly for those students who had very inhibited prior experience and did not have their own computer.

However, it has to be noted that not even the most experienced users were utilizing these functions to their full advantage. Experience with computers in itself it seems, does not compulsorily lead to efficacious information seeking, (Lazonder ,2000).

If we are expecting students to engage in more self-directed study and resource predicated learning then we have an obligation to ascertain that they have the congruous skills in place to enable them to habituate to this mode of cognition. In order to be able to function efficaciously as self-governing learners they will require to develop confidence and expertise in information seeking and evaluation and to be able to transfer and apply these skills in an increasingly involute environment. Clearly for many students a fundamental IT induction is insufficient for their desiderata. A structured exordium to information seeking that covers all the rudimentary skills and drawing upon the instructional approach would give the students a grounding upon which they could then develop higher-level skills in self-governing research. The instructional approach on its own, however, would not be sufficient to enable the students to habituate to the perpetuating transmutations in software. This requires capability with computers as opposed to competence in a categorical programme or environment as in [14] indentify that this capability is achieved through hands-on experience, customary practice and reflection on the component of the learner. They claim that computer capability is "much more to do with an approach to learning and working than simply a set of technological skills." As in [14]. In order to facilitate the acquisition of this capability learners will require access to the felicitous facilities at a time and location that meets their desiderata. Providing this caliber of access is one of the most sizably voluminous challenges for higher edification providers. This cannot be ignored if we are genuinely committed to developing efficacious self-governing learners who are able to capitalize on all the resources available to them and especially the Garnering capabilities of the World Wide Web. The special needs of dyslexic and other students with literacy problems also need further investigation. There are many guidelines for the production of web-based resources to make information more accessible to these students as well as software instruments that can assist them.

References

1. Barr, R. B., & Tagg, J. (1995). From Teaching to Learning - a New Paradigm for Undergraduate Education. Change, 13-25. 2. Coffey, A., & Atkinson, P. (1996). Making Sense of Qualitative Data. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage. 3. Colussy, M. K. (2000). Fashion design on computers. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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4. Fava-De-Moraes, F. (2000). Computer networks and the internationalization of higher education. Higher Education Policy, 13. 5. Fayter, D. (1998). Issues in training lecturers to exploit the Internet as a teaching resource. Education and Training, 40, 334-339. 6. Felix, U. (2001). Students as informants For Web-Based Learning Design. Paper presented at the Meeting at the Crossroads. Proceedings of the 18th Annual Conference of the Australian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education., Melbourne: Biomedical Multimedia Unit. 7. Forsyth, I. (1998). Teaching and learning Material and the Internet (2nd ed.). London: Kogan Page. 8. Google2. (2002). The Google Timeline. (Online), Available: http://www.google.com/corporate /timeline.html 9. Gray, D.E. (2004) Doing Research in the Real World. London: Sage. 10. Hara. N., & Kling, R. (1999). Students U Frustrations with a Web-based Distance Education Course. Retrieved 28/04/02, Available: www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue4-12/hara/ 11. Jeffries, P., & Hussain, F. (1998). Using the Internet as a teaching resource. Education and Training, 40(8), 359-365. 12. Miles, M.B. and Huberman, A.M. (1994) Qualitative Data Analysis 2nd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 13. Owston, R. D. (1997). The World Wide Web: A technology to Enhance Teaching and Learning? Educational Researcher, 26(1), 27-33. 14. Phelps, R., Ellis, A., & Hase, S. (2001). The Role of Metacognitive and Reflective Learning Processes in 15. Developing Capable Computer Users. Paper presented at the Meeting at the Crossroads. Proceedings of the 18th Annual Conference of the Australian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education., Melbourne: Biomedical Multimedia Unit. 16. Selwyn, N., Marriott, N., & Marriott, P. (2000). Net Gains or Net Pains? Business students' Use of the Internet. Higher Education Quarterly, 54, 166-186. 17. Sullivan, D. (2001a). Blending Vertical Results and Other Alta Vista Improvements. Available: 18. http://searchenginewatch.com/sereport/article.php/2163481 19. Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge MA, Harvard University Press. 20. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA, MIT Press. 21. Yin, D. (1994) Case Study Research: Design and Methods, 2nd edition, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

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What is an Invention? A Critical Analysis on ‘Invention’ as Provided by the Intellectual Property Act of Sri Lanka

H.A. MenakaHarankaha Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Law, University of Colombo [email protected] Abstract In the modern business world, intellectual property such as patent, trademark and industrial designs are generally considered as most valuable (intangible) assets of a business or a company. Among them ownership of patent are noteworthy. Innovations and inventiveness of people are believed to be a great inspiration of business.Those are also consideredas inspiring factors of advancingresearch and development (R&D). However, it is obvious that the awareness of the general public and the stakeholders about the importance of inventions and innovations and their relationship with economic and technological development of Sri Lanka is not satisfactory. The Intellectual Property Act No.36 of 2003 provides a plain definition for inventiononto which a patent canbe granted. However, in absence of having anadequate judicial literature by which the scope of the main aspects ofpatent law that are available in literary form in the Act can meaningfully be defined and broadened, even the meaning of invention as drafted in the Act remains ambiguous and static.This paper discusses the importance of having a clear definition on invention under the Intellectual Property Act of Sri Lanka in different perspectives. In the absence of having a precise definition given for invention under the TRIPS Agreement, member countries are free to trace their own definition which suits with countries’ national needs. This paper further analyzes different statutory definitions and case law interpretations given for invention in some selected jurisdictions with a view of finding a most suitable definition for invention which would cover national interest and inventive level of the people in Sri Lanka. It is proposed that this definition on invention should carry all characteristics of an innovation such as it should be a creation of technical ideas by which a law of nature is utilized, so that the claimed inventor as well as the patent office of the country would be able to identify the inventiveness of the claimed thing at the outset.

Key words: invention, inventive step, technical idea, law of nature

1.Introduction

Inventions and patents granted on suitable inventions are some of the most valuable assets owned by industries and companies. Therefore a clear identification of inventions and their inventiveness is very importance when claiming ownership of an invention or a patent by a person or a company. Sometime under the intellectual property law, finding a dividing line between patent protection and the protection given to some other aspects such as industrial design is not easy. People may sometime wonder whether they should seek a protection for

140 their ‘new thing’ under patent law or industrial design law or any other aspect of intellectual property law. For example, in IT industries, when intellectual property ownership is sought for some newly made or developed computer accessories or soft wears, it is sometimes problematic whether the ‘new thing’ should be protected under patent, copyright or industrial design law. This often happens due to lack of understanding about inventions(which are protected under patent law), original literary or artistic works (protected under copyright law) and new aesthetic appearance of mass –produced products(protected under industrial design law).This situation is more problematic in countries where the technological development and expected inventiveness of new creations are not high. Having a clear definition on invention which guides both inventors and patent examiners to identify the characteristics of an invention will assist in producing more patentable and inventive devices.

Basically it would be a duty of the court to define what is an invention under the patent law and, for that, the court would have to identify and categorize situations where a claimed item falls under the category of an invention. However, in most developing countries like Sri Lanka where adequate case law decisions are not prevalent and having inadequate expertise in umpiring intellectual property cases in courts (judges), provision of a clearstatutory definition forthe word ‘invention’ would greatly assist for proper enforcement of this law. As far as these developing countries are concerned, cultivating a case law system that would enable them to define the word invention would be a result of long term judicial intervention thus; this would help future development of law, but not for the present time. For example, in a country in which the meaning of an invention has not been properly identified, if a new patent application were primarily objected to at the IP Office on the basis that the claimed thing is not an invention or, is the same thing, after it is patented, and if it were objected to in a court of law on the same ground, the Intellectual Property office and the court of the country, not having a proper statutory definition of invention under its Intellectual Property Statute, would face a problem in defining the word invention as the country’s patent law does not have any supporting case law.

This paper examines what type of ‘thing’ should be identified asinventionsby having a comparative analysis on some selected major patent jurisdictions in the World.

2. Invention

What is an invention?

It is obvious that a literary or dictionary meaning of the word “invention” is not suitable in defining an invention under patent law. It is mandatory and vital to have a fixed and more concrete definition to the word “invention”, especially in the light of protecting and identifying the rights emanating from patent law, for two reasons; first, it is important to determine the distinction between a patentable invention and non- patentable invention (discoveries). In law of patent, only patentable inventions are protected therefore, a patentable invention should be identifiable from non-patentable inventions. For that

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purpose, identifying an exact definition for the word invention is a matter of paramount importance. Second, a clear definition is important to mitigate any situation where preliminary objections are raised against a patent application or a patented invention. A patent can be objected to on two grounds, viz.,

a. the thing claimed is not an invention9, and b. the thing claimed lacks novelty, lacks inventive step, is incapable of industrial application or is ousted due to other general exclusions, for example, factors that are mentioned in Articles 27.2 and 27.3 of the TRIPS Agreement.

The second ground mentioned above is not as conflictive as the first. The second is a very common ground for making objections against a patent application or a patent that has been granted. However, any interested party can object to a patent that the thing claimed is not an “invention” as per definition by the particular patent jurisdiction.

The thing claimed is not an invention

Under this ground, first, the fact that the claimed thing comprises an invention has to be established. If it was not clearly established, anyone would be successful in questioning the validity of the patent. It is therefore obvious that in the process of determining the fact that the thing claimed is an invention, finding a clear definition for invention is vital.

This has been identified in the United Kingdom IBM/Card Reader.10Herethe applicant claimed a method of allowing any machine-readable bankcard to be used by any card-reading machine to carry out any transaction. The European patent office held that the method was not patentable as the use of the word invention in European Patent Convention required that claimed subject matter should have a technicalcharacter. The card was in effect equivalent to an application form. Therefore it was held that as the claimed thing was not within the purview of the definition of word invention it was not patentable.

Second, the absence of a clear definition given for invention means an absence of a proper guideline to a court. Therefore, the court in any particular country would face a problem of interpretation. For example, in the US patent law, there is no clear definition given to the word invention rather than having a broad definition given to patentable subject matter under Section 101of U.S.C.A. Under the U.S. patent law it has also been argued in several cases that where there is no clear definition available for the word invention in the Congress Statute, when a question of patentability could arise with regard to a claimed thing which is claimed to have been invented in the application of modern scientific technology such as chemistry, physics, and the like, and the court cannot decide the limits of patentability. In Diamond v. Chakrabarthy11 it was questioned whether an artificially created bacterium

9 Funk Brothers Seed Co. v.Kalo Inoculant Co., US Supreme Court, 1948.333 U.S. 127. It was stated that a product must be more than new and useful to be patented; it must also satisfy the requirement of invention. See also Adelman, Martin J., Cases and Materials on Patent Law, West Group, St. Paul, Minn., 1998, p 88.

10 (1994)EPOR 89

11 1980. 447 U.S. 303, 206 U.S.P.Q 193.

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produced by genetic engineering should receive patent protection or whether it should be rejected on the ground of being a product of nature or a living thing. In this case, Dr. Chakrabarty artificially created an oil-eating bacterium and filed a patent application with three sorts of claims. Two of them were in method format - the method of making the bacterium and the method of using the bacterium to consume oil. The third claim category was directed towards the bacterium itself. The Patent and Trade Mark Office in USA rejected this latter claim on the ground that the bacterium was a product of nature, or, alternatively, that it was a living thing and therefore outside the purview of the Act. The Supreme Court took up the matter and overturned the examiner’s rejection. One of the petitioner’s arguments was that micro-organism cannot qualify as patentable subject matter until Congress expressly authorizes such protection. His position rests on the fact that genetic technology was unforeseen when Congress enacted section 101. It was argued that it was the legislative process that should determine whether living organisms produced by genetic engineering should receive patent protection.12 And, in Parker v. Flook, it was argued and the court also decided accordingly that “the judiciary must proceed cautiously when…. asked to extend patent rights in to areas wholly unforeseen by Congress…” 13

These situations illustrate that in the absence of having a clear definition on invention, the court would have to extend its jurisdiction (and also its discretion) to interpret what are inventions and what are patentable inventions. This would create problems in countries where the common law tradition has been a long inheritance. Especially, in countries where a well-developed case law system does not exist. Third world countries including Sri Lanka that mainly depend on their statutory laws would face this problem of interpreting inventions due to the non-existence of any supporting case law.

3.Defining Invention

The Dictionary meaning of invention refers to something that is produced for the first time. It can be an imaginative design, or product or innovation or something produced for the first time.14 However, in the law of patent, invention does not always mean something produced for the first time and even a “new combination of pre-existing knowledge which satisfies some “wants” also forms an invention.15 It is therefore, important to define the word invention in the context of patent protection in order to identify what is meant by invention in patent law.

2.1. Academic definitions on invention “Invention means a solution to a specific problem in the field of technology” - WIPO16

12 Ibid. However, this argument was not entertained by the court and it was decided that the broad language like Progress of Science and useful art is enough to incorporate any new knowledge.

13 437 U.S. 584, 98 S.Ct. 2522.

14 Invent- To conceive of or devise first/ Invention- new device, method, or process developed from study and experimentation. See The American Heritage Dictionary based on the New Second College Edition, Dell Publishing, New York, 1989.

15 Definition given by Schmookler, J (1986), See Invention and Economic Growth, Harvard University Press, Chapter 1.

16WIPO Intellectual Property Hand book, Policy, Law and Use, Geneva, June 2001, p 17.

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In some reading materials and books published on intellectual property related matters, the definition given for the word invention is as above. However, it should be noted that the above definition is given mainly for academic and educational purposes; therefore, this definition assists in identifying the concept in its ordinary sense, and not in the sense of the patent law of the countries in which their main objective should be the practical application of the law in protecting the patent system within their jurisdictions.

According to WIPO’s definition which is completely different from that of the dictionary meaning of the word invention, it does not reflect the meaning of something that is produced for the first time. However, it is obvious that this ‘solution’ may not be the ‘same solution’ that is given by some other person to a specific problem in the field of technology. On the other hand, if this “solution” (which is proposed by the claimed invention) is not seen as a ‘solution’ to a specific problem in the field of technology due to lack of its novelty, the claimed thing also would not come under the meaning of invention.

According to the International Development Law Organization (IDLO), an invention is “a product or process that provides a new way of doing something or offers a new technical solution to a problem”.17 Hence, it should be a process or product and if it is a process, it should provide a new way of doing something and, generally, to become an invention (whether it is a product or process) it should offer a new technical solution to a problem.

It is significant that this definition is not apparently associated with the three basic requisites that are novelty, inventive step and industrial application. However, when the definition denotes “new wayofdoing something,” and a “new technical solution,” it is questionable as to how this newness or novelty could be determined. It is obvious that the only way of judging this status of new or novelty is based on the concept recognized as novelty and inventive step by the statutes and case law. Therefore indirectly, this definition associates with the general requisites of patentability namely, novelty, inventive steps etc.

2.2The approach of the UK on invention

The Patent Act of 1977 (UK) contains no definition of what is an invention. It seems that the drafters of the Act have felt that a definition might be seen later as a fetter on the development of the law in tune with technological developments. Another explanation was that they did not really know with any certainty.18 Therefore this uncertainty and potential unpredictable future development in the field of technology are the reasons for not having a definition to the word invention in the U.K. It is noted that, in the UK, there are some other intellectual property related concepts which have no definitions due to uncertainty and difficulty of giving a fixed meaning to words like ‘computer’ or ‘computer program’. Although this avoids the statutory definitions being outdated and meaningless in the future and allows the court to be more flexible and subjective in defining those words in a given case, the situation of not having a definition for the word invention could cause a few problems.

17Intellectual Property in Practice; How to Protect and Enforce IPR, IDLO Hand book, Colombo, March 2003, Tab D, p 3

18 Bainbridge,David.Intellectual Property, Third edition, p 293.

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However, it is notable that earlier, the British law had a definition for what an invention was. Under section 101 of the 1949 Patents Act, inventions were defined by the phrase “manner of manufacture”. As the drafters of the 1977 Patent Act felt that the word invention should not be defined due to the reasons discussed above, and, in order to make an invention patentable, they have decided to list a non- exhaustive criteria of creations which were deemed not to be inventions.19 To this end, section 1(2) of the UK Patent Act provides:

It is hereby declared that the following (among other things) are not inventions for the purpose of this Act, that is to say, anything that consists of:

(a) A discovery, scientific theory or mathematical method;

(b) a literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work or any other aesthetic creation whatsoever;

(d) The presentation of information.

Further the UK Patent law and the European Patent Law which UK as a member isobliged to follow20 provides;

There must be an ‘invention’ (which is not defined) and that invention must be patentable; that is:

(1) It must be novel (2) It must involve an inventive step (3) It must be capable of industrial application; and (4) It must not fall within any of the categories of subject matter excluded21 This situation evinces the fact that some legal regimes that do not define an invention with a separate identification tend to describe (not to define) inventions mainly referring to the three requirements of patent and sometimes referring to the subject matter that are excluded from granting patent.

2.2Invention as understood in India

19…”The UK Patent Act 1977 does not define an ‘invention’, supposedly because the parties to the EPC could not agree on one. Instead, it sets outs the necessary characteristics of a patentable invention, and identifies excluded categories for which a patent will not be granted either because they are not considered to be ‘inventions’ for the purpose of s. 1(2)...” Lord Hoffmann in BiogenInc v Medevaplc (1997)

20 The UK courts have frequently followed EPC decisions or have sought to interpret the PA 1977 so that the same meanings are given as to equivalent provisions in other EPO countries or by the EPO. See further Davis Jennifer, Intellectual Property Law, 2008, Oxford, 274p.

21 EPC arts 52(2)-(4), 53, PA 1977 ss. 1 (2) - (4), Cornish W (2010), Intellectual Property: Patents, Copyright, Trademarks and Allied rights, London, 190p.

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Patent Act, 1970 (as amended in 2005) defines invention as, “Invention means a new product or process involving an inventive step and capable of industrial application”.22It further states that; inventive step means a feature of invention that involves technical advance as compared to the existing knowledge or having economic significance or both and that makes the invention not obvious to a person skilled in the art.23

According to this definition, invention is described in light of its patentability by satisfying the general three requirements namely; novelty, inventive step and industrial application. In India, it is significant that while requirements in proving novelty are similar in many respects to other jurisdictions24inventive step (non-obviousness) need to be satisfied by some additional requirements. The most noteworthy one is ‘economic significance’. The invention should have a technically advanced feature as well as it must beaneconomically significant one. This new independent ingredient of what is an inventive step was introduced by the Patents (Amendment) Act, 2005. Hence apart from novelty and technical advancement, the aspect of economic significant must be considered as a feature of invention under the Indian Patent law. This requirement of economic significance hints that even from a known substance, if a new economic significance could be derived by slightly altering its original position, a new patentable invention can be produced. It is also noteworthy to identify the difference between economic significance which is an aspect of inventive step and the industrial application, a requirement to be satisfied separately when granting a patent. However, it is obvious that the acceptance of an invention for the grant of a patent under the Indian law on the basis of ‘economic significance’ is for the purpose of its recognition as a patented invention in India. If the invention is exported to another country where economic significance of an invention is not recognized as a ground for grant of a patent, difficulties for the patent holder in India may arise, so far as registration in a foreign country is concerned.25

2.3 Invention as understood in the USA

In USA, the definition of the word invention is an attempt to describe the subject matter of a patent. The USA Patent Statute attempts to explain the subject matter of patent as widely as possible by adopting and using the words in their broadest sense. Hence, no significant attempt is made to give an academic interpretation to the word invention. Its definition, according to Section 101of 35 U.S.C.A. is

“Whoever invents or discovers any new and useful process, machine, manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement

22 Sec. 2(j).

23Sec. 2(ja).

24In India, novelty requires that a feature of the claimed invention must not be anticipated by prior art. These prior art requirements, namely; anticipation by previous publication, anticipation by previous communication to Government, anticipation by public display, anticipation by public working and useetc are conceptually similar to novelty requirements of many jurisdictions. See further Secs 29, 30, 31, 32 and 33 of Indian Patent Act.

25See Taraporevala V J, Law of Intellectual Property, Second Edition, 2013, 88p.

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thereof, may obtain a Patent therefore, subject to the conditions and requirements of this title.”

The USA definition is significant as it describes everything covered under an invention, patentable invention and patent eligibility of an invention. Though there is no isolated definition given to the word invention, it provides answers to questions like, ‘what is an invention?’, ‘what is acceptable as patent?’, ‘what are patentable and patent eligible inventions?’

2.4 Invention as understood in Japan

The Japanese Patent Act26 that gained a reputation as one of the well-drafted patent laws in the world identifies and explains invention and patentable invention separately.

The Japanese Patent Law does not define patentable inventions. It only defines what is a ‘patented invention’. The Japanese Act provides separate definitions for invention and patented invention.

Section 2- (1) of the Act provides that; “Invention in this law means the highly advanced creation of technical ideas by which a law of nature is utilized,” and,

Section 2- (2) provides that; “patentedinvention in this law means an invention for which a patent has been granted.”

It is prima face obvious in Japanese patent law that there is a separate recognition of invention and patented invention and, if, an invention is to become a patented one, it should be one on which a patent has been granted. Therefore the possibility of having inventions that cannot be patented is obvious in the Japanese patent law. In Japan, therefore, it is obvious that any claimed thing first should pass the test of being an invention and then should be capable of being a patentable invention.

Section 29 of the Japanese Patent Act refers to inventions that a patent may be granted. It would sometime be arguable in Japanese patent law the ways and means of determining patentability of an invention or inventions that are patentable. These are generally determined as in most of the other patent regimes, by referring to conditions of patentability and the subject matter of the patent. An analysis of section 29(1) of the Japanese Patent Act reveals that though it does not use the words novelty or inventive step, it refers to the same situations that are generated by the above concepts; e.g. novelty and inventive step.

As explained earlier, patentability of an invention is generally judged in the backdrop of novelty, inventive step and industrial application.27 Novelty is a fundamental requirement in any examinations as to substance and is an undisputed condition of patentability. Novelty is not something, which can be

26 Law No. 121of April 13, 1959, as amended several times up to the revision of Act No. 109 of 2006.

27 See for example, section 63 of the IP Act No 36 of Sri Lanka, an invention is patentable if it is new, involves an inventive step and is industrially capable.

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proved or established; only its absence can be proved.28 An invention is deemed novel if it is not pre dated by a prior art. Prior art simply stated is all the knowledge that existed prior to the relevant filing or priority date of a patent application. When section 29(1) of the Japanese Patent Act is analyzed, it is obvious that it refers to patentability of invention in which novelty, inventive step and industrial application are considered. Section 29(1) refers to the requirement of industrial application as “Any person who has made an invention which is industrially applicable may obtain a patent therefore, except in the case of following inventions”. The same section further identifies the novelty requirement explaining the situations where prior arts can apply.

Section 29(1) provides that;

Any person who has made an invention which is industrially applicable may obtain a patent therefore, except in the case of the following inventions

1. inventions which were publicly known in Japan or elsewhere prior to the filing of the patent application;

2. inventions which were publicly worked in Japan or elsewhere prior to the filing of the patent application;

3. inventions which were described in a distributed publication or made available to the public through electric telecommunication lines in Japan or elsewhere prior to the filing of the patent application.

The definition given under the Japanese patent law for invention is more meaningful and broadly applicable. It states that an invention means the “highly advanced creation of technical ideas by which a law of nature is utilized.”

In this definition, two characteristics of an invention are identifiable.

1. It should be a creation by which a law of nature is utilized

2. It should be a highly advanced creation based on a technical idea.

28 See Introduction to patent law and practice, WIPO Training Manual, Geneva, August 1989, pp 33, 34.

See also IDLO Hand book on Intellectual property law, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 17-21 March, 2003, Tag “D”, p 4.

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Even though this section of patent law is directly derived from the Japanese patent law regime, analyzing these characteristics through a comparative study would help to identify the universal nature of defining invention and thus, to apply the findings of that examination to the Sri Lankan law.

3.Understanding the law of nature

Though the law of nature is not subjected to patentability, its application or utilization is relevant. The US patent law provides a useful guidance in understanding the position of the law of nature in patent law. The US Supreme Court has stated that the law of nature may not in itself be the subject of a patent. There are two reasons given for this rule. First, a person does not create these things - they exist independently in nature and are discovered. Second and more importantly, in granting a monopoly in such basic building blocks of invention an undue roadblock to further invention by others would be imposed.29 It, therefore, shows that the law of nature is the natural existence of nature and it may be ‘utilized’ or applied as “building blocks” of invention, but it, as a whole, cannot be produced for application of patent. For example, Albert Einstein would not be entitled to a patent on his world famous formula, E ═ mc2, because it is law of nature. Granting a monopoly on it might unduly block further inventions by others. However, if someone has made a specific application (or utilization) of the law of nature, that may be the subject of a patent. For example, a machine whose operation depends in part on the law of gravity is not disqualified from a patent simply because it incorporates that law of nature within its specific context. Granting a patent in such a case will not give the patentee a monopoly on the law of gravity - only in one specific application of it.30

Any discovery or law of nature is not subject to patentability as it is not man-made. However, every invention is somehow based on a law of nature and its utilization or type of human intervention to make the law of nature into a man made one is inevitable, if the claimed thing qualifies for patenting.

This is well illustrated in Funk Brothers v. Kalo Inoculant Co. where the court analyzed the nature of an invention and its relation to nature.

Even though it (the claimed invention) may have been the product of skill, it certainly was not the product of invention. There is no way in which we could call it such unless we borrowed invention from the discovery of the natural principle itself.31

In the above case, when a claim was made for a new use of combination of existing bacteria, without producing a new species of bacteria, the court further analyzed that -

29 See Barrett, Margreth.,Intellectual Property- Patent Trademarks and Copyrights, Third edition, 1999-2000, p 45.

30 Ibid.

31 Funk Brothers Seed Co. v. Kalo Inoculant Co., US Supreme Court, 1948.333 U.S. 127.

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The claimer does not create state of inhibition or of non-inhibition in the bacteria. Their qualities are the work of nature. Those qualities are of course not patentable. For patents cannot be issued for the discovery of the phenomena of nature. The qualities of these bacteria, like the heat of the sun, electricity, or the qualities of metals, are part of the storehouse of knowledge of all men. They are manifestations of laws of nature, free to all men and reserved exclusively to none. He who discovers a hitherto unknown phenomenon of nature has no claim to a monopoly of it, which the law recognizes. If there is to be invention from such a discovery, it must come from the application of the law of nature to a new and useful end.”(emphasis is added.)32

Therefore, it is obvious that one cannot “invent” anything without using nature, which is the building block of any invention.

This doctrine of ‘application of the law of nature to a useful end’ has been applied in Japan by using the words, utilization of law of nature and, it has been incorporated in defining what an invention is under the Patent Act. This definition of invention in Japanese patent law therefore, is more comprehensive and also more advantageous in the wake of identifying and distinguishing other inventions from that of patentable invention. As discussed earlier, this kind of broad and meaningful definition will surely assist in reducing the complexity of identification of an invention, which is claimed for a patent at the administrative level and later, in the judiciary, at the appeal stage. Especially in countries where a bundle of case law has not been developed, on granting patent for invention, such a clear statutory definition is more advantageous as a clear guidance for both the patent granting authority as well as the judiciary.

3.The Sri Lankan position

Section 62 (1) of the Intellectual Property Act of Sri Lanka, 2003 defines the word invention. Accordingly, invention means an idea of an inventor, which permits in practice the solution to a specific problem in the field of technology.

Section 63 of the Act defines the patentability of invention. According to this, an invention is patentable, if it is new, involves an inventive step and is industrially applicable.

It is therefore obvious in Sri Lanka that two specific definitions are separately available for “invention” and “patentable invention”. The Sri Lankan law is clearer and sometimes more advanced than the particular section of Indian law. These definitions included in the Act are not solely new to the present patent law, but is a citation from the previous law. It is a prototype adaptation of definitions provided in the previous Act. Section 59 (1) of the 1979 Code of Intellectual Property Act gave the same definition for an invention while Section 60 of that Act provided the same definition for a patentable invention.

32 Ibid.

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Again, these definitions are prototype adaptations of WIPO Model laws that are recommended for developing countries.33 Although this definition of model law provides a definite meaning for an invention, this definition would sometime be problematic in identifying an invention. Especially the word “idea” (of an inventor) could lead to confusion as it explains “an idea of an inventor which permits in practice the solution to a specific problem….”

2.2Can an idea be an invention?

Can an idea be an invention? This use of ‘idea’ in explaining an invention could be ambiguous and sometimes would cause confusion in identifying an invention for the purpose of patenting, as the word ‘idea’ has different meanings. Generally an ‘idea’ is not a subject protected under some aspects of Intellectual Property law. Under copyright law, protection is provided not for the “idea” made by the author but to the expression of an idea that is made by the author. In that sense, idea is an excluded aspect from protection.34 Some ideas such as purely mental acts and abstract theories are excluded from patentable subject matter,35 because it is not possible to stop people thinking or doing anything (for example mental arithmetic) and if a patent were granted, it would be unenforceable anyway.36

“Idea” as above defined differs from that of mental acts or abstract theories and is excluded from patentability. The probability of confusing the word adopted as ‘idea of patent’ with the excluded mental acts is high. The dictionary meaning of word “idea” possesses multiple meanings. The word ‘idea’ suggests plan; aim; or suggestion; all of which are ideal to cover the technical meaning of invention. However, the same word (idea) may include some different connotations such as a “mental picture” or “thought” which might be capable of explaining the impracticable.37

However, unlike in copyright law, in the law of patent, “idea” is protected. In fact, it is much more true to say that the patent is for the “idea” as distinguished from the expression protected under copyright law. In fact a patent can be protected from exploitation by others because the idea is encapsulated in the invention.38 E.g. an idea of making a new type of photocopier, which is more efficient in its reproduction than the existing one, is protected under the patent law. However, the same idea incorporated in an article by the person who first conceived that idea might not be protectable under copyright law. The same idea of making that photocopier can be expressed by another person using different wording and a different expression without infringing the copyright of the first person.

The nature of patent protection was described by Buckley J. in Hikcton’s Patent Syndicate v. Patents and Machine Improvements Co Ltd. as;

33 See the WIPO Model Law for Developing Countries on Invention (1979).

34 See ‘WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook: Policy, Law and Use’, Geneva, June 2001, p 41.

35 For example see the Section 62(3) (c) of the Intellectual Property Act of Sri Lanka. It excludes schemes, rules etc as they perform purely mental acts.

36 See Bainbridge, David.Intellectual Property law, p 308.

37 See the word idea in Collins English Learner’s Dictionary.

38 See the above Bainbridge, David.Intellectual Property, p 267.

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Every invention to support a patent must…. either suggest a new way of making something… or it may mean the way of producing a new article altogether; but I think you are losing the grasp of the substance and seizing the shadow when you say that the invention is the manufacture as distinguished from the idea. It is much more true to say that the patent is for the idea as distinguished from the thing manufactured. No doubt you cannot patent an idea, which you have simply conceived, and have suggested no way of carrying it out, but the invention consists in a thing or of conceiving something and suggesting a way of doing it.”39(emphasis is added)

It is therefore obvious that the “idea” is protected under patent law. However, an invention is something more than an idea of an inventor. In short, invention is not only an idea, but consists of both an idea - that is the conceptual part of the thing conceived, and a way of making it.

his explanation of US Patent law describes that any invention at least at its application stage should come beyond its conceptual step to satisfy the possibility of explaining the way of making it or reducing it to practice. Therefore, it is obvious that a mere idea or thinking of an inventor does not create an invention.

The interpretation given by the UK court on this matter draws no distinction from the definition given by the US court. In Gale’s Application, commenting upon the Patent Act 1977, s.1 (2), Nicholls L.J. observed:

When considering these provisions, it is helpful to have in mind the principle of patent law, well established before the Act, that an idea or discovery as such is not patentable. It is the practical application of an idea or discovery which leads to patentability…40

The Sri Lankan law admits this situation when defining an invention as an “idea of an inventor which permits in practice the solution to a specific problem in the field of technology...” (Emphasis added). The word idea, which permits in practice the solution, might imply that this idea should not be an abstract idea but one that is practically applicable hence, it does not consist of only a conceptual part or mere idea, but covers a practical aspect of a new way of carrying it out.

39 (1909) 26 RPC 339 at 348

40 (1991) R.P.C. 305 (C.A.)

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However, as discussed earlier, in a country like Sri Lanka where the inventiveness in the area of patent law is not significantly developed and not having a supporting case law tradition to define basic concepts of patent law, a clear and meaningful definition for each and every basic concept of patent law is essential. One of the problems faced by the inventors in countries like Sri Lanka while seeking a patent protection is whether the new thing made by the person is an invention within the required meaning of an invention by the Act and the problem arises when explaining the invented thing properly in the patent application. A definition, which covers every aspect of an invention with a plain and simple explanation, is therefore important.

The Japanese patent law by its definition gives a full and meaningful explanation to the word invention. A comparison can be made of the two when the two definitions are analyzed.

Invention means an idea of an inventor which permits in practice the solution to a specific problem in the field of technology. - Sri Lanka.

Invention in this law means the highly advanced creation of technical ideas by which a law of nature is utilized. - Japan.

The Japanese patent law provides invention as a highly advanced creation of technical ideas by which a law of nature is utilized. The meaning of law of nature has been discussed in the first part of this paper. The phrase “creation of technical ideas” is more meaningful other than explaining an invention as an “idea of an inventor” which might have, as discussed earlier, a misleading meaning. After all, an invention is a creation of technical idea and not an idea of an inventor and these words “creation of technical ideas” apparently are covered in every aspect of an invention such as inventive concept and method of implementing that concept.

3.Conclusion

It is highlighted in this paper that the absence of a clear definition given for invention means an absence of a proper guideline to a court. In the absence of having a clear definition on invention the court would have to extend its jurisdiction and its discretion to interpret what are inventions and what are patentable inventions. This would create problems in countries where a well developed case law system does not exist.

Further, it is analyzed the importance of identifying the difference between law of nature and its utilization by human interventions in determining the nature of an invention. This will again provide a firm direction for both inventors and examiners of patent in verifying the primary requirements of an invention. Particularly, in a country where the required inventiveness of the

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people is not high, this classification will assist them to follow the correct path in their selection of creations, manufacturing new inventions, application for patents and granting patents.

In proving ‘inventiveness’ of an invention, it is recommended that Sri Lankan patent law should require ‘technical advancement’ as a character of invention. This will mainly help to reduce complexities that may arise at the time of seeking protection for ‘new things’ as to whether they should be protected under patent, copyright, industrial design law or any other aspect of intellectual property law such as utility models.

In deciding the nature of an invention which can subsequently be patented, satisfying the requirement to what extent it differs from the existing knowledge and law of nature is very important. This is important in the wake of reducing rudimentary nature of inventions are being patented (which may not be inventive) with the Patent Office. The researcher, while recognizing the importance of providingprotection for technically ‘low-advanced’ inventions which may have some utility value, emphasizes that there should be separate laws and legal mechanism to distinguishthe protection provided for patentable inventions and utility models under the patent law of Sri Lanka.

*************

References

Adelman, Martin J (1989),Cases and Materials on Patent Law, West Group, St. Paul, Minn. Bainbridge, David. Intellectual Property, Third edition Barrett M.(2000), Intellectual Property- Patent Trademarks and Copyrights, London. Bently L. and B Sherman (2001), Intellectual Property Law, Oxford. Cornish, W. (2010), Intellectual Property: Patents, Copyright, Trademarks and Allied rights, London. Davis J. (2008), Intellectual Property Law, Oxford. IDLO Hand book (2003), Intellectual Property in Practice; How to Protect and Enforce IPR, Colombo. Schmookler, J (1986), Invention and Economic Growth, Harvard University Press, Chapter 1. Taraporevala V. J. (2013), Law of Intellectual Property, New Delhi. The American Heritage Dictionary based on the New Second College Edition, (1989) Dell Publishing, New York. Wadehra B.L. (2013), Law Relating to Intellectual Property, New Delhi. WIPO Intellectual Property Hand book,(2001), Policy, Law and Use, Geneva. WIPO Training Manual (1989), Introduction to patent law and practice, Geneva.

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CONSUMER SHOPPING PREFERENCE TOWARDS ORGANIZED RETAILING IN BANGLADESH Robaka Shamsher Assistant Professor School of Business Chittagong Independent University (CIU) Minhaz Complex, 12, Jamal Khan Road, Chittagong-4000, Bangladesh [email protected]

Absrtact

Consumer behavior has changed dramatically in the past decade which is diversifying the consumers’ needs and choices on their daily necessities. In today’s dynamic and competitive business environment, retailers must thoroughly understand and predict how the consumers behave in purchasing various goods and services for their use.Over the last few decades the retail industry has been experiencing huge and dynamic changes all over the world through the emergence of supermarketsas the dominant retail form. This article is dedicated to explore and examine the changing consumer preferences toward the organized shopping practice. Results of study reveals significant changes in the area of preferential aspects of consumers’ extensive bargaining to the preference of fixed price, convenient shopping environment, payment mechanism, ways and means of retailing and the like.

Keywords: Consumer preference, supermarkets, retailers, shopping practice, retail industry

Introduction

Bangladesh retail industry is accomplishing greater rebellion through the growing establishment of organized retail shops which is changing the entire shopping preferences of urban consumers in terms of store choice behavior.Contemporarily organized retail business is booming rapidly which is intensifying and changing the urban shopping behavior towards store convenience (Jinfeng and Zhilong, 2009; Datta, 2010;Verma and Madan, 2011), products excellence, customer empathy, comfy atmosphere (Sinha, 2003; Shamsher and Hossain, 2011) with enormous enjoyment. Today retailers are creating pleasant shoppingexperiencesfor the customersbyappreciatingstorepreferences with proficiency and circumspection(Shamsher, Abdullah and Saha, 2012).

In Bangladesh the profound attention toward organized retailing has been enhanced as the presenttrade landscape shifted towards the massive development of superstores partly in the urban region of the country (Shamsher and Hossain, 2012; Akbar, 2013; Shamsher, 2014). The move has been more literally possible because of the gradual cultural and social changes, increase in the number of dual carrier families, growth of industrializationand inclination of larger expenditure by the consumers (Shamsher, Abdullah and Saha, 2012). The growth of superstore culture has been more intensified since the most recent blessings of hi-tech advancement of social networking sites like face book where these retail shops are able to connect directly with the consumers and promote their product with no expenses at all.

Besides the unorganized retailing and scrappy traditional stores a good number of superstores are also blossoming to originate modernized retail trend in Bangladesh which are creating new opportunities for the business enterprises to invest more in this sector. Nonetheless, the concept of superstores has

155 successfully changed the lifestyle, preferences and needsof Bangladeshi shoppers that are facilitating to increase consumerconfidence.Besides the large superstores like Agora, Meena Bazar, Nandan, Khulshi Mart, and Shopnovarioussmall and medium enterprises are also successfullyexpanding this sector(Shamsher and Hossain, 2012). Consequently, Different academicians and practitioners are also seemingly interested to flourish this newly established culture of superstores that are contributing to changing shopping preferences of Bangladeshi shoppers (Shamsher and Hossain, 2011;Azad, Hossain&Parveen , 2011; Kashem, 2012; Shamsher and Hossain, 2012; Akbar, 2013;Shamsher, 2014). 1. RETAIL SCENARIO OF BANGLADESH

Retail Industry of Bangladesh is going through a radical change since the last decade toward organized retailing due to the introduction of superstore concept. These stores are successfully operating in the urban cites of Bangladesh by providing customers hassle-free comfy atmosphere to purchase their daily necessities (Shamsher and Hossain, 2012). In a developing country like Bangladesh superstores are gradually getting popular as shoppers preference has shifted towards convenience and comfortable shopping practice.

These stores are offeringself-service system with a wide variety of merchandise, organized into different shelves/departments. Under a single roof consumers are obtaining all Fast Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) that actually denote the mainstream of consumer purchases including fresh commodities (vegetables, meat and fish), toiletry (toothpaste, shampoo, soap), dry food (bakery products, processed fruits, soft Drinks etc.), grocery products (rice, sugar, flour, potato),gift stuffs(teddy bears, cards, toys) and many other necessities. With the ever increasing demand of retail shoppers superstores are delivering quality products by ensuring quality control, cleanliness, proper storage, packingand systemic refrigeration (Shamsher, 2014).

Bangladesh retail industry witnessed a rapid growth in the last 14 yearswhen in 2000 Rahimafroz, the operating company of Agora, started its retailing trade in Dhaka city. In the era before 2000 retail trade were dominantly controlled by thousands of small retailers in the traditional stores or bazars enduring no attention from the business enterprises whereshoppers solely had to depend on these unorganized wet markets to buy their essentials (Shamsher and Hossain, 2011). But the old retail landscape is changing rapidly with the increased industrialization, rising per capita income of middle segment, impact of global products etc are flourishing the growth of organized shops into a new dimension by offering the consumers hygienic foods at competitive prices, compared to those offered by retailers in the kitchen markets where commodities are sold mostly in unhygienic condition (BSOA, 2012).

Around 15-20 percent annual sales growth rate further 30 companies are adding more than 200 outlets tospread into the industry (Kashem, 2012). The data provided by Bangladesh Supermarket Owners Association (BSOA, 2012), at present the retail market which is worth about Tk 747.50 billion (74,750 crore) is growing at an annual rate of 14 per cent will reach Tk 1307.38 billion (130738 crore) by 2015 and Tk 3027.25 bilion (302725 crore) by 2021. On the other hand, the supermarkets worth about Tk 172.5 billion (1725 crore) will reach Tk 756.8 billion by 2015 and Tk 206.50 billion (20650 crore) by 2021. Further added by BOSA (2012) only two percent Bangladeshis consumers do prefer shopping from supermarkets while in neighboring India, five percent,14 percent in Sri Lanka and highest 18 percent consumers in the Maldives go to supermarkets.Organized retail sector is contributing in the economic development by creating over 10,000 jobs and needs more policy support for its development. In nearer

156 future more door will be open by the supermarket culture for more employment opportunities (Kashem, 2012).

As the super store concept is relatively new compared to the other developed countries few research has been found on Bangladesh organized retail sector. As such, Ahmed (2007) carried out a study to investigate customer motivation that influence shopping attitude in choosing modernized shopping centers of Khulna city where research outcome revealed that components like available Fresh and original goods, cheaper prices, convenient store locations, strong brand image, and eye-catching store tangibles have significant effect in making shopping choice between modernized shopping centers and traditional shopping centers. Likewise, another study by ShamsherandHossain (2012) showed that gender, occupation and income positively influenced choice pattern of the Bangladeshi shoppers toward traditional retail stores and superstores. A write-up explored significant changes in the area of behavioral pattern of consumers’, extensive bargaining to the preference of fixed price, convenient shopping environment, modern payment mechanism, preferences for branded and imported product found to influence the shopping behavior for food and cosmetics shopping practice of Bangladeshi consumers (Shamsher, Abdullah and Saha, 2012). A study was conducted by Arif (2013) to focus on the factors for increasing establishment of superstores in Dhaka city. Results of the study found that untidy atmosphere, dirty floor, insufficient space for movement, unhygienic arrangement of commodities, bargaining process, inconsistent price and traffic jam are influencing consumers in Dhaka city to change their shopping practice from unorganizedretailing toward modern and well-decorated superstores.

Tinne (2011) studied how different factors like pricing strategies, store characteristics, situational factors and promotional activities influenced the impulse buying behavior of superstore consumers in Bangladesh.In another study Jahan and Noor (2012) focused on the marketing activities of the fastest growing superstore Meena Bazar. The study found thatby promoting products at premium price and ensuring the quality of products Meena Bazar’s promotional programs have significantly influenced consumers’ response.

A study was conducted to measure the service quality dimensions of Bangladeshi shoppers in Chittagong city. The results showed that a high positive correlation existed between five service dimensions namely tangibility, reliability, assurance, responsiveness and empathy and it was found that customers’ evaluation of service quality was more or less similar across different age groups (Ahsanat el., 2013).

It was found that researchers are relatively interested to measure Bangladeshi consumers’ satisfaction towards shopping from the superstore. As such Azad, Hossain and Parveen (2011) found that customer satisfaction on supermarket depends on the differentaspects like age, gender, education level, income and expenditure, number of visiting time to Supermarket, product availability, price etc. Another study revealed that most influencing factors for customer satisfaction of superstores in Bangladesh were product factors followed by store service factor and customer facilities factor (Kashem and Islam, 2012). Equivalently kashem (2012) identified factors like quality products, products variety and special products, location, hygienic environment, hassle free shopping and freshness, competitive price, service and layout of the store that influenced the shoppers’ attitude towards store satisfaction in Chittagong city.

In contemporary time Akber (2013) revealed that perceived service quality, perceived product quality, perceived price, and product assortment found to be the strong antecedents of shoppers satisfaction

157 with high statistical significance which showed most powerful impact on shoppers loyalty and repatronage intention (Akber, 2014) among the Bangladeshi superstore consumers. Shamsher (2014) revealed that store appearance followed by store convenience, product quality, and service quality influenced store loyalty of the Bangladeshi shoppers in Dhaka city. 1. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The broad objective of this study is to explore the shopping preference towards organized retailing of Bangladeshi shoppers’. The specific objectives are:

 To understand the shopping time preference of customers visiting super stores  To identify the satisfaction level of customers regarding the attributes of super stores  To focus on the motive of customer visiting the super stores  To understand the Preferences of consumers regarding the additional facilities in the super stores  To identify the demographic profile of customers visiting super stores.

2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The study was empirical in nature where both primary and secondary information were used.Secondary data were collected from various published sources including books, online journals, newspapers, magazines, and reports. Primary data were collected from shoppers of super stores. Since the population of shoppers were unknown, Cochran's (1963, p. 75) formula has been applied to determine the sample size of the shoppers. On the basis of the formula, at 95% confidence level and 9% sampling error with maximum degree of variability ( p=.5, q=.5), the sample size for the shoppers arrived at 120. Data were collected from different areas of Chittagong metropolitan City on the basis of simple random sampling. All the data were collected during the 2nd and 3rd week of September, 2014.

A self-administered closed-end questionnaire was used to collect primary data from customers. The respondents were asked about their frequency and time of purchase. Respondents were given several attributes like considerations about fair price, quality, distance of shopping stores from their home, the cleanliness of the shopping stores, cooperation of salesperson, their bargaining tendency etc. Respondents were also asked about additional facilities like coffee shop, juice bar, places for bookshop, children’s play zone and a medicine corner. All these were measured on a five-point Likert Scale. Before collecting data an in-depth study wascarried out through statistically tested pilot survey. For the pilot survey twenty customers weretested before conducting the final survey. Comprehensive literature survey was undertaken before preparing the questionnaires.

Mall intercept technique has been used to collect data from the shoppers. To accumulate data from both housewives and income generating people in different business and service sector respondents were interviewed for half an hour in the morning (10.30 a.m-12.30 p.m.) and evening (5.30 p.m. -7.30 p.m.) equivalently. Throughout the mentioned time, the customers who were entered in the store were approached immediately with the questionnaire. Five customers were interviewed on a single day. Statistical tools including percentage, average, weighted average, frequency distribution, and z test were employed to analyze the data. All the calculations were manually conducted.

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5. FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

5.1 Frequency of visit in the retail stores

5.1.1 Hypotheses Percentage of consumers visiting daily is not equal to 17 percent.

Percentage of consumers visiting weekly is not equal to 42 percent.

Percentage of consumers visiting monthly is not equal to 42 percent.

Percentage of consumers visiting on weekly holidays is not equal to 17 percent.

Percentage of consumers visiting irregularly is not equal to 17 percent.

Table 1: Frequency of Visit-daily/weekly

Frequency of Visit Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

56 46.7 46.7 Weekly Monthly 23 19.2 65.8

Daily 1 .8 66.7

Irregular 28 23.3 90.0

Weekly Holidays 12 10.0 100.0

Total 120 100.0

5.1.2 Analysis Technique Used: The comparative analysis of the Frequency of Occurrences is carried out. Also, with 95% confidence level, a two tail Z test was done, with degrees of Freedom “infinity” to test the hypotheses. Table 2: Findings of Frequency of Visit

Hypotheses Actual Critical Z Calculated Acceptance/Rejec Type of Visit Percentage Percentage value Z value tion of Null Hypotheses

Weekly 42 46.7 + 1.64 +1.06 Accepted

Monthly 42 19.2 + 1.64 -5.16 Rejected

Daily 17 .8 + 1.64 -2.67 Rejected

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Irregular 20 23.3 + 1.64 +1.87 Rejected

Weekly 17 10.0 + 1.64 -2.08 Rejected holidays

5.1.3 Interpretations:Maximum consumers like to visit the Retail Stores on a weekly basis. The second largest group is those who do not follow any specific schedule for visiting to Retail Stores. This two group contains total 70% of the total respondents. On the other hand, the least number of consumers, only 0.8% visits the stores on a daily basis. Therefore, the Retail Stores can expect a customer visiting them on any day of a week. Weekly holidays bears significant importance, as 10% of the consumers are ‘weekly holiday visitor’.

5.2 Preference of visiting time of the day/nightin the super stores

5.2.1 Hypotheses Percentage of consumers visiting in the morning is not equal to 22 percent.

Percentage of consumers visiting in the noon is not equal to 13 percent.

Percentage of consumers visiting in the afternoon is not equal to 15 percent.

Percentage of consumers visiting in the Evening is not equal to 30 percent.

Percentage of consumers visiting irregularly is not equal to 20 percent.

Table 3: Time of visit-morning/noon/afternoon/evening

Time of Visit Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

10 8.3 8.3 Morning Noon 3 2.5 10.8

Afternoon 12 10.0 20.8

Evening 79 65.8 86.7

Irregular 16 13.3 100.0

Total 120 100.0

5.2.2 Analysis Technique Used: The comparative analysis of the Frequency of Occurrences is carried out. Also, with 95% confidence level, a two tail Z test was done, with degrees of Freedom “infinity” to test the hypotheses. Table 4: Findings of Time of Visit

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Time of Hypotheses Actual Critical Observed Acceptance/Rejec Visit Percentage Percentage tion of Null Z Z Hypotheses Value Value

22 8.3 + 1.64 -3.70 Rejected Morning Noon 13 2.5 + 1.64 -3.34 Rejected

Afternoon 15 10.0 + 1.64 -1.59 Accepted Evening 45 65.8 + 1.64 +8.75 Rejected

Irregular 5 13.3 + 1.64 -1.87 Rejected

5.2.3 Interpretations: Respondents reply indicates that evening is the pick hour for retail stores business. The largest percentage of customers visits Retail Stores in the evening. 13.3 percent customers are irregular visitor who does not follow any specific time for visiting the Retail Stores. Therefore, throughout the day, the Retail Stores may any number of customers to step in their shop, but the pick hour for them is evening.

5.3 shoppers’ comfort withpresent retail stores timetable

5.3.1 Hypothesis Percentage of consumers who are satisfied with present timetable of the retail stores is not equal to 92 percent.

Table 5: Comfortable with present timing

Respondents Reply Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

Yes 111 92.5 92.5

No 9 7.5 100.0

Total 120 100.0

5.3.2 Analysis Technique Used: Frequency is used for analysis. Also, with 95% confidence level, a two tail Z test was done, with degrees of Freedom “infinity” to test the hypotheses.

Table 6: Level of Satisfaction in Relation to Timetable

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Hypotheses Actual Critical Z Observed Z Acceptance/Rejection of Percentage Percentage Null Hypotheses Value Value

92 92.5 + 1.64 0.206 Accepted

5.3.3 Interpretations: Consumers are highly satisfied with the existing timetable of the retails stores. However, those who are not satisfied had a wide variety of suggestions for timing. But none of those suggestions were for beyond mid night. Most of them suggested for timing up to 11 pm.

5.4 Customers view about Keeping Retail Stores Open for 24 Hours

5.4.1 Hypothesis Percentage of consumers who want retail stores to remain open for 24 hours is not equal to 42.

Table 7: Respondents opinion about keeping retail stores open for 24 hours

Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

46 38.3 38.3 Yes No 74 61.7 100.0

Total 120 100.0

5.4.2 Analysis Technique Used: Frequency is used for analysis. Also, with 95% confidence level, a two tail Z test was done, with degrees of Freedom “infinity” to test the hypotheses. Table 8: Consumers View About Keeping Retail Stores Open for 24 Hours

Hypotheses Actual Critical Z Observed Z Acceptance/Rejection of Percentage Percentage Null Hypotheses Value Value

42 38.3 +1.64 -0.838 Accepted

5.4.3 Interpretations: The larger chunk of the consumers, 61.7%, does not feel that, it is necessary to keep the retail stores open round the clock. They are comfortable with existing timetable. Those who want the retails stores to remain open for 24 hours, they want to use the store in emergency need & so that busy persons can come without any specific time 5.5 Respondents opinion about providing home service

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5.5.1 Hypotheses Percentage of consumers who want retail stores to provide home service is not equal to 83.

Table 9: Respondents opinion about providing home service

Frequency Cumulative Percent Percent Yes 87 72.5 72.5

No 33 27.5 100.0

Total 120 100.0

5.5.2 Analysis Technique Used: Frequency count is used for analysis. Also, with 95% confidence level, a two tail Z test was done, with degrees of Freedom “infinity” to test the hypotheses.

Table 10: Findings of Home Service Hypotheses Actual Critical Z Observed Z Acceptance/Rejection of Percentage Percentage Null Hypotheses Value Value

83 72.5 +1.64 -3.125 Rejected

5.5.3 Interpretation: Maximum consumers (72.5%) have welcomed the idea of home service by the retail stores. Those who do not feel it necessary do so because of high cost, limited preferences of variety and uncertainty about quality.

5.6 Reasons for visiting the super stores

5.6.1 Hypotheses FMCG consumers of Dhaka city do not visit retail store forfair price.

FMCG consumers of Dhaka city do not visit retail store to save time.

FMCG consumers of Dhaka city do not visit retail store for cleanliness.

FMCG consumers of Dhaka city do not visit retail store to avoid unwanted crowed.

FMCG consumers of Dhaka city do not visit retail store as the sales persons are co-operative.

FMCG consumers of Dhaka city do not visit retail store for variety of products.

FMCG consumers of Dhaka city do not visit retail store to avoid bargaining.

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FMCG consumers of Dhaka city do not visit retail store to get better quality.

FMCG consumers of Dhaka city do not visit retail store as commodities are placed in organized fashion.

FMCG consumers of Dhaka city do not visit retail store for air condition.

The following data were collected using a ranking scale. The ranks put by respondents were summarized. For the Rank 1, a value 10 was assigned against individual variable. For the Rank 2, value 9 and like wise, for Rank 10 value 1 was assigned.

Table 11: Attributes of retail stores Price Save Clean Unwanted Sales Variety Avoid Quality Organized AC Fashion Time liness Crowd Persons Of good Bargain Co-op Rank 1 6 46 16 7 0 18 18 5 1 3

2 17 20 17 16 2 11 17 11 5 4

3 10 16 17 25 3 15 16 7 8 2

4 10 9 14 23 6 12 14 22 6 4

5 8 10 17 12 17 6 19 14 8 9

6 11 3 13 12 21 14 10 17 13 5

7 15 5 11 7 20 14 3 13 21 12

8 13 5 7 6 16 9 11 11 20 23

9 14 4 4 9 22 4 5 14 30 14

10 16 2 4 3 13 17 7 6 8 44

Value 609 951 791 774 476 697 785 647 486 378

From the sum total of assigned values, the following ranking of attributes was found:

Table 12: Findings of attributes of retail stores

Rank Attribute Received value

1 Save Time 951

2 Cleanliness 791

3 Avoid Bargaining 785

4 Un Wanted Crowd 774

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5 Variety of Goods 697

6 Better Quality 647

7 Fair Price 609

8 Organized Fashion of Commodities 486

9 Sales Persons Cooperation 476

10 Air Condition 378

5.6.2 Interpretation: Consumers value ‘‘saving time” more than any other attribute for visiting retail stores. Cleanliness, Avoiding Bargaining and Avoiding Un Wanted Crowd are the other major important attributes. Air Conditioned environment was identified as least valued attribute.

5.7 The level satisfaction regarding the attributes of retail stores

 Price  Product Quality  Cleanliness  Avoiding Unwanted Crowd  Variety of Goods  Sales Persons Service

The inputs were taken from respondents using a Likert Scale. Respondents were compelled to rate each concept on a 5-point scale. The differences between consecutive numbers in the scale were equal.

5.7.1 Hypotheses: At 95% confidence level, it can be said that the mean rating of the individual attribute will be less than 4. 5.7.1 Analysis Technique Used: One tail Z test was carried out.

Table 13: Satisfied attributes of retail stores

Concepts Statistic Std. Hypothesized Accept or Mean Reject Null Error Hypothesis

Price Mean 3.60 6.84E-02 4.00 and Rejected above

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95% Confidence Lower Bound 3.46 Interval for Mean Upper Bound 3.74

Product quality Mean 4.18 4.58E-02 4.00 & above Accepted

95% Confidence Lower Bound 4.09 Interval for Mean Upper Bound 4.27

Cleanliness Mean 4.49 5.92E-02 4.00 and Accepted above

95% Confidence Lower Bound 4.37 Interval for Mean Upper Bound 4.61

Un Wanted Crowd Mean 4.10 6.94E-02 4.00 and Rejected above

95% Confidence Lower Bound 3.96 Interval for Mean Upper Bound 4.24

Variety of good Mean 4.23 7.55E-02 4.00 and Accepted above

95% Confidence Lower Bound 4.08 Interval for Mean Upper Bound 4.38

Sales Persons Service Mean 3.80 5.99E-02 4.00 and Rejected above

95% Confidence Lower Bound 3.68 Interval for Mean Upper Bound 3.92

5.7.3 Interpretation: Consumer of retail stores is highly satisfied with the Product Quality, Cleanliness, and Variety of Goods and customer satisfaction level is low with regard to Price, Unwanted Crowd and Sales Persons Service. 5.8 Preferences regarding the additional facilities in the super stores

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 A place for coffee shop, juice bar  A larger parking place  Places for bookshop  A place for children’s play  A medicine corner  A place for cyber café  Customized product information service

The inputs were taken from respondents using a Likert Scale. Respondents were compelled to rate each concept on a 5-point scale. The differences between consecutive numbers in the scale were equal. The rating on the scale were as follows:

5.8.1 Hypotheses: At 95% confidence level, it can be said that mean preference of the individual additional facility will be less than 4.

5.8.2 Analysis Technique Used:One tail Z test was carried out.

Table 14: Attributes of retail stores

Concepts Statistic Std. Hypothesized Accept or Mean Reject Null Error Hypothesis

Coffee shop, juice bar Mean 3.98 9.17E-02 4.00 and Rejected above

95% Confidence Lower Bound 3.80 Interval for Mean Upper Bound 4.16

A larger parking place Mean 4.52 6.03E-02 4.00 and Accepted above

95% Confidence Lower Bound 4.40 Interval for Mean Upper Bound 4.64

Places for bookshop Mean 3.31 .11 4.00 and Rejected above

95% Confidence Lower Bound 3.09

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Interval for Mean Upper Bound 3.09

A place for children’s Mean 3.86 .11 4.00 and Rejected play above

95% Confidence Lower Bound 3.64 Interval for Mean Upper Bound 4.07

A medicine corner Mean 3.77 .11 4.00 and Rejected above

95% Confidence Lower Bound 3.55 Interval for Mean Upper Bound 3.98

A place for cyber café Mean 2.56 .14 4.00 and Rejected above

95% Confidence Lower Bound 2.29 Interval for Mean Upper Bound 2.83

Customized product Mean 3.65 .10 4.00 and Rejected information service above

95% Confidence Lower Bound 3.44 Interval for Mean 3.86

5.8.3 Interpretation: The above results showed that Consumers mostly prefer to have a larger parking place.Among other additional facilities, a place for Coffee shop/Juice bar was identified as preferred by largest percentage of respondents (77.5%, rated as slightly preferred/most preferred), followed by Children Play Corner (71.6%) and the lowest preference goes for Cyber Café by only 28.4% respondents, followed by a Place for Bookshop, 49%.

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5.9 Gender of the respondent

5.9.1 Hypothesis of Gender: Percentage of male customers visiting retail stores is not equal to 25.

Table 15: Gender of Respondent

Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

Male 76 63.3 63.3

Female 44 36.7 100.0

Total 120 100.0

5.9.2 Analysis Technique Used:Frequency count is used for analysis. Also, with 95% confidence level, a two tail Z test was done, with degrees of Freedom “infinity” to test the hypotheses.

Table 16: Findings of Gender visiting retail stores Hypotheses % Actual % Critical Z Observed Z Acceptance/Rejection of Null Hypotheses Value Value

25 63.3 +1.64 9.89 Rejected

5.9.3 Interpretation: This explains that, retail stores are visited more by male consumers than that of females.

5.10 Age of the respondent

5.10.1 Hypotheses of age 08 % FMCG consumers of Dhaka city visiting retail stores are not below 18 years of age.

08 % FMCG consumers of Dhaka city visiting retail stores are not between 18 –26 years old.

58 % FMCG consumers of Dhaka city visiting retail stores are not is between 26 - 36 years old.

33 % FMCG consumers of Dhaka city visiting retail stores are not is between 36 - 50 years old.

08 % FMCG consumers of Dhaka city visiting retail stores are not above 50 years old.

Table 17: Age category of Respondents

Age Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

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Below 18 6 5.0 5.0

18 to Below 26 24 20.0 25.0

26 to Below 36 60 50.0 75.0

36 to Below 50 25 20.8 95.8

Above 50 5 4.2 100

Total 120 100.0

5.10.2 Analysis Technique Used:Frequency count is used for analysis. Also, with 95% confidence level, a two tail Z test was done to test the hypothesis. Table 18: Findings of Age

Age Hypotheses Actual Critical Z Calculated Z Acceptance / Rejection of Percentage Percentage value value Null Hypotheses

Below 18 8 5.0 + 1.64 -1.2366 Accepted

18 to Below 26 8 20.0 + 1.64 +4.94 Rejected

26 to Below 36 58 50.0 + 1.64 -1.8140 Rejected

36 to Below 50 33 20.8 + 1.64 -2.904 Rejected

Above 50 8 4.2 + 1.64 -1.566 Accepted

5.10.3 Interpretation: Half of the consumers of retail stores are from 26 to 36 years of age. People of 18 to 26 and 36 to 50 years age group dominate most of the other half almost equally. Very young and old group visits very less to the stores.

5.11 Occupation of the respondent

5.11.1 Hypotheses for occupation 25 % occupation of FMCG consumers OfDhaka city visiting retail stores is not govt. services.

25 % occupation of FMCG consumers OfDhaka city visiting retail stores is not private services.

08 % occupation of FMCG consumers OfDhaka city visiting retail stores is not business.

17 % of FMCG consumers of Dhaka city visiting retail stores are not students.

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17 % of FMCG consumers of Dhaka city visiting retail stores are not teacher.

08 % of FMCG consumers of Dhaka city visiting retail stores are not housewives.

08 % of FMCG consumers of Dhaka city visiting retail stores are not doctor.

Table 19: Occupation of Respondents

Occupation Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

Government Service 14 11.7 11.7

Private Service 34 28.3 28.3

Business 26 21.7 21.7

Student 15 12.5 12.5

Teacher 6 5.0 5.0

House Wife 19 15.8 15.8

Un Employed 1 0.8 0.8

Doctor 3 2.5 2.5

Other Professionals 2 1.7 1.7

Total 120 100.0

5.11.2 Analysis Technique Used:Frequency count is used for analysis. Also, with 95% confidence level, a two-tail Z test was done to test the hypothesis.

Table 20: Findings of occupation of the respondents visiting retail stores

Occupation Hypotheses Actual Critical Z Calculated Z Acceptance/Reject Percentage Percentage value value ion of Null Hypotheses

Govt Service 25 11.7 + 1.64 -3.43 Rejected

Private Service 25 28.3 + 1.64 +0.85 Accepted

Business 08 21.7 + 1.64 -5.64 Rejected

Student 17 12.5 + 1.64 -1.34 Accepted

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Teacher 17 5.0 + 1.64 -3.57 Rejected

House Wife 08 15.8 + 1.64 +2.32 Rejected

Un Employed 1 .8 + 1.64

Doctor 08 2.5 + 1.64 -1.64 Accepted

Other Professionals 2 1.7 + 1.64

Total 120 100.0

5.11.3 Interpretation: Businesspersons and Private Service holders visits retails stores most. House Wives form a considerable portion of the visitors. The unemployed persons least visit these stores. 5.12 Incomeof the respondent

5.12.1 Hypotheses for income

08 % consumers visiting retail stores are not having income between 5001 - 10,000 taka.

25 % consumers visiting retail stores are not having income between 10,001-15,000 taka.

08 % consumers visiting retail stores are not having income between 15,001-20,000 taka.

17 % consumers visiting retail stores are not having income between 20,001-30,000 taka.

08 % consumers visiting retail stores are not having income between30,001-40,000 taka.

08 % consumers visiting retail stores are not having income between 40,001-100,000 taka.

08 % consumers visiting retail stores are not having income above 100,000 taka.

Table 21: Income level of respondents

Income Level Percent Cumulative Percent Frequency No Income 11 9.2 9.2

Up to 5000 3 2.5 11.7

5001 to 10000 4 3.3 15.0

10001 to 15000 13 10.8 25.8

15001 to 20000 17 14.2 40.0

20001 to 25000 15 12.5 52.5

25001 to 30000 14 11.7 64.2

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30001 to 40000 16 13.3 77.5

40001 to 60000 13 10.8 88.3

60001 to 80000 4 3.3 91.7

80001 to 100000 2 1.7 93.3

Above 100000 8 6.7 100.0

Total 120 100.0

5.12.2 Analysis Technique Used: Frequency count is used for analysis. Also, with 95% confidence level, a two-tail Z test was done to test the hypothesis.

Table 22: Findings from income

Income Level Frequency Percent Critical Z Calculated Z Acceptance/Rejection value value of Null Hypotheses

Up to 5000 3 2.5 + 1.64 -2.26 Rejected

5001 to 10000 4 3.3 + 1.64 -1.94 Rejected

10001 to 15000 13 10.8 + 1.64 -3.97 Rejected

15001 to 20000 28 23.3 + 1.64 6.30 Rejected

20001 to 30000 29 24.2 + 1.64 2.14 Rejected

30001 to 40000 16 13.3 + 1.64 2.18 Rejected

40001 to 60000 19 15.8 + 1.64 3.21 Rejected

Above 100000 8 6.7 + 1.64 -0.54 Accepted

Total 120 100.0

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5.12.3 Interpretation: Around 75% of the respondents have a household income between taka 10000 to 60000 taka. However, a considerable percentage (6.7%) of the visitors posses an income level above taka 100000.

5.13 Gender Wise Home Service Preference Table 23:

Gender * Home service? Crosstabulation

Count Home service? yes no Total Gender Male 51 25 76 Female 36 8 44 Total 87 33 120

Interpretation:Percentage of female consumers who prefer to have home service is significantly higher (82%) than the male (67%).

5.14 Home Service and Occupation

Occupation * Home service? Crosstabulation Table 24: Count Home service? yes no Total Occupation Govt Service 11 3 14

Private Service 24 10 34

Business 14 12 26

Student 15 15

Teacher 5 1 6 House Wife 14 5 19 Un Employed 1 1 Doctor 2 1 3 Other Professionals 1 1 2 Total 87 33 120

Interpretation: Results showed thatStudents do not prefer Home ServicewhereasGovernment and Private Service holders, Businesspersons and Doctors prefer to have home service and a significant portion of Housewives prefer to have Home Service facility

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5.15 Occupation Wise Preference for Keeping Stores Open 24 Hours

Table 25: Occupation * Open 24 hours? Crosstabulation

Count

Open 24 hours? yes no Total Occupation Govt Service 7 7 14

Private Service 15 19 34 Business 8 18 26 Student 6 9 15 Teacher 2 4 6 House Wife 7 12 19 Un Employed 1 1 Doctor 3 3 Other Professionals 1 1 2 Total 46 74 120

Interpretation: Results showed thatdoctors, teachers, housewives, students and businesspersons are more resistant to a 24-hour service by the retail stores whereasGovernment Service holders displayed an equal choice on both sides.

5.16Preference of Working Women to Visit Retail Stores

Table 26:

Gender * Occupation Crosstabulation Count

Occupation G.Svc P.Svc Business Std Teacher H.Wife Un Emp Doc Other Total GenderMale 13 23 26 6 5 1 2 76 Female 1 11 9 1 19 1 2 44 Total 14 34 26 15 6 19 1 3 2 120 Interpretation: Results showed that working women visits retail stores more than house wives/unemployed women.

5.17 Table 27: Gender Wise View About Keeping Retail Stores Open for 24 Hours

YES NO Total % Of YES % Of NO Male 31 45 76 40.79 59.21

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Female 15 29 44 34.09 65.91 Total 46 74 120

Interpretation: Results showed that Percentage of respondents is more for Male who want the retail stores to remain open for 24 hours whereas female respondents do not want the retail stores to remain open for 24 hours than male respondents.

5.18 Time Preference to Visit Retail Stores (Daily/Weekly/Monthly)

Gender * Frequency of Visit-daily/weekly Crosstabulation

CountTable 28: Frequency of Visit-daily/weekly

weekly

weekly monthly daily irregular holidays Total Gender Male 30 18 1 18 9 76 Female 26 5 10 3 44 Total 56 23 1 28 12 120

5.19 Time Within a Day/Night

Gender * Time of visit-morning/noon/afternoon/evening Crosstabulation

TableCount 29: Time of visit-morning/noon/afternoon/evening

morning noon afternoon evening irregular Total Gender Male 6 7 52 11 76

Female 4 3 5 27 5 44 Total 10 3 12 79 16 120

Interpretation :Female consumers percentage is significantly higher in case of Weekly visit to the retail stores (59% f and 39% m).Other than this, both Male and Female consumers posses similar time preferences.

5.20 Gender Wise Preference of Medicine Corner

Gender * Additional feature- medecine corner Crosstabulation TableCount 30: Additional feature- medecine corner totally not slightly not slightly most preferred preferred not sure preferred preferred Total Gender Male 8 1 25 19 23 76 Female 1 4 8 12 19 44 Total 9 5 33 31 42 120 176

Interpretation: Percentage of female considering the necessity is sufficiently more than male. 70.45% female either slightly or mostly prefer medicine corner as an additional feature. The male percentage is 55.26

Table 31: 5.21 Gender Wise Satisfaction Level – Price

Satisfaction- level-Price * Gender Crosstabulation

Count

Gender Male Female Total Satisfaction- dissatisfied 4 5 9 level-Price indifferent 24 16 40 satisfied 42 19 61 extremely satisfied 6 4 10 Total 76 44 120

Interpretation:Female respondents are relatively less satisfied in comparison to male. The percentage of indifferent and dissatisfied respondents is considerably high among the female (47.73% f, and 36.8%, m).

6.IMPLICATIONS, LIMITATION & FUTURE RESEARCH AGENDA

This write-up was an attempt to explore the shopping preference of organized retailing in Chittagong City. Shopping preference has been analyzed based on consumers’ response towards organized retail store. The research covered the demographic variables like gender, age, income, and occupation of the respondents for choosing a particular store. The super store concept is relatively new and fastest growing sector in Bangladesh because it has brought the global shopping experience to the consumers. Clean outlets, smooth service delivery, and product variety are some of the primary reasons behind choosing a super store. The findings indicate that super store concept has successfully attracted the higher income people of upper middle class who care for product quality and don’t want the hassle of traditional bargaining system in the crowded wet markets. Moreover supermarkets have changed the shopping styles of the city dwellers especially for the dual income families who prefer clean environment, cozy, disciplined and time-saving shopping option with varieties of commodities under one roof. But the high cost of preservation and assurance of quality raise the product costs which make the super stores charge relatively higher prices of some products for which it might have failed to draw attention of the majority of the lower income people. They are comparatively price sensitive than the higher class people and have a common tendency to purchase form the traditional bazaar where the environment and cleanliness is out of question. Therefore the analyses suggest that marketers of the super stores should promote their product at a minimum cost and inform the customers about the

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assurance of quality in terms of better hygiene and freshness, so that they can encourage the majority of lower middle class people to purchase from super stores rather than the traditional bazaar.

However, this study suffers from some limitations. First it was conducted only in Chittagong Metropolitan area which does not represent the complete picture of the nation as far store preference is concerned. Thus in future other researchers may conduct this study on a much bigger and wider arena. Another shortcoming of the study is its sample size due to which results may have been affected. Future researchers, in this regard, should consider collecting larger samples to avoid sampling error.Moreover some important demographic variables including education and marital status were not included in the research design. These variables might have had their influences on the results of current study. Additionally, the preferential aspects of shoppers could have been widened with the inclusion of some other factors such as previous shopping experience, word-of –mouth communication, impact of promotional offers and the like. Despite these limitations, the researcher feel confident that the results of the study deserve consideration for policy making.

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An econometric model between velocity of money and unemployment rate in Sri Lanka A.G.K.N.Alupotha1, A.A.I.Perera2 and P.M.L.K.Karunaratne3 1Department of Mathematics and Philosophy of Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Technology, The Open University of Sri Lanka, Polgolla, Sri Lanka. (Email: [email protected]) 2Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. (Email: [email protected]) 3Ceylon Petroleum Corporation, Colombo, Sri Lanka. (Email: [email protected])

Abstract In this paper, a non linear econometric model is proposed to illustrate the relationship between velocity of money and unemployment rate in Sri Lanka. In economics, velocity of money is being concerned as a better yardstick to get an illustration about the domestic inflation of a country or any economic region. Unemployment refers to part of the labour force, or workforce, which is willing to work at the prevailing wage rate and is looking for a job but is not getting employment. Unemployment rate is the most frequently cited measure for the unemployment and it is being calculated in terms of percentage of out- of-job labour force to the total labour force. In our analysis, annual authenticdata from 1978 to 2012 pertaining to the velocity of money and unemployment rate were used to derive the final implicit non- linear regression model and moreover, model has been verified using an appropriate hypothesis and back testing.

Key words: Econometric model, Velocity of money, Unemployment rate.

Introduction In economics, the rate at which money in circulation is used for purchasing goods and servicesis being defined as velocity of money and it is usually concerned as a better yardstick to get a sense about the money supply and its transmigration insidea country. Therefore, high velocity of money exhibits relatively high rate of inflation and hence velocity of money and inflation rate are positively correlated. Phillips curve gives a predominant illustration about inflation and unemployment. According to the Phillips curve, an inverse relationship should be prevailed between inflation rate and unemployment rate. In Sri Lanka, inflation rate versus unemployment rate does not follow Phillips curve due to imperfect infrastructure facilities, easily non-transferable resources, unavailability of developed capital market, unavailability of full employment and mismatch in labour capital. Unemployment refers to part of the labour force, or workforce, which is willing to work at the prevailing wage rate and is looking for a job but is not getting employment [2]. Unemployment rate is themost frequently cited measure for

180 the unemployment and it is being calculated in terms of percentage of out-of-job labour force to the total labour force. Labour force projections provide basic information to determine or plan future earnings and incomes. Moreover, according to the Okun’s law, deterioration of employment opportunities leads to reduction of real gross national product [2].The gross national product is another measure of national income. It includes the income of the resident nationals which they receive abroad, and excludes the incomes generated locally but accruing to the non-nationals. Real gross domestic product is being estimated at constant prices in a chosen year [2]. Hence, in order to maintain the stabilization of the entire economy, both velocity of money and unemployment rate have to be regulated properly and perusal of relationship between these two will give a clear deportment of the economy.

1.1 Research Methods

First and foremost, since 1978 to 2012 annual authentic data pertaining to the velocity of money and unemployment rate were obtained from the annual report of Central Bank of Sri Lanka.Owing to unavailability of the data pertaining to the unemployment rates in the annual report of Central Bank of Sri Lanka, mostly for the period 1978-1990, it was interpolated for the relevant years using spline functions.Furthermore, Table 01 was constructed to fit the spline functions and new variable “” denotes the independent variable of the spline functions. Year Unemployment rate() 1978 0 14.8 1981 3 17.9 1982 4 11.7 1985 7 14.1 1986 8 15.5 1990 12 15.9 Table 01 The spline functions were assumed as [3] () = + − + − + − for ∈ , and = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.

In order to compute, and for = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, following difference equations were used:

ℎ + 2ℎ + ℎ + ℎ − − = 3 − for = 0, 1, 2, 3. (1) ℎ ℎ

− ℎ = − + 2 for = 0, 1, 2, 3,4. (2) ℎ 3

− = for = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 (3) 3ℎ

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= = 0 (4) Here ℎ = − for = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and = for = 0, 1, 2, 3,4, 5. Finally, MINITAB was used to determine the non-linear regression model and model was assumed as = ( )( ) , where and are partial regression slopes. Moreover, in order to verify the model an appropriate hypothesis; : = 0 versus : ≠ 0and back testing have been used.

1.1.1 Analysis Results In order to compute unemployment rate for unknown years, the cubic spline can be derived as follows: 14.80 + 4.17 − 0.35; 0 ≤ ≤ 3 17.90 − 5.24( − 3) − 3.14( − 3) + 2.18( − 3); 3 ≤ ≤ 4 () = 11.70 − 4.99( − 4) + 3.40( − 4) + 0.49( − 4); 4 ≤ ≤ 7 14.10 + 2.17( − 7) − 1.01( − 7) + 0.24( − 7); 7 ≤ ≤ 8 15.5 + 0.87( − 8) − 0.29( − 8) + 0.02( − 8); 8 ≤ ≤ 12

Therefore, unemployment rates for the unknown years 1979, 1980, 1983, 1984, 1987, 1988, and 1989 can be calculated as 18.62, 21.74, 10.6, 19.24, 16.1, 16.24 and 16.04 respectively.ANOVA table using MINITAB is shown in Table 02.

Regression Analysis: ln(vel.of money/unemployment rate) versus unemployment rate

The regression equation is

ln(vel.of money/unemployment rate) = - 0.131 - 0.0841 unemployment rate

Predictor Coef SE Coef T P

constant -0.13146 0.05566 -2.36 0.024

unemployment rate -0.084077 0.004488 -18.73 0.000

S = 0.124359 R-Sq = 91.4% R-Sq(adj) = 91.1%

Durbin-Watson statistic = 1.1385318

Table 02

It is very clear that, for 99% confidence and p-value of the ANOVA table, has to be rejected in aforementioned hypothesis. Therefore, according to the ANOVA table, final econometric model between velocity of money and unemployment rate is going to be = 0.8772().().Moreover, back testing of the model can be examined from the residual plot and normal probability plot of residuals. Residual plot and normal probability plot are, respectively, shown in Figure 01 and Figure 02.

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Residuals Versus the Fitted Values (response is ln(Vel.of money/Un. rate))

0.2

0.1 l a u d i s

e 0.0 R

-0.1

-0.2 -2.00 -1.75 -1.50 -1.25 -1.00 -0.75 -0.50 Fitted Value

Figure01

Normal Probability Plot of the Residuals (response is ln(Vel.of money/Un. rate))

80 70 t

n 60 e

c 50 r

e 40 P 30 20

1 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 Residual

Figure02 2. Discussion and conclusion

From the Figure 01, it can be reasonably concluded that residuals have constant variation as the residuals are centered around zero and the residual plot shows a random distribution of positive and negative values across the entire range of the variable plotted on the horizontal axis. From the Figure 02, it can be strongly concluded that residuals are normally distributed as plotted points are fairly close to a straight line drawn from the lower left to the upper right of the graph [4]. According to the ANOVA table, Durbin-Watson statistic value for our final model is ∑(∈∈) 1.1385318.Durbin-Watson statistic value is being calculated using the formula , [5] ∑∈ where ∈= − and and are, respectively, the observed and predicted values of the response variable velocity of money() for individual . Durbin-Watson critical values at 1%

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significance level, with two independent variables and 35 observations, lower limit and upper limits are 1.13 and 1.26 respectively. Even though our data are highly chronological, Durbin- Watson statistic value liesbetween 1.13 and 1.26 and hence, it is strongly concluded that residuals are uncorrelated.Moreover, appropriateness of the model can be admired as it has a high value of coefficient of determination (91.4%) and with a good accuracy, final non-linear econometric model can be used to predict the velocity of money in Sri Lanka.

3. References 1. Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2013,Annual report 2012. 2. Dwivedi, D.N., 2010,Macroeconomics Theory and Policy, 3rd edn., Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited. 3. Mathews, J.H.& Fink, K.D., 2007,Numerical Methods using MATLAB, 4th edn., Prentice-hall of India Private Limited. 4. Lind, D.A., Marchal, W.G.& Wathen, S.A.,2008,Statistical Techniques in Business and Economics, 13th edn.,Tata McGrow-Hill Publishing Company Limited. 5. Jhonsen, R.A. & Wichern, D.W., 2009, Applied Multivariate Statistical Analysis, 5th edn., PHI Learning Private Limited.

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Stakeholders’ Perception on Grade Five Scholarship Examination in Sri Lanka: A Case Study

Chandana Kasturi Arachchi Senior lecturer Head, The Department of Social Science Education, Faculty of Education University of Colombo, Sri Lanka [email protected] and [email protected]

Shalika Sachithrani Perera Master of Education in Educational Management Degree Candidate Department of Social Science Education, Faculty of Education University of Colombo, Sri Lanka [email protected]

Abstract examination” in Sri Lanka. Nowadays this topic is debatable. Some argue that the importance of the continuation of this examination. On the other hand, others point outthe adverse effects of this “grade five scholarship examination”. Therefore, this research was designed to investigate the real perception of the stakeholders on this examination and to reveal the authentic situation of this examination in the education system in the country. Thus this study used qualitative research methodology, and case study research approach. Data was gathered through unstructured interviews, informal discussions and questionnaire administration. Sample was selected purposively, and it was included parents, teachers, educators and curriculum developersfrom Colombo district. Data was analyzed using thematic analyze. The findings suggest that the parents’ perception on this is very positive, majority of them like this examination because they think that this is the only avenue for their kids to find a good school.However, the teachers’ view is different. They say that this examination has adverse effects on students’self- efficacy.However it is necessary to identify the main purpose of this examination based on theoretical background and thecriteria to ensure whether the major purpose of this examination is being fulfilled.Therefore, every responsible party on this issue should pay their immediate attention to find a better solution for this. Thus as academics who have engaged in researching in the field of education it is the duty of the researchers to examine the reality of this issue and make recommendations for the policy makers Key words: Grade five scholarship examination, stakeholders, gifted children, social mobility,perceived self-efficacy

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1. Back ground and the objectives of the study

Introduction Human resources are the most important and most valuable resource that any organization possesses. Thus in school organization students are the customers of whose needs are to be satisfied to ensure the organizational goals are attained. Therefore it is necessary to investigate continuously whether every aspect of the education system caters to the needs of the children and to identify any decision or implementation that affect harmfully to the students.Thus in the global context various countries hold primary school leaving examinations in order to categorize students according to their potentialities with the aim of improving their performance in the secondary school. Thus the main purpose of these examinations is to identify the gifted children and let them to enter to schools with more facilities and encouraging learning environment in order to enable them to reach their higher potentialities which ultimately produce the necessary human resources for the country. I n the “primary school examinations” literature of the last twenty years or so, a numerous basic reasons have been highlighted in many different ways within different theoretical frame works and from different point of views.

In Sri Lanka, while the free education policy has increased access to compulsory education especially among poverty-stricken families, costs ofeducationcontinue to hinder the educational attainment of manychildren. In addition, the provision of quality education remains a challenge. It affects to the development of a country as there is dearth of professionally enhanced human capitalto contribute to accelerate the development of a country. In the global context various countries hold “Primary school leaving examinations”with the intention of fulfilling their various policies.

In countries such as Kenya, Singapore, India “Primary school leaving examinations” are held aiming at reducing the social disparity through education as well as to produce quality human resources to boost the development process of the country. Thus this primary school leaving examinations help to minimize the disparity among different social levels. Amburo(200﴿ has mentioned the sociological aspect of these primary school leaving examinations, in his study as it was highlighted by a recent study by Uwezo (2010) which found disappointing levels of learning among primary school children. The continued and consistentdominance of private schools in the developing countries has further raised concerns about therising disparity in quality between public and private schools. As students fromricher households increasingly enroll in private primary schools, designing policiesthat address the

186 achievement gaps in public primary schools will overwhelminglybenefit students from poorer households that are unable to access private schools. Further he says thatExaminations are an inevitable part and parcel of the education process. Among other things they areused to measure the level of a candidate’s achievement and certify the candidate’s levels of education,training and employment.Thus in some developing countries education system is such that one takes examinations at the end of the primary education andthese examinations determines the type of school a candidate gets admitted in to at secondary level. However according to the theoretical framework of educational psychology, many reputed psychologists and educationists are on the view that these categorizing students according to their performance at an early age affect their self-concept and consequently there is possibility to bring in negative effects on their future performance. For instance, according to Albert Bandura’s theories on self-efficiency an individual’s beliefs on his ability influence events that affect his or her life.

This fundamental belief lays the foundation for human motivation, performance accomplishments and emotional well-being.(Bandura,1997,2006.﴿Thusperceived self-efficacy explains such diverse phenomena as changes in coping behavior produced by different modes of influence, level of physiological stress reactions, self-regulation of refractory behaviour, resignation and despondency to failure experiences, self-debilitating effects of proxy control and illusory inefficaciousness, achievement strivings, growth of intrinsic interest, and career pursuits. Further he states that higher level of self-efficacy results in higher performance accomplishments and lowers in emotional arousal. Thus it is clear that when a student is labeled or categorized as an underachiever just on the results scored at a highly competitive examination it naturally lowers the future performance of the students as well as causes low emotional arousal.

Thus studies have proved that there is a direct positive correlation between perceived self- efficacy and cognitive development and functioning. It has been identified four major processes through which perceived self- efficacy influences, namely cognitive, motivational,affective and selecting processes. At the same time it is highlighted three different levels at which this self- efficacy is operated as an important contributor to academic development. For instance students’ beliefs on their own learning and to progress in academic activities directly affect their aspirations, level of motivation and academic accomplishments. On the other hand teachers’ perception on their efficacy determines their tendency to create the type of learning experiences and environment for their children. It can be explored as the teachers who know that their students are the best performers at the selecting examination they have higher motivational level comparing to those teachers who knows their students are under-achievers.

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According to the theoretical background and the practical situation psychological factors affect to a greater extent to the student performance especially during the developing process of child hood. However while psychological factors mainly affect educational performance there are other important factors, for instance sociological factors that are need to be considered in children’s education. Though there are many debates on “Grade five scholarship examination”that is being held in Sri Lankan government schools still due attention is not paid by the researchers to bring forth the authentic situation of this issue while emphasizing every aspect appropriately. Thus it is high time to raise awarenessof the broader aspects of this examination to the relevant authorities in order to be used in policy making in school education.

2 .Significance of the study This study analyzed the “grade five scholarship examination” through the experiences of stakeholders in the government schools in Sri Lanka. Students are the future of a country. Therefore they are the building blocks of the future development process. Thus it is necessary that all the educationists, administrators, teachers, parents etc to probe into the existing examination system of grade five scholarship examination and whether it caters to the needs of the children. In spite of the responsibility of the stakeholders they continuously debate on this issue unfortunately year by year it is children who fall the victims. Thus there is a need of impartial investigation to find out the perception of the stakeholders towards this examination and to put forward the effective suggestions to save the future generation of the country from any psychological or sociological injustice. It has been shown that in many countries there is a primary school leaving examination in order to fulfill various objectives namely, to categorize students according to performance level in order to ensure a more effective secondary level education according to their different capacities. On the other hand another objective is to reduce disparity among various social classes by granting scholarships for clever students from poor families, in other words enable social mobility. Thus in the global context it has beenemphasized the significance of primary school leaving examination in order make effective student performance in education. It further proves that in Sri Lankan context adequate attention is not drawn to the significance of “grade five scholarship examination” and to make use of it appropriately. However when it is referred to the statistics in the Sri Lankan education system out of total number of 4,186,808 students 3,996,531 (Central Bank Report 2012﴿ are from government schools. It is evident that a large amount of money is expended on education of the country. The total recurrent expenditure for general education was Rs. 93 billion in 2013.Approximately 90 percent of it has been incurred for salaries of teachers and other staff, student welfare programs such as school uniforms, text books, and nutrition programs to ensure the free

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education. (Source: Department of National Budget -2012﴿. After expending such a large amount if the outcome is still unsatisfactory it is worthwhile to investigate to find out the real situation. However the significance of“primary school leaving examination” in a country’s education system is emphasized by many researchers all over the world. For instance by a comparative study of education systems of various countries it is emphasized the importance of the primary school leaving examination. In Singapore primary education is compulsory under the compulsory education Act since 2003. The four years, from primary 1 to 4, provide a foundation in English, mother tongue, Mathematics and Science. Other subjects include Civics and Moral Education, arts and crafts, music, health education, social studies, and physical education, which are taught throughout Primary 1 to 6. Science is taught from Primary 3 onwards. All pupils advance to the orientation stage after Primary 4, where they are streamed according the pupil's ability. After six years of Primary education, students will have to sit for the national Primary School Leaving Examination . Students will then choose the secondary school of their choice based on their results at this examination; they will then be assigned to a secondary school based on merit and their choice. (Hogan2014) Therefore the significance of this study is to provide a broader perspective to look at the various debates on “Grade –five scholarship examination”. At the same time it is significant to shed light upon “Grade-five scholarship examination” as a research area since there is dearth of research on this area in Sri Lanka. On the other hand the researcher consider that it is their responsibility as educational researcher to explore the root causes for the modern issues in the field of education and draw the attention of policy makers for an effective progress. Since one of the significant aspects of qualitative research is to unraveled the hidden information of various social phenomenon where quantitative researches are incapable, through this case study the researcher has been able to reveal unique facts. According to the theoretical background and the practical situation psychological factors affect to a greater extent to the student performance especially during the developing process of child hood. However while psychological factors mainly affect educational performance there are other important factors, for instance sociological factors that are need to be considered in children’s education. Therefore the significance of this study is to provide a broader perspective to look at the various debates on “Grade –five scholarship examination”. At the same time it is significant to shed light upon “Grade-five scholarship examination” as a research area since there is dearth of research on this area in Sri Lanka. On the other hand the researchers consider that it is their responsibility as educational researchers to explore the root causes for the modern issues in the field of education and draw the attention of policy makers for an effective progress. Since one of the significant aspects of qualitative research is to unraveled the hidden information of various social phenomenon where quantitative researches are incapable, through this case study the researchers have been able to reveal unique facts.

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3. Methodology a. Statement of the research question and objectives of the study In this study it was investigated the insights of the stakeholders of schools on “grade five scholarship examination” in Sri Lanka. b. Main research question How the “grade five scholarship examination” is perceived by the stakeholders in the government schools in Sri Lanka? c. Objectives of the study i. Identify the current perception of “grade five scholarship examination” in Sri Lanka. ii. Explore the perception of stakeholders of government schools on “grade five scholarship examination” in Sri Lanka. iii.Recognize the potential perceptions towards the future development of“Grade Five Scholarship Examination”

3.1Research Design and Methods.

Introduction

With reference to the Colombo district government schools in Sri Lanka, the researchers used a qualitative research, and a case study approach to study the research problem. Multiple case study approach was employed to understand the real situation of grade five scholarship examination as experienced by teachers and stakeholders among the selected schools in this study. Semi structured interviews was used to gather data from the principals, deputy principals and teachers in the schools selected for the study. Thematic analyze and simple statistical tools were used to analyse data in this study.

Qualitative research Qualitative research uses a variety of interpretive research methodologies that seek to investigate the quality of relationships and experiences (Wallen & Fraenkel, 2001). In general, qualitative research methods generally aim to understand the experiences and attitudes of the participants as these methods aim to answer questions “What”, “How” or “Why’ of a phenomenon rather than “how many” or “How much” which are answered by quantitative methods. If the aim is to how a community or individuals perceive a particular issue, then qualitative methods are appropriate as those help to describe individual experiences and the data is rich and explanatory in nature. Human experience is a difficult area to study. It is

190 multilayered and complex, it is ongoing flow” (Polkinghorne, 2005, p. 138)Therefore the qualitative research approach was more appropriate to this study, because this research also was aimed at investigating the nature and the perceptions of “Grade five scholarship examination” in government schools in Sri Lanka. Case study The case study research approach has been used by qualitative and interpretive researchers for a long time in disciplines (Burns, 2000) because it has a number of advantages. This approach can be used to investigate actual contemporary life settings and life cycles of people, and it allows researchers to retain the holistic and meaningful characteristics of real life events of people (Yin, 2009) and it provides the researcher with a holistic understanding of a problem, issue, or phenomenon with its social context (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011). Since this study intended to explore deeply the perspectives of stakeholderson “Grade five scholarship examination” in their schools case study research approach was more appropriate. Stake (1995﴿ defines a case study as a “bounded system” (p.2﴿. The object of study, rather than a process, is bounded by working parts, Cohen et al. (2000﴿ suggests that case studies “are set in temporal, geographical, organizational, institutional and other contexts that enable ,boundaries to be drawn around a] case” (p.182﴿.The temporal, geographical, organizational institutional and other contexts of this study are set within the boundaries of three schools. Bell argues that a case study gives a researcher an opportunity to study one aspect of a ﴿2000) phenomenon in some depth and within a set period of time. As this research is only studying ,three organizations, it is a multiple case study rather than a single case (Yin,2003﴿. Furthermore it is only gathering data from three government schools. Therefore, the case study is classified, .according to Yin (2003﴿ as a multiple case study

Interviewing Qualitative researchers use various methods for data collection: “observation (participant and non-participant), interviewing, and document analysis” (Ary, Jacobs, & Razavieh, 2002, p. 430). However the interview appears to be the most popular data collection instrument in the qualitative research. Interviews allow the researcher to gather direct information from the participants, and the researcher has an opportunity to get more clarifications about the information provided by them. Therefore it seemed that interview is more appropriate method of accessing people’s insights, sense, and definitions of situations and constructions of reality. It is also one of the most significant ways we have to understand others (Punch, 2009). Various types of interviews are used in qualitative research. These are: semi structured, informal, and retrospective (Wallen & Fraenkel, 2001). Interpretive researchers believe and tend to prefer semi structured and so called open or unstructured interview (Willis, Jost, & Nilakanta, 2007). As this study planned to explore the perceptions of principals, deputy principals and teachers of “Grade five scholarship examination” in government schools interviewing was more appropriate for data collection. Interviews were very useful for gathering direct and richest information from the participants. In addition interviewer had many opportunities to get more clarifications when interview the participants by observing the physiology of the participant he gets more opportunity to infer more facts about the participant.

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In addition to interviews informal discussions and observations were used to collect data. By utilizing the format of semi-structured interviews across a multiple time frame was aimed to produce a lot of detailed data within the small number of cases, and as such provide a greater depth of detail. The envisaged strength of this type of methodology is that it attempted to depict the fullness of experience in a meaningful and a comprehensive way rather than generalize across a large number of participants. The semi-structured nature provided the freedom to dynamically respond to the flow of the discussion as it occurred and to explore other relevant ﴿avenues as the meeting progressed. (Bishop,1997,Candini and Conelly,2000 Semi-structured interviews in a one to one situation were utilized for this research project. Both the researcher and participant worked from a list of some predetermined questions. The advantage of a semi structured process over other methods, such as a questionnaire or formal interview was the opportunity it gave to both researcher and participant to explore in depth and detail the substantive issues with regard to “Grade five scholarship examination” in the government schools. Selection of the Participants The participants in this study were the principals, the deputy principals and the teaching staff in the government schools who have experiences regarding “Grade five scholarship examination” in Sri Lanka. Participants in this study were selected using a purposive sampling method. Best & Kahn (2006) suggest, purposive sampling permits the researcher to choose the participants who provide the richest information.

Table -2 Research Participants Schools Principals Deputy Teachers Parents Principals Primary Secondary School A 1 2 5 5 5 School B 1 2 5 5 5 School C 1 2 5 5 5 Total 3 6 30 15 Source-Research Data All together three principals, six deputy principals and thirty teachers, fifteen teachers from primary level and fifteen more from secondary level participated in this study from three government schools in the Colombo district as this is a case study research.

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3.1.6 Data Analyzing Thematic analysis is a qualitative data analyzing strategy that starts in the data, and pursues identifiable themes and patterns (Aronson, 1994).Thus, thematic analysis can be understood as the process of recovering the theme or themes that are embodied and dramatized in the evolving meanings and imagery of the work. Therefore thematic analysis was used in this study to analysis the data gathered through interviews informal discussions and informal observations of the participants. In the process of analyzing data in this study, the themes were emerged within the transcribed data gathered through interviews. Then the themes were organized, described and interpreted. According to the themes identified in this study it was checked the similarities and differences among the selected schools. In addition to that it was observed the pattern of the thoughts provided by the same kind of participants on the identified themes. 4 .Findings and Conclusions 4.1 Perceptions of teachers Although various parties argue about various amendments to minimize the pressure that has been created by “Grate Five Scholarship examination” for the sake of students it is important to look at this context from various perspectives. Thus according to the teachers this examination has become unnaturally competitive due to the over aspirations of the parents and due to the modern trends in the field of tuition where the major motives are the materialistic gains in spite of real purpose of education. But quite contrast to the main purpose of this examination year by year the examination department makes the examination more challenging to select the best performers to fill the limited number of positions since there is an unnatural competitions among the students to score best marks and to enter popular well- facilitated schools. In a way it is a great challenge to the authority also. On the other hand according to the past experience of teachers they say that everybody who gets through grade five scholarship examination do not continue up to higher studies. Despite some students those who get failed at the grade five scholarship examination continue up to higher studies and even enter to higher level careers in the country. According to two teachers teacher B1 and B3 in school B “Some children when they go to big schools from scholarship exam their future performance become poor. There are many reasons for that. Children from poor families find it difficult to adjust to the new environment so it affects to their mentality. Sometimes when those students go to the city they are distracted by various things in the city. Other thing isthey have over confidence about their ability so they do not work hard and finally ends up with low performance. Very few children become successful in their education as a result of scholarship examination”, where as teachers B2 and B4 agreed with the view. Another teacher C2 in school C presented a different opinion. “It is easy to teach students those who have passed scholarship exam. They quickly understand what we teach. Most of

193 them have self-motivation. According to my experience, in our school majority of them enter higher studies.” Further teachers A2,A3 and A5 in school A said “Though some people think grade five scholarship exam is good since poor clever students get an opportunity to study well what happen to those do not pass the exam after working hard. Are they all weak? How would they feel when they fail to achieve the dream of going to a good school in the city? How would they feel when they fail to get the promised presents by their parents or relations? Who is going to find answers for these questions?” However majority of teachers (22%﴿ are on the view that although grade five scholarship examination contributes to some extent to produce well- educated set of students, a greater number is being affected psychologically.

4.2 Perceptions of parents Some parents are on the view that this examination is very helpful for their children especially from lower and middle class families while majority is opposed to this view. According to the parentC1 in school C “Actually I feel that this exam is good because my sister twenty years ago got through this exam. Then she got entrance to the best school in the country. She got through all the exams as she was really influenced by her school environment. If she was in the village school she would not have reached the present situation now she is in. Our parents were not much educated and also they did not have enough money to send to a good school though she was very good at studies and she loved a lot to study.Therefore I feel this exam is the only way for our children to achieve good place in the society”. But parent A3 in school A presented an opposite view. According to her “Actually I did not force my child to pass this exam but I took her for tuition classes because if she get failed while her friends get through she will feel as she is not taken for classes she get failed. But her friend’s mother was very ambitious and if she does not score good marks for practice papers she got punishment from her mother. My daughter always talked sympathetically about her friend. Until grade five that friend was the first in the class. My daughter was either fourth or fifth. At the exam my daughter scored better marks than her friend. Later that friend did not perform as before in her studies while my daughter improved year by year .I feel the mental stress caused by the mother made the child to lose her motivation towards learning.” Thus parents are on the view that “Grade five scholarship examination” is a good opportunity for their children to reach to a good position in the world. At the same time if parents are not forcing, the students do not face problems. 4.3 Perception of other stakeholders According to a well experienced educationist “Of course there are two sides to the discussion and certainly some evidence that the self-fulfilling prophecy has an influence of attainment. My suggestion is that a lot more research needs to be done to have a full understanding if the exam is valid. Plus there are many kinds of intelligence and the exam does

194 not include many of these. Does tuition make a difference? Most of the tuition is repeating endless previous exam papers, and there are only a certain number of ways that questions can be posed. Is there a psychological downside to failure? Also those who score at the top are hailed as "national heroes" and get all kinds of media publicity plus financial gain.Historically the exam was to give successful candidates the finance to continue their education. Nowadays this is of less importance as the means to get into popular schools (which assumes that other schools are "unpopular". Another aspect to include is the strength of the primary schools and teachers where the scholarship results are either very high or low. This could mean that many children arebeing put at a disadvantage or the opposite depending which school they attended. Lots to think about....” Accordingly it revealed the perception of stakeholders on “Grade five scholarship examination” .Thus some educationists are on the view that this “grade five scholarship examination” causes many issues for the individual as well as in the society.

4.4 Challenges Further according to the teachers, when students are trained for this examination at such a young age the development of their basic skills is being interrupted since their attention is focused on only to few subjects. For instance their skills on English language, aesthetic subjects, sports etc. are not being developed in a balanced manner. It seems that every student can’t get through this examination even if they try hard, and unfortunately parents of them do not have proper understanding about that. Thus as a result most of the children become victims of their over ambitious parents, even sometimes the situation becomes so serious to an extent of being those tender children abused badly. Educators’ and curriculum developers’ view is different from the other participants in this study. They critically analyze this situation. According to them this examination has become a competitive examination to enter to a good school. So, the students who can’t find a good school face a big problem in preparing for this examination, and as a result of that they will lose their childhood It is obvious that all the stakeholders, educationists, psychologists, administrators, teachers, parents and other stakeholders, are on the view that there is a necessity of a revision of the system of “Grade five scholarship examinations”. However recently there had been serious debates as various parties present various views and arguments about this matter. For instance authorities say that they are going to terminate this examination as the outsiders criticize that the holding of this examination was a national disaster caused by education ministers and educationists. In December 2013 the Minister of Education, had declared that the Grade Five Scholarship Examination will be terminated from 2016 onwards.This statement by the Minister generated various views in the political arena and in general among the public, with the National Teachers’ Council voicing their protest along with a majority of parents.Further parents had sent petitions to the Human Rights expressing their objection to the scrapping of the Grade five examination. TheCommissioner had said that parents, in their petitions, had said

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that the examination was an opportunity for their children to get into a popular school and the termination of it would be unfair by the students who study hard to get into such a school.

5. Conclusions, recommendations and implications It is clear that this issue has several aspects to be looked at. On one hand poor students who are gifted with intellectual capacities are being benefited as doors are opened for them to study in a better environment with providence. The ultimate result is that they get opportunity to climb up the social ladder to overcome the poverty that they are beaten up. On the other hand it is a good future plan to select clever students and give a good education which may ultimately produce great people to a country. But there is a criticism whether that aim is fulfilled always. Some argue whether all the students who get through at the grade five scholarship examination end up as resource persons to a country. In that case the relevance, validity and the effectiveness of this examination is low. The most important aspect is the psychological effect that this examination creates in the students those get fail and labeled as under achievers by the responsible authority in the country. Even the participation of other stakeholders is not very much supportive in bringing in reforms to this examination as there is political involvement as well. Thus it is necessary to raise the awareness of the significance of bringing in proper reforms to alleviate the adverse effects of this examination. Accordingly “Grade five examinations is an area that has been over- looked so far by the researchers to unravel the multy-faceted broader view. It has not been identified as an important research area in Sri Lanka when it is given a significant emphasis in the global context. Therefore all the stakeholders of the school organizations should be made aware of the importance of the implementation to bring new reforms to “Grade five scholarship examination in government schools in Sri Lanka. Thus the main purpose of the researcher was to reveal the nature of the broader context of this “Grade Five scholarship examination”, how it is perceived by teachers and other stake holders and to draw the attention of responsible authorities towards the reforms to be implemented in government schools in Sri Lanka. Since students are the key stakeholders of the education system it is high time to pay attention to establish a monitoring process to improve the present condition of the examination in order to produce a quality work force in Sri Lanka in its attempts to become the miracle of Asia.

References Aronson, J. (1994). A pragmatic view of thematic analysis. The qualitative report, 2(1), 1-3. Ary, D., & Jacobs, L. C. (2002). Razavieh (2002). Introduction to research in education, 134-142. Bryman, A., & Bell, E. (2011). Business Research Methods 3e: Oxford university press. .Bandura,Albert. (Feb 1982.﴿American Psychologist, vol37(2﴿, 122-147

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Burns, R. B. (2000). introduction to research methods. NSW,Australia: Longman. Cohen, L. M., & Manion, L. (2000). L. & Morrison, K.(2000). Research methods in education, 5, 181-190. Glennerster,Rachel.,Kremer,Michael.,Mbit, Isacc.,Takavarasha,Kudzai. (May 2011﴿Access and Quality in the Kenyan Education System: A Review of the Progress, Challenges and Potential Solutions. Hesse-Biber, S. N., & Leavy, P. (2011). The practice of qualitative research (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, USA: Sage Publications, Inc. Hogan, David.(2014).Why is Singapore’s school system so successful, and is it a model for the west?” Natinal Institute of Education, Singapore. Jones, G. R., George, J. M., Rock, M., Haddad, J., & Langton, N. (2010). Essentials of contemporary management: McGraw-Hill Ryerson. King, Douglas.(2012﴿“If the project fails, the students will lose and those student Does Grade 5 scholarship exam show academic superiority?” Punch, K. F. (2009). Introduction to research methods in education. Los Angeles, USA: Sage.Ramachandran, V., Pal, M., Jain, S., Shekar, S., & Sharma, J. (2005). Teacher motivation in India: Discussion Paper,(Azim Premji Foundation, Bangalore, 2005). Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study: Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Wallen, N. E., & Fraenkel, J. R. (2001). Educational research: A guide to the process: Psychology Press. Willis, Jost, M., & Nilakanta, R. (2007). Foundations of qualitative research. London, UK: Sage publications. Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods: Sage Publications, Inc. Yin, R. K. (2014). Case study research: design and methods: Sage.

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THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON THE SRI LANKAN FOREIGN TRADE

Adeyi Emmanuel Ola PhD Student,Department of Economics, University of Kelaniya, Kelaniya Sri Lanka. [email protected]

Oteikwu .A. Michael Graduate Assistant, Department of Economics, Gombe State University, Gombe Nigeria. [email protected]

Abstract

Globalization is multi-faceted, with many important dimensions including economics, social, political, environmental, sociological, cultural and religious aspects, which affect everyone in some way. It implications range from the trade and investment flows that interest economists, to changes that we see in our everyday lives. This study looked at the foreign trade aspect by examining the impact and implications of globalization on the Sri Lanka foreign trade, and by extension on the Sri Lankan economy by exploring the data that was obtained from secondary sources on the key variables of foreign trade in Sri Lanka to show the impact on the economy. With the use of simple descriptive statistics, the study shows that there is nominal positive impact of globalization on Sri Lankan economy as indicated by the level of inflow and outflow of goods and services to and from Sri Lanka. The study then conclude by recommending proper monitoring and adjustment of the process as it can be messy for the fact that it createsignificant challenges and problems in the mist of prospects.

Key words: Globalization, Foreign Trade, Investment, Development, Sri Lanka

Introduction

The governments and people of developing countries including Sri Lanka are more interested today than ever before in the quality of their living, and this is in consonance with the Millennium Development Goals of eradicating extreme poverty, hunger and malnutrition; enhancing economic co-operation and partnership amongst nations of the world. If people wish to eat better, live better, and if investors both local and foreign wish to invest better in Sri Lanka and by extension other emerging economies, active participation of countries in the globalization process become imperative.

Globalization is the integration of product and factor markets. The process of globalization began a long time ago, since the international movement of goods and persons became feasible. The process was facilitated by the philosophical inputs of various economists, thrust by

198 international institutions and revolutionary development in information technology. The General Agreement on Tariff and Trade (GATT) and the World Trade Organization (WTO) helped the process grow faster through efforts on bringing down border tariff and other barriers on the movement of goods and services and establishing the rule based system on trade.

Hardly does one witness any bilateral and multi-lateral discussion without the issue of globalization being mentioned. It embraces all forces which are turning the world into a global village; compressing distance, homogenizing cultures, rejuvenating mobility, and reducing the relevance political borders. Thus, globalization forms the Centre stage of national and international discourse. Paying credence to this fact, Okphe (2002) argues that the rate of changes in the world over seem to have expedited sharply since the end of the Cold War and the emergence of the New World Order (NWO) characterized by unipolarity since 1992. It is therefore proper to say that globalization is here to stay: the reality is that we already live in a global economy – where flows of trade, capital and knowledge across national borders are not only large, but also increasing every day. Countries unwilling to engage with other nations risk falling further behind the rest of the world in terms of both income and human development. That way lays the very real threat of marginalization.

Foreign trade is a part of daily life, and no nation is entirely self-sufficient. This is the reason why Sri Lankan drives Japanese cars; Americans buy Nigerian crude oil; Britons drink French wines and Nigerians study in Sri Lanka’s universities. If this is unremarkable, why isthere a separate branch of economics devoted to foreign/international trade? Why is trade between Sri Lanka and the US different from trade between Colombo and Kandy? Dornbush and Fisher (1994) argued that with foreign trade across national frontiers, governments can monitor the trade and treat it differently with the sole aim of corralling its advantage to their doorsteps. Dornbush and Fisher added that foreign trade involves the use of different currencies with international payments since no nation is an island. Therefore, foreign trade is synonymous to globalization since they co-exist.

In the light of this, Thenuwara (2002) posited that Sri Lanka has made significant progress by integrating into the goods market, but manifestsinsufficient progress in factor market integration despite the fact that the country has been a trade post since era of ancient kings as well as during the colonialism.

It is based on this premise that this study is being undertaken so as to examine the impacts of globalization on the Sri Lankan foreign trade, and by extension the economy. The paper consists of five sections. Section one consists of the introductory part. The second part deals with conceptual framework. Part three unveils the theoretical structure of the subject matter. The

199 fourth section highlights the impact of globalization and foreign trade nexus in Sri Lanka. Section five (5) provides conclusion and recommendations.

2.0 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Globalization and foreign trade are central to economic development of every nation. As a result, many scholars from different fields of endeavors advocate that special attention should be given to the subject matter.

According to Marwa (1999), globalization is the latest technological effort in reducing the physical distance among nations and societies of the world through information transfer at a speed that is hitherto unknown in information technology. He further buttressed that this development is capable of transforming a country from being a dependent nation to a self- sustaining and economically viable one.

Collier (1998) viewed globalization as “a process of integration in product and financial market”. In economic sense, it is seen as “a progressive and intricately structured division of labour on a worldwide basis Enwere(2000). Expatiating on this point, Elaigwu (2000) argued that globalization means the relative liberalization and homogenization of the globe as a result of technological revolution, which encourages or facilitates the global economy to be liberalized rapidly. Thus, there is a widening and deepening of international flows of trade, finance and information in a single global market, which would in turn produce the outcome for human welfare and economic development.

According to United Nations Reports (1999), globalization is a process by which value system, economic activities, cultural and social system are fast converging and becoming standardized and interdependent. This means that people’s lives around the globe are linked more deeply, more intensely, more immediately than ever before. To themind of Sociologist, Roland (1992), globalization is seen as, “the compression of the world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole”. Paying credence to this fact, Giddens (1990), viewed globalization as “the intensification of world social relations which link distinct localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away”.

Therefore, in view of all the submissions on globalization, it is the position of this paper that globalization is defined as extreme competition among nations of the world.

On the part of foreign trade, it is the exchange of capital, goods and services across international borders or territories. This means that it is an exchange of goods and services among countries. This type of trade give rise to a world economy in which prices, or supply and demand, affect and are affected by global events. That is the main reason why foreign trade cannotbe separated from globalization and to optimize the advantages of foreign, country

200 concerned must be ready and willing to properly key into the globalization process. It is important to know that in most countries, such trade represents a significant share of gross domestic product (GDP) which is one of the most important determinants of economic growth and development which invariably helps in improving the well-being of the populace. It is as a result of this that Sloman (1995), asserts that “without foreign trade we would all be much poorer”.

3.0 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK/STRUCTURE

This section focuses on the theoretical explanations advanced by several scholars on the subject of globalization and trade, which cut across virtually all disciplines of human endeavors.

In this study, three theories areused so as to underlie the point of departure and controversies surrounding the understanding of globalization and its attendant consequences on the Sri Lankan foreign trade. These theories are; Liberalism, Realism and Marxism.

3.1 Liberalism

The liberals believe that globalization is a national out-growth of capitalist development. Smith (1776); the pioneered classical liberal thinker argued in his work “An Enquiry into Nature and the Causes of the Wealth of Nations” that national wealth and power is a derivation of economic growth and that trade is the lubricant of the globalization game that can enhance the “engine of growth”. The liberal thinkers also stated that nations should specialize in what they can produce best in order to be wealthy and powerful, and that market should regulate itself through the “invisible hand” (market forces of demand and supply), a principle of laissez-faire extended globally.In agreement to the liberals, Gilpins (1986) stated that “economic specialization produces gains in productive efficiency and national income”. He further noted that the neo-liberals advocated the deepening of globalization through the dismantling of official regulations. This assertion was buttressed by Breton Woods Institutions (IMF and the World Bank), WTO and Mainstream of Academic Economists.

However, the basic weakness of this theory as lamented by Milton (2001) is the assumption that all nations are equal. He argued that the theory has polarized nations into an international division of labour where poor countries specialize in the production of mostly primary commodities without the option of opting out.

3.2 Realism

The second school of thought on this subject is Realism whose tradition identified with the Mercantilist writers of early modern period, such as the German Historical School of late 19th century and economic nationalist of the 20th century. Proponents of this school include

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Alexander Hamilton, George Hegel, Johan Fiche etc. Milton, (2001) argued that Hamilton, a leading scholar of this school, demonstrated that manufactures are superior to agriculture. Thus, every nation should be able to create essentials of national supply. The theory centers on protectionism, industrialization and state intervention in trade. The relevance of this theory is that nations, which concentrate and excel in manufacturing or production of industrial goods, are the significant beneficiaries of globalization, because they will accumulate wealth and power to themselves, while the primary producers of raw materials are clear losers in the global economy.

This theory has been criticized on the groundthat economic interest can be pursued at the detriment of other nations and the whole international economy. This could lead to insecurity through inequality, exploitation of weak and vulnerable nations and creating an arena of global conflict. This in essence, forms the basis of the Marxist argument.

3.3 Marxism

In his submission to Marxism, Wallestein (1997) traced the origin of Marxist theory to works of Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Fredrick Engels (1820-1895).Wallestein (ibid) submitted to the works propounded under the auspices of underdevelopment and dependency scholars of classical Marxism such as Andre Gunder Frank, Samir Amin, and Walter Rodney etc. Karl Marx observed that “the history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class and class struggle”. To the Marxists, globalization is tantamount to imperialism. They vehemently lamented that an equitable distribution of trade benefits cannot be obtained within a capitalist system, characterized by gross exploitation of weak nations.

In consonance with Marxist theory, Akinsaya (2000), described globalization as “the latest stage of European economic and cultural domination over the rest of the world”. Submitting to this, Toyo (2009), lamented that the current global economic crisis which the world has found itself is a consequence of the greedy and antagonistic competition of the capitalists, where even human beings are sold and killed, all in attempt to make money. He cried out that capitalism is returning the world to the era of slavery.However, in his criticism, Iyoha (2005) identified the weakness of Marxism as its failure to bail the third world nations from the shackle of capitalist bias system. He concluded that the submission of Marxism is no longer useful and effective in explaining contemporary globalmatters of trade and economic development.

The viewpoint of this paper is that globalization has become an irreversible phenomenon, not even a matter of choice, although it has its adverse consequences for a significant proportion of the world’s population, which is quite unserious to face its challenge. Developing countries such as Sri Lanka and Nigeria seem to be facing major challenges posed by globalization as the world

202 becomes more integrated. Thus, the argument presented in this paper is in conformity with Realist and liberalist theories.

4.0. GLOBALIZATION AND SRI LANKAN FOREIGN TRADE: THE IMPACT

The tremendous growth of foreign trade over the past several decades has been both a primary cause and effect of globalization. The volume of world trade increased twenty- seven fold from $296 billion in 1950 to $8 trillion in 2005 and the world trade recorded its largest ever annual increase in 2010 as merchandise exports surged14.5 per cent, buoyed by a 3.6 per cent recovery in global output as measured by gross domestic product (World Trade Report 2011). Both trade and output according to the report grew faster in developing economies in which Sri Lanka is one.

As pointed above, Sri Lanka has been a trade post since the era of ancient kings in which many foreign traders visited the country in search of new goods and to exchange their goods for Sri Lanka goods. According to Thenuwara (2002), “greed and superior war power had made Sri Lanka a colony of the Europeans”. During the colonial era, the country was integrated with the rest of the world.

After independence, Sri Lanka was from time to time governed by political leaders who believed in “self-sufficiency”, a notion that contrasts with the notion of comparative and absolute advantage explained in the theory of international trade. If a nation produces all the goods and services needed, it is undoubtedly producing some goods which are not efficiently produced.

The liberalization of the economy in 1977 brought in several fundamental changes to the economy. For instance, consumer and producer choice was for imported consumer goods and production inputs which have significant damages to domestic industries that were surviving under import barriers, but due to globalization process, the three decades since 1977 have sharpened Sri Lanka’s export competitiveness which has shown sharp increase in export earnings as well as import expenditure as indicated below.

Table 1: Sri Lanka’s Exports, Imports and Tourist Arrival (No.)

Year Exports(US$mn) Imports(US $mn) Tourist Arrival No. 1980 1065 2051 321780 1985 1315 2044 257456 1990 1984 2686 297888 1995 3807 5311 403401

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2000 5522 7320 400414 2005 6347 8863 381709 2006 6882 10253 412141 2007 7640 11296 494008 2008 8110 14091 438475 2009 7085 10206 447890 2010 8626 13450 654476 2011 10559 20268 855975 2012 9773.5 19182.6 946728 2013 11233.9 22432.7 1211912 Sources: Central Bank of Sri Lanka, Annual Report 2013, Review of the Economy,

Central Bank (Annual Series) and Sri Lanka Tourism Authority, 2014

Three important benefits can be said to have impacted on Sri Lankan economy through globalization by a careful examination of the Table1 and the trend of economic activities over the last three decades. Firstly, globalization has offered the country significant access to a large market, which is one of the ingredients that enhance the degree of product specialization as explained by Adam Smith (1776). It has eliminated to some extent domestic protection and intensifies competition in Sri Lanka. Secondly, by intensifies competition, globalization helps Sri Lankan economy through the process of “creative destruction” where old firms are replaced by new ones as the economy discards old goods and services in favor of new goods and services. The final benefit that can be deduced from the trend of events in Sri Lanka is that globalization has facilitated and still facilitating technology and knowledge spillovers.

Furthermore, globalization provides a series of indirect benefits to Sri Lanka. The need to be competitive enhances efficiency in many facets as explained by the Central bank (2000). It also forces the country to enhance the quality of education and build up human capital. Similarly, the increased integration with the rest of the world makes Sri Lanka to be more transparent in her policies as well as maintaining credibility and accountability. For instance, Sri Lanka is one of the very few countries in the world that has not defaulted in her debt obligations, and the importance of this to the image of the country at the international level cannot be over- emphasized. Also, the conducive environment that has enabled the tourists’ arrival to be at increase especially after the civil unrest of about 30 years is healthy for the economic growth and development. In fact, there is an increment of 13.8% as at the end of August 2014 in the tourist arrival on the year on year basis according to SLTDA 2014.

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Based on the aforementioned proofs, it is important to note that this paper debunks claims that globalization is an unfriendly and unhealthy development both in developing and developed countries. Despite the enormous gains accrued as a result of globalization, many countries have resorted to imposing selective tariff and non-tariff barriers, as well as imposing WTO permitted indirect controls to discourage foreign trade.

This paper therefore advises that the government and the people of Sri Lanka should not be dismayed; rather, they should continue to work on its competitiveness along the lines discussed by Porter (1994) and outlined by the Central Bank (2000). The country should continue working effectively on its macroeconomic and microeconomic competitiveness so as to integrate seamlessly into the process of globalization.

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This paper reflected the impact of globalization on Sri Lankan foreign trade and by extension on Sri Lankan economy. It is observed that globalization has benefited the foreign trade aspect of Sri Lankan economy, and has made the economy and most people better-off by the opportunity to accessed larger market, though does not guarantee equitable distribution of global and regional wealth. It was also discovered that trade openness is an ingredient of globalization process. The country must continue to lay down requisites for globalization so as to be able to enjoy optimal dividends/benefits of globalization and economic.

The fundamental fact is that globalization is an unstoppable process, as it is a natural development of human efforts in finding ways and means of overcoming the barriers imposed by distance. Any country that opposes globalization or does not havea conducive environment will be ousted from the process and will be marginalized. As Greenspan (2001) noted, the globalization process may generate “victims of the progress”.

In order not to be the victim of the progress, the study recommends the following so as to continue managing the risks and maximize the benefits that come with globalization in Sri Lanka;

+ There should be unrelenting effort in thecreation of the conduciveenvironment for globalization to strive so as not to lag behind, because non adherent by the forces of globalization will remain marginalized.

+ Efforts should also be directed at enhancement of strategies that will make the country to be technologically advanced and independent.

+There should be conscious efforts to develop every sector of the economy so as to reduce imports and encourage exports thereby creating better favorable balance of payments.

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+ Government need not to relent in meeting the basic needs of its people as it has been observed because countries which benefit most from globalization are those ones the meet the basic needs of their people and in sustained manner too.

References

AKINSAYA, A. (2002); “Recent Theoretical Explanations of Industrial Development in Developing Countries”. Nigeria Journal of Economic and Social Studies.Vol.6, No.3. CENTRAL BANK OF SRI LANKA (2000).Box Article on Competitiveness, Annual Report. Colombo, Sri Lanka. CENTRAL BANK OF SRI LANKA, 2011.Annual Report. Colombo, Sri Lanka. COLLIER, D. (1998): “The Challenges of Globalization in Africa and the Division of Labour.”. Pricessed. DORNBUSH, R., FISHER, S. (1994): Economics: Fourth Edition. The McGraw-Hill Company, Bath Press, London. ELAIGWU, J.I. (2000): “Nigeria: A Rebirth for the 21st Century”. Institute of Governance and Social Research, Jos. Monograph Series. ENWERE, I. (2000): “Globalization and Division of Labour: Challenges for Africa Development. GIDDENS, A. (1990): The Consequences of Modernity. Cambridge Polity, Cambridge. GILPINS, R. (1986): The Political Economy of International Relation. Frinceton University Press, New Jerssey. GREENSPAN, A. (2001); Speeches, Federal Reserve Board, USA. IYOHA, M.A. (2005): “When will Africa’s Sleeping Giant Awake?”. Inaugural Lecture, University of Benin, May 19. MARWA, B.M. (1999): “The Transforming Power of Globalization”. Proceedings of a one-day Seminar of the Nigeria Economic Society, Abuja. Feb.11 MILTON, I.A. (2001): “Globalization, Competitiveness, and Asia’s Economic Future”. Global Beat Pacnet. No.11, March 13. OKPEH,O.O. (2002): “Globalization and the African Question in the 21st Century”. African Journal of Economy and society. Vol.2, No.2 (Jan-Dec 2002). PORTER, M.E. (1994). The Competitiveness of Nations, London; MacMillan. ROLAND, R. (1992): Globalization: An Analysis. London. Saje Publishing. SMITH, A. (1776). An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Chapter III, That the Division of Labour is Limited by the Extent of the Market, Adam Smith Institute, 2001. SRI LANKA TOURISM DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY, 2014. THENUWARA, H.N. (2001): “Globalization and Sri Lanka: The economic Impact”. Sri Lanka Journal of Social Science.Vol.25 No. 1 & 2.

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TOYO, E. (2009): “Global Economic Crisis: Capitalist contradiction and the current Economic Order”. Daily Trust Newspaper, Friday, February 27. P.13. UNITED NATIONS REPORTS (1999) “Human Development” Awake Magazine, May 22. P4 WALLESTEIN, T. (1997): The Capitalist World Economy. The States, The Movement, and The Civilization. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION (WTO), World Trade Report 2011

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Timely Delivery of 9 to 5 Branded Gents’ Trousers

Nipuna Subasinghe Manager – Marketing and Operations, Fine Line Creations (Private) Limited, Visiting Lecturer - ESOFT Metro Campus, [email protected]

Abstract

Meeting the customers’ orders on time plays a pivotal role in the apparel industry in the modern volatile business environment. If orders are done and delivered on time it will help the organisation to keep its customer happy (Business to Business) and will also help to build up trust in customer’s mind. On the other hand if orders are not met on time continuously, the possibilities are high on losing buyers and acquiring a buyer is not an easy task. This skill project will review “How the management should overcome the issue of not meeting orders on time.”

Key words: Project Management, Operations Management

Introduction

Fine Line Creations (Pvt.) Limited is a medium scale organisation into the office wear industry, which manufactures and market gents’ office trousers. Over the years the management has built up a market for its branded trousers, but due to its expansion and bulk orders receive from its main buyer; the company is facing difficulties in meeting orders on time. Due to this issue the organisation has lost four buyers (retail outlets) already. It is also imperative to note that majority (around 65%) of the sales are generated through one buyer.

The management of Fine Line is aware that the issue continues, it will affect their performance in the long run. Thus,

2.Situation Analysis

As per the internal records the company had received orders for 12,860 trousers during December 2012 and only 9542 trousers were delivered. Also when analysing the number of orders received and delivered during 2012, I came across that the company meets in-between 72 – 76% of the orders. This is not an acceptable situation and some dealers (customers) are not happy at all when not getting trousers on time. Also it is imperative to note that meeting orders sent by the main buyer is around 12 – 14%. The main buyer’s purchases are on cash basis and all the other are given on average one and half months credit. The company currently deals with 34 dealers (fashion retail outlets) and the major buyer has 18 retail outlets. So growth of sales largely depends on this buyer.

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In order to sew the above mentioned 9542 trousers the employees were working night shifts and also in weekends. So in first three weeks of December the factory was operating almost 24 / 7. The company has the capacity of manufacturing 15,000 units per month and it indicates that assets are underutilised.

3. Management Method to Address the Problem (Proposed Management Solution)

In light of the above mentioned analysis, the proposed to implement a “Project Management System”, which was never implemented at Fine Line Creations. Even though you could argue as a garment Fine Line could follow a process (method) to fulfil orders, it was noted there is no systematic approach. The proposed method will help the organisation to overcome from the existing issues and optimise its resources.

The expectation of the project management system is to provide the organisation to plan their production effectively to fulfil orders. The company promises its dealers that goods will be delivered within 14 working days after order is placed. The current situation is around 30 working days. Through implementation of a Project Management system, the management could allocate resources effectively to meet the target date. In addition the same method could be used to attend the urgent orders sent by the retailers. This will also help me to identify the areas to be improved from the organisation’s point of to implement the system successfully.

4. Problem identification

In order to identify where the problem is exactly located, the author had discussions with the board of directors, selected dealers, sales and delivery staff. Also the observations made at this point to obtain necessary information for analysis. At this stage the author was able to obtain following information which were vital to sort out the issue faced by the organisation.

 Most of the retailers (dealers) tend to give the orders on a piece of paper or the order is given over the phone to the sales personnel.

 The sales personnel either call or email the order to the office. If there are several orders it would take a few days for the sales team to send the order to the office. There is also a possibility that sales people may make mistakes when sending the order to the office and lack of Information Technological (IT) infrastructure for sales staff to send orders to the office.

 The office co-ordinator most of the time forget to mention the name of the dealer when passing the order information to the production team. Therefore the packing team has to come back to the office to get the dealer information.

 The cutter works for the organisation on part time basis. Also there were instances when he was drunk and had come to work and messed-up some orders.

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 It was noted that for deliveries, MD tends to send the person who is assigned for the embroidery. When he was sent for deliveries the embroideries get delayed and when he comes back he has to complete around 500 embroideries.

 There is no dedicated person to inspect / be in charge for the entire process.

 There are fast moving colours, designs and waist sizes. It was noted that there is a significant demand for colour codes 1, 2, 7 & 9, waist sizes 32 – 38 and majority of orders come for pleat trousers (around 75% of the orders).

All the information mentioned above can be outlined in the cause and effect diagram as follows. Figure 1: Problems identified in situation analysis

Cause Effect

Sales Team Office Manufacturing

Lack of monitoring Production is done from top management on order basis

Lack in performance of Person who is the office coordinator assigned on Lack of IT embroidery is sent on infrastructure Delay in Delivery

Gets delayed due to Orders are given Gets delayed due to non-availability of on pieces of paper non-availability of tracking system tracking system

Retailers Packing Delivery

Source adopted from: www.mindtools.com

5.0 Development of a new method to overcome the issue

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The author of this skills project developed a new method that could systematic the overall process. In other words from the point of order / receipt to the point of delivery of trousers to the dealers, each and every aspect could be monitored and appropriate decisions made if necessary. The development of the new method could be outlined as follows.

 Production: As mentioned it was noted that there are fast moving colours, designs and waist sizes. Therefore the author has suggested manufacturing and retaining adequate stocks of those fast moving colours, designs and waist sizes. The stocks maintained will help the company to deliver trousers when an order is placed and there is no need to send to the production. The management had decided to terminate the services of the cutter who had worked on part time basis and recruited a new person on full-time basis. Also a new target of production was set as 450 trousers per day till July 2013.

 Sale team and Dealers: The company had decided to prepared a purchase order format and be distributed among dealers who tend to write purchase orders on piece of paper. The sales team were also given ten copies of the format to use in case they are needed. The new purchase order covers all the essential aspects needed such as colour code, waist sizes, quantity and designs.

 Packing and delivery: The two employees who are assigned to packing and delivery were asked to check the order information and enter records of both packing and delivery.

 Office co-ordinator: It was decided to train her with the author for a few weeks after implementation and if she does not learn and adapt fast, to recruit a new replacement. Also it was decided that the office coordinator should be in charge of the project (i.e. orders received and delivered) under the supervision of the author. The additional responsibility that the office co-ordinator gets is to enter orders to the system (excel sheet progress report) whenever required.

6.0 Evaluation of the new method

The evaluation of new method is done on the 12th week of the project. This could be outlined as follows.

Table 1: Evaluation of new method departmental wise

Department Evaluation Criteria Actual Performance

In most of the instances production team has reached Daily manufacturing Manufacturing the target. However there were few days that the target target of 450 trousers. was not achieved due to manufacturing slow moving trousers. Overall it could be concluded that the success

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rate is 95%.

As mentioned above so far company has received orders Sales target of 10,000 Sales for 9,992 trousers. The sales team is short of 8 units and trousers per month success rate is 99%.

After implementation it was noted that to pack 100 Packaging No set target trousers it would take maximum 10 minutes and the time varies depend on the quantity.

Training with the During the first week the office coordinator was slow in Office (office Consultant – performance due to the changes in job role. However coordinator) Marketing and she had slowly got into the track (within 3 weeks) and Operation carriers out her duties exceptionally well.

Within 14 working All the orders are sent within seven working days and Delivery days. deliveries are sent two days per week.

In addition to the above mentioned criteria following strategies were also adopted to evaluate the success of new method.

* Dealer visits: The author had visited selected dealers to get their feedback on the new method. It is imperative to mention that all the dealers that the author had visited provided a positive feedback on the new method.

* Wastage: During the time the part time services of the pat time cutter service was obtained, wastages were high due to the careless mistakes. However such mistakes were almost zero after the recruitment of the new cutter (one occasion he had done a mistake for 50 units)

7.0 Variations from the projected cost

The variation of the project cost could be outlined as follows. Table 2: Project cost variation

Estimated (LKR) Actual (LKR) Variation

370,000 205,000 54%

8.0 Issues in project implementation

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The issues in project implementation could be outlined as follows.

 Stock level: During the 11th week the author had noted that only a few trousers are available at stores and those are not adequate to fulfil the minimum order quantity of 50 trousers. Therefore a discussion was held with the board and the production supervisor and it was decided to keep at least 100 units. The percentage that could remain in stores would be decided in future.

 Resistance of the employees on changing job roles: The project implemented had added additional responsibilities and changed the job roles of some employees. For example the office coordinator was scared that she might lose the job due to change of her comfort zone enjoyed so far. Also the employees, who were assigned on packing, initially refused the offer joining with the strings cutting team.

 Negative approach of some dealers: Even though the new purchase order form is given to the dealers, few dealers do not tend to fill the form and hand over to sales personnel. Therefore the sales team was advised to fill the purchase order together with the dealer and send to the office.

9.0 Summary

The management skills project on timely delivery of 9 to 5 trousers was carried out for an organisation which does not follow good management practices and it was a challenge for the author of this assignment to change the mindset from top to bottom. Within the given time period using the learning gained through the MBA studies and past experience the author was able to develop a method to overcome the management issue and it had helped him to improve his existing skills and gain firsthand experience in new areas. The project had benefited the organisation also not only on timely delivery, but also to overcome other management issues related to the project that was identified.

A Management Skills Project submitted to the Postgraduate Institute of Management, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the Master of Business Administration Degree.

References

1. Daft, R.L. (2009). Principles of Management, New Delhi: Cengage Learning India Private Limited 2. Deming, W. E. (1986). Out of the Crisis. MIT Center for Advanced Engineering Study. 3. Dessler, G., & Varkkey, B. (2011). Human Resource Management, New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) Private Limited. 4. Dharmasiri, A.S. (2011). Lecture notes on Human Resource Management retrieved from http://portal.pim.lk, 4th July 2011. 5. Dharmasiri, A.S. (2011). Lecture notes on Managing Organisations retrieved from http://portal.pim.lk, 3rd January 2011.

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6. Dharmasiri, A.S., & Liyanage, U.P. (2011). Lecture notes on Business Communication retrieved from http://portal.pim.lk, 3rd January 2011. 7. Doole, I., & Lowe, R. (2005). Strategic Marketing Decisions, United Kingdom: Butterworth- Heinemann Publications. 8. Harvey, M. (2012). Project Management, New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) Private Limited. 9. Ishikawa, K. (1976). Guide to Quality Control. Tokyo. Asian Productivity Organisation. 10. Khanna, R.B. (2010). Production and Operations Management, New Delhi: PHI Learning Private Limited. 11. Kouzes, J., & Posner, B. (1993). Credibility: How Leaders Gain and Lose It, Why People Demand It, San Francisco: Jossey Bass. 12. Mankidy, J., & Mankidy, A. (2008). Leadership for Organisational Excellence, MDC Journal of Management, Larsen and Turbo Ltd. 13. Meek, H., Meek, R., Palmer, R., & Parkinson, L. (2005). Managing Marketing Performance, United Kingdom: Butterworth-Heinemann Publications. 14. Narver, J.C., & Slater, S.F. (1990). The effect of a Market Orientation on Business Profitability. Journal of Marketing, 54(4), 20-34 15. Perera, C.T.A. (2011). Lecture notes on Managing Business Operations retrieved from http://portal.pim.lk, 1st July 2011. 16. Perera, C.T.A. (2012). Lecture notes on Leadership and Business Development retrieved from http://portal.pim.lk, 2nd January 2012. 17. Peters, T., & Waterman, R. (1982). In Search of Excellence, New York, London: Harper & Row. 18. Porter, M. E. (2008). The Five Competitive Forces that Shape Strategy, Harvard Business Review, p.86-104. 19. Porter, M. E. (1996). What is strategy? Harvard Business Review, 61-78. 20. Ranchhod, A. (2003). Marketing Strategies, A contemporary approach, Prentice Hall 2nd edition. 21. Robbins, S.P., Judge, T.A., & Sanghi, S. (2010). Organisational Behavior, New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) Private Limited. 22. Sivagananathan, A. (2011). Lecture notes on Project Management retrieved from http://portal.pim.lk, 5th October 2011. 23. Thompson, A.A., Strickland, A.J., Gamble, J.E., & Jain, A.K. (2010). Crafting and Executing Strategy, New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited. 24. Yuki, G. (2011). Leadership in Organisations, New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) Private Limited. 25. Yuki, G., Gordon, A., & Taber, T. (2002). A Hierarchical Taxonomy of Leadership Behavior, Journal of Leadership and Organisational Studies, Vol. 9 No 1.

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Empirical Study on Effective Brand Strategies and their Impact on SME Service Providers profitability & market share in Sri Lanka.

Aluthgamage Hasintha Sharmen Pemerathna Faculty of Business Management Esoft Metro Campus Sri Lanka Abstract

This study has been taken place in diversified and selected markets in Sri Lanka to represent rang of cultures, ethnicities, edge groups and demographics. Hence the main intention of this study was to identify the significance of the branding tools on the SME service sector profitability in Sri Lanka. Literature review has been used to identify the nature of branding practices among SME sector in Sri Lanka and around the world for that matter. Followed by constitution of conceptual Framework. The writer identifies three main independent variables that would increase the profitability of SME institutions. At this point the researcher has finalized the research methodology to be deductive method. Also the main Hypothesizes were also developed. Results were examined from a field survey and critically analyzed. Both customers and SME service providers Data was separately collected and analyzed to draw conclusions and identify synergies. Statistical analysis was deployed to determine the viability of the selected hypothesizes. Upon successful proving of hypothesizes researcher then went on to recommend suitable strategies for the SME service providers in Sri Lanka.

Key Words: Network Branding, Relationship Branding, word of mouth Branding, Attitude, Communication sector, Fashion and lifestyle Housekeeping and repairing

Introduction:

1.1 The background of the study:

In any country the service sector is playing a critical role in that given country’s economy. Especially in a developing country like Sri Lanka where the service sector is thriving. According to the central bank report in Sri Lanka the services sector contribution to the GDP is 59.6 % in 2013.Not only that the first quarter of the2013 service sector contributed 60% of the GDP, And also the predicted growth numbers have indicated that the total growth of this sector in this year would be6%. According to the ‘Lanka business online .com’ the government has invested on the rural service sector industry, targeting the India’s 12 billion business process out sourcing market. The managing director of “Revanalytics solutions industry “Mrs. Raj Amirthanayagam (2008) said that. ‘We don’t need the entire 12 billion. But even 10% of which would be a huge margin’. This data would suggest that the small scale service providers are very important to any economy even the government is heavily involved in creating good and

215 healthy small scale service sector in Sri Lanka by pumping millions of money in to this sector. So as you see, the small scale service providers are emerging in Sri Lanka provided the favorable surrounding. And in bringing success to this sector the branding plays a crucial role.

1.2 Further Analysis of topic

Prior to everything the term” small scale service provider” should be defined properly. Although there are no universal definitions for small scale service providers Having considered the local situation researcher would like to define it as “an institution, organization or group of people that provides services by using minimum labour force and entitled to a small profit margin”.( Jourge Stepheny, UE special adviser,2001/04/03)

According to this definition there are lot of business ventures that falls in to this category in sri lanka . And they contribute to the economy from almost every industry in the sri lanka .typical examples would be

EX: communication centers, cyber cafes, food cafes, small service centers (motor bikes and three velars) , passenger transportation (busses, three velars) ,repair centers of electric items (TV,computers, iron ,ect……), cloth tailoring shops, beauty parlors, small tuition centers, gymnasiums

Although the servicers and branding relationship prevails, the Sri Lankan micro service providers are not using the concept of branding accurately, in fact their branding efforts are inadequate and non effective. According to the ministry of industry the Sri Lankan ‘sme’ service sector which is responsible for the one third of the entire ‘sme’ sector doesn’t use branding effectively .The ministry also argued the need of branding to this sector is inevitable. Due to the poor branding efforts, the micro service providers loose huge opportunities.

1.3 Objectives:

1) To identify the existing branding tactics, strategies, methodologies used by the Sri Lankan small scale service providers 2) To identify the ideal branding tactics, strategies, and approaches to the small scale service provides in Sri Lanka To identify the benefits of using brand as a strategic device 3) To measure the increase in the performance level of micro service providers and ensure the stability in Sri Lanka

1.4 Hypotheses of the study

1. Effective branding strategies can increase the profitability

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(Objective; 3)

2.Effective branding strategies can increase market share/revenue (Objective: 3)

2. Literature Review

Chapter two inclusive of the information obtain from literature survey prior to conducting of the research. This research is basically conducted to understand and ascertain whether that there is a problem involved in the small sales service providers branding approach. The review has been formulated around three main topics Namely Relationship branding, network branding and word of mouth banding.

2.1 How Word of Mouth Affects Your Brand/ word of mouth branding.

“Word of mouth is the most powerful form of communication and marketing out there.” - Mark Hughes

Word of mouth marketing is considered to be minimal in power for those who don’t know about the power of this tool. But in the correct hands it will be a lethal weapon. Word of mouth marketing is so important to the reputation of a company and the success of a brand, there is a Word of Mouth Marketing Association – WOMMA, (www.womma.org) there are even studies devoted to tracking word of mouth marketing effects. Social media marketing tools have become an integral aspect of word of mouth branding. Blocs, chat rooms, membership sites, forums, and of course social networking sites like Face book, My Space, LinkedIn and Twitter are all excellent resources for business owners looking to take advantage of word of mouth marketing power.

2.2Relationship branding

The sector of small and medium-sized enterprises is the main source of economic growth. At the same time, it has been undervalued in many terms ((The new SME definition, European Commission 2005). The gravity of SMEs in economy will be highlighted. The relationship of SMEs with their financial services providers will be analyzed. Relationship marketing and branding processes will be described in order to get better insight to the subject. Fournier’s (1998) brand relationship quality concept that was inducted in fast moving consumer goods sector will be tested in business-to-business service marketing field. The objective is to find evidence of brand relationship concept being viable in business-to-business environment. There are two primary approaches to marketing concept: relationship perspective and exchange or transaction perspective. According to relationship marketing (Grönroos 2000). Customer and his Relationship between a company is most frequently defined and evaluated through the following constructs: satisfaction, trust, loyalty and commitment. In social sciences

217 there are additional constructs that are equally important in viewing relationship: love, passion and intimacy (e.g Berghäll, 2003). According to Fournier (1999), satisfaction is an active, dynamic process. It is alimented with dependent and contingent, and intertwined with life satisfaction and the quality of life itself. Similarly to satisfaction, loyaltyresearch is undergoing a definition shift too. In marketing literature, it has been taken as default that customer loyalty is the key issue in maximizing profits (Alexander and Colgate, 2000; Debling, 1999). Cristopher and Payne, (2003) described three main principle that would help to build a relationship brand. They said that business ventures should Changing their focus from yourself to your customer, keep in touch with your customers in the absence of the noise and clearly communicating what your field of expertise. 2.3 Network branding:

Refers to exassive use of social and cyber networks in improving the image of the brand and increase the brand equity. (Professor Raija Komppula ,University of Joensuu) The study examines the top nine ski resort brands in the US, Australia, and Finland and how these brands are managed and governed. The results identify 34 qualities, which have been grouped into 12 different competencies. These competencies are said to be the corner stones for success in building a network brand in a ski resort environment. The results of the study offer information and brand development tools for representatives of the business community active in the field location marketing. “The beauty of social networks is that they are a place where nearly any marketing goal can be achieved, with nearly any marketing tactic,” (Debra Aho Williamson, eMarketer senior analyst and author of the new report, “Marketing on Social Networks: Branding, Buying and Beyond, 2010) In a December 2008 Marketing Sherpa survey of social media marketing professionals, 92% of respondents said social media marketing was effective at influencing brand reputation and 91% said it worked for increasing brand awareness.

3. Research design and methodology

The research method mainly focuses on survey techniques. Where primary data was collected by distributing questionnaires. To represent the entire market in Sri Lanka the researcher has represented different demographics and geographies in the sample. Majority of the samples were taken from Colombo region. As the main city in Sri Lanka and as the most populated area which accounts to more than 40% of the population in Sri Lanka, Colombo represents multiethnic and multicultural vividness that would persist in any other corner in Sri Lanka. But some small set of sample would also be taken from the from rural/country side in order to balance the urban and rural factors in the data collection. 3.1. Sample Design and Sample Collection Carrying out a research among total population is not a possible task. It is important to select a sample that can represent the total population of Sri Lanka. Therefore information and the process of selecting the sampling have explained below.

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3.3.1 Data Sources

Illustration 4: The types of Data used for the research

Type of Collection Access Purpose Data Method Secondary Literature e- Libraries, web sites To understand the scope of research Books such as the marketer, already conducted in the field of study Journals magazines, Philip and to identify the branding factors Dissertations kotlers 13th edition that influencing the profitability and market share Primary Structured To be distributed at 50 Test the hypotheses established, in Questionnaire small scale service the Sri Lankan context and understand providers. And another the relative importance of the factors 100 consumers identified through secondary research 3.3.2. Sample technique Non Random, Convenience sampling is used to collect the data. From the below stated available corporate customers in western province in Sri Lanka, based on convenience, the questionnaire will be distributed amongst the small scale service providers and the customers 3.3.3. Sampling Size 100 Customers and 50 small scale service providers.

1.10 Conceptual frame work

Relationship branding

The stable Rapid growth business Network branding in business environment

Word of mouth branding Owner’s 219 positive

attitude towards branding 04. Analysis of the findings

The research was conducted as explained in chapter 3 of this report, by distributing the semi structured questionnaires among 100 customers and another 50 questionnaires among small scale service providers in western province was the biggest task of the researcher. However the researcher was capable to get the intended sample size from the 150 Respondents. The findings below will highlight key areas from the research, and will attempt to achieve the objectives of this research.

Among many findings on of the first would be that lean towards the branding is more when the profits are higher

Table 01: Revenue per month

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid 50,000< 8 16.0 16.0 16.0

50,000 - 80,000 27 54.0 54.0 70.0

80,000 - 150,000 9 18.0 18.0 88.0

150,000 - 200,000 6 12.0 12.0 100.0

Total 50 100.0 100.0

In this regard the last group whose profits are highest had clear distinction in their branding practices. They both trust and continuously involve in such practices. The data can be further analyzed by analyzing another question in the service provider’s questionnaire. In question Number four of service provider’s questionnaire, the respondent were analyzed based on the profit increase rate . According to this findings the groups who’s’ profit is reducing or not increase at all had less involvement in branding. 92% this groups had either no or very minimal focus on branding. Contrasting to the other groups who had higher rate in profit increase where their branding practices are at a considerable level. This is an indication that the branding practices has influence on the profit. But further analysis should be done as the profit can increase for various reasons. And to find exact reason the three independent variables would be tested.

In another question (question number three) of suppliers questionnaires the suppliers were asked about the facilities provided by them to communicate and link with the customers. And follow results were collected.

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Chart 01

chart 3:communication options provided by the service provider

12% 8%

Land phone only

22% Mobile and Land phone 58% Mobile phone only mobile/land phone and email

Here,a special combination could be identified, that is that most of the service providers who provide most number of communication options (Land phone, mobile, email, internet) has the highest profit margins. And it appears that their attitude towards the customers would also help them to be more related with the customer. More than 90% of the service providers who believed that customer is more than just a friend have provided lots of options for the customers to contact. Simply they like to communicate with the customers. According to the literature review main building blocks of relationship branding are desire to relate with the customer and frequent interaction with the customer. Another analysis can confirm the same fact, in question number six of the customer’s questionnaire customers were asked how much time they would have to wait until they get a respond. More than 84% of the customers who said they will be responded within an hour if not thirty minutes rendered the service from service providers who earned more than 200000 Rs per month. A clear indication that the responsive ness of those service providers who believe about the concept of relationship branding is much higher. Additionally it is evidential that there is a significant relationship between the market shares, profitability and the relationship branding practices in Sri Lanka.

As mentioned in the methodology the correlation would be taken from main three variables those can be listed as follows.

Profit/ market share (dependent Variable)= Network branding+ relationship branding+

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Word of mouth branding

And to measure the main three independent variables there are be more subvariables attached to those

Relationship branding = Powerfulness of the relationship with the customer+ Strategies to strengthen the relationship with the customer+Powerfulness of the relationship with the service provider.

Network branding= Believe that network branding can improve the performance+Preference to contact the service provider over the internet+willingness to maintain a network at a cost.

Word of mouth branding= trust your service provider + Communication options provided+Complains respond time+satisfaction with the communication efforts by service provider.

Significant relationship between brand performance and the company performance could be identified.

Table 02:

Brand Organizational performance performance Brand Pearson Correlation 1 .981* performance Sig. (2-tailed) .019 N 50 50 Organizational Pearson Correlation .981* 1 performance Sig. (2-tailed) .019 N 50 50

Table 3:Correlation between profitability and word of mouth branding

Are you satisfied Do you trust Communication Complains with his profitability your service options provided respond time communication provider effort profitability Pearson Correlation 1 .900* .783* .825* .1* Sig. (2-tailed) .047 .03 .038 .045 N 100 100 100 100 100 Do you trust Pearson Correlation .900* 1 1.000** 0.487** 1.000**

222 your service Sig. (2-tailed) .047 .000 .000 .000 provider N 100 50 50 50 50 Communicatio Pearson Correlation .783* 1.000** 1 0.523** 1.000** n options Sig. (2-tailed) .03 .000 .000 .000 provided N 100 100 100 100 100 Complains Pearson Correlation .825* 1.000** 0.874** 1 1.000** respond time Sig. (2-tailed) .038 .000 .000 .000 N 100 100 100 100 100 Are you Pearson Correlation .1* 1.000** 1.000** 0.456** 1 satisfied with Sig. (2-tailed) .045 .000 .000 .000 his communicatio N 100 100 100 100 100 n effort *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). (Source: Research survey) **. Correlation is significant at the 0. 01 level (2-tailed).

This table comprises with all the sub variables and their correlation ships with the main dependent variable profitability. All the sub variables are representing one independent variable that is word of mouth branding. As we can see all the sub variables have more than 0.5 Pearson correlation value and the significances are identified (P Value) between 0.01-0.05. Therefore it is significant enough to prove a real life probability among all the sub factors in word of mouth branding. In the sense if a SME service provider adopt good relationship branding strategy there is a higher chance that they would end up being profitable. And same set of sub variables were tested against the other independent variable “market share’. It proves to have the similar outcome.

Strategies to Powerfulness of strengthen the Powerfulness of the relationship relationship the relationship Revenue/ with the with the with the service market share customer customer provider Revenue/marke Pearson Correlation 1 .983* 1.000** 1.000** t share Sig. (2-tailed) .017 .000 .000

N 50 50 50 50 Powerfulness of Pearson Correlation .983* 1 .983* .983* the relationship Sig. (2-tailed) .017 .017 .017 with the customer N 50 50 50 50

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Strategies to Pearson Correlation 1.000** .983* 1 1.000** strengthen the Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .017 .000 relationship with the N 50 50 50 50 customer

Powerfulness of Pearson Correlation 1.000** .983* 1.000** 1 the relationship Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .017 .000 with the service provider N 100 100 100 100 *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). (Source: Research survey) **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Another analysis of the study have focused on dependent variable market share and the independent variable relationship branding. In this regard the independent variable has been sub divided in to three sub variables. These sub variables comprises with two main data sets. Data collected from SME service providers (50 participants) and the data collected from customer (150 customers). Vivid relationship can be found in this three sub variables but just like the previous analysis the pearson correlation is more than 0.5 and all the factors are falling between the range of 0.1-0.5 in terms of P value. Proving the real life probabilistic occurrence of the variable. Once again the same set of independent variables were matched with the other dependent variable “Profitability “. There the correlation significance was even stronger ( 0.01 P value).

Table 16:Correlation between market share and network branding Believe that Do you like to network contact your Are you willing branding can service to maintain a Revenue/mark improve the provider over network at a et share performance the internet cost Revenue/mark Pearson Correlation 1 1.000** .583 .989** et share Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 N 50 50 50 50 Believe that Pearson Correlation 1.000** 1 .764** .856 network Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 branding can improve the N 50 50 100 50 performance Do you like to Pearson Correlation .583 .764** 1 1.000** contact your Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 service provider over N 50 100 100 100 the internet Are you willing Pearson Correlation .989** 1.000** 1.000** 1

224 to maintain a Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 network at N 50 50 50 50 acost **. Correlation is significant at the 0.0 1 level (2-tailed). (Source: Research survey)

The final independent variable “network Branding was also established with three sub variables. And just like in the previous data set both customer sample and the service provider sample were collectively used to analyze these facts. And just like the relationship branding there is a discrete positive relationship between all the sub factors of network branding and the independent variable of market share. The correlation significance can be found at 0.01 means that the positive relationship identified in the Pearson correlation is possible out come in the practical world. And it is positively related with each other with higher bond. Analyzing the second dependent variable “the profitability:” would have no much of a difference. Although the relationship doesn’t overlap or repeat in the same accordance, overall outcome is similar. Where a significant positive correlation can be found with P value of less than 0.01.

5. Conclusion

Hypotheses Testing (H)

Based on the analysis it is clearly visible that market share and profitability are influenced by the use of the branding. There is no big deferent in the report and the findings. Therefore researcher can assure that the factors that researcher tested as hypothesis was very much relevant to the case of this study. Those are the hypothesis that the researcher have tested

H1 – Effective branding strategies can increase the Market share Sub variables: Network branding: Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed), strong positive correlation Word of mouth branding : Correlation is significant at the 0.01-0.05 level (2-tailed). Moderate positive correlation Relationship branding: Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed), strong positive correlation. Therefore H1 is proved as the relationship of dependent and independent variables varies from strong positive to moderately positive.

H2 – Effective branding strategies can increase profitability.

Network branding: Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed), strong positive correlation

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Word of mouth branding : Correlation is significant at the 0.01-level (2-tailed). Positive correlation Relationship branding: Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed), strong positive correlation. Therefore H2 is tested , proved : and can be concluded that there is a positive and powerful relationship between profitability and the effective branding practices in Sri Lankan SME service sector.

6. Recommendations Use social networks in maximum to increase the brand image

Businesses that are in this nature witch has little market share has to focus on strategies that would cost less but has big benefit over a shorter period of time. So creating accurate social network would be an advantage for the brand and business improvement.After creating good social network the service providers can use that network in many ways as a promotional strategy or as a relationship branding tool. To maintain social network there might be cost involve but in return you would get a loyal customer base and also many more benefits, even comparing other branding and promotional strategies this method would save a lot of money. Sings the market is niche it would be even easy to find time to examine the customer and analyze the customer and build social network following are some steps to follow in this process

Illustration three: Network Brand Management process

Create network

Identify the key links in the network

Make guide lines to maintain and manage that key links

Create integrate network brand management process

Implementation and control

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Use internet, emails and other cheap technological facilities in maximum to increase the brand image

Today the world is known as a universal village due to the rapid development in the communication and other technological areas To day if some body needs to contact some person from the left corner of the world to the right corner to the world within seconds you would not only be able to speak with him/her you would also be able to see him live .It is mentioned that more than 15 million people are browsing the yahoo and new things like face book had increase the relationship with inter country relationships as well.

So the small scale service providers can easily use things like E-mails to contact with the customer .Emails can be used as a tool in relationship marketing and relationship branding .this would be a cost saving option as well as no cost incurred to create and send Emails. Emails would also reach very fast.

Another tool that can be used is SMS although it incurs a small cost it is even effective than emails as the parties in to the communication process can instantly have mutual contact. Sings two way communication is very easy the service providers can easily use SMS as direct marketing tool and also as a relationship marketing/branding tool. Another brilliant option would be maintaining a website this would need some expertise knowledge and some time but it can be effective as the cost benefit ratio of maintaining websites are very effective. Even through this method the service can be reach the international level with no big investment.

Most big problem in this sector is that there are no scientific management principles involved in the management of resource therefore lot of resources are being underutilized even the human resource is also very poorly used where the workers stay idle for quit a big time in a given day. Another resource that this sector underutilize is the time the small scale service providers are among the poorest in time management. Due to this factor they lose lots of orders they deliver.

So to manage time, human resource properly budgeting and forecasting can be usedit is true that this sector need not to have more detailed budgets .But simple budget would also serve the purpose. Budgeting can bring control in to play as the budget sets the standards. The actual can always be checked with the standards and make the correction decisions. Through forecasting the activities that are going to happen in the future can be predict so the service providers can prepare for the threats early and capitalize on opportunities in maximum.

Use word of mouth and relationship branding in maximum to increase the brand image

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Word of mouth is a powerful media of promotion it is true that there is this informal nature in it. But this method remains as most powerful means of compelling for the customer to render the service as the customers feel more confident about the person who send the massage than the service provider sings the sender of this massage is also a customer and might be your closer friend. To use maximum out of the word of mouth strategy you need to create the surrounding that support the purpose.

The relationship branding is another area which is more effective for the small scale service providers in sri lanka as there is a niche market for this members the relationships are the key to gain success in the industry. Proper management of relationships would lead to increase in market share and profitability also in creases the brand image .For relationship branding to be practiced there should be network branding and also proper word of mouth branding with the conjunction of both to there can be effective relationship management and the relationships would be used in maximum in gaining a positive image behind the brand name

Use brand logo and physical evidence and 7PS more often

Brand logo is a part of the brand it is a symbol that symbolize the brand .brand symbol along would have an attracting power .attractive and meaningful brands can increase the attention of the customers, when the question raised (Q-3 customers questionnaire) “what is most passionate thing about your service provider”, 19% of the customers replied it as the brand logo so there is no wonder that the brand logo has some driving factor that create a bond between customer and the service provider

Sings the servicers are intangible in separable and variable there is a tendency that the service provided may deviate from what it promised to be. So to protect the consistency and accuracy of the brand the attention should be driven to the people, process and physical evidence in to the marketing strategies. If the service outlets can be backed up with creative physical outfit which also emphasize and demonstrates the brand values the customer would find it easy and attractive to be served in that kind of outlets. The customers also would feel convenient because customers can physically experience the brand values. The people element is another crucial factor in this sector as peoples performance varies time to time so the variability would lead to make confusions and frustrations in the mind of the customer. So the people factor should be managed in such a way that it increases the brand image of the firm. Finally all the processers should be integrated (equipments purchasing, order handling, procuamanting) so that all of those processors are directed at creating a brand value and image.

7 Future Research

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As small scale service providers are least used to research on in Sri Lanka, there are many things to find out about this industry. As the sample size is small and due to other limitations, this type of study can be conducted in a large scale so batter conclusion can be inferred from the data.

Since this is a cross sectional research this study can conducted as longitudinal research in future. Then the data can be collected in time to time. That will lead to batter conclusion. Also studies can be conducted on the quality controlling systems that small scale service brands can adopt. So this information can be used when designing research about small scale service providers in sri lanka in Sri Lanka in future.

Another area that could be searched upon is what kind of promotional method that small scale service brands should be using to maximize the profit.

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Montgomery, Alan L., Shibo Li, Kannan Srinivasan, and John C. Liechty (2004), “Modeling Online Browsing and Path Analysis Using Click-stream Data,” Marketing Science, 23(4), 579- 595. Nielsen//NetRatings (2005), “A Community Uprising,” February, www.nielsen- netratings.com

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Impact on managerial awareness & attitude on implementing green marketing practices in consumer markets in Sri Lanka Aluthgamage Hasintha Sharmen Pemerathna Faculty of Business Management Esoft Metro Campus Sri Lanka [email protected] Abstract

The greenhouse emission is one of the prominent threats in the twenty first century, as the uncompromising demand for energy by emerging and developing markets tend to rise. According to the reports direct economic loss of environmental pollution in china is more than 3% of their GDP. And it is the very same for many developing countries including countries like Sri Lanka. According to the worlds fact book the carbon efficiency in Sri Lanka is 0.38, which means for every Dollar we generate in our economy we have to release 0.38 metric tons of CO2 gas. This is comparably high level. Hence here in this research the writer intend to observe how the managerial attitude will influence their companies’ overall marketing effort of going green.

To get a clear background writer has done a thorough analysis on the previous research work under the literature section. Further using of which the writer have identified the common factors In all those researches, none of which is overlapping the research title and question. The primary data gathering will be done using interviews and questionnaires. Where, qualitative and quantitative data will be gathered. And the sample method would be stratified random sampling where the writer has interviewed 50 marketing managers.

Hence the research has been conducted for three months with approximate cost of 10000-20000 Sri Lankan rupees. At the end of the report the writer; has successfully testified the ‘hypothesizes’. And also the writer has highlighted the recommendations made out of observation of the research. At the final part of the report the writer has given guidance for the future researchers for their future successful endeavors.

Key words: Green marketing, Consumer market, Correlation, Green products, Eco friendly environment

Introduction

1.2Back ground

With the immerging threats of environmental pollution, need for green concepts were highlighted. Building organizations like Kyoto protocol indicates the compellingness endowed by authorities. Despite the movement towards green some big nations refuse to embrace such practices. Especially countries like China and India are yet to accept the merits of green practices. Countries like Sri Lanka on the other hand face one of the biggest questions of

230 striking the balance between green environments and developing economic needs. Among the many surveys done in the Sri Lankan literature the evidence were profound that customers were infact willing to purchase green products, and it is the availability of those that matters, when it comes to purchasing. So the company management has not provided there enough options to customer. In this study the writer is intended to address about management issues related to management attitude that will contribute to such lack of practices in the industry.

India, the nation that is predicted to become the most populated country in the world have lost direct economic loss of 3.7 trillion , Live Mint and the wall street journal, (14.07.2013).And the second largest economy in the world china has loses around 5.8% of its GDP for the pollution according to , www.worldbank.org , (19.07.2013). In Sri Lanka on the other hand would also face a similar challenge, as the countries expected to have the highest GDP growth rate in south Asia 2013. According to the world development indicator database, Viewed at: www.nationmaster.com/country/ce-srilanak/env-enviornment, (19.07.2013) carbon emission in Sri Lanka is 11182.2 units in thousand tons,which is still a very high level of air pollution. This study will enable future researchers to identify the nature of the green marketing that is persistent in Sri Lanka. Further this report will reveal the perception of management in Sri Lanka towards the green practices. The thesis will also assess the level of attitude towards ecofriendly marketing practices by the management. Ultimately the report will analyze potential correlation ship between the management attitude and the green initiation within the organization.

1.3 Research Objectives

MAIN OBJECTIVE:

To identify how the attitude level of managers can influence the green marketing involvement in the organization.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

 To analyze the attitude level of management with respect to green marketing(1)  To examine the existing green marketing activities in the industry(2)  To identify the relationship between managerial attitude and the green marketing(3) practices in the industry.(4)  To recommend the best practices of green marketing.(5)  To recommend best attitude level for the manager.(6)

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1.4 HYPOTHESIS

H1: The managers’ attitude has a direct impact on the green marketing practices in the industry.(1) H2: The managers attitude has no direct impact on the green marketing practices in the industry (NULL).(2) H3: The managers’ understanding about green marketing has a direct impact on the green marketing practices in the industry.(3) H4: The manager s’ understanding about green marketing has no direct impact on the green marketing practices in the industry.(NULL).(4)

2. Literature review

According to New York base Environmental institute, Smith, (2013) around 125 million people are affected with toxic pollution in the world. And according to OECD, (2010) report the number of premature deaths due to pollution will reach 3.6 million in 2050.Therefore the survival of the society will be depending on green orientation of the civilization.

2.1 Legal Loopholes in Green Policies

According to ,cleanwater.org, (2013) the “Franking” law in U.S.A the oil drilling and extraction companies can avoid complying with drinking water act and oil water act. Therefore any loss can be mitigated and most likely should be bared by the society at large .Interestingly most common reason for the pollution of underground water is drilling and mining. This drawback is known as "Halliburton Loophole” by many law experts ,stateimpact.npr.org, (2013).

When it comes to Sri Lanka the matter remains to be the same, where many loopholes of law can be identified. One of the famous example of bypassing the EIA laws evidential in eppawela Phosphate mining project. According to two researchers Shockman, and Saelr,( 2000) the action was supported by the national authorities. Further, Zubair .L, (2001)says that the law is not sufficient to assess the cumulative impact of several projects in a given area. Another modifiable loophole is that the poor Judgment and justification of unreasonable alternatives. Given the facts it can be clearly concluded that there is infact a failure in complying with the law. Part of the problem could be Sri Lanka’s strategy of adopting foreign regulations directly to local environment.

According to some experts the green marketing is nothing but an icing that would cover the ugly truth of profit. The author of marketing myopia, Levitto , (1960) believes that the marketers should not overlook the marketing as the totally environmental process, where outcome of which is totally focused on environment. Instead the marketing process should be customer driven and focus, where end result also is non-other than satisfaction of the

232 customer. Levitto also argues that firms should adopt both environmental friendly and customer oriented approach combining to meet their objectives and the overall green look doesn’t do any good.

2.2Green marketing

The concept of green marketing has not immerged overnight, in fact it was a outcome of series of incidents. In 1940s’ the World War has devastated many plantations and cultivations. According to report of Rosenberg, (2013) American scientists call E. Borlaug has found a new high yield variety of wheat. Which has infact increased the agriculture production by multiple times. Following the Carsons’ awakening in 1965 there was another incident that improved the interest of general public in USA. Where, Lawyer Nader. R, (1965) has established a book “Unsafe at any speed” highlighting the effect of air pollution that is contributed through automobile industry..The “ford pinto” case was a significant case that lit up many environmental activists where the company ford has introduced new PINTO system to capture the lucrative light vehicle market. Sings the design lack the safety ness many accidents have caused and many explosions have occurred resulted in many deaths. Reports revealed in Fast company.com, (2013) that neither the environment safety no the passenger safety has been regarded in this module.

According to the set of Canadian researchers who have done sole research on finding the definition of green products, there is no clear cut definition of green products. Depending on the industry and the region the definition of the “green product” changes. And the author will use the finding of the above mentioned research report as the source document to arrive at a conclusion. An academic definition can be quoted by Liu and Wu , (2009: P.27) as “Products whose functions or ideas deal with the process of material retrieval, production, sales, utilization and waste treatment available for recycling, reduced pollution and energy saving” According to this definition the Eco products should allocate resources for recycling in the planning stage. It is more preventive technique. Another definition quoted by Triebswetter and Wackerbaue , (2008: P.27) says “Environmental innovations: techno-economic, organizational, social and institutional changes leading to an improved quality of the environment” This definition focuses on the quality improvement in the eco environment as a whole. It is broader definition that focuses on the entire society, whereas the Liu and Wu definition was more specific. To get clearer picture the industrial definition on the green product should also be taken in to account. Hence an industrial definition can be found in www.aboneobio.com , ( 2013) as “Product made with washing plant bases, Biodegradable product, Product which preserves resources.

According to the information shown in www.ambrosialgranola.com, (2013) the first ever green product was found in the USA it was famously known as GRANOLA which is used grains. And

233 the product is more health conscious and in serial type, the product was first found in 1894 by Doctor James Jackson. The product was said to be more environmental friendly as the ingredients were fully natural. And another e-new anchor blog.cleaningproductsworld.com, (2013) claimsthat the year 1960 was the base year for many green cleaning chemicals. With the awakening of the eco logical consciousness most companied in used natural cleaning stimulus in their product. Green plastic also known as biodegradable plastic is introduced to the public with the intention of reducing the damage caused by plastic. It can be in two categories one is bio plastic making use of renewable energy and other is use of petrochemicals that has degradable characters www.technologyreview.com, (2013). There are many green plastic products in the world such as Samsung blue earth, ZTE Coral 200 which is contributing to the environment. Although the products have many praises it also follows with some criticisms. The concept of green marketing has been highly emphasized topic in the both developed and developing world. So it is pivotal to understand the clear definition about the concept. According to the American Marketing Association there are multiple perspectives to be looked into when it comes to green promotion such as retail view, social view and environmental view. Moreover in sellers view it should be products that assures environmental safety and in the societies view it should be the marketing and product design practice that will lead to minimize the negative effect or improve the quality of the physical environment. And finally in the environmental viewpoint the company should undertake packing, producing and marketing products by giving high concern to the environment http://www.marketingpower.com, (2013).

2.3. Impact of green marketing on the business practices around the world

Conventional marketing practices where not sufficient when the new concept of sustainable marketing was introduced. Most of the developed countries have embraced the concept quickly. The modern trend according to Laxhminarayan D., (2012) is that many developing countries also rapidly shifting to green marketing. Especially in India there is a high lean towards eco products. This trend is a direct result of increased awareness and interest by the general public. A study reveals that due to increased education level and knowledge more Asian consumers are turning in to green consumers. Which leads the way for many business activities to convert their practices in to green friendly activities, Rezai.G et., (2013). Therefore the author can identify three types of initiations from the cooperate world. First one is including green ingredients in to products or services, second method would be changing the production and business processes in to green and final method would be investing on CSR activities that are totally eco sensitive.

2.4Green attitude

Kinnear et. al.,(2009) has defined green attitude as consumer’s high involvement regarding environmental issues as a consequence of a growing environmental consciousness. Sings we

234 are interested on general definition the above statement can be summarized as the both awareness and willingness from the customers or business parties towards the safe keeping of environment. Tendency is rising in Sri Lanka where there are many researchers who are willing to do researches in green marketing pillar. One of the latest research reportby Prof. Gunawardena, (2009) revealsthat Sri Lankan young buyers are willing to buy more green products. According to this report the interest among Sri Lankan public to buy green products is on the rise. But comparable branding and promotion efforts made by the companies are inadequate. According to the survey more than 57% of the customers willing to directly change their buying pattern to environmental friendly products. And 32% of the people will seriously consider the green products in their buying pattern. Moreover, from another research report the same fact is being proofed where the age groups 18-30 and 30-51 areleaning towards environmental friendly products than other age groups. Most of the old population of Sri Lanka has not experience or aware of green crisis.

Methodology

3.1 SCOPE OF THE STUDY:The study focuses on the attitude level of the management in Sri Lanka, giving special reference to consumer markets. Therefore the target population of the research would be all the marketing managers in Sri Lanka who are employed in B2C industry. The population is too large to examine therefore the scope should be narrowed dawn. Hence representing the entire country, researcher has taken Colombo district as the base area in the study. According to the World Bank, (2013) As the main town in Sri Lanka Colombo holds both economic and social importance. Almost 35% of the population resides in this area, with multicultural and multi ethnic background. Further, the contribution from this area is more than 50% of the country’s GDP.Sings the author has already identified the scope area as the Colombo area all the samples will be collected from this area. And the population of this report would be the top managers who are making strategic marketing decisions in Sri Lanka. And therefore the sample will represent 50 marketing managers/directors working in the industry of consumer market, and who are also employed in Colombo suburbs.

Due to difficulties in approaching the top figures in the marketing functions of businesses the author have decided to go for stratified non random sampling. Can be also seen as combination of stratified and judgmental sampling, as the writer will divide entire population in to four categories as FMCG, SSG, LSG and banking & other.

Market type % of the population Size of the sample

FMCG 40% (50*40%) = 20

Short term shopping goods 20% (50*20%) = 10

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market (SSG)

Long term shopping 25% (50*25%) = 12 goods(LSG)

banking & other 15% (50*15%) = 8

3.8 Measurement method

The researcher has intended to conduct both survey questioners and personal interviews to measure the main scope of the research, where both qualitative and quantitative characters are consisted.

Attitude measurement:

First part of the questionnaire will measure the attitude of managers. In this regard the main parameter to set questions would be chans’(2004) study. Where, Chan’s have measured the attitude of the customers using five point Likert scale. Same will be converted to measure the attitude of the manager. The researcher will be using several Likert scale questions with atleast five scales, to keep the mathematical accuracy. The attitude will be tested using three variables as follows

A) Green Perception: This is the way how managers look at the green marketing concept. Questions one and two in the questionnaire will be testing the perception.

B) Green Believe:This refers to the honest believe that the green marketing can be practically implemented thus those practices will contribute positively to the environment. Question number three and four will be covering this area.

C) Green Action:It refers to the actions taken towards environmental protection and the future intended actions that is planned to undertake. In this regard question five to seven will be far warded.

Awareness measurement: In the second part of the questionnaire the second independent variable is intended to be measured. Therefore the second variable which is “Awareness of the managers about green marketing is tested. For this task the writer has adopted the Nik Abdul Rashid’s’ article questions. In which he have also used questionnaires ranging from 5 to 10 scales and the author also wish to follow the same structure. But with unique differences that will be best suited to assess the management awareness. Both of these sections will be separately calculated using weighted average and will attribute a single value for each section .

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Conceptual Frame Work: Diagram 02

Green Perception Independent variable

Green marketing Green Believe attitude Independent variable Interdependent variable Green Action

Independent variable Green Marketing practices of an organization. Basic knowledge Dependent Independent variable variable

In -depth knowledge Green marketing awareness Independent variable

Interdependent variable Up to date knowledge

Independent variable

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Chapter Four

ANALYSIS OF THE STUDY

4.1 Analysis of the survey responds

Table:1 Organisation analysis of survey response rate Market segment Distribution Received Percentage Managers/directors Managers/directors Total FMCG 20 18 18 90% Short term 10 shopping goods 10 10 100% market(SSG) Long term shopping 12 goods Market (LSG) 12 12 100% Bank and other 7 8 7 87.5% Total 50 47 47 94%

This data set represents respondent accuracy of 94% which gives us a clear indication that the respond collection procedure was successful. While SSG and LSG markets responded rate is 100%, while FMCG and Banking & other sectors represent 90 and 87.5 percent accuracy respectively, making the lowest respondent sector as the banking & other sector.

4.2. Analysis of Demography of sample

Table:2

Experience Managers Managers Managers Banking and Total FMCG SSG LSG other Under 5 years 3 (15%) 1 (10%) - - 4 5-10 4 (25%) 3 (30%) 2 (16.66%) 1(12.5%) 12 10-15 8 (44%) 5 (50%) 7 (58.33%) 2(25%) 23 15 and above 3 (15%) 1 (10%) 3 (25%) 4(50%) 8 Total 18 (90%) 10 (100%) 12 (100%) 7(87.5%) 47

Table:3 Gender analysis of respondent

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Observants Male Female Total Managers FMCG 14 (46.66%) 4 (23.52%) 18 Managers SSG 7 (23.33%) 3 (17.64%) 10 Managers LSG 6 (20%) 6 (35.29%) 12 Managers Bank & 3 (10%) 4 (23.52%) 7 other Total 30 (100%) 17 (100%) 47 4.3 Attitude test results

Managers alert level on environment (Question One)

Table 4: Frequency

Eco wellbeing alert level Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Disagree 8 16.0 17.0 17.0 Nutral 2 4.0 4.3 21.3 Valid Agree 13 26.0 27.7 48.9 Strongly agree 24 48.0 51.1 100.0 Total 47 94.0 100.0 Missing System 3 6.0 Total 50 100.0

More than 51% of the population strongly agrees that despite the effort companies have to continuously invest on environment. Interestingly none of the managers where strongly opposing the argument, although 17% of the population disagree with the argument. Those who disagreed have stated that“The ozone layer was damaged and now they say it’s recovered, and Air pollution is at high level it seems but there is no major issue yet”Another similar commenter have mentioned “Look at the major disasters tsunamis’, flood and forest fire, so are those man doing? Not really, those are natural incidents so major disasters in this decade are not because pollution”Contradictory argument also can be found as“The oil reserves are drying up and the drinking water sources despair while rainforests being destroyed every moment as we speak”

Attitude On “Green Products” (Question Two) To grasper the opinion of the managers on the green products the author have asked the question “What do you think about “Green Product” and the participants were given four options to choose. And the resultsindicates that more than 34% of the population believes that

239 as commercial institutes everybody must include at least one product which is totally environmental friendly. And more than that proportionate believes that (40.4%) the green products are essential for the wellbeing. But they refuse to actively invest on such products, instead they highly appreciates about such products. When asked why one manager had replied that“The economy is volatile and we can’t afford to go for such products even if we like to”Another reply mentioned that“Do you think if there is no profit companies would invest on green products? They do it only to increase their margin. To be frank that is my experience”Both the managers are well experienced people in the industry therefore we can’t neglect their opinions. And they firmly build their argument by betting their experience by the side. So it is evidential that some “Green Washing” activities are happening in the industry. Never the less more than 74% percent of the population bares positive attitude about the product. 4.4 Awareness of the green marketing To gather the recipients knowledge on the green marketing concept the author have asked the question what do you understand by the term Green marketing. And the respondent were given four answers all of which are derived from the literature review. The mean value is 2.96, means that the responded had a moderate good level of knowledge on the basic concept of the green marketing. Further analyzing the fact using the table 5 it is evidential that around 13% of the sample believes that green marketing is using green color. Which is totally wrong and some 26% of the managers believed that it is about accreditation like ISO which is not also a solid answer.

Findings on the relationship between managerial attitude and the green marketing practices in the industry (Object 3). According to the discussion and the analysis major conclusion can be arrived at as the attitude and the awareness level is linked with green marketing practices in the industry. Following information will prove those facts. According to the research conceptual frame work Attitude = Green perception + Green believe + Green action initiation Awareness = Basic knowledge + In-depth knowledge + Up to date knowledge Green marketing practices = Attitude + Awareness And all the elements are being tested in the analysis stage. It is collaboratively depicted in the following table

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Table 6: Attitude correlation

Interdependent Independent Test element P. Value Correlation Total Variable Variable element Attitude Perception Alert level 0.001 Strong positive Green product 0.001 Strong positive Strong Attitude Believe Only focus to 0.001 Strong Positive improve reputation Significance of 0.004 Strong Positive

contribution to the Strong environment Action Green is costly 0.024 Strong initiation moderate Shouldn’t oversee 0.001 Strong positive profit Only government 0.24 No Strong should relationship investongreen marketing

Table 7; Awareness correlation

Interdepende Independent Test element P. Value Correlation Total nt Variable element Variable Awareness Basic Basic Knowledge on 0.001 Strong positive Strong knowledge green marketing In-depth Difference between 0.177 No knowledge green marketing and relationship revolution Up to date Sustainable and 0.003 Strong Strong Knowledge green marketing moderate difference

According to this table all the variables have strong powerful relationship except awareness independent variable “In-depth knowledge”. This variable proves to be not related at all to the

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dependent variable. Therefore the conceptual frame work is changing according to the latest findings. It will be as follows

Figure 02: Conceptual Frame work C) Proven& amended Conceptual Frame Work

Green Perception Independent variable

Green marketing attitude Green Believe Interdependent variable Independent variable

Green Action

Independent variable Green Marketing practices of an organization.

Dependent Basic knowledge variable Independent variable Green marketing awareness

Up to date knowledge Interdependent variable

Independent variable

The newly amended conceptual frame work is dropped out with one of the test elements and following are the all test elements which was proved to have no relationship at all.

 Who plays the main role of investing on green environment  Who plays the main role of investing on green environment?

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 Advanced Knowledge on green marketing  Gender impact of on the green practices. Although those test elements didn’t prove to have any relationship with the green marketing practices the main variables are all suggesting that there is infact a relationship of green marketing practices with attitude and the awareness of the organization. Therefore the research conceptual frame work formula of Green marketing practices = Attitude + awareness has been proved. Therefor HYPOITHESIS ONE is proved and also the HYPOTHESIS TWO is also proved.

5. Recommendations ofthe Study The writer has observed many recommendations while processing and analyzing the information. Following are some suggestions that can be made to improve the current situation.  Arrangement of workshops to improve the knowledge of green marketing: Around 40% of the selected sample (according to question no. 08) is not having solid understanding on what the green marketing concept is about. So it is advisable that the companies must improve their manages awareness level in order to improve the green marketing tact tics. Mostly companies can either plan in house training sessions or they can go for common external training sessions. Sings the main aim is to get a general idea of green practices it is better to get external training sessions which will be cheaper an also more resource full.

 Create cross functional task groups to improve cost effectiveness and efficiency of green marketing practices.

According to question five more than 80% of the population agrees that the green marketing would incur a high cost to the company. But there are also those who don’t believe that argument and mostly they have used the concept of economy of scale and portfolio management techniques. To enforce such tasks the company should have a powerful link between the production finance and marketing departments. Hence the writer suggest that the companies should form temporary teams where there will be representation from operations function, finance and marketing functions so that they can decide how to use those concepts to reduce the green marketing practices in the industry.

 Experience sharing forums

Sing the knowledge of green marketing is not so keen on the masses an majority of the managers, it is recommended that those who have solid knowledge on the topic can train

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others inside the organization how to achieve sustainable marketing practices. Sings there is no legal body or an institute to exploit the knowledge of green marketing, companies should use their inside experts opinion on this matter.

 Include Eco friendly attitude to the recruitment & selection criteria

It takes time to inculcate an attitude in the minds of the employees, hence it is best suited to recruit employees with the attitude strait away. Which will reduce the cost of training the employees on eco wellbeing. So the author recommends that the company should adopt HR recruitment policy so that the correct people with correct attitude will be selected.

 Include Eco friendly targets and goals in the appraisal criteria

When the managers appraisal is backed with environmental practices the managers automatically shift to green marketing practices to keep their performance level high. In this regard the companies can include such things like “number of green CSR projects done in a given year”. The companies can attach realistic and challenging targets in this regard.

 Introduce laws to eliminate “green washing”.

Recent past many developed countries have introduced many laws to prevent companies from claiming for something that they didn’t do. Especially in American the new law have banned companies the use of babies in their green marketing advertisements. But Sri Lanka is yet to introduce the laws in such nature, and author believes it’s about time the Sri Lankan government should think of such laws to eliminate misuse of environmental image on the public.  Appreciation and recognition in Award ceremonies.

Sri Lanka has many national business award ceremonies like peoples award e.c.t. And if those manages who performed exceptionally well in contributing to environment, get highlighted in national press level there will be a quit turnaround in the attitude level of the manages.+

6. Conclusion

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The research has been undertaken with the main objective of determining a relationship between the attitude and awareness level to that of the green practices in the organization. While both qualitative and quantitative techniques are being used in this regard, both the tools proved similar results. Most of the variable that were considered in the study was proven to have statistical P value less than 0.05 meaning that there is a powerful relationship between those considered variable and the dependent variable. According to the study most managers believe that environment pollution is critical to the world but very few believe that they should involve directly. And a powerful relationship can be found with those who believe that they should actively contribute to the environment and their respective actions related to green marketing. Also as whole most manages who perceived the green marketing as a cost have failed to undertake much green oriented activities in their marketing plans, contradict to those who believes that cost is not a barrier who also happened to have high level of green practices in their respective functions. Interestingly, it was proved that there is no significance relationship between the manages’ gender and the respective involvement in green marketing practices. Overall there is an average level of knowledge about the green marketing concept among corporate manages. But when it comes to up to date knowledge the only few managers had the caliber and eagerness to chase environmental improvements. Ultimate conclusion of this report would be that more the positive attitude and awareness about green marketing more involvement would be there by the manages’ towards such practices in Sri Lanka.

Future researches

Sings the research was carried out targeting only the consumer market the future researchers have the opportunity to extend the same study to capital and financial markets and also to the industrial B2B markets. And most of the study materials where mainly exposed in to marketing managers although there will be an impact on green marketing by non-marketing managers like finance and operational manages. So future researchers have the chance to expose their studies towards all the marketing and non-marketing manages. Finally the researcher have only invented conceptual framework proving the relationship of as attitude and awareness with the practices of green marketing. But the writer strongly recommends the possibility of inventing separate module for the green marketing and practices. Hence the future researchers can endeavor to come up with separate module for the green marketing.

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Surfing the Internet- Your online data may be at a stake! : A Legal perspective W.A.D.J. Sumanadasa, Attorney-at-Law, Lecturer Department of Private and Comparative Law, Faculty of Law, University of Colombo. [email protected] Abstract

Data privacy and online data protection have become a growing concern in the modern context as today the whole world depends on knowledge and data. According to the European Commission, data is the currency of today’s digital economy. Anytime we access to the cyberspace, we may leave traces thereby making it possible for anybody interested enough to collect, organize and analyze our personal data. The OECD guidelines, which is the first attempt in addressing the issue, concerns the capacity of law making institutions in democratic societies to respond to large and complex developments of global technology by identifying eight privacy protection principles. In the European context, the data protection is recognized as one of the cornerstones of privacy and a fundamental right. Thus, the EU has adopted several effective mechanisms, including data protection directive under the theme of ‘one continent- one law’. It is observed that there are some positive attempts for the protection of data privacy in Sri Lanka, including the enactment of Computer Crimes Act, No. 24 of 2007 and the establishment of Information and Communication Agency (ICTA). Since the law is dispersed in this area, it is suggested to protect online privacy through one holistic piece of legislation. At the same time, establishing of a government regulatory body such as a data protection commissioner likewise in EU region to scrutinize the situation is also suggested. In doing so, Sri Lanka can contribute to the expansion of global information economy and to protect valuable data available in the cyberspace such as trade secrets. Remarkably, Sri Lankan then will be in a better position in attracting investments since the implementation of a proper mechanism would remove non-tariff trade barrier to flow of data from developed nation economies.

Key Words: online privacy, data protection, OECD guidelines, legal protection

Introduction

Data privacy and online data protection have become a growing concern in the modern context as today the whole world depends on knowledge and data. Nearly every daily routine can be carried out through or with the help of technology. Doing this, we also contribute to the flow of

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data, in particular over networks such as the internet. Everywhere we go, we leave traces thereby making it possible for anybody interested enough to collect, organize and analyze our personal data.

Recent incidents such as Edward Snowden’s reveal of some classified information, including global surveillance programmes of the National Security Agency of the USA and incident of Wikileaks posed a challenge on data protection in a global scenario. On the other hand, digitalization of human life through social media such as Facebook, twitter, flicker and YouTube etc. increases the possibility for anybody to invade the privacy of any user. However, it can be observed that even though the users of social media are interested in and known the features and the facilities available on the website, most of them are not aware of the fact that they are at a risk in invasion of privacy.

Traditionally, in the global context, technological data protection and privacy concepts are understood solely as security measures which are designed to ensure confidentiality and to restrict the availability of the data. The OECD41 guidelines42 in 1980 were the first recognition of privacy principles in a global legal scenario. It concerns the capacity of law making institutions in democratic societies to respond to large and complex developments of global technology by identifying eight privacy protection principles. However, it is doubted whether countries like Sri Lanka is in the same trend in protecting electronic data in a modern technological era.

In this context, this article is intended to critically analyze the issues that have arisen from the law and practice governing privacy protection and security of online data. It will analyze all those issues in light of the 1980 OECD principles. The last parts of the article will draw attention to contemporary challenges and possible suggestion for the developing countries like Sri Lanka to develop a piece of law specially analyzing the above mentioned issues of online data protection.

2.Research methods

41 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

42 OECD Guidelines on the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flows of Personal Data

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This is a qualitative research mainly carried out by using literature survey (primary and secondary sources). Resources such as international instruments, statutes, case law, textbooks and journal articles have been utilized in analyzing the research issue.

3.Privacy and Technology

Since the internet has invaded our everyday lives, individual privacy is exposed in different ways in cyberspace i.e. electronic (e-) commerce, e-governance, e-vote and social networks. It is important to note that the Internet lacks the traditional characteristics of a ‘physical’ space, but the interests and inherent values protected by privacy remain the same in cyberspace. Online privacy may not be a novel right, but it is definitely one exposed to a whole new environment which has its own special need for protection. The right to privacy has long been regarded as a basic human right in all democratic societies.

However, the privacy concept is pregnant with definitional variation. Analysis of the literature on privacy reveals four major ways of defining the concept. (Bygrave, 2002) One group of definitions views privacy essentially in terms of non-interference. This sort of characterization of privacy gained prominence largely in the wake of the law review article by Warren and Brandeis, who argued that the right to privacy is part and parcel of a right “to be left alone”.(Warren and Brandeis, 1890, p.205) Further, Ruth Gavison defined privacy as a condition of “limited accessibility” which consists of three elements: secrecy, solitude and anonymity. (Warren and Brandeis, 1890, p.205) The third group of definitions conceives of privacy, preliminary in terms of informational control. (Lusky, 1972, p. 709) According to the last group, privacy is the state of possessing control over a realm of intimate decisions, which includes decisions about intimate access, intimate information, and intimate actions.(Parent, 1983, p. 309) On the contrary, privacy in general is said to have four aspects, namely information privacy, bodily privacy, privacy of communication and territorial privacy.(Marsoof, 2009) In the data protection discourse, however, the most popular definitions of privacy are in terms of information control and it is undeniable that data protection is an aspect of privacy.

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The spread of the internet and the seemingly borderless options for collecting, saving, sharing, and comparing information has triggered some of the neo-native problems in data protection. For instance, internet cookies, a special software that records user behavior, which was developed in 1994 has threatened the privacy of users. Further, hacking, cracking, spams and phishing, etc. have also posed the same challenge on the online privacy. This raises such important issues as to how the threats to privacy evolving, how privacy can be protected and how the society can balance the interests of individuals, businesses and government in ways that promotes privacy reasonably and effectively. 4.The Universal Umbrella of Protection

Almost all discussions about privacy laws take as given, that the reference point for regulatory arrangements is the ‘OECD Guidelines on the Protection of Privacy and Trans-border Flows of Personal Data’ in 1980. The Guideline involves eight principles, which in different variations are often touted as "fair information practices".

The first principle is the ‘Collection Limitation Principle’. That means, there should be limits to the collection of personal data. According to the ‘Data Quality Principle’ personal data should be relevant to the purposes for which they are to be used, and, to the extent necessary for those purposes, should be accurate, complete and kept up-to-date. Next principle is ‘Purpose Specification Principle’. The forth one is ‘Use Limitation Principle’. According to that, personal data should not be disclosed, made available or otherwise used for purposes other than those specified in accordance with third principle. According to the ‘Openness Principle’, there should be a general policy of openness about developments, practices and policies with respect to personal data. The seventh principle is ‘Individual Participation’. The Last principle of ‘Accountability’ indicates that a data controller should be accountable for complying with measures which give effect to the principles stated above.

Moreover, the Human Rights perspective stipulates that the privacy is a core human value that goes to the very heart of preserving human dignity and autonomy. The human rights approach to privacy has been buttressed by a variety of international human rights covenants that, by

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recognizing privacy as one of the fundamental human rights, endows all individuals with a moral claim to privacy. Such covenants include: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)43 and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966). By adopting these covenants, the international community has registered its conviction that privacy is a value that society as a whole needs to protect. A human rights approach to privacy invites the adoption of uniform and universal rules for protecting informational privacy. Furthermore, in 1996, the International Labour Organization (ILO) adopted a code of practice on the protection of workers' personal data. The ILO code is regarded as the standard among privacy advocates for protection of workers' privacy rights. The code specifies that workers' data should be collected and used consistently with fair information practices.

When it comes to the regional protection, mainly the European Union (EU) is in a remarkable position in data protection and privacy. Article 8 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms44 (1950) and several EU directives provide a sound basis for the protection. EU Data Protection Directive45 adopted by the European Union designed to protect the privacy and protection of all personal data collected from or about citizens of the EU, especially as it relates to processing, using, or exchanging such data. As per the Directive, personal data can be collected under strict conditions and for a legitimate purpose. Further, it encompasses all key elements from Article 8 of the ECHR, which states its intention to respect the rights of privacy in personal and family life, as well as in the home and in personal correspondence. Appointment of data protection commissioners, which is essential for an effective functioning of the regulatory mechanism is also one of the salient features of the EU law. In March 2013, the European Parliament has suggested to further modify this Directive to meet the challenges posed by globalization and the new technologies and the reforms will be come into effect from 2015.

43 Article 12

44 Hereinafter referred to as ECHR

45 95/46/EC dated 24 October 1995, this directive based on 1980 OECD guidelines and recognizes ‘notice, purpose, consent, security, disclosure, access, accountability’.

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Furthermore, the ‘Directive on privacy and electronic communications’46 has specially regulated the processing of personal data and the protection of privacy in the electronic communications sector. By the ‘Directive 2006/24/EC’ further amendment were made on several provisions of the above mentioned directive on privacy and electronic communications. This directive has provided provisions for the retention of data generated or processed in connection with the provision of publicly available electronic communications services or of public communications networks. 5.Sri Lankan approach in on-line privacy protection

It is observed that the rapid developments in information and communications technologies in Sri Lanka have significantly affected the current legal system. The absence of a data protection authority in Sri Lanka is a real threat to the protection of on-line data which can be easily accessed and stored. (Sumanadasa, 2010) Even though, the government has attempted in introducing new data protection law to ensure the privacy of individuals and information, and the confidentiality, availability and integrity of information and the integrity of transactions, it is yet to be realized and passed by the Parliament. (Privacy International Country Profile – Sri Lanka, 2006)

When it comes to the human rights based approach, it can be noted that Sri Lanka is a party to the international instruments such as UDHR and ICCPR. Though the Sri Lankan parliament has passed ICCPR Act, No.56 of 2007 to harmonize its law with human rights standards, it was unable to recognize the right to privacy. On the other hand, the Constitution also does not explicitly recognize the right to personal privacy as a basic fundamental right.47

However, the common law of the country, i.e. Roman Dutch Law provides a basis for the protection of the privacy through Actio Injuriarum. Actio Injuriarum covers three main aspects of injury, namely ‘Dignitas’, ‘fama’ and the ‘persona’. (Burchell, 1993) Dignitas is in the core of

46 2002/58/EC dated 12 July 2002

47 However, in 1997, the proposed Constitution considered the right to privacy and family life as a fundamental right. However, the proposed Constitution in 2000 has no reference to the right of privacy.

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the subject and privacy is frequently seen as a facet of individual dignity. (Burchell, 1993) In Sinha Ratnatunge vs. The State 48 although that was a criminal defamation case, the Court of Appeal has identified that the right to privacy can be a part of the law of the country.49 It is doubted, however, whether the common law of the country is broad enough to encompass the neo-native challenges posed by the technology on privacy such as spam and phishing.

The Sri Lankan government has not yet introduced separate piece of legislation that protects online data privacy or the collection of personal information. One of the legislations that slightly refers to this area is the Telecommunication Act No. 25 of 1991 as amended by the Act No. 27 of 1996, which regulates the interception of communications. According to the Section 53 and 54 of the Act, the interception of telecommunication transmissions and the disclosure of their contents is an offence subject to penalties, including imprisonment.

Nevertheless, giving a green light, the Parliament passed the Information and Communication Technology Act No. 27 of 2003 to provide for the establishment of a national policy on information and communication technology and for the preparation of an action plan. Under this Act, the Information and Communication Technology Agency (ICTA) is in charge of the implementation of the national policy in both the public and the private sectors. The agency functions as the single highest body involved in information and communications technology policy to the nation. One of the successful enadeavours of the ICTA was the establishment of the National Center for Cyber Security (CERT) ensuring the security of internet activities. Remarkably, it is observed that CERT has successfully investigated and handled more than 200 complaints per month, including some of the scandals of social media i.e. Facebook. As pointed out by the CERT, the best practice is to prevent the online invasion of privacy than reactive and thus they have introduced best practices for the protection. Moreover, the introduction of the ‘High Level Security Policy’ in 2005 under nineteen headings including data protection in

48 Sunday Times defamation Case: (2001) 2 Sri L R 172

49 Case was based on Criminal Defamation- Penal Code 1883- Section 479 and 480. This law was repealed in 2002.

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electronically deploying citizens’ services by the governmental institutions was also a significant achievement of CERT.

The Computer Crimes Act, No.24 of 2007 modelled on the Budapest Cybercrime Convention, also provides a basis for protection. The Act addresses computer misuse; unlawful obtaining of data 50 ; cyber-stalking; unauthorized disclosure of confidential information 51 and illegal interception of data.52 These are important provisions which are to ensure privacy and integrity of subscriber information, traffic data and communication that is being held in computers or transmitted via computers and information and communication technology. (Selvakkumaran N, 2008) In furtherance the provisions of the Computer Crimes Act, Department of Police has established a center for internet crime investigation to address the emerging trends of cybercrimes in the country.

The above analysis provides evidence as to how the Sri Lanka has responded to the emergence of invasion of online privacy. However, it is noted that Sri Lanka has not fine-tuned the law up to the OECD principles or up to international human rights standards. The Sri Lankan protection of privacy makes an equivocal picture in finding laws as well as in its application since it gets blended and blurred.

1. A Scrutiny of the Issue: On-line Privacy Protection 1.1 Core: the OECD Guidelines

The OECD guidelines were the first attempt in addressing the privacy issues in the world and it initiated the framework as to how it should be done. However, the guidelines, and the concept of "fair information practices" generally, fail to address privacy coherently and completely because they do not recognize a rather fundamental premise: the vast difference in rights, powers, and incentives between governments and the private sector. Governments have heavy

50 Section 7

51 Section 10

52 Section 8

255 incentives to use and sometimes misuse information. On the contrary, critics pointed out that the OECD had grown out of the Marshall Plan, by which the economies of Western Europe had been rescued from devastation by the drive, generosity and funds of the United States of America. As such, the OECD was not a body concerned with human rights. (Hon. Kirby, 1999) As a result, the expression of the OECD Guidelines was shown to have been motivated by the protection of business activities, rather than of people's privacy. This situation caused countries like Sri Lanka not to have been guided by the principles as it represents the interests of limited members.

6.2Privacy: a polycentric question

As we identified above, protection of privacy in on-line is a polycentric matter as it has more than one perspective. On one hand the individual right to privacy and the other hand public interests and right to freedom of expression and press make ambiguous picture in the protection. But the restrictions of privacy on the basis of public interests should be proportionate with the purpose of the restriction.

Basically, this matter is not in the sphere of pure private or public law scenario. It has wide application and involves the interests of the individuals, information systems, service providers, press and media, telecommunication and at large the public. Therefore, the law has to recognize these matters and the need for the protection which covers all perspectives.

6.3Fast moving technology versus the stagnating law

Technology has a great effect on the protection of privacy and the security of on-line data. Some people have become aware of data protection laws and find ways of skirting them by innovating technological advances. For instance, hacking of trade secrets via internet has become a million dollar business in international context. Although, Sri Lankan Intellectual Property Act, No. 36 of 2003, through Section 160 has provided a protection for trade secrets, it is doubted whether this law alone can protect trade secrets from divulging by hackers for a monetary gain.

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It is depicted that Sri Lanka is unable to fine-tune its law with the international standards, though it tries to address some of the technological issues like electronic transactions53 and cybercrimes54. Although, it is observed that there are ancillary attempts to address the issue, it doubted that these attempts are appropriate to meet the ever-changing challenges of the Infobahn. Further, the lack of expertise and public unawareness also prejudicially affects in introducing a new law.

2.1Legislation or Self-Regulation

It is undeniable that the repercussion of non-adoption of a sound law would circumvent the arrival of foreign companies which are specially operating through the internet such as BPOs. On the other hand, today there is a tendency of relocating of western based MNCs into Asian countries due to some reasons such as cost and labour. Nevertheless, it can be noted that Sri Lanka is lacking behind attracting such opportunities in comparison to Asian countries like India, even though one of Sri Lanka’s aims is to develop the country as an investment hub of Asia. In a context where the online data has become valuable assets of a company, it is not surprised that a company operating in a knowledge based era is hesitated in coming to an alien jurisdiction where there is no sound law for the protection of online data.

Thus, there is a need of introducing a separate mechanism to protect online data due to the impact of fast-growing internet usage on the economy and the necessity to react the legal situations of other jurisdictions. Although, there is no conformity in the type of the protection which is more suitable for Sri Lanka, it is suggested to adopt either comprehensive regulatory approach or sectoral approach or self-regulatory approach.

Taking the debate on self-regulation in the U.S. as fairly representative, self-regulation rather than legislation is seen as the most appropriate mechanism to protect privacy on the grounds that legislation is too inflexible and time-dependent to be responsive to the fast-moving world

53 Electronic Transactions Act No.19 of 2006

54 Computer Crimes Act, No. 24 of 2007

257 of information technology. It is feared that government legislation will likely lead to an overly bureaucratic and cumbersome regulatory process that will only result in raising the operating costs of the businesses involved. (Tang Z, Hu Y and Smith MD, 2009) While undoubtedly there is some merit in this claim, it cannot be denied that business has been very slow to adopt self- regulation, even though it is said to be its preferred course of action. Thus, it is submitted that trusting industry to police itself would not be an effective mechanism in a country like Sri Lanka.

It is noted that the public awareness of rights under data protection is remarkably low in Sri Lanka. One of the possible explanations for this is that Sri Lankans as an Asian community mostly believe in collective rights rather than individual rights. Hence, in general, they may not be much more concerned on the invasion of their privacy by the others of the society. Therefore, it is observed that this is an obstacle for privacy to work as a legal concept as most of the people may not want to embrace it. On the other hand, a poor knowledge of law badly affects to protect online privacy even though there are some related existing mechanisms such as CERT and Computer Crimes Act. In Sri Lanka likewise in everywhere, there is a movement of using mobile electronic devices which can be used to access to internet. Nonetheless, using these devices does not necessarily mean that the users have got a sufficient literacy on the technology or the Infobahn. Hence, it is noted that most of the people using information technology do not know how the invasion of privacy i.e. through cookies, spams or phishing can be happen in an on-line environment.

Therefore, it can be suggested that enacting a separate legislation addressing every related issue of online data protection with a supervisory governmental body, such as Data Protection Commissioner would be appropriate in Sri Lankan context. However, law alone cannot remedy the situation. Thus, public awareness programmes are also needed to conduct for the users starting from internet novices’ level to the professional level. 7.Conclusion Every passing moment emphasizes that any country has to update their online privacy protection framework to suit with the technological advancement and challenges. On the other

258 hand, developing countries like Sri Lanka do not direct their law towards a proper mechanism in privacy and online data protection as the legislature does not consider it as a burning issue. However, Sri Lanka still has a common law mechanism of Actio Injuriarum which can be utilized even for the protection of online data from the invasion of privacy. On the other hand, the absence of a written law and a regulatory body leave many questions in practice.

It is undeniable that, privacy issues and online data have enormous economic values and a lot of implications in our day. Therefore, right to privacy in online should be protected through a sound piece of legislation. At the same time establishing of a government regulatory body such as a data protection commissioner likewise in EU region to scrutinize the situation is also suggested. This autonomous governmental body may look into the matters relating to online privacy as a watchdog at the same time involving in the public awareness of online privacy related laws. In doing so, Sri Lanka can contribute to the expansion of global information economy and to protect valuable data available in the cyberspace such as trade secrets. Remarkably, Sri Lankan then will be in a better position in attracting investments since the implementation of a proper mechanism would remove non-tariff trade barrier to flow of data from developed nation economies.

Bibliography

1. Bygrave, L.A. (2002) Data Protection Law: Approaching its rationale, logic and limits. Kluwer Law International: Hague, 2. Christopher, K. (2003) European Data Privacy Law and Online Business. Oxford University Press: Oxford. 3. Burchell, J. (1993) Principles of Delict. Juta & Co. Ltd: Cape Town. 4. WARREN, S. & BRANDEIS, L. (1890) The Right to Privacy. 4 Harvard Law Review. p. 193- 220 5. LUSKY, L. (1972) Invasion of Privacy: A Classification of Concepts. 72 Colombia Law Review. p. 693-709

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6. PARENT, W. A. (1983) A New Definition of Privacy for the Law. Law and Philosophy 2 (3). p.305- 338 7. MARSOOF, A. (2009) Privacy at stake!, Technology v. Legal Reform, BASL Law Journal Vol. XV. p.75- 83 8. SELVAKKUMARAN, N (2008) The legal regime governing computer crimes; an appraisal of the Sri Lankan Law. Academic Conference on “Law in Context: An agenda for Reform”, Faculty of Law, University of Colombo. 9. SUMANADASA, W.A.D.J. (2010) Privacy Protection and Security of on-line data in a modern technological era. Annual Research Symposium. University of Colombo.

10. CLARKE, R. (2000) Beyond the OECD Guidelines: Privacy Protection for the 21st Century. Roger Clarke’s Website. Available from : www.rogerclarke.com [Accessed 19 August 2014] 11. Hon Justice KIRBY, M. (1999) Privacy protection, a new beginning: OECD principles 20 years on. Privacy Law and Policy Reporter. Available from: www.auslii.org [Accessed 19 August 2014]. 12. TANG, Z. HU, Y. & SMITH, M.D. (2009) Gaining trust through online privacy protection :self-regulation, mandatory standards or caveat emptor, Journal of Management Information System 2009, Available from: www.ssrn.org . [Accessed 19 August 2014]

13. Privacy International(2006) Country Profile- Sri Lanka . Available from: www.privacyinternational.org, [Accessed 19 August 2014]

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The Effect of Women Entrepreneurial Characteristics for Successful Development of Brands

Ms. PamudyaSumanasekara ESOFT METRO CAMPUS Lecturer [email protected] Abstract

Power of women has been progressing overtime and the reinforcement of women entrepreneurs has been wide spread all around the globe. Sri Lankan women have shown their strength over the last decade and enthusiastic to arise in the market place parallel to men. Attempt to stand out in the market is a great challenge to women and to be success in the market is the greatest challenge they face. Producing not only the basic women conscious product but also the other product categories relevant to everyone has been their foremost intention. The attempt of this research is to find out the effect of implicit women entrepreneurial characteristics for the development of successful brands within Sri Lanka. Researcher’s intention is to understand the women traits and how the use of those traits has affected toward their businesses. How the interrelation of those traits with regards to social and cultural constraints and individual characteristics affect the brand development is being explained by this research. This research will contain the prominent business women who have captured the significant portion of Sri Lankan fashion and beauty industry and the event organizing industry as well as the international market. MsOtaraGunawardena, the founder and the chairperson of ODEL Unlimited PLC, MrsChandaniBandara, the founder of 4ever Skin Naturals and MrsSanjeewaniBandara the co- owner of 2nd chance flowers are the women selected in order to collect information. In order to obtain the prominence they have put their effort throughout the past years without hesitance.

Introduction

The latest and the successful research on this field is done by Susanne E. Jalbert in2000. Out of the many researches done on women entrepreneurship, Jalbert’s research takes a very significant position with regards to the above mentioned field. The research titled as “Women Entrepreneurship in Global Economy” and it has focused on the global emerging markets. The foremost attention is given to women entrepreneur characteristics.

The focus on how those characteristics have been a major influence to develop a successful brand in the market place is the point she has ignored. Most of the researchers have given their attention to women entrepreneur characteristics and brand development as separate subjects. Considering the facts about the importance of a successful businesses and successful brands, the influence of entrepreneurial characteristics performs a vital role.

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Major reason to undertake this research for the purpose is to fill the gap of findings on this field. Lack of literature on women entrepreneurial characteristics and it’s relation with development of successful brands have upsurge the enthusiasm to conduct this research. Present day women are being powerful in the market and there is a necessity for understanding how their strengths match the prevailing market opportunities and how they have successfully capture the market. A Global culture has been developed to empower women. With this research implicit strengths of women can be understand.

Sri Lanka is a country with an emerging economy, but the culture is more focused on to man domination though the people say there is women equity. Emphasis on women culture and their power to perform and be successful by being equal to men not only in local but in the international market is critically analyzed throughout this research.

Most of the researchers have focused on women entrepreneurship where the economy is developed and stable. It is necessary to understand that as per the recent economic recession world confronted with, there will not be any economy to call as well developed ones. Hence if the courtesy towards the developing economies is given, the accurate way to enhance the women entrepreneurship can be understood.

RESEARCH QUESTION There are successful and unsuccessful women entrepreneurs in Sri Lankan market. Research question How do the women entrepreneurial characteristics influence the successful development of brands?can be seen in the market since most of the women entrepreneurs are available in the brand market rather than commodity market.

LITERATURE  “Women business owners bring many assets to the global market. Female entrepreneurs have demonstrated the ability to build and maintain long-term relationships and networks, to communicate effectively, to organize efficiently, to be fiscally conservative, to be aware of the needs of their environment, and to promote sensitivity to cultural differences. Women’s enterprises are qualitatively different from men’s. Studies indicate that women business owners create a clear culture of their own.” “Female enterprises tend to center on the delivery of services responding to traditionally unsatisfied needs. Female managers liberally seek information, exchange ideas with others, and let information crystallize before making a final decision. Women entrepreneurs show a tremendous willingness to seek business guidance and education to compensate for perceived weaknesses.”

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I. Risk Taking Propensity II. Social adroitness

III. Focus IV. Inter Personal Skills

V. High Energy Level VI. Competence in Finance

VII. Married, First Born VIII. Managing Relationships

IX. Self Employed Father X. General Business Management Skills

Figure No:1 (Jalbert, 2000)

 Major Brand Strategy Decision

Brand Brand name Brand Brand positioning selection sponsorship development Attributes Selection Manufacturer’s, Line or brand

Benefits private, extension Protection licensing or co- Beliefs and values branding New or multi brands

Figure No:2 ( Kotler and Amstrong,2003)

This model can be used to identify the strategies women entrepreneurs have been utilized to develop their brands for the brand market. To what extent the used strategy is being successful in the market, what was the failure point and how to identify the exact brand development strategy can be recognized in the practical aspect. With that inference can be made about successful development of brands for the market.

Methology In order to carry out this research, Deductive Research Approach has been used to test the data collected are identical with the theory. This research addresses the area where there is no clear objective to carry out the research. ExploratoryResearch method can be adapted with the form of qualitative research and it can be extended in to the Descriptive Research method. When selecting the women entrepreneurs for the purpose of this research, Non- ProbabilitySampling (PurposiveSampling) has been used.

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10 questions have asked from 10 people from who work at different level under each of main respondent. To take out the sample, Convenience samplingmethod has been used.

This employee sample is being representing the entire employees who work under the main respondent and who keep the proximity with them. Basically it includes the employees from 3 managerial levels in order to be representative of the population. Questionnaire is provided in the form of Likert –scale. For this research purpose multiple case study method has been adapted in order to clarify the research objectives. Case studies can only be done through qualitative research methods. Personal semi- structured interviews(expert survey) and observation under natural circumstances have been carried out in order to collect information from main respondents. Average interview time extends from 1-2 hours each and the Observation is done for 3days one hour time for each day for each person at the time they are working in their showrooms, saloons and at functions. Semi-structured questionnaires are being provided to the respondents.

Data collection Method Primary data collection methods. 1. Personal Semi Structured Interviews of main respondents 2. Surveying of employees under main respondents 3. Natural observation of the activities of main respondents Secondary Data External secondary data sources for this research is annual report, magazines, web sites and newspapers, trade associations, computerized bibliography and general business publications.

DATA ANALYSIS The data obtained from various primary sources are qualitative in its nature. It explained the effect of women entrepreneurial characteristics for successful development of brands. Findings are qualitative and it starts to be in exploratory and extends in to descriptive level. Data can be generalized for a certain extent since this research is being carried out as a multiple case study method. Narratives can be developed with the information gathered from the main respondents for the purpose of data analysis and interpretation can be done relating to mentioned narratives. Based on those narratives can develop common themes and common statements and can identify the patterns out of the answers from the main respondents. With obtained patterns and themes can identify the effect.

Natural observation has taken as a support to the personal semi structured interviews and builds up narratives. Theoretical generalization has done after considering the analyzed data.

Interpersonal skills, social adroitness, relationship management and high energy are the women entrepreneurial characteristics that can be observed.

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Researcher has observed that some women entrepreneurs are very friendly with the employees and the customers. Their relationship management skills are at the top level. But some are not that much.

FINDINGS

As per the answers, common themes have built that; married women are tending to take the initiative to act as entrepreneurs. But they do not necessarily have to be the first born child or to have a self-employed father to encourage them to be entrepreneurs.

They are very much attracted to take risks. As per the selected entrepreneurs, they were initiatives of the business they are carrying out now though now so many other brands have come up as competitors.

Focus is a great strength of them and they are highly committed towards what they are doing and they can balance their family lives and the business together. They tend to answer that they carried out the business with a focus of a mother who is brought up her children, this concludes how much they are hardworking and focus.

They have used their personal recognition as women to build up their brands. The meaning of that is their ability to social adroitness has a great impact towards building up the brands. It also a risk, but when they are selecting brand names they have used their own names rather than finding a new one. This show that their interpersonal skills and the social adroitness have been bind to their risk taking propensity and helped them to develop the brands.

The common theme built up towards the competence in finance is that entrepreneurs are not activated only for monetary values.

They have inherent qualities of relationship management and problem solving abilities, which they have used to lead towards the success of the business.

They have great effort toward their business, though they tend to say that their businesses are successful, still they committed towards it like taking care of a child. A mother will never let lose her children though they have grown up. The theme which has built up using this fact is that their hardworking and commitment.

They are very much interested in manufacturer’s brand since they are hardworking and risk taking. That is according to them the nurturing quality they have as women.

Natural ability to take the initiatives have been helpful them when make decisions about how to build brands.

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As per the answers given by the employees, under an assumption of the given positive answers will build a positive correlation, there have been some findings. This information is collected purely with the intention as provisions toward the interviews with the main respondents.

Therefore, the relationship management, hardworking, creativity and social and interpersonal skills have been confirmed as some women entrepreneurial characteristics that might need for brand development.

Out of the observation in the natural circumstances also have confirmed that their relationship management, interpersonal and social skills.

However, out of the key findings and the common themes built up, the researcher can conclude the research by saying that there is a great influence to successful development of brand from the women entrepreneurial characteristics.

Out of the key findings, the research question “How do the women entrepreneurial characteristics influence the successful development of brands?” are being explained to be a positive answer that the researcher has found there is an impact of women entrepreneurial characteristics to development of successful brands.

According to the 10 women entrepreneurial characteristics developed, 8 have a direct influence with regards to development of successful brands in the market. Their interpersonal skills, social adroitness, hard work, relationship management have essential influence to development of the brands.

As per the key findings they have used their inherent women characteristics to develop their brands in local and in the international markets. Not only they have developed the brands, but they have led those brands to success by using those characteristics.

References

1. Adler, N.J.,(1997) Global Leadership: Women Leadership, Management International Review, pp 190-193 2. Aakar.,D.A and Joachimsthaler.,E, (2000) Brand Leadership, London, Free Press. 3. Anna, A. L., Chandler, G. N., Jansen, E. and Mero, N.P.,, (2000), “Journal of Business Venturing,”, Women business owners in traditional and non-traditional industries, 15.3,pp 279-303 4. Burns,P.,(2007), Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 2nd Edition, Palgrave Macmillan.

5. Chernatony, L.D., and McDonald,M.,(2007), Creating Powerful Brands-in consumer, service and industrial markets, 3rd Edition , Butterworth-Heinemann, Elsevier.

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6. Carter, S.,Anderson,S., and Shaw,E.,(2001),”Women’s Business Ownership; A Review of the Academic Popular & internet Literature”, Report to the Small Business service,1;1,pp 24-29.

7. Ferrante, F.,(2005), “Revealing Entrepreneurial Talent”, Small Business Economics, 25;2,pp 159-174

8. Greene, P.G., Hart, M.M., Gatewood, E.J.,Brush,C.G., and Carter,N.M.,, (2003), “Women Entrepreneurs: Moving Front and Centre”, An overview of Research and Theory, pp10-18 9. Gustafon, T., and Chabot.,B,, (2007), “Developing your brand”, pp1-3 10. Jackson., J.E, and Rodkey., G.R, (1994), “The Attitudinal Climate for Entrepreneurial Activity” The public opinion quarterly,58;3

11. Jalbert,S.E., (2000), “Women Entrepreneurs In the Global Market”,3 ,pp 31-40

12. Keller, K.L.,(2000), “A successful brands” 13. Klink., R.R, (2003), “Creating Meaningful brands: The relationship between brand name and brand mark”, Marketing Letters, 14;3,pp 143-157 14. Kotler,P., and Armstrong,.G, Principles of Marketing, (2003),10th Edition, Prntice Hall, New Delhi, India. 15. McRobbie.,A, (2002),Creative Work, Female Individualization, Palgrave Macmillan journals. 16. Perreault,W.D. Jr., and McCarthy,E.J.,(2005),“Basic marketing”,15th Edition, McGrow-Hill Irwin 17. Vel, P., Suhail,L., Satyanarayan,R., and Easo,S., (2011), “Conception, nurturing, leveraging and substance of successful brands”

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Develop a digitized Phoneme to Grapheme conversion model for Sinhala language

P.H.V.R Karunananda UNDL Foundation [email protected] Abstract

In any language, reliable speech recognition is a hard problem, requiring a combination of many techniques. Computational modelling techniques are being used in the field of applied linguistics for over the fast fifty years. This project attempts to examine characteristics Phonetics of Sinhala language and apply them to build a phoneme to grapheme conversion model. Sinhala language’s phoneme to grapheme conversion is quite straightforward. There is one to one mapping between phonemes and graphemes, without any exceptions. The task we chose for the evaluation of our method is can be regarded as a straight speech recognition in which the acoustic model is perfect. In order to input Sinhala speech to a computer, the user sends phoneme sequences to the computer. Then the computer is indexing the digitized grapheme values to the input phoneme or phonemes combination according to P2G matching algorithm. The output is the most appropriate character for the input phoneme or phonemes combination. As a first step of this project we were investigated on energy levels of phonemes in Sinhala language. Using the MATLAB signal processing tool and COLEA software, we measured and analyzed basic linear fitting graph of energy level and coefficients of the each phoneme. The second step of this research is developing a model for phoneme to grapheme converter for Sinhala language. In addition an algorithm has been developed and implemented to P2G process. This algorithm relied on a search grapheme which is in phoneme data base and makes it to print.

Key words:Phonetics, grapheme, phonemes, Sinhala language, signal processing

Introduction

In any language, reliable speech recognition is a hard problem, requiring a combination of many techniques; however modern methods have been able to achieve an impressive degree of accuracy. [6]

The field of speech recognition aims to convert speech signals into written word sequences. There are many applications where speech recognition cannot only be helpful but is also necessary. Different implementations of speech recognizers are used increasingly around the world. Examples are dictation systems, translation systems, information retrieval systems, telephone services, control devices, identification systems, learning programs and many more. In short, recognizers are used whenever communication is involved. [2]

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The large number of applications indicates even larger variability in the definition of the speech recognition task. We may want a system to work well not only with command words, but also with continuous speech; not only with read speech sequences but also with spontaneous speech. [9] Another example is that we may not be happy with a system that works only with vocabulary for a specific task or only in a quiet environment, but we may want it to work with large vocabulary or in a noisy environment. One of the major challenges of speech recognition is the variability of speech: two identical utterances, spoken by the same person may result in two different speech signals. An important issue is the ability of the system to recognize accurately even if there are some bigger differences in the pronunciation like dialects or disabilities. [2]

The popular speech recognition process is statistical in nature and is based on Hidden Markov Models (HMMs).[1]Since speech recognition is probabilistic, the most probable decoding of the audio signal is output as the recognized text, but multiple hypotheses are considered during the process. Recognition systems generally have no means to distinguish between correctly and incorrectly recognized words.

The task we chose for the evaluation of our method is P2G(phoneme-to-grapheme) transcription in Sinhala language, which can also be regarded as a straight speech recognition in which the acoustic model is perfect. In order to input Sinhala speech to a computer, the user sends phoneme sequences to the computer. Then the computer is indexing the grapheme values to the input phoneme or phonemes combination according to P2G matching algorithm. The output is the most appropriate character for the input phoneme or phonemes combination. The traditional methodologies such as end point detection, Zero crossing level and sound wave energy statistics are used for isolated phoneme recognition. [7]

2. The speech recognition for Sinhala language

This project attempts to examine the signal processing technique with support of MATLAB, and to apply them to build a Phoneme Grapheme relationship in Sinhala language. Also describe the characteristics of Sinhala language, how text and speech data have been collected and preprocessed and how a Sinhala recognizer for continuous speech has been initialized and trained. Speech data is collected from 5 native Sinhala speakers. The speakers are reading text, which has been collected from random word list.

To carry out the task of phoneme to grapheme (P2G) conversion, we used a phoneme feature database and grapheme assemble algorithm. The digitized phoneme database for Sinhala languages on which the training of the P2G converter is based, is a main part of the currently speech recognition model. It consists of all phoneme digitized values sort according to the energy level.

The phoneme assemble algorithm assembles performs the phoneme organization of the Sinhala language corpus. It considers three condition of phoneme arrangement of phoneme of the word to

269 create relate grapheme.Spoken Sinhala contains 40 segmental phonemes; 14 vowels and 26 consonants, including a set of 4 pre-nasalized voiced stops. [4]

3. Displaying speech signal

Matlab is widely used environment for signal processing and analysis. [3] In this research, we introduce a MATLAB software tools for speech analysis. It provides a few built-in functions that allow one to import and export audio files.Colea is a MATLAB software tool for speech analysis. This is designed for researches that already have had interaction with the speech analysis and to modify components for their own research. The source code in Colea is MATLAB also available for three platforms, Windows, UNIX and PC, which users can download and install on user machines.

Figure 3.1 Display word /gemba/ on COLEA desktop

4. Phoneme detection

A set of 20 words is chosen to represent the Sinhala phoneme in our recognizer. Phoneme detection is the main task of identifying phonemes feature to build phoneme data base for Sinhala language. This problem is also referred to as phoneme segmentation. Some are used for training and the others are used for testing. The MATLAB signal processing tools and the Colea application allowed for examine the basic linear fittings of phoneme energy level and obtaining relevant values of coefficient 1, coefficient 2 and norm of residual.

The display of energy level and waveform distribution of each word were follows.

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Figure 4.1 Amplitude and Energy distribution of word /gumb

4.1 Detecting Phoneme by manually

A speech recognition system operates in two modes: [10] training and testing. During training it summarizes the characteristics of a set of phonemes, which are afterwards utilized by defining the most probable sequence of sound units for a given speech sequence. During the recognition phase, these models are employed for testing unknown input speech. As shown by Figure 4.1 for each word, an acoustic model was analyzed in a two step procedure. Initially, an acoustic signal was analyzed for the Amplitude and Energy distribution patterns. This acoustic model was utilized in order to extract the phonetic representations of the words with multiple pronunciations. Next, the manually extracted phonemes were used to train new acoustic models following the same procedure. Specifically, basic linear fittings of phoneme energy level were utilized. An accurate and fast extraction procedure is a necessary tool for developing speech recognition and phoneme to grapheme systems.

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Figure 4.2 Phoneme extraction

4.2 Obtain the linear fitting graph for each phoneme Numerical results of basic fittings (linear) of detected phonemes are calculated according to the following formula

Y= p1*x^1 + p2 p1= coefficient 1, p2=coefficient2

Figure 4.2 Basic fittings for phoneme /a/

Coefficients: p1 = -0.10892, p2 = 50.607

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Norm of residuals = 1.0307

5. Modeling

We engaged in two separate approaches for develop the model. In the first part of our research we could successfully built a database of a unique phoneme features for the isolated phoneme in Sinhala speakers. The phoneme mapping database consists of three child data bases. To build these data bases we considered the energy level of the isolated phoneme. We examined the basic linear fittings of phoneme energy level and obtained relevant values of coefficient 1, coefficient 2 and norm of residual.

5.1 Training data

The system trains the value for each phoneme in the table.

Table 4.1 Training data for each phoneme

5.2 Testing data

Testing data consist from randomly selected phoneme value from the Sinhala corpus. We normalized testing data by the getting the mean.

Table 4.2 Training Testing data comparison

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6. Discussion

This research found about the articulacy behavior of Sinhala speakers. The speech signal was analyzed on MATLAB and normalized first before performing the detection. It can be noticed that the long vowels are showing maximum value for coefficient 1 of each pair. According to the table the mean of all long vowels show minus values. The vowels can identifylow-energy vowel because the tongue is in a neutral middle-of-the-mouth position, and it doesn't take much effort to produce it.

In Sinhala language there are 14 vowels. All the phonemes that do not match the criteria of vowels are consonants. Compared to consonants, the production mechanism of different vowels is quite similar. There are large differences between consonant classes, and thus consonants are here divided into six subclasses: stops, fricatives, nasals, tremulants, laterals, and semivowels.

When we concerned stops of Sinhala language it shows less than 48.64 values for coefficient 2. The least values are /k/ and /t/. Also phoneme /k/ in the word Kohomba shows a minus value for coefficient 1. It associates with phoneme /o/ when pronouncing. Table 4.6 shows norm of residual for stops /d/, /b/, /g/ that is between 2.37 and 2.61. The phoneme /p/ and /t/ between 3.52 and 4.22.

Nasals in Sinhala language are always voiced consonants which are produced by letting the air flow through the nasal cavity by lowering the velum, and closing the vocal tract.Fricatives are produced through constriction somewhere in the vocal tract, in the pharynx (rarely) or at the glottis narrow enough to produce noisy turbulent air flow. In the Sinhala language the fricatives are voiceless, except /h/ which can be voiced between two vowels.

There are two fricatives in the Sinhala language [/h/, /s/] and phoneme /f/ can be found in loan words. According to Figure 4.6 and Figure 4.4 norm of residual for phoneme /h/ shows maximum value and coefficient 2 shows minimum value. The vocal tract is blocked by pressing the tip of a tongue against the alveolar ridge. However, there is a passage on both sides of the tip of a tongue to let sound waves and air flow freely. The Sinhala language has one lateral /l/.

Semi-vowels are much like vowels, but the constriction of the vocal tract is more powerful, less stable, and more contexts dependent. These are /j/ and /v/. Within the Sinhala speeches semivowels performs maximum value for coefficient 1 and minimum for coefficient 2.

In the Sinhala language /r/ is produced by letting the tip of the tongue vibrate against the alveolar ridge. The rate at which the tongue vibrates is typically 20 to 25 Hz. The vibration produces an effect similar to amplitude modulation. [2]

The Figure 6.1 and Figure 6.2 compare the results of performs the relationship between testing and training data in leaner fitting formula of energy level which was aimed to find the coefficient 1. The

274 testing data is compared using training data which can be seen in the table 4.9. The comparing is performed behavior for each of the data sets and the coefficient 1 is estimated.

Figure 6.1 Relationship between testing and training data for coefficient 1 (vowels)

Figure 6.2 Relationship between testing and training data for coefficient 1 (consonant)

To get more accuracy phoneme mapping we proposed to test all above values from 3 databases. The format of database is shown as follows (Figure 6.3). It can take as input digits (or phoneme values) of feature values with a corresponding character symbol.

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Figure 6.3 Phoneme mapping data base

6.1Developing phoneme assemble algorithm

To carry out the task of phoneme-to-grapheme (P2G) conversion, we used both an energy level of phoneme value - database and a phoneme assemble algorithm. Phoneme assemble algorithm (PAA) is based on the syntax of Sinhala phonemes corpus (Figure 6.1.1). It considers three kind of phoneme arrangement of the word. Basically these arrangements are used to retrieve relevant grapheme. The second part of the speech recognition system is Phoneme assemble algorithm.

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Figure 6.1.1phoneme assemble algorithm

The main tasks of the algorithm are as follows.

1. Getting the detected coefficient 1 value of phoneme (P) 2. Classified the phoneme as a vowel or a consonant 3. Check the Syntax of phoneme 4. Find the index value from database 5. Send the relevant text to print.

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7. Conclusion

Despite the recent successes in the Automatic Speech Recognition field, the acoustic-phonetic features of speech and their variability with context and speaker are not fully understood yet. [7] More research is still needed to achieve a good understanding of this topic in order to build improved front- end processing systems that are able to extract the useful, information-rich, acoustic features. This knowledge is expected to have a profound effect on the automatic speech recognition systems whose performance can significantly improve by integrating more knowledge into their design. Our research is concerned with this problem. We studied the acoustic-phonetic characteristics of continuous speech from multiple speakers.

This research is performed on MATLAB based digital signal processing and traditional speech recognition methodologies such as end point detection and Zero crossing level.[3] [5] Our main task was recognition of isolated phoneme in Sinhala language. In addition an algorithm has been developed and implemented to P2G process with the considering syntax of Sinhala. The algorithm relied on a search grapheme which is not seen in phoneme stack and makes it to print.

8. Future work

We have explored various speech recognition techniques. Development of these will continue; especially the computational implementation. Investigation will also be carried out on whether the total system could be benefited by a hardware implementation on a DSP and ASR. This will be considered if the software implementation performance is deemed too poor. The critical importance is, collecting a sufficiently large database of Sinhala phonemes. This database is essential to train the core ASR unit for recognition.

References

[1]. A. Markov. An example of statistical investigation in the text of eugene onyegin, illustratingcoupling of tests in chains. Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg,1913.

[2]. Bart Decadt_, Jacques Duchateau_ , Walter Daelemans_ and Patrick Wambacq, _Phoneme-to- Grapheme conversion for out-of vocabulary words in large vocabulary Speech Recognition,_ CNTS Language Technology Group, University of Antwerp, Belgium, _ ESAT - PSI, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium

[3]. Brett A. St. George, Ellen C. Wooten, and Louiza Sellami, Speech Coding and Phoneme Classification Using MATLAB and Neural Works, Department of Electrical Engineering, U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, MD 21402, USA

[4]. Karunathilake W.S, Rajapaksha R.M.W, Wijethunga, Rathna, Vaagvidya Praweshaya, S Godage Brothers, 2004, ISBN -955-20-5193-2

[5]. Katsamanis Nassos, Pitsikalis Vassilis

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Speech Processing using MATLAB:Digital Processing of Speech Signals, Speech Processing Demos Course: Speech & Pattern Recognition Updated: Nov.15, 2004 Created: Oct. 29, 2004.

[6]. Lawrence Rabiner and Biing-Hwang Juang. Fundamentals of Speech Recognition.

Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1993.

[7]. Philip Felber, speech recognition, Report of an Isolated Word experiment.Illinois Institute of Technology, IL (1982)

[8]. Schmandt, C. Voice Communications with Computers.New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1994.

[9].Shinsuke Mori, Daisuke Takuma, Gakuto Kurata, Phoneme-to-Text Transcription System with an Infinite vocabulary,IBM Research, Tokyo Research Laboratory, IBM Japan, Ltd., 1623-14 Shimotsuruma Yamato-shi, 242-8502, Japan [email protected]

[10]. V. Kamakshi Prasad, T. Nagarajan, and Hema A. Murthy. Automatic segmentation of

Continuous speech using minimum phase group delay functions inSpeech Communications, 42:429–446, 2004.

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Temple Paintings Technology in Sri Lanka

T.A.C.J.S.Bandara Lecturer, Department of Sinhala, Faculty of Arts, University of Colombo. [email protected] Abstract

The Kandyan Painter has used a tempera technique with a limited range of the Colours. The pigments, made from earth or vegetable substances were mixed with the gum of the wood- apple tree and water. The surfaces on which paintings were done were plaster. The rock and wall paintings were executed on a final coat of makul. A line drawing of the composition was frist done on the surface in red or black and the colours were added subsequently. The under drawings which get covered in the final stages of the painting, are more vigorous and spontaneous than the final outline of the figures. But some other places are using another colour. Nevertheless a closer and more critical study reveals that the paintings in Sri Lanka having some independent characteristics which make them agroup apart from kandyan paintings. Two major question addressing is what are the criteria of defining such characteristics? The methodology of the research can have multiple approaches. The traditional methods of collecting secondary and primary data through literature survay will form the initial step of the data collection.

Key Words:Archeology, Chronological, Remarkable, Makul

Introduction

The discovery of relic-chamber paintings at two sites in 1951 corroborates the earlier literary descriptions of paintings decorating a relic-chamber of a dagaba (a monument enshrining the relics of the Buddha or an arhat). In an eight century relic-chamber, discovered at Mihintale are found fluent, rhythmical line drawings done in red and black depicting divine beings rising from clouds. A still visible central axis adds freshness to the calligraphic drawings which brilliantly capture the elusive quality of figures moving at great speed.

Several fragments of paintings were discovered in an eleventh century relic-chamber of a dagaba at Mahiyangana. They are executed in a painterly modelingTechnique, using subtle shading reins forced by expressive outlines. The largest fragment depicts the Buddha with a halo seated under the Bodhi tree. The halo is a constant element in Buddhist iconography, symbolizing the light emanating from the Buddha or other divinities. As an artistic device the halo puts the head into greater relief. Flanking the Buddha are two divine personages (gods or Brahmas) painted as old men with white beards holding flowers. Some of the other fragments depict Vishnu holding a tray of flowers, Siva with his trident, and the inhabitants of the Suddhavasa (Abodes of the pure ones) with shaven heads dressed in monastic robes. The main theme perceived from the pieces is The Enlightenment of the Buddha.

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The Samanera (novice) VelivitaSaranankara, later VelivitaPindapathikaAsaranaSaranaSaranankaraSangaraja, was instrumental in bringing back upasampada (higher ordination) from Siam (now Thailand) and revitalizing Buddhism, under the royal patronage of King Kirthi Sri Rajasinha (1747-1782). The emergence of the Kandyan style of painting is associated with this religious revival. This art form, with its own distinctive character in the evolution of the pictorial tradition of the Sinhalese, is described as Kandyan style due to its centrifugal dissemination from Kandyan provinces.

Style

The line and colour used to produce volume and solidity of figurative forms and natural objects in the classical style, underwent a transformation in the Kandyan period, where it served the purpose of ornamentation in creating a two-dimensional decorative art form. Vigorous, complex and expressive narration of the classical tradition was transformed in the Kandyan style into a method of simple continuous narration. Nevertheless Kandyan painting should be did not construed as a mere postscript to the classical phase nor should it be elevated to the status of classical achievements, except on very rare occasions where the creative imagination of a genius has transcended the constraints of a style.

However, Kandyan painting is a distinct art form of great beauty which has its own dynamics and structural properties; it is an art form of abstract symbolism. In spite of the unexplained historical gap between the classical and the Kandyan painting, a penetrative study reveals that the two styles are two different configurations of an indigenous Sinhala aesthetic tradition responding to the impact of historical forces and undergoing a process of change.

Kandyan painting, despite its rigid conventional character, produced a multiplicity of stylistic variations in different parts of the country. The two major differences are between the paintings of the Central, Sabaragamuwa and North Western provinces (Central Kandyan School) and the Southern and Western provinces (Southern School). All other regional manifestations are either subtle syntheses of both or betray inspirational leanings to either the Central Kandyan school style or the Southern school style.

An analysis of the underlying aesthetic principles, the compositional elements, and technical details reveal certain characteristics common to all inter-related stylistic variations viz. the division of the painting surface into horizontal registers along the length of the wall, decorative two- dimensional treatment, symbolism, thematic content, iconography and the method of continuous narration depicting important incidents of the story chronologically in linear progression. Another important common denominator is the separation of the painting registers by narrow bands of white or yellow on which are written in Sinhala script the titles or short descriptions of the narrative pictorial sequences depicted above. Sometimes the legend is carried on a rectangular shape. Line plays a predominant role in the pictorial vocabulary of the Kandyan painter, in defining the distinct areas of colour and form. Red outlines are occasionally reinforced by another outer black line creating a relief effect. A tonal and decorative effect is sometimes achieved simultaneously by the

281 use of very thin close parallel lines, especially in drapery. The third dimension and one point perspective are absent.

Paintings Technique

The Kandyan painter used a tempera technique with a limited range of colours - white, red, yellow, black, blue and green. The pigments all made from earth or vegetable substances were mixed with the gum of the wood - apple tree and water. The materials on which paintings were done were plaster (on rocks and walls), wood (ceilings, partitions, and boxes), cloth, earthenware, and paper. The rock and wall paintings were executed on a final coat of makul (magnesite). A line drawing of the composition was first done on the surface in red or black and the colours were added subsequently. The under-drawings which get covered in the final stages of the painting are more vigorous and spontaneous than thefinal outlines of the figures.

Central Kandyan School

Certain features of the Kandyan style achieve a new character in the hands of the painters of the Central KandyanSchool. At a glance they resemble the linear illustrations on palm leaf manuscripts transferred to the walls with the addition of colour. The absence of any reality in terms of time and space is more conspicuous. The colours are applied pure and flat; the range is limited to red, yellow, white and black; and their juxtaposition is handled with consummate artistry. Figure ground relationships are simple, but the negative areas of space are also profoundly important in the structure of the composition.

The paintings of the shrines at Degaldoruva, Gangarama, Medavala, Suriyagoda, Lankatilaka, Ridivihara and Dambulla represent a few of the best examples of the central Kandyan style. The royal patronage received by these temples was a contributory factor towards the artistic superiority of those pains.

The first five of these temples are in the vicinity of the ancient hill-capital Kandy. Although the Sinhalese Buddhist painters have remained anonymous, the magnificent paintings in the cave temple at Degaldoruva completed in 1771 are attributed to DevaragampalaSilvatenna assisted by NilagamaPatabenda and KoswatteHitaranayide. In addition to being priceless art treasures, Degaldoruva paintings are invaluable historical documents. Among the most splendid and the best known paintings are The Battle with Mara (King of Evil) and four jataka stories Vessantara, Sutasoma, Silava and Sattubhatta.

Gangarama temple built by King Kirthi Sri Rajasingha, contains a gigantic image of the Buddha carved out of stone with superb wall paintings depicting various incidents from the life of the Buddha. The Great Renunciation and The First Seven Weeks after Enlightenment are some of the finest compositions outstanding for their powerful style.

The shrines at Medavala (1755) and Suriyagoda (1757) are temples-on-pillars. This was an architectural style popular in the 18th century. In this style, short stone pillars support a grid work of heavy wooden beams, which again bears a wooden floor. The shrine is built on this wooden

282 floor. The walls are of wattle and daub; and the paintings are done on them. The Medavala shrine is one of the best preserved examples of this style. The Life of the Buddha and two jataka stories, (Vessantara and Uraga) are the principle themes of the Medavala murals. The main theme of the murals at Suriyagoda is the Life of the Buddha.

Built on the rock at the top of a hill at Handessa, near Gampola, LankatilakaRajamahaVihara stands majestically towering above the evergreen surrounding landscape. The present restored temple is only a part of the original shrine which comprised four storeys and was constructed in 1344 by SenaLankadhikara. Paintings of the vestibule of the shrine are among the most monumental of the Kandyan style, for their superior draughtmanship, vision, and clarity of design. The principal statue of the shrine a colossal sedent image of the Buddha belonging to the Gampola period (1341-1415) suggests the immeasurable splendour of Buddhist sculpture of the times.

The paintings at Ridivihara near Kurunegala are also ascribed to Silvatenna. Among the paintings of the upper shrine, (the only murals in a good state of preservation) are the representations of Satsatiya (The First Seven Weeks after Enlightenment); stylistically they are a unique variation of the Kandyan tradition. Although characterised by rigidity in the treatment of figurative forms, the visual effect is an aesthetic delight.

The RangiriDambuluRajamahaVihara also known as the Rock Temple at Dambulla composed of five caves has an ancient history going back to the times of Vattagamini Abaya (29-17 BC). Covering an enormous area of about twenty two thousand square feet of paintings, this is the largest cave temple complex in Sri Lanka. The paintings and sculptures extant today are ascribed to the eighteenth century. These restorations were carried out by the King Kirthi Sri Rajasingha. A fragment of a painting belonging to the classical tradition is found just below the drip ledge of the fifth cave. Cave 2 and Cave 3 contain the most important paintings artistically at Dambulla.

Except for the few paintings on the walls on both sides of the entrances, and a few instances inside, about three-quarter of the paintings are executed on the rock ceiling. The life of the Buddha, history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, Suvisivivarana and Solosmastana are the main subjects of the Dambulla paintings. Large areas of the ceiling are covered with infinite rows of sedent Buddha images painted, perhaps, to depict the concept of the thousand Buddhas of the present age (kalpa), or to convey a sacred interpretation of the sky miraculously filled with countless Buddhas. This endless multiplication also expresses the mystical power of the depicted figure. This theme can be traced back to the times of Parakramabahu I (1153-1186) who erected a sermon house 'gaily adorned with many likenesses of the Victor (Buddha) in gold and the like and was resplendent with a garland of pictures of the Omniscient One, which were painted on stuff. Two compositions in Cave 2, The Defeat of Mara and The First Discourse of the Buddha are among the greatest achievements of Sinhalese Buddhist art. These two great masterpieces separated by a gap of about twenty five feet, wherein The First Seven weeks after Enlightenment are painted, evoke diametrically opposed sentiments. One is the terror and the agony of the dark forces of the inner consciousness preventing the liberation of the mind and the other the lifting of the mind to the realisation of Nirvana, the Ultimate reality.

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Southern School

The southern school, which has many general stylistic features in common with the central kandyan tradition, nevertheless has an artistic expression of its own, probably rooted in the now totally extinet painting tradition of Kotte and Sitawaka; the two administrative Capitals before kandy, which were located within or in the western coastal area in Sri Lanka.In spite of the conceptual approach to the pictorial narration, the painters of the Southern school often depicted various episodes of a story against a particularised setting, inspired by the natural surroundings in which they lived. Sometimes paintings provide invaluable records in the study of the penetration of elements of western culture into the life of the Sinhala people. The artists obviously revelled in the use of floral decoration. The palettes, dominated by the primary colours, reveal innumerable tonal variations. A subtle modelling of forms by shading is an important element in the artistic vocabulary of certain painters of the Southern School. MulgirigalaRajamahaVihara, TelwattaPuranaTotagamuRajamahaVihara, KataluvaPurvaramaVihara, DodanduvaSailabimbaramaVihara, DodanduvaKumaramahaVihara, AmbalangodaSunandaramaVihara are a few of the temples that contain excellent examples of the paintings of the Southern School.

Painting Surface

Normally painters are using the several surfaces in the paintings. The materials on which paintings were done the plaster on walls and rocks, wood(ceilings (Viyan), partitions, boxes) and cloth (petikada) ect.Paintings on wooden surfaces are found on the ceilings of religious buildings, manuscript covers, screens, boxes used to store sacred objects and votive tablets. DowaRajamahaViharaposses’ two large wooden boxes with the “Nawagraha” painted.

Painting on Cloth (Petikada)

Known in the Sinhala language as petikada, paintings on cloth also provide magnificent examples of the Kandyan style of paintings. There are numerous literary references to the practice of painting on cloth in Sri Lanka from as early as the second century BC to the nineteenth century. The great chronicle Mahavamsa has it that as King Dutthagamani lay dying, Saddhatissa, having covered the half-finishedMahaThupa with white cloth over a wooden frame, commanded painters 'to make on it a vedika duly and rows of filled vases likewise and the row with the five finger ornament'. Due to the non-durability of the material, only the eighteenth century examples are extant today.In terms of iconographic tradition, compositional arrangements, figurative forms, treatment of design and colour schemes, the surviving examples of petikada bear a relationship to the temple murals of the Kandyan style.

Petikada may provide the clue to a missing link in the records of the Buddhist paintings of Sri Lanka between the thirteenth and the eighteenth century. The stylistic origins of Kandyan painting which proliferated in the eighteenth century are shrouded in mystery, as it is diametrically opposed in style to the pre-thirteenth century classical realism. In the absence of any immediate temple painting tradition to follow, the Kandyan painters may have been inspired by the paintings on cloth.

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Paintings Style

The line and colour used to produce volume and solidity of figurative forms and natural objects in the classical style. Vigorous, complex and expressive narration of the classical tradition was transformed in the kandyan style into a method of simple continuous narration. Not only that Kandyan Painting should neither be construed as amore postscript to the classical phase nor should it be elevated to the status of classical achievements, except on very rare occasions where the creative imagination of a genius has transcended the constraints of a style.

An eternal fount of spiritual nourishment to devotees and a perennial source of aesthetic delight to lovers of art, Buddhist painting in Sri Lanka as elsewhere, constantly uses the Lotus motif as an ornamental device with a semeiological content. The ubiquitous lotus flower is the sacred flower of the Buddhists; it is the symbol of purity and spiritual attainment.

References

1. Bandaranayake, Senaka.1986.Rock and wall Paintings of Sri Lanka.Colombo: Lake House 2. Bell, H.C.P.1909, Archaeological Survey of Ceylon, Annual Report. 3. Hartt, F. 1993.A History of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, 4thed, New York, Prentice-Hall 4. Paranavitana, S.1971. Art of the Ancient Sinhalese, Lake House Invesment, ColomboSiriGunasinghe, 1980.Buddhist Pinting in Sri Änka, An art of enduring simplicity, spoliaZeylanica , Vol.35, þart I&II, P.488 5. Tammita, S. 2006. RidiVihare the Flowering of Kandyan Art, Stamford Lake, Pannipitiya. 6. Benjamin Rowland,J.R.1985.The Wall-paintings of India, Central Asia & Ceylon, Alfa Publications, Delhi. 7. Maranzi, L. 1972, Ceylon Preservation of Paintings, Paris. 8. AnguttaraNikayaVol II, The Book of the Gradual Sayings, Pali Text Society, London, 1982. 9. Culavamsa, 1953.( trans). Wilhelm Geiger, The Ceylon Government Information Department, Colombo. 10. Mahavamsa, 1980,( trans). Wilhelm Geiger, ThePali Text Society, London.

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Bureaucratic Paradigms and Customer Satisfaction in Formal Governmental Organizations of Sri Lanka

Nelum Weerasekara Department of Social Sciences Faculty of Social Sciences and Languages Sabaragamuwa University of Sri lanka [email protected]

Abstract Administrative strategies are needed for the organizations to use their resources for the greater development impact economically, effectively and efficiently. Although the states are liberal or welfare, they have to provide the efficient and effective services to the public addressing their satisfaction. And also Modern organization has designed to take care of human needs (Lane 2009: 11).In Sri Lanka, although the Public sector spreads to a wider range of sectors of the economy andSri Lanka is the one which has comparatively a larger public sector in Asia, in most cases it has become unsuccessful and it is still dependedon the classical bureaucratic culture.Therefore it is worthy to study the practice of the bureaucratic paradigms in the formal governmental organizations and its impact to the customer satisfaction. The research based on the both primary and secondary data for qualitative data. Primary data gathered by the case studybased on the Bank of Ceylon at Balangoda in Rathnapura district..As a very close and active formal governmental organization to the citizen, and as a main formal public organization in Sri Lanka, to investigate the working of the Bank of Ceylon is very important.

The study gives overallconclusion that thepublic sector banks as the formal organizations is still under the classical bureaucratic modelalthough it has adopted the few methods of new bureaucratic paradigms like E-Banking, it has not adopted post bureaucratic paradigms and the weaknesses of reforms have negatively affected for the customer’s dissatisfaction. Likewise although the head office has formulated and introduced lots of regulations such as customer charter, they are not functioned actively in the branches. Thus, the study suggests that there should be a mutual corporation between both head office and the branches on the implication of the regulations and public reforms able to provide efficient and effective service to the customers addressing their satisfaction.

Key Words: Public Sector reforms, post bureaucratic paradigms, formal organizations, bank, customer satisfaction

Introduction Although the states are liberal or welfare, they have to provide the efficient and effective services to the public addressing their satisfaction.They need to have a public sector that delivers essential services economically, efficiently, and effectively. Because of the outdated administrative methods, Governments had faced several major problems such as insufficient modification for services, insensitivity to the problems of defining governmental

286 customers (Hill and Lynn 2009). Yet most government agencies produce rather than products (Swiss 1994: 175). Therefore the governments have paid their attention to introduce the new public reforms to modify the classical bureaucratic culture.For that purpose, there are many of public sector reforms that have introduced for the formal organizations such as bureaucracy, posdcorb, total quality management, new public management, e- governance and good governance.

To Webber, a bureaucracy was an organization with specified functional attributes: large size, a grade hierarchy, formal rules, specialized tasks, written files, and employees who are salaried, technically trained, career appointed, and assigned stated duties requiring expert knowledge (Goodsell 2004: 6). ) and its purpose of the bureaucratic reforms was to enable government to serve the public interest with honest and efficient (Barzilay 1992: 117).Although the hierarchical structure was regarded as the ideal pattern of organization (Pursley and Snortland 1980: 23),(Belone 1980: 14) and according to Webber, spirit of bureaucracy is thoroughly Jesuitical and theological,bureaucracy is dealt not with performance or power but oppression,and it is elitist bias and distorts the democratic political process and itmakes clients as victims world poverty, and hunger(Goodsell 2004: 16).Efficient management is the key to the revival, and the management ethos must run right through of national life - public and private companies, civil service, nationalized industries, local government. Influenced by Frederick Taylor’s scientific management, the New York Bureau believed that efficiency was the best solution to the problem of corruption and incompetence (Gruening 2001: 3).Accountability is also important for government itself. Accountability in government is one aspect of the growing emphasis on eliminating corruption and promoting transparency in government.All organizations must be able to identify their successes and failures and to learn from these outcomes (Shah, 2007).

POSDCORB is an acronym that introduced by Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick. For thestructural and analyze management activities, it set a new paradigm in Public Administration. With key stands for: Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Direction, Coordinating, Reporting, and Budgeting (Specian, 2010).

By today there are many administrative reforms to modify the public administration. Especially the modernization of formal organization has addressed main three aspects such as decentralization, de-concentration and devolution (Pollitt & Bouckaert 2011: 21).Under the post - bureaucratic paradigm values, public managers appreciate such varied role concepts such as exercising leadership, creating an uplifting mission and organizational culture, strategic planning, managing without direct authority, path finding, problem setting, identifying customers, reflecting- in- action, coaching, structuring incentives, championing products, instilling a commitment to quality, creating a climate for innovation, building teams, redesigning work, investing in people (Barzilay 1992: 132).

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NPM is the original reaction against traditional bureaucracy and 'big government' (Pollitt & Bouckaert 2011: 21). The surfeit of attention given to NPM- marketization, privatization, and incorporation has led to a neglected of the man efforts to modernize the state through making its formal organization more effective and citizen responsive (Lane 2009:19). International development partners of Sri Lanka have expressed their great concern about the lack of transparency in the public sector (Samaratunge & Bennington 2002: 97-98). Good governance is, among other things, participatory, transparent, and accountable. It is also Effective, equitable, and promotes the rule of law. It consisted with main characteristics such as accountability, transparency, participatory, responsive, equitable and inclusive, effective and efficient, rule of law and consensus oriented. The theory of post bureaucratic organization integrates the internet revolution and its implication for government (Lane 2009: 22). Information is a central aspect of government operations, either internally or externally, with the population or other governments. The arrival of electronic media for transmitting information is about to change the way government goes its business (Lane 2009: 21). According to UNESCO there are three achievements in E- Governance like e-administration, e-services and e- democracy.

During the past ten years, Total Quality Management (TQM) has had an important role in business management practices (Swiss 1994: 172). TQM can indeed have a useful role to play in government with modifying the public sector's unique characteristics (Swiss 1994: 173).

According to above all there are many public reforms that have introduced to enhance and develop the public sectors in the worldwide countries. So it is better to investigate the working and function of those strategies in the formal governmental organizations in Sri Lanka and its impact to the customer satisfaction.

Methodology

The study selected thebranch of bank of Ceylon at Balangoda in Rathnapura district for the case study.As a very close and active formal governmental organization to the citizen, and as a major public organization in Sri Lanka, to investigate the working of the Bank of Ceylon is very important. Balangoda is also the onehas a population with ethnic diversity.Especially qualitative data were gathered with discussions interviews and simple observation covering 30 customers and the 10 staff members including the manager. And also the study used the secondary data.

Discussion

First it is important to investigate the classical organizational strategies in this organization.Especially as a public organization, classical bureaucratic model is clearly depicted in this organization. According to Max Webber, bureaucracy is characterized by a

288 division of labor, specialization of tasks, a hierarchical arrangement of officers, uniform rules etc. Hierarchy is the key feature of the bureaucracy (Belone 1980: 14). When observe the above characteristics introduced by Webber, were functioned in the organization. The hierarchy or pyramid of arrangement of the staff as follows.

The hierarchy of arrangement of the staff

Manager

Second officers

Secretary

Credit officer PBO (Personal Banking Officer) Pawning Officer (Domestic and Clearing)

Staff Assistant Staff Assistant

Trainee Staff Assistant Trainee Staff Assistant

PBO Cash Officer Trainee Staff Assistant Multi duty Assistant

Staff Assistant Staff Assistant

Trainee Assistant Trainee Staff Assistant

(Source: Field survey, 2014)

There was a division of labor. There were four sections name credit, Personal Banking (PBO) and Cash, pawning and Domestic and clearing (D&C). It has arranged the specialized tasks among the specialized team in group vise. Every section has arranged under the supervision of the officer and the assistances. There were three or two assistant officers in each section. The specialized tasks have assigned to them.

When consider the division of labor introduced by Webber, was clearly functioned by this organization. It can be depicted as follows.

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1. Credit section- Loans

2. PBO/ Cash section- Personal Banking affairs/ account affairs/ counters

3. Pawning section- Pawning affairs

4. Domestic & clearing section - Clearing affairs

Each division was responsible to fulfill the task only assigned to them. Actually, it is better to the efficiency and effectiveness because experience and responsibility. If the tasks haven’t divided, the institution couldn’t protect the responsibility on the work. Decisions are flowed from top to the bottom. The staff members are recruited through the national banking examinations procedure. There is the seniority based promotions. Firstly, officers should under the two year probationary period as trainee staff assistants. Thus we can say the organization is functioned the professional recruitment procedure accepted by classical bureaucratic rules. There were contractually recruited school leavers for six months. Behalf of the classical bureaucratic characteristics, the new public reforms have introduced that the organization should implicate the suitable rules and programs to motivate staff and promote cultural change in the institution (Pollitt & Bouckaert 2011: 187). Not only that the mission goals of the organization have emphasized that, “We offer our staff, recognition and rewards to be the best team of achievers in service excellence” (file:///H:/boc/Bank%20of%20Ceylon%201.htm). But, there were no any merit pay and individually oriented reward based system to encourage the staff. They said that there is only bonus procedure handles by the head office, but it is not functioned. Although there is a merit base system to encourage the institutions, they have unable to achieve even single merit or appreciation as a team or institution. According to the new public reforms there should be strong worker participation to achieve the goals of the institutions (Swiss 1994: 173). But they have not committed to work hard mutually. According to the officers' ideas, there is no a procedure to promote the workers strong participation to the institutional development introduced by the manager. The officers are worked individually and leisurely, and they are not given commitment to the total organizational quality. The especial point in the institutional is the cliquey culture among the staff members. According to the manager and the staff members, there is an arbitrary behavior on them. Therefore some members has discouraged to work because of marginalization by others. There is no any adaptation of strategic policy formulation and policy coordination to more effectively achieve the organizational goal, mentioned in the new public management and total quality management strategies. Therefore the backward nature of the leadership and backward culture of the staff have directly affected to the failure of the institutional development and it has caused to create a unkind service to the customers.

According to the manager, there was a dearth of the carder of staff members. According to him, although there are more customers and daily bank affairs, each section is handled by only three or four officers. Further he stated that, when compare with the past history, the

290 customers and work role have widen in present. But the staff has not increased according to the customer affairs. According to his idea, it is not the result of the new public reforms and it is the result of the monetary problems in the treasury of government. Sometime the officers have to do overwork. According to the PBO and cash officers, some time they have to bring their some works like arrange the slips to home. Further they stated that, it is very risky and dangerous. Thus we can say that the organization is faced such problems as an organization when provide the better service to the publics. According to the mission goals of the institution, although they target to empower the people and contribute the sustainable development, customers who are in low income level has neglected by the loan supplement procedure. According to the credit officer in loan section lots of loan application were rejected because considering characters such as ability, reliability. According to the law accordance, poor people have neglected and there is no any procedure to support and give hand to them for their self-employments and higher education of their children. According to the customers from rural areas and low income persons, the bank has contributed to empower the only rich enough income persons in the country but low income persons. Thus the bank has neglected to give hand to their poor customers. According to the customers, therefore they have tended to the Rural Development Bank (RDB).

Likewise,the bank hopes to support to the people in their urgent cases through the pawning, and it hopes to earn the profit from it. According to the pawning section officers and the pawning customers, the institution has followed the relevant rules on the pawning procedure. But there was a main problem faced by the customers. The bank is held the auction not in the branch and they have decided to hold it in the nearest branch Kahawaththa. But the banks like People's bank, Sampath Bank held their auctions in their Balangoda branch. Therefore the customers of the Balangoda branch and the buyers in Balangoda have suffered from this problem. Although the bank has deal with the peoples of Balangoda branch, finally the benefits have enjoyed by the out of the peoples. Another problem is, when consider the auction in Kahawaththa, the officer try to give the chance and priority to the jewelers than the ordinary people. When the same price request by an ordinary customer and buyer, the officer is given the priority to jewel buyers based on the friendships.

Delivery is very important in an organization. When observe the nature of the service delivery system in this organization, lots of new findings were able to find out. Although a receptionist is a key attribute in a formal organization, the Balangoda branch hadn't a seat for a receptionist. As a public sector organization, and as a professional organization which deals with the greater citizens in the country, wormy welcoming with honor and kindly service delivering is very important. It is needed to build up a trust on the government by the citizens. Based on the appendix, it can be clearly realized. They do not welcome the customers warmly and honor. But the purpose of the bureaucratic reforms was to enable government to serve the public interest with honest and efficient (Barzilay 1992: 117).

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According to the idea of the customers, the staff is very proud and they treat to the customers dehumanize as outward peoples. Further they are very noisy and cruel. The staff is stuck up with their job. If the customer wants to meat an officer, they should alone find them. There was no an officer to help them and even there were no any direction to follow by the customer. Two sections of the bank were situated in the upper stair. Therefore the customers were facing lots of problems. Actually there was no easy access to the elders and disabled to the upper stair and there was no an officer to help them. Especially, according to the customer charter and the norms, although the officers should close to the customer and support to their affairs, they don't help to the customer's needs. Therefore the customers are forsaken in the institution. The ludicrous point is that, the civil servants who close and support to the customers are the security officers. But to support to the customers is not of the security officer. He should be care and pay attention on the security. Although the bank has introduced the charter and norms to the staff to provide good service to the customers, the officers have neglected the norms and charters.

According to the customer charter article 2(e), states that the following information should be conspicuously displayed in the Head Offices and all branches and other banking outlets of the licensed banks. i. Current interest rates on all deposit and loan products ii. Buying and selling rates of foreign currencies iii. Credit rating of the bank with underlying specifications iv. The contact details of the Financial Ombudsman and Credit Counseling Centre v. Banking hours and Holiday notices vi. Any other relevant information.

But, especial problem in this institution is that there are no such information boards in the institution. Although the charter has mentioned that there should be the signboards for the customer's easy, there is no any signboard to identify the relevant section, even in the manager room. According to the customer charter article 2(f), A periodic statement should be sent to customers either in printed form or electronic form opted by them regarding transactions and balances in their deposit or loan accounts or other services other than passbook savings accounts of non-dormant category (ttp://web.boc.lk/assets/pdf/aboutus/new/customer_charter.pdf). But according to the long term customers, there was no such procedure to inform the customer. Further they stated that, they update their accounts after coming to the bank. The bank has only informed the customer relevant on the loans and pawning. So it is clearly emphasized that, the bank try to relate only the income cases but not for an ordinary long term customers’ account affairs. According to the customer charter 6 states that the customers have the right to resolve their complaints with transparency and effectively. According to the charter, article 6 (g), advice the customers to seek affordable and efficient recourse through the Financial Ombudsman or in Courts in the event the complaint is not resolved to their satisfaction (ttp://web.boc.lk/assets/pdf/aboutus/new/customer_charter.pdf).When

292 observe the awareness of the customers on the financial ombudsman is very poor. No single customer knows about the financial ombudsman. According to the ideas of the manager and the officers, Till, the serious financial complaints have not presented. According to the customer charter, article 6(e), the bank should assign an officer with the duty of handling the complaints and management information in each branch or office. But the bank has not assign an officer for that task. Usually, the trilangualization has introduced to the public formal organizations, according to the manager and the officers, they have released from the Tamil proficiently examination procedure. According to them, every slip is in trilanguage. They often used Sinhala and seldom English. But according to the customer charter, The brochures/leaflets should, at minimum, contain the following basic information and be available in languages preferred by the customers (i.e.,Sinhala/Tamil/English). But usually the documents like letters to the customers are written in Sinhala. Especial thing is that, it is better to stand an officer to welcome and support the customers. Likewise there are many customers to the bank affairs per a day. According to the observation, many customers are illiterate and always they beg others support to fill their slips. Actually it is the thing that wasting time of both the person who provide support and the person who received the support. Likewise, there was no staff attitudinal or cultural change designing program for investing customers mentioned by the post bureaucratic paradigms. According to the TQM a technique, the first character of the institution is that “first and foremost is the customer” (Swiss 1994: 173). Not only that the first mission goal has address the customer that “Foster most rewarding relationship with trust and reliability for our customers, exceeding their expectations”. But the bank has forgotten the customer’s preferences. Another problem was faced by the customers is that, customers have to come to the bank more than one for the cases like account transfer cases between the branches. According to the customers were in the loan section and personal banking section, they had to meet the officers two or three times per one case. Another thing is that, there was no a method to assess the customer’s satisfaction. There was no a box to put the customer’s complaints. So, how the institution is assesses the customers’ responses and feedback (Swiss 1994: 173). Especially the new public management reforms accept that the Products and services go through the stages of design, production, inspection, re-working and response to consumer complaints or feedback. All organizations must be able to identify their successes and failures and to learn from these outcomes (Shah, 2007). According to the customer charter, the customers have the right to receive factual information and understand the financial products/services offered by banks.(ttp://web.boc.lk/assets/pdf/aboutus/new/customer_charter.pdf). And also the institution should inform and aware the customers by a common complaint procedure in any preference language. Unfortunately, such complaint procedure or complaint box was not in the institution. Not only that, this weak administration has directly affected to the lack of the total quality organizational commitment and inability of achievement of the organizational goals. An Efficient leadership is needed for the institutional development. But

293 in here, an efficient leadership could not be found. The manager is done the managing purudu widiyatama…… without new rearrangement and redesigning of the staff, work and the appearance of the institution. Unlike other branches and banks, the institution was very weak on the introducing customer based promoting programmes. According to the officers’ ideas, promotion base advertisement is maintained by the head office. The problem is that, there were no banners or posters in the institution. Not only that, there was no clear arrangement of the office and usage of the new techniques like 5s. According to the manager, the major problem faced by the institution is the insufficient of the space for the institution.

According to the customer charter introduced by the central bank, there should be a safe place and easy access to the disabled and elder customers. But in this organization, there was no easy and safety access to the teller machine. The teller machine has founded in very dangerous place. It has situated in the pawment and it is very disturbed to the both passengers and the customers. In every time there is a long queue along the pawment. It can be clearly understand with the photographs. Thus we can say, the organization has not considered the easy and safe of the customers.

When consider the new public reforms, the bank has functioned the e- banking and mobile banking. Thus we can say some new public reforms has introduced to the branches by the head office. It is a very positive action to provide efficient service for the customers. But according to the ideas of the manager and the officers, although the bank has introduced these facilities, they are used by few than many. However these facilities can enjoy by the customers who are preferred, busy and with computer facilities.

Conclusion and policy implication

According to the above discussion, the bank of Ceylon at Balangoda is still under the classical bureaucratic model with few methods of new bureaucratic paradigms like E- Banking. But The post bureaucratic paradigm reforms like good governance, Total Quality Management are not functioned in the institution. Although the head office has introduced some strategies to promote the staff, the institution has not responded to them well. Specially, there should be a staff base encouragement merit procedure and there should be a cultural change in the institution. Therefore it is better to introduce the new public reforms to address the institutional output. In some cases the government has not provided the facilities to the institution. Especially the institution is not responded to the customer preferences. Therefore the institution has failed to achieve the institutional goals. And also, there should be the auditing procedure to investigate the functioning of the public reforms in the institution. Likewise, it is better to formulate a rule to hold the auction in the same branch. Likewise, the customer charter introduced by the head office is not functioned in the institution. Therefore there should be an auditing procedure to audit the function of the customer charter in the institutions. And also although the head office has introduced the more effective reforms and strategies, it has faded to top to bottom. Actually, they are not

294 functioned in the branches. But there branches are the one that closely relate with the citizens in their day to day life. Specially, there should be a customer friendly environment in the institution. The government and head offices should promote the banks to increase their outputs and to maintain the customer preference based administration. Otherwise, although the government tries to maintain the good public service through the organization, it is not realized by the branches. Therefore the institution should compulsorily responsible to exercise the public reforms to provide the effective and efficient service to the customers. It is directly affected to government’s image on the publics. Finally although As Sri Lanka’s foremost commercial and Government Bank, BOC has hoped to make the significant contribution through sustainable financing, philanthropic and social investments whilst building a healthy business for the benefit of all our stakeholders, the Bank of Ceylon has failed to achieve those goals through branches. Therefore the bank should introduce the new reforms to the bank system to change the institutional culture and bureaucratic culture. And also although the bank hopes to achieve the mission goal that, foster most rewarding relationship with trust and reliability for our customers, exceeding their expectations, they have fail to achieve this goal. Although the head office hopes to achieve the mission goal offering the staff, recognition and rewards to be the best team of achievers in service excellence, the branch has failed to achieve even single merit as a team. Therefore both head office and branches should responsible to manipulate the public reforms able to provide efficient and effective service to the customers addressing their preferences in both head office and branches vise.

References

Books

Barzelay, Michael. 1992. Breaking Through Bureaucracy, A new vision for managing in government. Oxford: University of California Press ltd.

Belone, Carle J. 1980. Organization Theory and the New Public Administration. London: Allyn and Bacon Inc.

Goodsell, Charles T. 2004. The Case for Bureaucracy. Washington: DC: CQ Press.

Hill, Carolyn J and Lynn, Laurence E. 2009. Public Management: A three dimensional approach. Washington: CQ Press.

Lane, Jan - Erik 2009.State Management. An inquiry in to models of public administration and management. New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.

Pollitt, Christoper and Bouckaert, Geert. 2011. Public Management Reform: A comparative Analysis- New Public Management, Governance, and the Neo- Weberian State. New York: Oxford University Press.

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Pursley, Robert D and Snortland, Neil. 1980. Managing Government Organization, An introduction to public administration. Massachuster: Duxbury Press.

Swiss, James E. 1994. Adapting Total Quality Management (TQM) to Government. Rosenbloom et al (ed). Contemporary Public Administration. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc.

Webber, Max. 1994. The Essentials of Bureaucratic Organization: An Ideal Type Construction. Rosenbloom et al(ed). Contemporary Public Administration New York: McGraw- Hill, Inc

E-References

Shah, Anwar. 2007. Public Sector Governance and Accountability Series: Performance Accountability and Combating Corruption. http://www.pitt.edu/~gkrause/0472113178- ch1.pdf( accessed on 02/06/2014).

Gruening, Gernod 2001. Origin and theoretical basis of New Public Management.www.ipmn.net/.../52-origin-and-theoretical-basis-of-new-public- management.pdf(accessed on 02/ 03/2014).

Samaratunge, Ramanie & Bennington, Lynne. 2002. New Public Management: Challenge for Sri Lanka.http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN020779.pdf http://web.boc.lk/index.php file:///H:/boc/Bank%20of%20Ceylon%203.htm http://web.boc.lk/assets/pdf/aboutus/new/customer_charter.pdf).

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Determining the Suitability of E-learningapproach to a Sri Lankan Higher Education Institute.

Reshan Liyanage London Met Degree Division ESOFT Metro Campus Sri Lanka [email protected] / [email protected]

Abstract

To-date e-learning has been becoming a global trend in education and training. E-learning refers to use of electronic media and ICT in education.There are many good reasons to follow this method such as Time flexibility, Law cost, Any Time-Anywhere availability and environment protection .Barriers of e-learning come up with lack of ICT literacy , lack of student- teacher relationship , less interaction with other students , difficulties in physical practices , law motivation ect..As per the analysis of research results author has identified Blended learning mode asa suitable method to a modern higher educational institute. Blended Learning consists of E-learning, Face to face learning and Distance learning methods. This will help us to achieve the targets of higher education and to tally with the global trends.

Introduction

Sri Lanka is an island in South Asia, Popularly referred to as the“Pearl of the Indian Ocean”, population is around 21 million and Literacy Rate is 92% and it is one of the most literate populations amongst developingcountries. 83% of the total population had Secondary Education .99% of the children entering the first grade as compulsory schooling for every child is in take place. Computer literacy of population aged 5 – 69 years is more than 20 % and a significant growth can be seen within the last decade.

Sri Lankan government has taken many good actions to popular ICT education in school education such as includingICT subject for both O/L an A/L streams, facilitate students with computer labs and arrange computer training programs for school teachers . Sri Lanka has 15 state universities and around 50 private sector higher education institutes. Most of these private institutes award academic qualifications with the foreign affiliations. Sri Lankan higher education ministry encourage those private institutions to use new techniques in education.

“Shakthi Campus” is one of the leading academic institution which offers Diploma, Higher diploma and Degree programs .Currently it offers these programs through traditional face to face mode and there is a customer requirement to introduce e-learning method for some programs. As a first step “Shakthi”decided to introduce some diplomas with e-learning mode such as Diploma in ICT, Diploma in Marketing and Diploma in Project Management .

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Shakthi’s IS department willing to introduce Moodle software as it is free software for e- learning platform which is also known as a Learning Management Systems (LMS), or Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) .

1. Problems or issues identified.

With the fast growth of technological development,most of the students do not like to depend on traditional learning methods. New trend has been created among youth called “Studying while doing a job”. Their requirement is to save the time,save the cost and availability and accessibility from anywhere anytime. In addition to that, current employees are unable to attend traditional week day classes and they are looking for a programs which is running by the e-leaning mode. “Shakthi” still conducts academic programs in traditional face to face method .As it cannot satisfy the customer’s requirements in relation to the flexibility and availability, they loss a big income yearly. So to satisfy the needs new generation and customer requirements “ Shakthi “ has decided to introduce e- leaning programs .

Following are the major problems identified in traditional face to face learning mode;

 Time wastage and high cost  Employee’s difficulty in attending week day or full day classes.  Lack of usage in new technologies such as video conferencing, forums, chat rooms  Lectures are on a fixed time schedule.  Students become an inactive role as they depend on their lecturer  Individual research works are not available  Time wasting with friends and transportation  Less updating for the subject contentsEct….

2. Significant and Rationale of the research

To overcome above conflicts in traditional face to face learning mode, “Shakthi” has decided to introduce E- leaning mode for the academic programs. Various Universities worldwide have incorporated with E-Learning solution in their curriculum. Following are the benefits of e-learning method.

 Accessibility & Flexibility  Widely Available  Use of new technologies  Inexpensive  Ease of Updates

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 Savings in Travel Cost and Time  Encourage sharing  Environmental protection  Improve researching skills

3. Research Questions

Conceptual Map

Conceptual map for the research questions is illustrated below and main components of conceptual map will be further discussed with sub components.

Main research question

Is e-learning method suitable for Shakthi’s academic programs?

Specific research questions

• What definitions of e-learning exist within the literature? • Which are the contents of e-learning method ?

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• What are the strategies used in e-learning? • What are the benefits and over heads of e-leaning?

5. Research objectives and framework

The main objectives of this research is to identify suitability of e-learning approach. Effectiveness of internal and external factors , Benefits and overheads will be focused with this review .Identifying and evaluate theories, contents, benefits, strategies used in e- learning approach to implement best learning environment for this academic institution is one of the main target in this review.

Cooperate customersurvey

This wasconducted with the different types of customers such as school leavers, employees who are seeking to follow academic programs, and lecturers.“Shakthi Campus”conducts some training programs in schools and questioners were given to the students to get their feedback.

Internal environmental analysis

This was conducted within the organization premises by focusing lecturers , administrative staff and current students ,Different questioners were given to the each category and organized discussion session to introduce and getting the feedback on e-learning .

External environment analysis

This was conducted by considering competitors and Industrial trends . Internet references, reports of higher education ministry, reports of statistics department were referred and customers enquires and feedbacks on e-learning and results of interview and questionnaire with resources persons were analyzed for this review.

1. Literature Review

Why e-learning is important in current education systems? This because the growth of information and communication technology. Academic institutes are adapting to this technique by introducing new strategies to satisfy the customer requirements and to cope with the global trends.This literature review focuses on the suitability of e-learning approach for academic programs of “Shakthi Campus”. Benefits,Barriers and the Critical factors will be discusses in this review.

Definitions

Wang & Haggerty suggested that e-Learning as” A virtual learning environment in which a learner's interactions with materials, instructors are mediated through ICT. It is different from the traditional environment because ICT is used as tools to support the learning process.

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Taking advantage of network infrastructures, learning can occur anywhere using many types of resources.” This definition focuses on the idea of a ‘virtual learning environment’ and this definition does not specially mention the tools and recourses used .So this definition will be valid for long time .Virtual learning is a type of e-learning approach. In general, E-learning refers to the use of electronic media and ICT in education. Australian Learning Framework describes e-Learning as “The application of electronic media in the delivery of flexible vocational education and training programs. It can include the use of web, CD-ROM or computer-based learning resources in the classroom, workplace or home, as well as online access to course activities such as group discussions and online assessment activities. “ This definition refer to the role of electronic media, such as computer, CD –ROM and the flexibility of place and time in engaged in the learning. It doesn’t mentions the tools and media such as Mobile phones,PDA. Software’s and methods of e-learning also not included. However it gives a clear idea on features, usage and the accessibility of e-learning The Canadian Council on Learning describes e-Learning as “The development of knowledge and skills through the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs), particularly to support interactions for learning, interactions with content, with learning activities and tools, and with other people” This definition focuses on the idea of ‘interaction’ as a key feature of e-Learning. Development of knowledge and skills were focused but sharing and updating information is not concerned.Types of e-learning methods are not discussed. Oxford DictionaryDescribes e-leaning as“Learning conducted via electronic media, typically on the Internet”

This short definition focus only on electronic media and internet. Types of e-learning and use of ICT techniques are not focused. In addition to internet, e-learning can be practiced with intranet and extranet or standalone computers as well.

Contents

 Forums & Chatting

According to the Wikipedia, Forum is defined as “An Internet forum, or message board, is an online discussion site where people can hold conversations in the form of posted messages”.

This is a discussion area in a website. Authorized members can log on to the website forum by entering user name and password .Website members can post discussions and read the response from the other members. This is also called as a message board, discussion group, bulletin board, or web forum.A forum usually allows all members to make posts and start new topics. Q&A sessions and chatting sessions can be arranged with e-café.

 Online Materials

By evaluating some websites of our foreign affiliated universities we have noticed that course materials in different formats such as PDF notes, presentations,and related videos

301 can be uploaded to the website.Authorized members can download these course materials and it save the printing cost. Students can upload latest information as well.

 Online Assessment

As per the discussion and training session at national online distance education services we have identified that Assignments can be uploaded to the website and it is plagiarized with the enabled software’s. This prevents internet copy paste and encourage students for individual researching. Online exams can be arranged and those software’s provide results within few seconds after the examination.

Strategies

 Virtual learning environment (VLE)

Wikipedia defines VLE as “An education system based on the web and it is providing virtual access to classes, class content, tests, grades, assessments, homework and other external resources “

By evaluatingWikipedia and other internet sources we can identify two types of VLE systems called Synchronous learning and Asynchronous learning. In Synchronous learning, teachers conduct live classes in virtual classrooms. Students can communicate with teacher and other students through a microphone, writing on the board.In Asynchronous learning, students are expected to complete lessons and assignments independently .Asynchronous programs have deadlines.But each student is learning from his own pace.

 Blended Learning Mode

Alfred P. Rovai, Hope Jordan (2004)definesBlended learning is a hybrid of classroom and online learning that includes some of the conveniences of online courses without the complete loss of face to face contact.

According to the above definitions and other internet references we can identify that the blended earning is a combination of face to face learning and e-learning and other learning modes. Course materials can be uploaded to the web site and forum sessions, web conferencing and online assessments can be provided with the website. In addition to that, face to face workshops can be arranged for each modules with the experienced lecturers to clarify doubts and for the practical works.

Benefits

 Low Cost

Brandon Hall (2001)identifies E-learning as a more cost effective deliver method than classroom based training, especially for large organizations. Ernst& Young who cut training costs 35 %. They condensed about 2,900 hours of classroom training into 700 hours of web-

302 based learning, 200 hours of distance learning and 500 hours of classroom instruction, a cut of 52 percent.

By refereeing to the Brandon hall and other sources we can identify many ways of reduction training cost such as electricity, material cost, accommodation, staff travelling cost and cost for food and beverages. In addition to that social interaction time and time spend for known subject areas can also be reduced.

 Effectiveness

Research literature published by Fletcher and Tobias (2000) commissioned by the American Psychological Society, concluded that, “Learners learn more using computer based instruction than they do with conventional ways of teaching, as measured by higher post treatment test scores.”

By evaluating to the Fletcher and Tobias and other sources we can understand the effectives of e-learning as it contains knowledgesharing,high pass rate, recently updated subject contents. And learnersinteraction to the lesson with the VLE environment.

 Environment protection

A study by the Open University found that the production and provision of distance learning courses reduce nearly 90 % less energy and 85 % CO2emissions per student than traditional classroom based learning.

As per these reviews we can identify that the e-learning protect the environment in different ways .In e-learning ,course materials are updated to the web and does not use printed papers .then trees will be protected. As the transportation not available air pollution will be reduced.

 Time saving

D Zhang, JF Nunamaker, Information Systems Frontiers, 2003 stated that “ It is reported that companies using online training can expect an average of 50% in timesaving’s”

According to these related reviews we can identify that e-learning approach save time in many ways. Face to face class’s runs with a fixed time schedule and students have to wait in the meantime. E-learning mode runs with flexible time and no need to wait long time to see the results as online exams integrated to the system. Travelling cost also saved.

2. Research Methodology and Design

Research Approach

Deductive research approach has been selected fo r this review and author used observation data and facts to reach at tentative hypothesis and define a theory as per the research problem.This review based on identify the suitability of e-learning approach for an

303 organization. This question is answered by the answers of associate questions and the literature review.Following are the stages followed by the deductive approach;

i. Select hypothesis and problem domain ii. Determine the population of research iii. Complete survey using interviews , questionnaires and internet references iv. Analyze data and responses v. Draw conclusion accordingly

Research Design

Conclusive research method has been selected by the author as it is meant to provide information that is useful in reaching conclusions or decision making. It tends to be quantitative in nature that is to say in the form of numbers that can be quantified and summarized.

Research Strategy

Survey research has been selected to get answers from sample responds for key questions. There are 3 main methods used by author for this survey research.

 Questionnaires  Interviews  Internet surveys

Research Instruments

Questionnaire wasprepared by the both online and printed form to get the feedback from the students. Current students as well as industrial customers who seeks to follow online program also focused in this questionnaire. Customer expectations, barriers, their personal suggestions and, previous experiences are measured by this questionnaire.

Interviews was conducted with the registered students and discussions were arranged with the students to introduce e-learning and to get their feedback. Students who made inquiries on online programs were interviewed by the telephone. Deputy Director of National Online Distance Educations Services was interviewed by the author to identify new trends, overheads, benefits, competitors and government support.

Internet references were used to get a clear picture on the definitions, strategies, delivery methods, benefits /drawbacks and new trends of e-learning. Moodle training session provided access to e-learning programs and its special features were identified by the author. E-leaning articles published by developed countries such as Australia, New Zealand and Canada also referred to identify new technologies and trends.

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3. Sampling plan

Target Population

Industrial customers who are seeks higher education programs, Current students of shakthi campus who follow diploma, degree programs were focused in the sampling as a cooperate customers. In addition to that internal staff were focused on sampling

Convenience Sampling

Convenience sampling method is used for this review as it is time efficient and economical. 21 % students were interviewed and given a questionnaire. This population was selected randomly .88 % industrial customers who made an inquiries on e-learning programs and 82% internal staff were focused for an interview and questionnaire and they were selected from different subject areas.

Sampling size

Students - Total population of students were 1500 and 95% confident rate with 5% error rate is calculated.

N= 1500 / [ 1 + (1500) *(0.05)*(0.05) ]

N = 1500 / [ 1+ (1500) *(0.0025) ]

N =1500 / 1 + 3.75

N = 1500 / 4.75

N= 315

Industrial Customers -As per the database records 50 enquiries were received on flexible learning programs. 95% confident rate with 5% error rate is calculated.

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N= 50 / [ 1 + (50) *(0.05)*(0.05) ]

N = 50 / [ 1+ (50) *(0.0025) ]

N =50 / 1 + 0.125

N = 50 / 1.125

N= 44

Internal staff –“Shakthi” currently employed for 80 staff members and 95% confident rate with 5% error rate is calculated.

N= 80 / [ 1 + (80) *(0.05)*(0.05) ]

N = 80 / [ 1+ (80) *(0.0025) ]

N =80 / 1 + 0.2

N = 80 / 1.2

N= 66

Target population Total population Sample size

Students 1500 315

Industrial Customers 50 44

Internal staff 80 66

4. Data Collection Methods\

Interviews

Face to face interview was conducted by the author with a standard set of questions and recorded the feedback in a structured way. Face to face interview with lecturers yield highest responses and new suggestions and new trends were also identified by the author by this method. Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less expensive but disadvantage is response rate and suggestions rate is not higher than the face to face interviews. Data gathered from telephone interview is categorized under qualitative primary data and face to face interview data is categorized under quantitative secondary data.

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Questionnaires

Questionnaires were made up of Checklist and rating scales.This helps to simplify and quantify people's behaviors and attitudes.expectations, views of individuals on e-learning, benefits and barriers, knowledge on the subject area were focused in the Questionnaires. Structured questionnaires categorized under secondary quantitative data.

Internet references

Qualitative data were collected from research papers and articles published in the internet . These internet references provide information on global trends, success factors of past projects and barriers faced in previous projects. Data gathered from internet references is categorized under secondary qualitative data.

Data Quantitative Qualitative

Primary Telephone interview Face to face interview

Secondary structured questionnaires Internet reference

5. ResearchEthics

This review has conducted by the author by addressing followingethical considerations ;

 Protect privacy of responders by not mentioning the name in the questionnaires and interview.Student, lectures and other customer names and their personal ideas will not be published after the research as well.

 Recognized respondents with not answering all questions from interview and questionnaire .Target audience were not forced by the researcher to answer all questions.

 Allowed responders to give feedbacks infreely and free time slots were selected for an interviews and questioners. Discussions with Student and lecturers were arranged in free sessions.

 Research questions were not directly related to their personal life and multiple answers were given for their ease of understand and to feedback.

 Data gathered will not be disadvantaged for anybody .Author refers some recommended websites and its earlier published articles. Gathered some data about competitors will not be published by the author.

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6. Research Outcomes

According to the analysis of primary, secondary and qualitative, quantitative data author has identified following outcomes;

Advantages

 Flexibility – E-learning is a flexible method to learn from anywhere at any time .Distance or transportation is not a barrier. No need to worry about attending classes

 Widely Available – Resources are widely available than traditional class room. for a Single topic students can access thousands of articles and related videos. As per the fast growth of technology it is not difficult to access internet.

 Use of new technologies –With this technology students can learn academic programs by various technologies. Forums, Café’s, conferencing,videos, presentations, Downloading notes, online exams etc..

 Inexpensive -E-learning saves delivery cost, laborcost, machinery cost,and cost for the staff. The other way it is cost effective for the student’s .They have to pay less course fee when compared to traditional face to face programs. Travelling and accommodation cost can be ignored.

 Encourage sharing Learning community is sharing their knowledge with others with the forums and web conferencing. It improves active involvement for students as they get feedback from the other to the shared status.

 Environmental protection Trees will be saved if printed materials are not in use, poisoned gases such as CO and CFC will not be produced with less transportation.

 Improve researching skills Enables students to become researchers since they are involved in self learning. This approach encourage them to collect information from various sources.

 Ease of Updates In traditional face to face approach text books and syllabus are not updated regularly. But this methods facilitate readers to update latest information. By referring Q & A sessions and forum sessions readers can share the updated knowledge as well.

 Savings in Travel Cost and Time - Web based centralizedworkshops can be arranged with this learning technical. Students can logged in to the institutes web site and having a chat with lecturers. Virtual class rooms connect students and lecturers to one place but they all access from many places.

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Barriers

 Time interruptions – When compared to the traditional face to face approach e- learning methods takes more time. Students have to read many articles andrefer internet to get subject knowledge. Less probability to get quick feedbacks from lecturer.

 Support services- Need continues technical support to facilitate e-learning. Computer internet and software’s needed to work with e-learning. Students face difficulties with the lack of technical assistance.

 Technical – Software and Hardware availability is compulsory for this approach .Students have to buy new devices such as web cam , microphone and different types of software’s are needed to work with e-leaning

 Social– Lack of interaction between students and teachers will generate social problems. Teachers are guiding them to achieve goals by correcting their weaknesses.

 Economical –In addition to course fee students have to pay for the hardware, softwareand connection. Sometimes connection fee goes high when the connection capacity exceed.

 Legal – Data sharing without protection makes legal problems. Unauthorized hackers sometimes misuse the systems.

 Prerequisite skills-Knowledge in English and ICT needed to follow e-learning programs. Very rare to find Internet articles in local languages. ICT skill is needed when accessing, sharing resources or when connecting to the conferences.

 Motivation – Less motivation from friends and teachers to complete the program within a given time. In a class room students are reading for the program as a batch and all are supervised by the lecturers and management.

7. Conclusion

As per the evaluation of researched data and literature review, author suggests to conduct e-learning programs in blended learning mode as it provides face to face learning workshops along with the virtual learning environment. But further research is needed to identify the impact of blended learning mode.

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References

1. Lin Y. Muilenburg and Zane L. Berge( 2008) Student Barriers to Online Learning: A factor analytic study

2. Sri lankan education statistics. (n.d.). Retrieved July, 2013, from Government statistics Department website http://www.statistics.gov.lk 3. Aged community services – Australia ( 2004) Putting Learning Back into E-Learning - A Survey of Good Practice in E-Learning

4. Barbera B.,GrosB.andKirschner- ( 2007 )Temporal Issues in E-learning Research: A Literature Review

5. Caroline O'Keeffe, Joanna Davidson, Linda Meadows ( 2007)- Offenders and E- Learning - A Literature Review

6. Tracy Richardson, Bob Anderson, Caupolican Solis, Belinda Martins, Amelia McAllan (2011) 7. Institutional Barriers to e-Learning in Schools

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