THE EFFECTS OF CREEPING COMMERCIALISM ON CHILDREN’S PUBLIC TELEVISION PROGRAMMING ON THE STRENGTH OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PBS AND PARENTS OF CHILD VIEWERS
By
CHRISTINA REGAN
A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN MASS COMMUNICATION
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
2005 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank my parents for supporting me both emotionally and financially throughout my college career. Without their love and encouragement I would not be where I am today. I also thank my advisor and committee members for their guidance and responsive assistance, no matter how short notice the request.
ii TABLE OF CONTENTS
page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... ii
LIST OF TABLES...... v
LIST OF FIGURES ...... vi
ABSTRACT...... vii
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1
2 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 3
Critique of Commercialization ...... 7 Defense of Commercialization ...... 13 Theoretical Framework ...... 16 Research Questions ...... 23 Hypothesis ...... 23
3 METHODOLOGY ...... 24
Sample ...... 25 Measurement ...... 25 Analysis ...... 27 Limitations ...... 27
4 RESULTS...... 28
Description of Sample ...... 28 Results That Test the Hypothesis ...... 29 Additional Analysis ...... 35
5 DISCUSSION...... 43
6 CONCLUSION...... 48
iii APPENDIX
A SURVEY ...... 51
B ORIGINAL SCALE OF RELATIONSHIP STRENGTH INDICATORS ...... 55
REFERENCES ...... 57
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ...... 60
iv LIST OF TABLES
Table page
1 Factor analysis of the instrument used to measure relationship strength ...... 30
2 Factor analysis of the instrument used to measure level commercial perception . 32
3 Correlation analysis between perceived commercialism and intimacy ...... 33
4 Correlation analysis between perceived commercialism and partner quality . . . . 34
5 Correlation analysis between perceived commercialism and commitment ...... 35
6 Descending mean scores of the 16 relationship strength survey questions ...... 36
7 Child viewing frequency ...... 37
8 Parent viewing frequency...... 37
9 Frequency data of overall attitude toward PBS ...... 37
10 Frequency table for question 22...... 38
11 Frequency table for question 23...... 38
12 Frequency table for question 24...... 38
13 Frequency table for question 25...... 39
14 Analysis of variance of the three relationship strength factors and question 22 . . 40
15 Analysis of variance of the three relationship strength factors and question 23 . . 40
16 Analysis of variance of the three relationship strength factors and question 24 . . 41
17 Analysis of variance of the three relationship strength factors and question 25 . . 41
v LIST OF FIGURES
Figures page
1 Conceptual Model of Relationship Strength ...... 22
2 Ethnic Frequency ...... 28
3 Gender Frequency ...... 28
4 Income Frequency ...... 29
5 Age Frequency ...... 29
vi Abstract of Thesis Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Mass Communication
THE EFFECTS OF CREEPING COMMERCIALISM ON CHILDREN’S PUBLIC TELEVISION PROGRAMMING ON THE STRENGTH OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PBS AND PARENTS OF CHILD VIEWERS
By
Christina Regan
May 2005
Chair: Churchill Roberts Major Department: Mass Communication
Over the years corporate sponsor messages before and after children’s public television programming on PBS have begun to look increasingly more commercialized.
In this multi-channel media environment, a competitive edge is necessary for survival. In order to compete with cable and other commercial networks, PBS has adopted a more market-driven business model. Critics argue this decision weakens PBS’ position in the market and essentially goes against its mission of noncommercial public service broadcasting.
The purpose of this study was to first determine if parents perceive this increased commercialization and second to see if that perception had any effect on their strength of relationship with PBS. The data collected from the survey research demonstrated no significant correlation between perceived commercialism and PBS/parent relationship strength.
vii This result supports consumer brand relationship theory which suggests that brand
images are able to withstand acts of transgression (increased commercialism) as long as
they possess positive brand qualitites. In the case of PBS, their high quality educational children’s programming outweighs any detrimental effects increased commercialism may
have on their relationship with parents of child viewers.
viii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
One day an Arab and his camel were crossing the desert. At night the Arab pitched his tent and the camel asked the Arab if he could put his nose in for warmth. The Arab agreed. So the camel's nose became warm and after a while the temperature dropped. This time the camel asked the Arab if he could put his fore legs in because they were very cold. The Arab reluctantly agreed. After sometime, the camel told the Arab that if he did not warm his hind legs he would be unable to walk the next morning. Again the Arab agreed. But once the camel’s hind legs were in there was no room for the Arab and he was kicked out. (Singh, 2000)
“The Camel and the Arab”, a fable from Ancient India, serves as a cautionary tale shedding light on the issue of “creeping commercialism” currently facing public television in the United States. The once absolute laws written into the Communications
Act of 1934, banning all forms of advertising on public stations, have been tweaked and stretched to the point where euphemisms like “enhanced underwriter acknowledgments” are now commonplace. They are used to disguise the distinctly commercial presence of advertiser messages that has recently invaded the public airwaves. However, euphemisms cannot hide their true nature forever and people are finally starting to wonder whether or not the legendary camel’s nose has officially slipped under the tent
(Redmont, 2000).
This past December, the University of Chicago held a conference titled The Future of Public Television. The purpose of the conference was to stimulate a discussion on ways to secure public television’s future. Industry professionals such as John Lawson, president and CEO of the Association of Public Television Stations (APTS), and academics such as Dale Kunkel, professor of communication at the University of
1 2
Arizona, assembled to discuss this pertinent topic. During the “open mike” section of the seminar devoted to children’s public television programming, the one same question seemed to be common amongst the audience; where will PBS draw the line in regards to
the commercialization of its coveted children’s programming?
At the threshold of this new digital era, PBS, and the local stations that support it,
have come to a crossroads; should public television be allowed to continue down
commercial lane and hope for the best, or should funding strategies be revised to allow
for a truly noncommercial public network to pave the way into the 21st century of digital
communication? This line of questioning seems to be continually directed at children’s
programming due to children’s massive media consumption and susceptibility to the
pitfalls of increased commercialism. The image of child as consumer is one that many
have problems with, especially when in reference to supposedly noncommercial PBS
programming. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
PBS KIDS is the branch of PBS that is specifically devoted to children. It promises to broaden children’s horizons through learning, discovery and play. The PBS web site assures viewers and parents that PBS programs are designed to help children develop cognitive, social, emotional and physical skills. PBS KIDS is dedicated to producing high quality educational programming and therefore, makes sure that experienced educational television producers involve children, educational researchers, parents, teachers, day care providers and subject-matter experts during development and production of all programs. PBS producers are also required to provide educational support materials for children and their parents. This supplemental material encourages children to venture away from the television toward a more independent routine of learning and discovering (“PBS KIDS,” 2004). Public television programming inspires children to try new things every day. As they sing in one of PBS’ popular children’s programs ZOOM, “If you like what you see, turn off the TV, and do it!”
PBS KIDS’ new advertising campaign demonstrates the network’s commitment to helping kids live up to their potential with the slogan “Be More.” PBS is well aware of the growing competition from commercial stations and they know the one advantage they have over these competing networks is brand identity. Lesli Rotenburg, PBS Senior Vice
President of Brand Management and Strategic Positioning, said that “The trust that parents place in our brand is tremendously important to us at PBS and it’s something that we want to continue to build” (PBS KIDS Children’s Media Brand,” 2002, para.2). One
3 4 of the advertisements in the print campaign, directed by the ad agency One and All, illustrates the PBS objective of helping kids’ imaginations take flight. A young boy is pictured being held in the air with arms outstretched like an airplane. The headline reads,
“You can tell him he can’t fly, but he’ll never hear you over the roar of the engines.”
The rest of the copy continues, “At PBS KIDS, shows like Dragon Tales, spark your child’s imagination, encouraging him to believe in all kinds of things, especially himself.
And once kids believe in themselves they can rise above just about anything.” The tag line concludes, “PBS KIDS: Be More Empowered” (“PBS KIDS Children’s Media
Brand,” 2002, para. 6).
This “Be More” campaign is an excellent branding tool that solidifies PBS’ position in the market. However, in the current multichannel media environment, it is not enough to simply have a solid position. A network must possess a unique angle. Unlike any other network, PBS KIDS provides quality programming free of commercial intrusion. However, due to loosened guidelines and insufficient funding, this novel brand image is teetering on an unstable edge.
A type of funding resource, known as underwriting acknowledgments, has been eating away at the noncommercial foundation of public television for years. Recently, underwriting spots on public television have begun to look more and more like real commercials. When the Communications Act of 1934 was first passed it forbade noncommercial stations from accepting monetary compensation for airing spots that aimed to “promote any service, facility or product offered by any person who is engaged in such offering for profit.” (Redmont, 2000, para.3) This restriction was made in an attempt to prevent any form of commercials, beyond the obligatory announcement of a supporting company’s name, from appearing on noncommercial stations. However, 5 during President Ronald Reagan’s era of deregulation this tenet of the Act was essentially ignored.
In 1984, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) reworked the policy and allowed public broadcasters to air enhanced underwriter acknowledgments. The enhancement meant the inclusion of “value neutral” product line or service descriptions and corporate slogans and logos that served to identify, rather than promote. In the past,
PBS set up strict guidelines that limited enhanced underwriter spots to 15 seconds. As recently as 1999 a study by the PBS board found that it was uncommon for local stations to air spots over 15 seconds (Redmont, 2000). However, the public broadcasting landscape is rapidly changing. Richard Lehner, general manager of WUFT-TV (PBS
GAINESVILLE), says that “Now most local public stations air 30 second spots and rarely restrict themselves to the guidelines set up by PBS” (personal communication,
September 17, 2004). He describes the history of underwriter acknowledgments in terms of a spectrum. On one end of the spectrum there are strict guidelines monitoring content and time constraints and on the other end there lies a more relaxed environment run by local stations interested in keeping up revenue streams amidst a growing competitive market. Lehner says that “Years ago we were way over to the left, nowhere near what we were permitted to do by law. Now we have shifted all the way to the other side placing us right on the edge of what the law allows us to do” (personal communication,
September 17, 2004).
The local stations are not the only ones pushing the envelope. The 30-second spots have infiltrated PBS’ national lineup as well. Now executives are looking to lower the price of these lengthened credits in the hopes of appealing to even more corporate underwriters. Jeremy Egner (2004), journalist for Current, a newspaper about public 6 television and radio in the United States, calls attention to the irony of this newfound tolerance. He says that:
As the economy and competition make it harder to sell underwriting, public TV stations increasingly accept the lengthened credits. PBS itself no longer opposes them, as it did in 1995 when it caused a near-rebellion by trying to extend national 15-second limits to local credits airing adjacent to PBS programs. (para. 4)
In other words, PBS may be lagging behind the local public stations when it comes to acceptance of increased commercialism, but the fact remains that they are warming up to an idea they once vehemently opposed.
In her chapter “Advertising on Public Television: A Look at PBS” from the book
Public Broadcasting and the Public Interest, Judi Cook (2003) examines the reality of commercial influences on PBS. Through a content analysis of WGBH-2 (PBS
BOSTON), Cook analyzes the extent to which corporate sponsorships have become a staple of PBS programming. Cook draws interesting conclusions from her results that point to children as being a favorite target of corporate sponsors (p. 85).
The results of her study showed the largest amount of underwriting appeared in the 8:00-10:00 AM slot with the next largest slot being 6:00-8:00 AM. The fact that children’s programming appears during these segments suggests that children are the most targeted consumers. Cook also looked at the genre of each underwriting spot and finds that they fall into three main categories; arts/culture, children and history. Of the three possible genres, 82.5% of underwriting spots appeared before and after children’s programming, again suggesting that children are the targeted consumers of PBS underwriting (p.89).
Cook also coded underwriting spots into 11 business categories; food and beverage, toys, technology, telecommunications, healthcare and pharmaceuticals, retail- general, financial and insurance, entertainment, apparel and jewelry, automobiles, and 7 education. The two largest product categories were “food and beverage” at 35.1% and
“toys” at 11.5%. This again supports the idea that children are being targeted as consumers on public television. Corporations such as Juicy Juice, Kellogg’s, Chuck E.
Cheese and KB toys view PBS as a viable resource for attracting their most sought after audience—kids. Cook also mentioned that the inclusion of corporate logos and symbols present in 93.8% of the sample spots was significant in that it gave children, many of whom are too young to read, something to understand and retain (p.91-92).
Cook concludes that advertising on public television is “alive and well,” and disturbingly pointed at children. “Reducing children to commodities and serving them up to underwriters is not exactly something one normally associates with public television. And yet, this appears to be the way of the future” (p.93).
Ultimately, it becomes a matter of whether the ends justify the means. PBS KIDS is an essential component of the television industry. It embodies the pure goal of not only teaching children the facts about math, science and history, but also of encouraging them to love learning and believe in themselves. Does public television’s contribution to child development justify the use of commercials as a funding resource? Or, does public television’s distorted claims of being noncommercial while displaying blatant forms of commercialism justify a change in the system? The above discussion clearly presents the importance of this issue. However, before any decision-making or policy proposals can be introduced, both sides of the issue must be explained.
Critique of Commercialization
Critics of “creeping commercialism” believe PBS learned the wrong lessons from its competitors. Cable networks such as The Disney Channel and Nickelodeon are backed by giant corporations with a great deal of time and money to spend on creating quality children’s programming. This programming is in direct competition with what 8
PBS has to offer. Instead of retaining its uniqueness and increasing the entertainment
value of its shows, PBS focused on letting advertisers increase the production value of their commercials. This mistake eliminated the one thing that distinguished PBS from its
competitors—no advertising (Guterman, 2003, para.1).
Corporate underwriters are given liberties, in the form of message enhancement,
that exceed simple identification and flirt heavily with outright promotion. In his book
Made Possible By…The Death of Public Broadcasting in the United States, James
Ledbetter (1997) refers to underwriter acknowledgments in the early 1980’s as “dull,
tombstone-like on-screen promotions.” In the late 1980s, PBS allowed underwriters to
add their logos, store locations and even descriptions of their products into their messages. Today corporations produce full-motion video productions for their
underwriting spots complete with music, actors and graphics. These enhanced spots are
not simply a function of improving technologies. They are a testament to underwriters’
willingness to invest in a high quality production they believe will attract a desired
audience. The days of philanthropic donations are over; now program funding comes
directly from the advertising departments of contributing corporations (Cook, 2003,
p.90).
Critics argue that these extended liberties and funding flaws gamble with a parent’s
ability to trust PBS KIDS. They expose children to a form of advertising that by the
historical definition of noncommercial public television should not exist. Sesame Street,
a show devoted to the education of children and noncommercialism, used to end each
episode with the familiar tagline, “this show has been brought to you by the letter Z and
the number 2.” Now at the end of Sesame Street, children and parents are forced to listen
to a new commercial tune. “Pfizer brings parents the letter Z for Zithromax.” This audio
is then accompanied by an enhanced underwriter acknowledgment featuring children in 9
front of a chalkboard learning the “ABC’s of antibiotics” (Cook, 2003, p.86). The spot promises that more information on Zithromax is “just a click away” and gives the
audience the pharmaceutical company’s web address. In its March 2000 letter to PBS
entitled “The Commercialism of Children’s Public Television,” the activist group FAIR
argued that “The Zithromax ad’s exotic animals and outsized toys, meant to evoke the
product’s logo, also serve to make a prescription-only drug appealing to preschool
viewers” (FAIR, 2000, para.6). Ledbetter (1997) and other critics like him believe this
type of marketing on a “system conceived as an advertising-free beacon of
enlightenment” is unacceptable on public television (p.17).
Another example of how underwriters have pushed the commercial envelope can
be found in products that are much more familiar to children than Zithromax. One ad
announces, “Chuck E. Cheese proudly supports PBS KIDS’ television, where a kid can
be a kid.” This voice-over, combined with the Chuck E. Cheese jingle and mascot,
creates a certain ambiguity surrounding whether PBS or Chuck E. Cheese is the place
where a kid can be a kid. McDonald’s is another sponsor that blurs this line between
slogan identification and promotion. In their announcement an animated Ronald
McDonald opens a book releasing a red happy meal box. The trademark golden arches
take flight and transform the dull room into a magical wonderland. The voice over says,
“McDonald’s is happy to support children’s television.” The unnecessary visual aspects
of this ad blatantly connect McDonald’s Happy Meals with having fun (FAIR, 2000).
Other underwriters go even further and link their products to helping kids learn and
enjoy reading. For example, the Arthur sponsor, Post Alpha Bits cereal, tells its viewers
about, “Post Alpha-Bits cereal: 26 little letters that make up a million words, that tell
billions of stories- and it all starts with ABC.” FAIR suggested this type of message 10 falsely linked a cereal with getting kids excited about reading and urged PBS to use stricter guidelines for underwriter messages (FAIR, 2000).
The above examples illustrate how PBS stations seem to be accelerating toward commercialism. This acceleration not only negatively impacts how parents, children and society as a whole may view PBS, but it also impacts Congress. In an article published in Current entitled “We take another step in a seductive dance with commerce,” Willard
Rowland (2003) says that “Our weakening position on noncommercialism makes it difficult to tell Congress that we remain true to basic ‘noncommercial, educational’ tenets” (para.10). In other words, PBS is sending out a subtle message that it is content to replace federal funding with growing commercial support.
This notion of commercialism does not preside solely in the underwriting credits before and after PBS programs. Commercialism has even broader implications when it is addressed in the form of merchandising. Popular shows such as Barney & Friends and
Teletubbies have raked in millions of dollars from merchandising. This accomplishment has created another source of controversy for the public stations. In a Journal of
Business Ethics article entitled “Ethics and the Business of Children’s Public Television
Programming,” William Brown (2002) asks; “Does the mass marketing of character- related merchandise, such as the ‘tickle me Elmo’ doll during the holiday season, cross a moral line” (p. 74)? Brown goes on to argue that this type of merchandising taints the sanctity of the noncommercial ideal and sacrifices the moral trust of the public. The merchandising market is where the idea of licensing gets to the heart of the business of children’s television programming.
Book licensing is an important endeavor in the publishing industry. The publishing industry analyzes the children’s market and actively pursues licensed books from PBS programs. Scholastic Entertainment targets preschoolers with its Teletubbies books and 11
early readers with its Arthur titles. “The fact that licensers plan their licensing and promotional strategies a year and a half before a TV show premieres raises questions about whether the ‘educational’ content of the programming drives the book marketing or if merchandising possibilities drive the program content” (p.77). Money collected from licensing agreements is another source of revenue that supports PBS. If licensers are tempted to back the shows that have the most merchandising potential it would be safe to assume that this form of commercialism is driving program content. This idea of merchandising potential could also be the reason behind the recent shift in PBS KIDS’
program format from live action to animation.
A 2002 Markle Foundation study interviewed children’s media professionals and
found that they believe PBS is drifting away from its educational mission. They blame
this transgression partly on the network’s over reliance on animated programs. Years
ago, the dominant form of programming on PBS was live action shows such as Sesame
Street, Mr. Roger’s Neighborhood and Reading Rainbow. Experts say these types of
shows benefit children. Dorothy Singer, CO- Director of the Television and Consultation
Center at Yale University and consultant on Barney & Friends, cites research that
suggests kids learn more from shows containing at least one real-life character. Daniel
Anderson, a psychology professor at the University of Massachusetts and national
advisory board member for PBS’ Ready to Learn program, agrees with Singer and
stresses the importance of children detecting real people that act as a bridge between
reality and imagination (McGuinn, 2002, para.30).
Nowadays, when tuned to PBS KIDS, one is more likely to see a cartoon than a
live action show. Cartoons became such a popular genre that now 15 out of the 25 shows
on PBS KIDS are animated. Many critics are not bothered by the educational integrity of 12 animation, but they believe it is more an issue of quantity. The abundance of cartoons limits the presence of a diverse program schedule, thus limiting educational possibilities.
There are distinct economic benefits that go along with a dominantly animated schedule. It is easy to replace the English-speaking cartoons with foreign language voice-overs, which makes for a seamless transition into the overseas market. Animated characters, such as Arthur, work well in the merchandising market of toys, tooth brushes, pajamas etc. PBS does receive a certain amount of the profits from merchandising deals, but most of the money goes right back to the authors or production companies that conceptualize many of the shows. Knowing they can bank on merchandising profits and international rights, producers are willing to sell an animated program to PBS for much less than a live action show (McGuinn, 2002). All these factors boil down to one thing; animation is cheap. For both children and parents money, rather than public service, has become the bottom line for the public broadcasting system.
It is evident that various forms of commercialism have successfully crept their way into the public television sphere. This critique has clearly revealed two ways in which programming has felt the effects. One, underwriter acknowledgments after children’s programming have become so enhanced that they serve to promote products to children, rather than simply identify them. And, two, educational content is at the mercy of whatever programs production companies think will be most profitable. The title of
Rowland’s (2003) article equates PBS’ growing commercial relationship with a seductive dance. Enhanced underwriter acknowledgments and licensing control are just two more steps PBS has taken in this dance. The remaining question is whether the music will ever stop or will this dance continue until public television is a shadow of its former self? 13
Defense of Commercialization
However, not everyone is against this shift toward a more commercial public broadcasting system. In PBS’ defense, the reason for the increasing commercialization is perfectly understandable. In 1967 the Carnegie Commission was established to address the issue of advertisers ability to influence the range and quality of programs available to viewers on commercial television. The Carnegie Commission foresaw public television as an alternative to commercial television. “It clearly positioned public television as a noncommercial alternative to the market-driven content of commercial television. And yet the public broadcasting system was never fully equipped to operate without the help of corporate sponsorship” (Cook, 2003). From its inception public television was handicapped when attempts to fund it with a 2% tax on television receivers was denied.
As the market becomes more and more competitive and government support continues to dwindle, PBS and its local affiliates have become increasingly vulnerable to the lure of corporate sponsorships. With its back against the wall, private sponsors seem like the easiest way out of public television’s financial troubles (Rowland, 2003).
Defenders of commercial support as a viable funding resource for PBS believe advertising will neither destroy public television’s integrity nor influence its programming content. The PBS web site boasts that funding sources for public television are more diverse than any other media outlet in the country. Contrary to the critics belief that the money received from corporate sponsors will govern all content, defenders argue that the above mentioned funding diversity is a key element in the preservation of a free and independent public television system. Therefore, PBS welcomes national program underwriters from a variety of companies.
Defenders also believe that increased underwriter acknowledgments will have little effect on the public’s trust in the PBS brand image. Mike Hardgrove, president of 14
KETC-TV in St. Louis, conducted a focus group study and concluded that viewers already think underwriting is advertising and are not bothered by it-as long as it remains tasteful (Behrens, 1995). Also, a 2004 Roper Poll commissioned by the Public
Broadcasting Service suggests increased commercialization has had little impact on the public trust. According to the poll, PBS is the most trusted organization in America, beating out three branches of government and the rest of the media (Eggerton, 2004).
The largest block of PBS programming last season consisted of 801 hours of children’s programming (38%). PBS programs are watched each week by an average of
87 million viewers. These statistics show that PBS KIDS is well-equipped to compete with cable networks, such as Discovery Kids, whose audience is less than half of that of
PBS (Auletta, 2004). Also, as long as acknowledgments are aired during station breaks, rather than in the middle of programs, PBS will retain the essential uniqueness separating it from the rest of the commercial networks. PBS uses a second unique angle, lack of clutter, in order to sell air-time to corporations. This gives PBS an incentive to limit the amount and length of its commercials. This idea directly contradicts critics beliefs that commercialism will become more and more prevalent until all lines of separation have been erased. Therefore, creeping commercialism has not shown any significant impact on PBS’ ability to capture the public trust or maintain its competitive edge and uniqueness.
In terms of animation, PBS believes this format both attracts kids and offers an educational and pro-social curriculum. Sandra Calvert, a Georgetown University professor who has written widely on children’s television, praises the benefits of cartoons. She believes that “Unlike Sesame Street, which jumps from scene to unconnected scene (a ‘magazine format’), the cartoons unfold as narratives which can help children develop their memories and understand literary concepts like 15
foreshadowing” (McGuinn, 2002, para.31). PBS did not purposefully set out to create a cartoon-dominated line-up. When the network was trying to strengthen its programming it went after shows that engaged both children and their parents. Attractive economics combined with the fact that so many of the PBS animated shows gained a popular
following, lead to a cartoon-dominated line-up that most people in the industry support.
Times are changing and defenders argue that critics of commercialism live in an
ideal world if they think PBS can survive without changing too. Some public
broadcasting executives argue that their stations should be given the option of converting
from “noncommercial” to “nonprofit” broadcasters, which would maintain high quality
standards, but sell commercials (“Should pubcasters go more commercial?,” 2002). Hal
Bouton, president of WTVI-TV in North Carolina understands that some rural stations
may need federal funding and state education grants to continue operation. However,
community stations in medium to large markets may not have these options due to
decreased federal funding and must turn to advertising as a viable alternative. Bouton
(1995) urges public stations to:
Change with the times or be responsible for the loss of our important role in the modern telecommunications environment. Let's take control of our future, not have it dictated by Congress. They have given us the opportunity to steer a new course. Let's make the most of this opportunity to build an even stronger public broadcasting system for our nation. (para.9)
A nonprofit broadcasting license would still work to serve the public interest. The only
difference would be the undisputed acceptance of a more flexible and lucrative revenue
source.
Both sides of this debate have merit. Critics think that loosening underwriting
regulations is a violation of the PBS mission statement. As public television goes more
and more commercial, not only with enhanced underwriting acknowledgments, but with
merchandising as well, it jeopardizes the public trust and allows commercialism to 16 intrude on coveted educational content. Defenders, on the other hand, believe going commercial is a logical and necessary step to competing against established commercial networks. As Daniel Anderson, board member for PBS’ Ready to Learn program said,
“It’s simply a matter of survival” (personal communication, November 15, 2004).
While scholars and media professionals may not agree on the effects of commercialism on PBS KIDS, it is clear that one can study these effects by examining the relationship between the PBS and its viewers. So far, research concerning this topic has been biased and over-generalized. For example, PBS was praised as being the number one most trusted organization in the country in a 2004 study commissioned by
PBS. It is difficult to establish survey credibility when the organization at the top of the list is the very organization that commissioned the study. It is also hard to assume that public opinion polls concerning PBS as a whole can be used to describe public opinion specifically concerning children’s programming. A poll commissioned by the
Corporation for Public Broadcasting (PBS’s funding counterpart) suggested that the public is largely accepting of the amount of commercial activity engaged in by public television (Market Facts, CPB Report, 1997). However, this sentiment may be very different when the lens is focused on PBS KIDS, as children, lacking in cognitive development, are more vulnerable to commercial messages (Paradise, 2004).
Theoretical Framework
This literature review has revealed that the relationship between the public and
PBS is the key to discovering the tangible consequences to creeping commercialism. By studying the relationship between PBS and its consumers it may be possible to predict whether increased commercialism will have detrimental effects on PBS’ image and subsequently its sources of revenue (i.e. member donations). It is important to look at this issue through the framework of relationship theory. This theory provides a plethora 17 of information concerning the purpose of relationships and what needs to be present for them to remain stable.
Susan Fournier’s (1998) article “Consumers and Their Brands: Developing
Relationship Theory in Consumer Research,” provides a framework for better understanding the relationships consumers form with the brands they use. In this case, consumers are viewers and the brand they know and use is PBS. By studying the relationship between viewers and PBS, it can be determined whether the actions of PBS concerning commercialism are accepted by the public or are interpreted as a transgression that fosters instability and relational deterioration.
Relationship theory incorporates four core assumptions. First, relationships involve an equal exchange between active and interrelated partners. Second, relationships are purposeful, involving meaning to the persons who engage them. Third, relationships range across several dimensions and take many forms, providing a multitude of possible benefits for each participant. Fourth, relationships evolve and change over a series of interactions and in response to alterations in the environment
(Fournier, 1998). These four assumptions, abbreviated as reciprocity, meaning, multiplicity and temporality, are discussed below.
Fournier notes that in order for a relationship to truly exist, interdependence and a mutual effort (reciprocity) between partners must be present. “The partners must collectively affect, define and redefine the relationship” (Fournier, p.344). She then goes on to conceptualize the brand as an active participant in the relationship, rather than a passive object of marketing strategies. Personification of the brand highlights a way in which the brand can be involved in a partnership with the consumer. “The human activity of anthropomorphizing inanimate objects has been identified as universal in virtually all societies” (Brown, 1991). Theories of animism suggest that there is a need 18 to attribute human qualities to inanimate objects in order to interact with the nonmaterial world. Consumers are extremely willing to think about brands as if they were human, assigning them personal qualities the same way they would a friend (Aaker, 1997). This willingness suggests an acceptance of brands as a reciprocal member of the consumer- brand relationship.
Relationships are developed for specific reasons and foster a great deal of meaning.
“Since the relationship is, in essence what the relationship means, understanding a given relationship requires a mastery of the meanings the relationship provides to the person who engages it” (Fournier, 1998, p.346). Fournier discusses the psychological as a major source of meaning.
Psychologically, relationships may help resolve life themes involving profound changes or small daily occurrences (Csikszentmihalyi and Beattie, 1979). These profound themes are rooted in personal history and thus, central to one’s concept of self.
They are role-changing events, such as graduation or retirement. Relationships are also rooted in the present concerns of completing daily tasks (Klinger, 1987). These relationships have little effect on one’s self-concept. To put this explanation of psychological meaning into context, a relationship between a parent and PBS KIDS may be meaningful in terms of current concerns. In other words, parents use the network as a sort of baby-sitter to keep the children entertained while they complete important work.
Fournier (1998) notes that relationships may add significant meaning to the lives of people that engage in them.
The last two core assumptions of relationship theory are multiplicity and temporality. Relationships are so intricate and multifaceted that it is important to distinguish them using certain criteria. For example, relationships can be categorized by the nature of the benefits they bestow upon each participant. These benefits may be 19
psychological (reassurance of self worth, announcement of image, social integration) or
they may be rewards of security, guidance, comfort, etc. (Fournier, 1998). Relationships
are also categorized by the types of bonds formed between the participants. These bonds
may be obligatory ones lacking in significant emotional involvement. Or, they may be
emotionally based, ranging in intensity from casual friendships to passionate love affairs
(Fehr & Russell, 1991).
Temporality is a necessary assumption made to differentiate a relationship from an
isolated encounter. Relationships are a series of exchanges occurring within an evolving
environment. The process of relationship development is compartmentalized into five
phases; initiation, growth, maintenance, deterioration and dissolution (Levinger, 1983).
Each stage determines a change in nature (progression from friends to lovers) or level of
intensity (increase or decrease in the amount of emotional involvement) of the
relationship. These stages get at the heart of what relationship theory is all about and
how it can be used to study the effects of a problem, such as creeping commercialism.
The above review of relationship theory illustrates how “the projects, concerns and
themes that people use to define themselves can be played out in the cultivation of brand
relationships and how those relationships, in turn, can affect the cultivation of one’s self concept” (Fournier, 1998). It is equally important to understand not only how people are
affected by the relationships they form, but what qualities and situations make those
relationships strong in the first place.
According to the article “When Good Brands Do Bad” by Jennifer Aaker, Susan
Fournier and Adam Brasel (2004), two factors influence the direction and stability of relational bonds. The first factor is called personality effects on relationships. Research
has shown that relationships are influenced by the personalities of the partners involved.
Different characteristics such as status, vitality, openness, etc., are all observed and noted 20 during relational interactions. Each person takes these personality traits into account and constructs a mental image of the partner’s role in the relationship (Aaker et al., 2004).
The above mentioned article identifies two templates of brand personalities; sincere and exciting.
Sincere personalities are very popular with classic brand products such as Hallmark and Coca Cola. This strategy is either used by small companies to gain the warmer more caring competitive advantage or by large companies to appear more accessible and down- to-earth. Research shows that sincere brands promote a nurturing, warm, family-oriented and traditional image. All of these qualities are positively associated with relationship strength. Sincerity also captures a partner’s trustworthiness and dependability, which are two important qualities for relationship growth.
A second personality type is referred to as the exciting brand image. This image is built around qualities of energy, youthfulness and innovation. Critics argue that although this tactic is attention getting, it can sometimes appear too gimmicky in the eyes of the consumer. Therefore the exciting brand image may harbor disadvantages in maintaining legitimate long-term relationships (Aaker et al., 2004).
In addition to personality effects, an act of transgression is the second factor that influences relationship stability. “Transgression refers to a violation of the implicit or explicit rules guiding relationship performance and evaluation” (Metts, 1994). It is argued that the way problems are resolved within a relationship reveals the strength of that bond more than all the positive attributes put together. In other words, the true status of a relationship is made evident under adverse conditions. “Transgressions provide opportunities for learning about the qualities of the relationship partner, which guides subsequent development paths. Accordingly, although transgressions will vary in their severity and cause and differ in their ultimate negotiations, all are significant in their 21 ability to affect relationship progress” (Aaker et al., 2004). Research has shown that once transgressions start affecting consumer perception of brand image, it is extremely difficult to slow the relationship decline. Despite recovery efforts that may appear successful in the short run, this deterioration will continue to occur (Maxham &
Netemeyer, 2002).
More optimistic researchers believe negative transgressions can be rectified. “Of particular note is the relationship context in which transgression is committed, such that relationship-serving biases dilute the negative effects of transgressions in strong unions and past positives cancel them in the long-standing relations” (Aaker et al., 2004, p.3).
Partners possessing positive personality traits may also successfully counteract the effects of transgressions.
At this point, clear indicators are needed to determine overall relationship quality, depth and strength. A conceptual model of relationship quality developed from research in the interpersonal field can serve as an excellent starting point for establishing a coherent framework. The following flowchart taken from Fournier’s (1998) research on relationship theory illustrates the above-mentioned framework. 22
Brand Partner Quality
Satisfaction Self-Connection Commitment Intimacy Partner Quality
Relationship Strength/Stability Figure 1. Conceptual Model of Relationship Strength
Conceptual Definitions: (Fournier, 1998 and Aaker et al., 2004)
Satisfaction- Happiness in the relationship; does the brand perform as well as expected?
Self-Connection- The degree to which the brand delivers on important identity concerns, tasks or themes, expressing a significant aspect of self.
Commitment- An enduring desire to continue the relationship combined with a to make efforts toward that end.
Intimacy- The presence of an elaborate knowledge structure around the brand image.
Partner Quality- The perceived status of the role of the partner coming from the consumer’s judgment of the brand’s overall dependability, reliability and predictability in executing its role in the partnership and the brands adherence to the rules governing the relationship.
Figure 1 and the following conceptual definitions provide a foundation for future research to be built upon. Different aspects of the relationship between PBS and the public have been alluded to in the analysis of relationship theory. Upon initial investigation, it seems PBS is more than just another network. In comparison to commercial networks, PBS can boast a certain amount of sincerity and integrity. It is trusted by the community and therefore attains high levels of brand partner quality.
Earlier this year, Angela Paradise, a doctoral student at the University of
Massachusetts, conducted a focus group study among parents of PBS viewers. From her 23
interviews, Paradise detected four highly interrelated themes pertaining to the
commercialization of PBS KIDS: (1) the presence of corporate underwriting; (2) the branding, licensing, and merchandising of PBS KIDS; (3) the blurring of PBS KIDS with network and cable television; and (4) the positioning of the young child as a consumer
(Paradise, 2004). Since these issues have already been assessed in a qualitative manner,
it is only natural that future research would involve a quantitative study to determine
whether there is a relationship between parent’s perceived awareness of commercialism
and the strength of their relationship with PBS. Therefore, in order to better understand
this issue, a relationship study using the above mentioned conceptual model must be
conducted.
Research Questions
RQ1: Are parents aware of the increased commercialism on PBS KIDS?
RQ2: How does perceived commercialism affect the strength of the relationship between parents and PBS?
Hypothesis
H: If parents perceive commercialism before and after children’s programming on PBS to have increased, then their relationship with PBS across the five factors (commitment, satisfaction, intimacy, partner quality and self-connection) will weaken.
HO: The relationship between parents and PBS will be neither positively nor negatively affected by perception of commercialism. CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
In order to answer the research questions proposed in the literature review a quantitative study examining the relationship between two variables was conducted. One criterion needed to determine the existence of a relationship is a correlation between those two variables. In this case, the independent variable is perceived commercialism, while the dependent variable is strength of the relationship between parents of child viewers and PBS. Perceived commercialism refers to a parent’s awareness of the commercial atmosphere surrounding PBS KIDS (i.e. length, number and production value of underwriter acknowledgments and presence of PBS characters linked to products in the corporate world). Strength of the viewer-brand relationship refers to how much parents adhere to the conceptual definitions of the relationship strength indicators defined in the above section.
The proposed method for this study is survey research. A questionnaire using two different scales to measure the independent and the dependent variable was developed and distributed to all members of the sample. The questionnaire was designed and pre- tested using proper structure and wording in order to control for response error. After modifications from the pre-test were applied, a cover letter explaining the nature of the study was attached to the survey and distributed to the sample.
24 25
Sample
The target population for this study is parents of children between the ages of 2 and
8 who watch children’s programming on PBS. The best way to target people who adhere
to these specific requirements is to use both nursery and elementary schools as a sample
source. After contacting schools in the Gainesville area, directors from Early Years
Learning Center, My School Child Care Center and O2B KIDS! agreed to distribute the surveys to the teachers of their 2-5 year old classes. The surveys were sent home with
the children and then returned to the directors by the parents. Due to funding and transportation constraints these schools were chosen using a convenience method of
sampling and therefore results can not be generalized to the greater population.
Surveys were also distributed using a mailing list. After applying for research approval, Mel Lucas, Director of Research and Testing at the Alachua County School
Board, released a mailing list of 100 randomly sampled parents with children between the ages of 5-8 attending a variety of schools in Alachua County. Overall, surveys were given to the parents of approximately 500 children. After a three week distribution and collection period, 54 parents responded to the survey giving this study a 10.8% response rate.
Measurement
Two separate scales were used in this study to measure the independent and dependent variables. Throughout the initial research process a useful scale for measuring the independent variable (perceived commercialism) could not be found. Therefore, a new scale to measure this variable was developed. Respondents were asked four questions dealing with whether or not they think commercialism surrounding PBS has increased, stayed the same or decreased. These three options were spread over a five-
point scale. The four questions covered number, length and production value of 26
corporate sponsored messages and connection between PBS characters and products in the commercial world (i.e. grocery and toy stores).
After the scale was constructed, it was pre-tested in a pilot study using a convenience sample of 15 parents recruited from the Baby Gator Child Care Center on
the UF campus. Research participants made a few suggestions on how to reword
questions for clarity. Overall, pre-test results proved the survey questions were internally consistent.
The second instrument, developed by Aaker, Fournier and Brasel (2004), is an established measurement and has proven its reliability in previous research. The actual scale used in this research was adapted in order to better measure the dependent variable
(see Appendix A). Similar to the scale of Aaker et al., the scale used in this study incorporates the five relationship strength indicators, commitment, self-connection, brand partner quality, satisfaction and intimacy. However, in this case, relationship strength was measured using only 16 items of the originally 25-item scale. Certain questions from the original scale had to be deleted because they did not make sense when asked in reference to children’s public television programming. This instrument used a 7-point
scale with a 9 option as unable to rate.
In previous research, the reliability of this scale was established using test-retest
method and the Cronbach alpha of all five indicators was calculated as higher than .85.
The internal reliability of this scale can be easily assessed by looking at the responses
across the 7-point scale and making sure they are consistent. One limitation of this
method is that the scale has been adapted and therefore, previously researched statistics
are less likely to apply to the new scale the same way they did to the original. 27
Analysis
Survey questions 6 through 21 were asked in order to determine the respondent’s strength of relationship with PBS. According to Aaker, Fournier and Brasel’s (2004)
previous research, the questions are broken down into five factors of relationship
strength: commitment, self-connection, satisfaction, intimacy, and partner quality. In
order to determine the validity of these relationship strength indicators a factor analysis
was performed to see which items attracted high and distinct loadings on which relational
factors. These factors were then grouped into indices and their raw scores were
calculated.
A bivariate correlation analysis was performed to determine the relationship
between the factors and each question of the instrument that measured the independent
variable (perceived commercialism). The Pearson correlation coefficient determined
whether or not the two variables were related. Descriptive statistics on the demographic
data were performed to get a better understanding of the sample. Analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was also run to see if there was any connection between perceived
commercialism and the relationship strength factors.
Limitations
Limitations of this study are apparent in the sample of participants. Not only is
the sample small, 54 respondents, but it is very homogenous and almost entirely
composed of white, middle to upper class women. The small sample size is due in large
part to the fact that surveys inherently produce a low response rate. Also, since the
survey questions targeted child caretakers, the over sampling of female respondents was
not surprising. Another limitation may have been the design of the two instruments used
to measure the independent and dependent variables. More sensitive scales may have
produced significant data. CHAPTER 4 RESULTS
Description of Sample
The demographic data at the end of the survey are summarized in the following four bar graphs (Figures 2-5). These graphs illustrate the sample’s predominance of white females between the ages of 35 and 44. The sample’s most diverse demographic was income which had a fairly even distribution of respondents across the monetary ranges.
Figure 2. Ethnic Frequency Figure 3. Gender Frequency
28 29
Figure 4. Income Frequency Figure 5. Age Frequency
Results That Test the Hypothesis
In order to test for internal reliability of both instruments used in this study, a factor analysis was performed. Even though the reliability of the relationship scale was
established in previous research, it is still necessary to run a factor analysis because this study used an adaptation of the original instrument. By running this analysis it became clear which relationship strength questions could be grouped together to form more reliable dependent variables.
Table 1 shows survey questions measuring relationship strength can be separated into three factors. Loadings were determined to be high and distinct if they were greater than .8 and at least twice as big as any other loading for the corresponding question. For example, question 10 had a high loading on factor one and it was also distinct because
.854 is twice as big as both .352 and .127. After analyzing all these numbers it was clear
that factor one is composed of questions 10, 12, 13, 16 and 18. Factor two is composed
of questions 15 and 17. The third and final factor had only one high and distinct loading
on question 9. Normally this would not be sufficient enough to warrant an entire factor, 30 however, due to the exploratory nature of this research all possibilities were considered and analyzed.
Originally the survey questions were grouped into five categories, self-connection, partner quality, intimacy, satisfaction and commitment. After looking at the factor analysis results these five categories were collapsed into three. The majority of the questions in factor one measured intimacy. Intimacy as defined by Susan Fournier
(1998) involves the presence of an elaborate knowledge structure surrounding the brand image. The questions in factor two measured partner quality. This relationship strength indicator involves the consumer’s judgment of the brand’s overall dependability, reliability and predictability in executing its role and adhering to the rules of the relationship. The one question in factor three measured commitment or the enduring desire to continue one’s relationship with a brand.
Table 1. Factor analysis of the instrument used to measure relationship strength
Component
123
Q6: I am very loyal to children’s programming on .715 .370 .389 PBS Q7: I would continue to allow my child to watch .457 .601 -.344 children’s programming on PBS even if it let me down once or twice: Q8: Children’s programming on PBS is helping my .175 .711 .303 child better than I expected 31
Table 1. Continued Component
123
Q9: I am so happy with children’s programming on .135 .126 .861 PBS I no longer look to other networks as alternatives for my child’s television viewing Q10: I am likely to have my child watch children’s .854 .352 .127 programming on PBS one year from now Q11: Overall, I am satisfied with children’s .698 .560 .293 programming on PBS Q12: PBS programming fits well with my current .826 .324 .289 stage of life Q13: I am familiar with the range of children’s .904 .155 -.089 programs and services PBS has to offer Q14: PBS programming makes a statement about .293 .641 .369 what’s important to me in life Q15: I can always count on PBS to do what’s best .218 .910 .080 Q16: I’d feel comfortable describing children’s .814 .417 .165 programming on PBS to someone who was not familiar with it Q17: PBS programming lets me be a part of a .262 .821 .137 community of like-minded viewers Q18: I have become very knowledgeable about .815 .166 .184 children’s programming on PBS Q19: PBS really understands my needs in regards to .471 .597 .475 children’s programming Q20: I know I can hold PBS accountable for its .306 .686 .048 actions Q21: Given my impression of PBS, letting me down .286 .508 .477 would surprise me New Variables = Intimacy Partner Commit- Quality ment
Table 2 is a factor analysis of the independent variable (perceived commercialism).
These four questions are highly related; therefore, it is no surprise that they only load on 32 to one factor. It is apparent from the table that these loadings are high, however, they can not be considered distinct because only one component exists.
Table 2. Factor analysis of the instrument used to measure level commercial perception
Component 1 Q22: Do you think the number of corporate sponsors mentioned .816 before and after children’s programming on PBS has decreased, slightly decreased, stayed the same, slightly increased or increased?
Q23: Do you think the connection between characters on PBS .748 programs (i.e. Clifford, Arthur, etc) and commercial products (i.e. toys, food, etc) has decreased, slightly decreased, stayed the same, slightly increased or increased? Q24: Do you think the length of corporate sponsor messages before .868 and after children’s programming on PBS has decreased, slightly decreased, stayed the same, slightly increased or increased? Q25: Do you think the production value (i.e. mascots, logos, .914 animation) of corporate messages before and after children’s programming on PBS has decreased, slightly decreased, stayed the same, slightly increased or increased?
Since this is a correlational study, the main finding that will lend support to the hypothesis is a correlation between the three relationship strength indicators (determined by the factor analysis in Table 1) and the four questions measuring the level of perceived commercialism among parents. Tables 3-5 correlate intimacy, partner quality and commitment with each of the perceived commercialism questions. The pearson correlation coefficients and their significance are shown in boldface. None of the 12 cases shows any significant relationship between the two variables; therefore the data do not support the hypothesis. The pearson correlation coefficient in every case is too low and the significance value is too high for their to be any correlation between parents’ perception of commercialism on PBS and their relationship with the network. 33
Table 3. Correlation analysis between perceived commercialism and intimacy Intimacy Q22: Do you think the number of Pearson Corr. -.057 corporate sponsors mentioned before and after children’s Sig. (2-tailed) .695 programming on PBS has increased...stayed the same...or N50 decreased? Intimacy Q23: Do you think the connection Pearson Corr. -.081 between characters on PBS programs (i.e. Clifford, Arthur, etc) Sig. (2-tailed) .570 and commercial products (i.e. toys, food, etc) has increased….stayed N 51 the same….decreased Intimacy
Q24: Do you think the length of Pearson Corr. -.272 corporate sponsor messages before and after children’s programming Sig. (2-tailed) .053 on PBS has increased….stayed the N51 same….or decreased? Intimacy Q25: Do you think the production Pearson Corr. -.127 value (i.e. mascots, logos, animation) of corporate messages Sig. (2-tailed) .375 before and after children’s programming on PBS has increased….stayed the same….or N51 decreased? 34
Table 4. Correlation analysis between perceived commercialism and partner quality Partner Quality Q22: Do you think the number of Pearson Corr. -.051 corporate sponsors mentioned before and after children’s Sig. (2-tailed) .723 programming on PBS has increased….stayed the same….or decreased? N 50
Partner Quality Q23: Do you think the connection Pearson Corr. .032 between characters on PBS programs (i.e. Clifford, Arthur, etc) Sig (2-tailed) .822 and commercial products (i.e. toys, food, etc) has increased….stayed the same….or decreased? N51
Partner Quality Q24: Do you think the length of Pearson Corr. -.146 corporate sponsor messages before and after children’s programming Sig. (2-tailed) .305 on PBS has increased….stayed the same….or decreased? N51
Partner Quality Q25: Do you think the production Pearson Corr. .110 value (i.e. mascots, logos, animation) of corporate messages before and after children’s programming on PBS has Sig. (2-tailed) .440 increased….stayed the same….or decreased? N51 35
Table 5. Correlation analysis between perceived commercialism and commitment Commitment Q22: Do you think the number of Pearson Corr. .114 corporate sponsors mentioned before and after children’s Sig. (2-tailed) .442 programming on PBS has increased….stayed the same….or N 48 decreased? Commitment Q23: Do you think the connection Pearson Corr. .084 between characters on PBS programs (i.e. Clifford, Arthur, etc) Sig. (2-tailed) .571 and commercial products (i.e. toys, food, etc) has increased….stayed N48 the same….or decreased? Commitment Q24: Do you think the length of Pearson Corr. -.047 corporate sponsor messages before and after children’s programming Sig. (2-tailed) .753 on PBS has increased….stayed the same….or decreased? N48 Commitment Q25: Do you think the production Pearson Corr. -.053 value (i.e. mascots, logos, animation) of corporate messages before and after children’s Sig. (2-tailed) .723 programming on PBS has increased….stayed the same….or N48 decreased
Additional Analysis
Exploratory research requires a complete understanding of the data; therefore additional tests were performed to see if any interesting trends surfaced. Mean scores were calculated for all 16 survey questions measuring relationship strength. Table 6 shows these mean values along with their standard deviations in descending order. The high average scores across the 16 relationship questions suggests a relatively positive attitude toward PBS among parents. 36
Table 6. Descending mean scores of the 16 relationship strength survey questions Mean Standard Deviation Q10: I am likely to have my child watch children’s 5.52 2.005 programming on PBS one year from now Q11: Overall, I am satisfied with children’s 5.34 1.911 programming on PBS Q7: I would continue to allow my child to watch 5.29 1.684 children’s programming on PBS even if it let me down once or twice Q13: I am familiar with the range of children’s 5.15 1.954 programs and services PBS has to offer Q16: I’d feel comfortable describing children’s 5.13 1.794 programming on PBS to someone who was not familiar with it Q6: I am very loyal to children’s programming on 5.12 2.047 PBS Q12: PBS programming fits well with my current 4.98 1.892 stage of life Q21: Given my impression of PBS, letting me down 4.92 1.748 would surprise me Q18: I have become very knowledgeable about 4.56 1.500 children’s programming on PBS Q19: PBS really understands my needs in regards to 4.48 1.820 children’s programming Q15: I can always count on PBS to do what’s best 4.45 1.659 Q14: PBS programming makes a statement about 4.31 1.770 what’s important to me in life Q8: Children’s programming on PBS is helping my 4.25 1.345 child better than I expected Q17: PBS programming lets me be a part of a 4.21 1.756 community of like-minded viewers Q20: I know I can hold PBS accountable for its 4.09 1.716 actions Q9: I am so happy with children’s programming on 3.45 1.932 PBS I no longer look to other networks as alternatives for my child’s television viewing
Respondents were asked several questions concerning their viewing habits and whether or not their overall attitude toward PBS has become more positive or negative over the years. Table 7 shows that a majority of respondents answered “often”to the question “how often does your child watch children’s programming on PBS?” Table 8 37 shows a majority of parents answered “sometimes” to the question “how often do you and your child watch children’s programming on PBS together?” Table 9 shows that most people said their attitude toward PBS had “stayed the same” over the years. It is important to note that the results of this study showed no significant relationship between these three factors and relationship strength or perceived commercialism.
Table 7. Child viewing frequency Frequency Percent Never 1 1.9 Rarely 6 11.1 Sometimes 20 37.0 Often 27 50.0
Table 8. Parent viewing frequency Frequency Percent Never 2 3.7 Rarely 10 18.5 Sometimes 26 48.1 Often 16 29.6
Table 9. Frequency data of overall attitude toward PBS Frequency Percent More Negative 2 3.7 Slightly More Negative 2 3.7 Stayed the Same 20 37.0 Slightly More Positive 9 16.7 More Positive 19 35.2 38
Frequency data were also collected for the four questions measuring perceived commercialism. Tables 10-13 show that for each question pertaining to perception of commercialism the majority of respondent’s answered “increased.”
Table 10. Frequency table for question 22: Do you think the number of corporate sponsors mentioned before and after children’s programming on PBS has increased….stayed the same….or decreased?
Frequency Percent Stayed the Same 15 27.8 Slightly Increased 10 18.5 Increased 28 51.9
Table 11. Frequency table for question 23: Do you think the connection between characters on PBS programs (i.e. Clifford, Arthur, etc) and commercial products (i.e. toys, food, etc) has increased….stayed the same….or decreased?
Frequency Percent Stayed the Same 12 22.2 Slightly Increased 5 9.3 Increased 37 68.5
Table 12. Frequency table for question 24: Do you think the length of corporate sponsor messages before and after children’s programming on PBS has increased….stayed the same….or decreased?
Frequency Percent Stayed the Same 18 33.3 Slightly Increased 11 20.4 Increased 25 46.3 39
Table 13. Frequency table for question 25: Do you think the production value (i.e. mascots, logos, animation) of corporate messages before and after children’s programming on PBS has increased….stayed the same….or decreased?
Frequency Percent Stayed the Same 10 18.5 Slightly Increased 14 25.9 Increased 30 55.6
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a useful statistical tool when doing exploratory research because it allows the researcher to separate respondents into groups and compare the average scores of different variables against chosen input factors. In this type of analysis a large F value and a significance value approaching zero indicates a strong possibility that the variance in the mean scores of the two groups is due to the factor they are being compared to rather than random error.
In this study ANOVA was used to compare the means of the four questions of perceived commercialism against the three factors of relationship strength; intimacy, partner quality and commitment. The respondents were separated into two groups, those who perceived a great deal of commercialism and those that did not. Respondents in the first group answered “increased” to the perceived commercialism questions.
Respondents in the second group answered “slightly increased” or “stayed the same” to the four questions. Tables 14-17 show the results of this analysis. 40
Table 14. Analysis of variance of the three relationship strength factors and question 22: Do you think the number of corporate sponsors mentioned before and after children’s programming on PBS has increased….stayed the same….decreased
N Mean F Sig. Intimacy Perceive great deal of 29 23.24 1.372 .247 commercialism Do not perceive a great deal of 24 26.17 commercialism Partner Quality Perceive great deal of 27 7.85 .555 .460 commercialism Do not perceive a great deal of 23 8.57 commercialism Commitment Perceive great deal of 27 3.48 .014 .906 commercialism Do not perceive a great deal of 24 3.42 commercialism
Table 15. Analysis of variance of the three relationship strength factors and question 23: Do you think the connection between characters on PBS programs (i.e. Clifford, Arthur, etc) and commercial products (i.e. toys, food, etc) has increased….stayed the same….decreased
N Mean F Sig. Intimacy Perceive great deal of 37 23.35 1.075 .305 commercialism Do not perceive a great deal of 17 26.18 commercialism Partner Quality Perceive great deal of 35 7.89 .735 .395 commercialism Do not perceive a great deal of 16 8.75 commercialism Commitment Perceive a great deal of 34 3.50 .064 .801 commercialism Do not perceive a great deal of 17 3.35 commercialism 41
Table 16. Analysis of variance of the three relationship strength factors and question 24: Do you think the length of corporate sponsor messages before and after children’s programming on PBS has increased….stayed the same….decreased
N Mean F Sig. Intimacy Perceive great deal of 25 21.40 4.633 .036 commercialism Do not perceive a great deal of 29 26.69 commercialism Partner Quality Perceive great deal of 24 7.50 1.791 .187 commercialism Do not perceive a great deal of 27 8.74 commercialism Commitment Perceive great deal of 22 3.09 1.353 .250 commercialism Do not perceive a great deal of 29 3.72 commercialism
Table 17. Analysis of variance of the three relationship strength factors and question 25: Do you think the production value (i.e. mascots, logos, animation) of corporate messages before and after children’s programming on PBS has increased….stayed the same….decreased
N Mean F Sig. Intimacy Perceive great deal of 30 22.10 3.756 .058 commercialism Do not perceive a great deal of 24 26.92 commercialism Partner Quality Perceive great deal of 28 8.07 .040 .842 commercialism Do not perceive a great deal of 23 8.26 commercialism Commitment Perceive a great deal of 27 3.15 1.422 .239 commercialism Do not perceive a great deal of 24 3.79 commercialism
The above four tables show that in two out of the 12 cases F is large and the significance value is approaching zero. This suggests that respondents who thought length and production value of corporate sponsor messages on PBS had increased scored lower on the intimacy questions than those respondents who did not perceive as great an 42 increase. It is very likely that these two findings are just a coincidence considering none of the other data support the hypothesis. However, this analysis of variance does reveal a possible trend in the data. In 10 out of the 12 cases the mean value of the relationship strength factors was lower for group one (perceived a great deal of commercialism) than it was for group two (did not perceive a great deal of commercialism). CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to see if there was a relationship between perception of commercialism and strength of relationship between parents and PBS.
Therefore, the most important data to correlate was the three relationship strength factors
(intimacy, partner quality and commitment) with the four questions of perceived
commercialism. After performing the correlation it was clear that there was no
significant relationship between parents’ loyalty to PBS and their perception of
commercialism. Tables 3-5 correlated each of the three factors with each of the four
perceived commercialism questions. In all 12 cases the range of r (pearson correlation
coefficient) was between -.272 and .114. The close proximity of r to zero suggested no
correlation between the dependent and independent variables.
Since the results of the analysis did not significantly support the hypothesis
proposed in the methodology, then it can be concluded that the null hypothesis is
supported. The null hypothesis states that the relationship between parents and PBS will
be neither positively nor negatively affected by perception of commercialism. Support
for this null hypothesis was found both in the data and in relationship theory as discussed
in the literature review.
The theoretical framework section of the literature review introduced relationship
theory and how it uses the concept of interpersonal exchanges to gain a better
understanding of the relationships consumers form with the brands they use. Qualities
such as commitment and intimacy, which are important between friends, are also
43 44
important between consumers and their brands. According to relationship theory, two
factors influence the direction and stability of relational bonds. The first factor deals
with brand personality and the second factor deals with transgressional acts. With its
safe, educational, family-oriented and traditional brand image, children’s programming
on PBS definitely falls under the “sincere” brand category. In the article “When Good
Brands Do Bad” by Aaker et al. (2004), the authors refer to sincerity as the brand
personality that captures a partner’s trustworthiness and dependability, two important
qualities for relationship growth.
The article goes on to discuss the second factor of relational stability which is
transgressional acts. Relationship theory suggests that sincere brands have a distinct advantage over other brand images to counteract acts of transgression. “Of particular note is the relationship context in which transgression is committed, such that relationship-serving biases dilute the negative effects of transgressions in strong unions
and past positives cancel them in the long-standing relations” (Aaker et al., 2004, p.3). In
the case of children’s programming on PBS, relationship-serving biases would be its
award-winning, high quality, educational programming. Therefore, if perceived
commercialism were considered an act of transgression, then relationship theory suggests
these biases, combined with the brands sincere image, would dilute any negative effects
brought about by this transgressional act.
This explains why the average relationship strength scores for respondents with
extremely high perceptions of commercialism were not significantly smaller than those
respondents with less perception of commercialism. Even though the data supported the
null hypothesis and relationship theory lent reasoning to why strong brand images can
withstand seemingly negative acts of transgression, it was still beneficial to examine the
data from multiple angles. 45
The descriptive statistics run on the demographic data and the questions not related to the two instruments that measured the independent and dependent variables helped
paint a better picture of the sampled respondents. The sample was composed of
predominantly white, middle to upper class women between the ages of 35 and 44
(Figures 2-5). Looking at frequency tables 7-9 it was clear that the majority of
respondents had children who “often” watched children’s programming on PBS. Also, a
majority of respondents “sometimes” watched the PBS programming with their children
and believed their overall attitude toward PBS had “stayed the same” over the years.
The most interesting part of the “Additional Analysis” section in the results chapter
was the ANOVA results. Even though results were not significant, some trends emerged
that moved in the expected direction of the hypothesis. Tables 14-17 compare the means
of the three relationship strength factors against the scale that measured for level of
perceived commercialism. The data revealed that the average intimacy factor score for
respondents who answered “increased” on the four perceived commercialism questions
was almost always greater than for respondents who answered “slightly increased” or
“stayed the same.”
On one particular survey a parent made an interesting comment that might shed
light on why perception of commercialism may affect relationship strength with PBS.
“As a conservative I haven’t been as interested in supporting PBS and I certainly don’t
like the commercialization of all its programming. Our children have been trained to turn
off commercials (It’s a family rule!), but sponsorships may not trigger the rule because
they don’t fit as a typical commercial.” This respondent marked “increased” for all four
questions related to perceived commercialism and her average score for the 16
relationship strength questions was a 2.6 out of a possible 7. This is a very low score and
suggests a negative relationship with PBS. Looking at this survey alone it would seem 46
that the issue of commercialism is rather simple. If you are dissatisfied with the way PBS has loosened the rules surrounding corporate sponsor messages, then your relationship with PBS suffers. However, the lack of any significant correlation between perceived commercialism and the strength of the PBS/parent relationship suggests otherwise.
A second respondent wrote this comment at the end of his survey; “I think PBS has
gotten FAR more commercial than it used to be. I am not at all happy about this, but
PBS is still light years better than any other station, especially for children…and adults.”
Similar to the previously mentioned respondent, this man marked all four perceived
commercialism questions as “increased.” However; his average score for the 16
relationship strength questions was a 5.9 out of a possible 7.
Even though these two responses differ greatly, relationship theory is still supported in both. For the first respondent it seemed that PBS’ brand qualities were not enough to negate the detrimental effects of increased commercialism on noncommercial
public broadcasting. Research in relationship theory has shown that once transgressions
start affecting consumer perception of brand image, it is extremely difficult to slow the
relationship decline (Aaker et al., (2004). However, for the second respondent it seemed
his relationship with PBS was strong enough to overlook the increased number, length
and production value of underwriter acknowledgments. He knew children’s
programming on PBS was better than what he could find anywhere else and therefore let
the one downfall of increased commercialism slide as a result of his perception of other
positive brand qualitites.
The lack of any significant findings throughout the data analysis was due in large
part to the limitations of the study. The combined random and convenience sampling
methods used to collect the data dismiss this study from being generalized to any
population. Insufficient sample size and lack of diversity among participants may have 47
contributed to the limited range of responses. The frequency results of the demographic
data demonstrate a high concentration of white, middle to upper class women as the
sample base. The predominance of women is due in large part to the fact that women are
usually the child caretakers of the family. Since the majority of the surveys were handed
out to the person responsible for picking up the children from day care or nursery school,
it was not surprising that most respondents were female.
It is also possible that the two instruments used to measure the dependent and
independent variables were not sensitive enough to collect the desired information. For
example, in one respondent’s comments at the end of the survey he wrote, “I don’t know
if you will get this from your survey, but I think PBS has gotten FAR more commercial…” This type of comment suggests that the survey may not have asked the right questions in regards to how parents felt about PBS in light of increased commercialization. However, it could also mean that the data collected from the survey
supports the null hypothesis and no matter how much the people believe commercialism
on PBS has increased, they still have a strong positive view of the network because of the
quality of children’s programming and its continued distinctiveness from all other
commercial networks. CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION
If anything is to be taken away from this research, it is that parents are well aware of the transformation PBS has undergone with respect to its increased amounts of commercialization. They have noticed the changes in the number, length and production value of corporate underwriter messages. They have seen corporate tie-ins at the grocery store such as Clifford the Big Red Dog and Lipton Soup and at the toy store with the limitless selection of Tickle-Me-Elmo dolls, Barney pajamas and Arthur lunch boxes.
However, despite this awareness, parents have been relatively unaffected by it.
Therefore, the results of this study support both the null hypothesis and the basic assumptions of relationship theory.
Only four out of the 52 respondents who answered the question of whether or not their overall attitude toward PBS had become more “positive,” “slightly more positive,”
“stayed the same,” “slightly more negative” or more “negative,” placed a mark lower than “stayed the same.” This means the rest of the respondents’ answers ranged between
“stayed the same” and more “positive.” This result is not at all surprising. Historically, children’s programming on PBS has been highly praised for its involvement in child development and education. Clifford the Big Red Dog, Dragon Tales and Arthur are the top three programs among kids two to five. Barney and Caillou also rank in the top 10 which gives PBS KIDS five of the top 10 programs among preschoolers. PBS children’s programs have also won more prestigious awards than any other network (“PBS KIDS”,
2004, para 3-4). As long as parents see quality children’s programming and a distinction
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between public television and its commercial alternatives, their relationship with the network will stay in tact.
None of the results in this study may have been significant, but the trends alluded to
in the analysis of variance pose interesting questions and possibilities for future research.
Respondents belonging to the “perceived a great deal of commercialism” group scored
consistently lower across the three relationship strength factors than those respondents
belonging to the “did not perceive a great deal of commercialism” group. Conducting
future research over a long period of time (10 years) using a trend analysis technique
would be very useful in determining whether or not perceived commercialism will
actually have an effect on the strength of relationship between PBS and parents of child
viewers in the long term.
A point in time “snap shot” analysis such as this study lacks the ability to evaluate
change in attitude over time. It is possible that parents may be accepting of certain forms
of commercialism on PBS now, but a few years down the road things could be very
different. Even though the digital transition is still in its initial stages, the FCC has
already approved a plan to allow public television stations to run commercials on some of
the new channels they will obtain post digital conversion (Spivack, 2001). Today, parents
see underwriter acknowledgments whose similarities with real commercials are
increasing. Tomorrow, they may be tuned in to one of PBS’ supplementary channels on
its digital spectrum and see full blown advertisements targeting their children. How will
this new development affect the PBS/parent relationship? An in-depth trend analysis
would be able to assess this type of evolution. Future research could establish how
parents actually feel toward commercialism on PBS, not just if commercialism has
increased or not. Relationship theory could really be put to the test by tracking a strong 50 brand image (PBS) and an act of transgression (commercialism on a noncommercial network) over time.
In the book Public Broadcasting and the Public Interest, William Hoynes (2003) believes PBS is treading on thin ice with its commercialized branding effort.
As PBS becomes more integrated into the commercial media system and develops a business model that sees public television as an increasingly commercial enterprise, the foundations of the public service model are deteriorating. Indeed, the branding strategy is an attempt to turn the cultural value of the old PBS into financial value for the new PBS. This exchange is a means of transforming public service, and the trust that accompanies such public service, into a marketable commodity. In the midst of this transformation, PBS runs the very real risk that its aggressive branding strategy will undermine the trust and loyalty that makes its brand so valuable. (p.50)
The results of this study may not confirm an erosion of goodwill toward PBS due to increased commercialism, but that does not mean the future of public television is stable.
If PBS fails to reevaluate its aggressive branding strategy, then it may begin to alienate the very public it is meant to serve. Media enterprises are standing upon the threshold of a new digital era that promises infinite opportunities. How well will PBS be able to compete in this multi-media environment if they squander away the one thing that distinguishes them from the crowd? Future research, including content analysis, focus groups and surveys, may be able to answer this question. The only problem is by the time the question is answered, it may be too late to salvage public television’s original public service mission from the clutches of its newly adopted market-driven business model. APPENDIX A SURVEY
Please answer the following questions:
1. How many children do you have? ____
2. Please list the age(s) of your children: ______
3. How often do your children watch children’s programming on PBS? Often Sometimes Rarely Never (4) (3) (2) (1) 4. How often do you watch children’s programming on PBS with your children? Often Sometimes Rarely Never (4) (3) (2) (1)
5. Given your experience with children’s programming on PBS as a child and a parent, has your attitude toward the network become more... ______Positive Stayed the Same Negative (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
Based on your experiences growing up with children’s programming on PBS and then watching PBS programs with your children, please rate the following: (Circle one number for each question, where 1=strongly disagree, 7=strongly agree and 9=unable to rate)
6. I am very loyal to children’s programming on PBS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
7. I would continue to allow my child to watch children’s programming on PBS even if it let me down once or twice. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
8. Children’s programming on PBS is helping my child better than I expected. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
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9. I am so happy with children’s programming on PBS I no longer look to other networks as alternatives for my child’s television viewing. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
10. I am likely to have my child watch children’s programming on PBS one year from now. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
11. Overall, I am satisfied with children’s programming on PBS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
12. PBS programming fits well with my current stage of life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
13. I am familiar with the range of children’s programs and services PBS has to offer. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
14. PBS programming makes a statement about what’s important to me in life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
15. I can always count on PBS to do what’s best. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
16. I’d feel comfortable describing children’s programming on PBS to someone who was not familiar with it. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
17. PBS programming lets me be a part of a community of like-minded viewers. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
18. I have become very knowledgeable about children’s programming on PBS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
19. PBS really understands my needs in regards to children’s programming. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
20. I know I can hold PBS accountable for its actions. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
21. Given my impression of PBS, letting me down would surprise me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 53
Place an X above the line that best corresponds to your answer.
Given your experience with children’s programming on PBS as a child and now years later as a parent,
22. Do you think the number of corporate sponsors mentioned before and after children’s programs has: ______Increased Stayed the Same Decreased (5) (4) (3) (2) (1) 23. Do you think the connection between characters on PBS programs (i.e. Clifford, Arthur etc.) and commercial products (i.e. toys, food etc.) has: ______Increased Stayed the Same Decreased (5) (4) (3) (2) (1) 24. Do you think the length of corporate sponsor messages before and after children’s programs has: ______Increased Stayed the Same Decreased (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
25. Do you think the production value (i.e. mascots, logos, animation) of corporate sponsor messages before and after children’s programs has: ______Increased Stayed the Same Decreased (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
Please fill out the following demographic information:
26. What is your gender? 1. Male 2. Female
27. Please mark your ethnic background: 1. American Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut 4. Hispanic, of any race 2. Asian or Pacific Islander 5. White, not Hispanic 3. Black, not Hispanic 6. Other ______54
28. Please mark your age range: 1. 18-24 4. 45-54 2. 25-34 5. 55-64 3. 35-44 6. 65+
29. Please mark the range that best matches your family’s current income: 1. $0-24,999 5. $100,000-124,999 2. $25,000-49,999 6. $125,000-149,999 3. $50,000-74,999 7. $150,000-174,999 4. $75,000-99,999 8. $175,000+
Thank you for filling out this survey! APPENDIX B ORIGINAL SCALE OF RELATIONSHIP STRENGTH INDICATORS
Relationship Items Strength Indicators Commitment I am very loyal to Captura I am willing to make small sacrifices in order to keep using Captura I would be willing to postpone my purchase if the Captura site was temporarily unavailable I would stick with Captura even if it let me down once or twice I am so happy with Captura that I no longer feel the need to watch out for other photography alternatives I am likely to be using Captura one year from now Intimacy I would feel comfortable sharing detailed personal info about myself with Captura Captura really understands my needs in the photographic services I’d fell comfortable describing Captura to someone who was not familiar with it I am familiar with the range of products and services Captura offers I have become very knowledgeable about Captura Satisfaction I am completely satisfied with Captura I am completely pleased with Captura Captura is turning out better than I expected Self-Connection The Captura brand connects with the part of me that really makes me tick The Captura brand fits well with my current stage of life
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Relationship Items Strength Indicators Self-Connection The Captura brand says a lot about the kind of person I would like to be Using Captura lets me be a part of a shared community of like- minded consumers The Captura brand makes a statement about what’s important to me in life Partner Quality I can always count on Captura to do what’s best If Captura makes a mistake, it will try its best to make up for it I know I can hold Captura accountable for its actions Captura is reliable Given my image of Captura, letting me down would surprise me A brand failure would be inconsistent with my expectations
Source: Aaker, J., Fournier, S., Brasel, A. (2004). When Good Brands Do Bad. Journal of Consumer Research, 31(1), 1-16. REFERENCES
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Christina Regan graduated from Boston College in 2003 and received her bachelor’s degree in mass communications. At Boston she was captain of the Women’s Track &
Field team and was pleased to be accepted onto the track team at the University of Florida upon her arrival in August 2003. After completion of her degree of master of arts in mass communication at Florida, Christina plans on moving back home to Boston where she will pursue a career in children’s public television production.
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