- i -
ISSN: 1810—2174 Balochistan
Review Volume XXXI No.2, 2014
(HEC RECOGNIZED)
Editor: Ghulam Farooq Baloch
BALOCHISTAN STUDY CENTRE UNIVERSITY OF BALOCHISTAN, QUETTA-PAKISTAN
- ii -
Published bi-annually by the Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta-Pakistan.
@ Balochistan Study Centre 2014-2
Subscription rate (per annum) in Pakistan: Institutions: Rs. 300/- Individuals: Rs. 200/-
For the other countries: Institutions: US$ 15 Individuals: US$ 12
Contact: Balochistan Review—ISSN: 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta-Pakistan. Tel: (92) (081) 9211255 Facsimile: (92) (081) 9211255 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.uob.edu.pk/journals/bsc.htm
- iii -
Editorial Board
Patron in Chief: Prof. Dr. Javeid Iqbal Vice Chancellor, University of Balochistan, Quetta-Pakistan. Patron Prof. Dr. Abdul Hameed Shahwani Director, Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta-Pakistan. Editor Ghulam Farooq Baloch Asstt Professor Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta-Pakistan. Assistant Editor Waheed Razzaq Research Officer Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta-Pakistan. Members: Prof. Dr. Andriano V. Rossi Vice Chancellor & Head Dept of Asian Studies, Institute of Oriental Studies, Naples, Italy. Prof. Dr. Saad Abudeyha Chairman, Dept. of Political Science, University of Jordon, Amman, Jordon. Prof. Dr. Bertrand Bellon Professor of Int’l, Industrial Organization & Technology Policy, University de Paris Sud, France. Dr. Carina Jahani Inst. of Iranian & African Studies, Uppsala University, Sweden. Prof. Dr. Muhammad Ashraf Khan Director, Taxila Institute of Civilization, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan. Prof. Dr. Rajwali Shah Khattak Professor, Pushto Academy, University of Peshawar, Pakistan. Mr. Ayub Baloch Member, Balochistan Public Service Commission, Quetta. Prof. Dr. Mehmood Ali Shah Professor Emeritus, University of Balochistan, Quetta.
- iv -
Guidelines/Parameters for the Contributors: Following are the Guidelines/Parameters for the scholars/researchers contributing articles to the bi-annual research journal of BSC “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW ISSN: 1810-2174”.
The article should be in a ready to print form Authors are entitled to five free off-prints and a copy of the issue in which their article is published. The articles should accompany a soft copy as well; to be sent through email preferably in MS word file format. Articles must focus on latest researches made in different fields/areas i.e. arts and crafts, architecture, archaeology, literature, language, economy, management, heritage and culture, politics, media, history etc. relevant to Balochistan. Any queries regarding the publication or acceptance of the article can be sought at the given address: Editor “Balochistan Review” Balochistan Study Center, University of Balochistan, Quetta-Pakistan [email protected]
Style
The title should appear at the middle position of the first page The brief title (5 to 7 words) with author’s name also appearing in the top-left header position in the rest of the pages (running head). All authors’ full name and affiliations should also be explicit on the first page with the corresponding author’s postal and email addresses. The article should comprise an abstract, introduction (including review literature and rationale), results, discussion (including limitations and suggestions), and the references. The abstract should be of about 150-170 words. The article should be of maximum 4000 words in New Times Roman, font 12 with 1 line Spacing. Main heading should be bold with italic subheadings. Tables and figures should be in a separate file, in a ready to print form with sources given below the tables. All statistical symbols present in the article should be italic. References should be in author/date style throughout the text in the APA format.
- v -
BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. XXXI NO. 2, 2014
CONTENT Page No.
ECONOMICS
Women’s Attitude toward Available Health Facilities. A Case 01 Study of District Pishin in Contrast to District Mastung Dr. Jahangir Achakzai
Impact of Inflatioin and GDP Growth on Unemployment 13 Rate in Economy of Pakistan Erum Khushnood, Shahida Habib Alizai, Abdullah Dostain & Zahid H Channa
Perception of the respondents regarding imperative 23 HRD activities in Balochistan, Pakistan Noor Ahmed, Ahmed Ali Mengal & Bijar Khan
Rural Support Programmes as Agent of Change 33 in Pakistan: A Case Study of Punjab and Sindh Ambreen Zeb Khashkelly, Rafiq Ahmed Chandio & Kehar Khan Khoso
EDUCATION
Negative Implications of Multigrade Teaching in 49 District Jaffarabad Balochistan Prof. Dr. Javed Ahmad Saddique, Muhammad Akram & Munir Ahmad Jamaldini
HISTORY
Balishtan or Balochistan, Ancient name and history 59 Ghulam Farooq, Parvez Ahmed, Yousaf Ali Rodeni & Saeeda Mengal The British Forward Policy in Balochistan 71 Shazia Jaffar
- vi -
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS United States’s Withdrawal from Afghanistan; Its Impacts 79 On Pakistan and Balochistan Mirwais Kasi, Dr. Abdul Manan Bazai, Dr. Kaleemullah Barech & Tajuddin Kakar The Geo-Strategic Location of Balochistan Could Yield Economic 85 Dividends for Pakistan Abdul Qadir & Dr. Abdul Manan LANGUAGE & LITERATURE An acoustic analysis of speech of London-based 91 Baloch Lerners of English Nasir Abbas Syed & Dr. Gul Hasan Baloch The trend of Urdu novel in Balochistan 105 Dr. Khalid Mahmood Khattak & Ms. Humera Saddozai Dialectal Variation of Brahui Language in Balochistan 113 Dr. Liaqat Ali Sani, Dr. Bilal Ahmed & Waheed Razzaq PHILOSOPHY Islamic Modernity, its significance in current scenario 121 Dr. Malik Mohammad Tariq
SOCIAL SCIENCES University female students personal experiences, perspective of 133 Sexual harassment (A case study of University of Balochistan) Shah Khalid Baloch & Abdul Wahid Khetran Analysis of Taliban’s Emergence in the Pashtoon Territory 145 Para Din Socio-economic characteristics of agro pastoralist communities in 153 The Upland Balochistan, Pakistan: Implications for policy action Dr. Said Qasim, Alam Tareen & Mohammad Qasim Progress towards Eradicating Extreme Poverty and Hunger, 163 A Case Study of Quetta District Dr. Jan Mohammad & Abdul Rasheed Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan: Islamic Non-Violent Leader 169 Dr. Abdul Qadir Khan & Dr. Zahid Ali
- 1 -
BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. XXXI NO. 2, 2014
Women’s Attitude toward Available Health Facilities A Case Study of District Pishin in Contrast to District Mastung
Economics Dr. Jahangir Achakzai Associate Professor Economics Department University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan Email:[email protected]
Abstract In the rural areas of Balochistan, although there exist a wide gender gap in all sphere of life, higher difference can be seen in health sector. The ill health, high maternal mortality rate, low life expectancy and premature deaths are the main indicators reflecting the poor status of women’s health. The main thrust of this study was to review the attitude of women to available health services. In addition, the study attempted to explore the socio-cultural sanctions, taboos, myths and misconceptions restricting their ability to reach health facilities. Finally the area of interventions identified both by women and health authorities was forward in the form of recommendations. The majority of women expressed their dissatisfaction over the available Government Health services. What is required is to build trust of women on Government Health facilities. In this regard improvement of health services through expended access, better quality and increased utilization can serve the purpose.
Key words: Balochistan, Health Facilities, Women.
Introduction The effective involvement of women in development process is highly emphasized. There is a growing realization that sustainable development cannot take place without the active role of women. This is also evident from the positive gender policy response of both government and donor agencies. New institutional arrangements are being made to streamline the status of women in society. In such changing perspective of development, the women promotion has become an important area of research in Pakistan. In recent years more attention has been given to generate women related information.
- 2 -
The pace of women development is however, very slow in Balochistan. The socio-economic profile of women is at its lowest ebb. Their involvement in the socio-economic activities is almost negligible especially in the rural areas. Though Balochistan has a wide gender gap in all sphere of life, higher difference can be seen in health sector. The ill-health, high maternal mortality rate, low life expectancy and premature deaths are the main proxy indicators reflecting the poor status of women’s health. The maternal mortality rate in Balochistan (600 per 100000 live births) is higher than that of national figure. Similarly life expectancy at birth (54 years) is very low as compared to other parameters of health. These differences are mainly due to their low social status, disproportionate poverty, low literacy rate and poor access to health facilities. Moreover, gender biased attitude and stereo type thinking cannot be ignored especially in the context of Balochistan where tribal values are still deep rooted. The irony of the situation is that women who are more vulnerable to diseases have comparatively less access to health services. Poor access of women to health services in rural areas of Balochistan is mainly because of inefficient health care system and their inability to avail the existing health services. To deal with this situation, views of both “providers” and “users” have to be taken into account. In this regard, the women’s studies center of Balochistan University conduct studies on various aspects of gender development such as their roles, needs, activities, access to social services and control over economic resources. This study “Access of rural women to health services in Balochistan” is part of the overall program. Objectives of the Study The main thrust of this study was to review the attitude of women to available health services. In addition, the study attempted to explore the socio-cultural sanctions, taboos, myths and misconceptions restricting their ability to reach health facilities. Finally the area of interventions identified both by women and health authorities was forward in the form of recommendations. Key Indicators The following key indicators have been developed in order to assess the situation. a) Available health Facilities. b) Capacity of women to utilize the existing health services. c) Choice for different modes of treatment.
- 3 -
d) Level of satisfaction with available health facilities. e) Communication barriers. Significance and Scope The study corresponds to relatively an unexplored area in Balochistan, because no worthwhile research work exists in this regard. The present study will be an addition in the sphere of women studies. It explores an important issue which is directly related to the health of women. The findings may be utilized by Health and Population Welfare Departments as well as by other agencies in chalking out certain policies and Planning in the said areas. Available Health Facilities By and large women’s access to health services depends upon the availability of health facilities and its distance. The areas where health facilities are adequately available, the access of women is better. In both the sample areas, available health facilities are inadequate, irrelevant, poor in quality and long distanced. As far as health facilities in the sample areas of Mastung are concerned, there are two health institutions (Dispensary and Basic health unit) located at Pringabad cluster. While other two clusters Kungar and Shanawaz do not have any health unit. However, a dispensary was built in Kungar but it could not start its functions due to dispute between Government and Community members. When discussed the matter with the community members, it came out that Government is not acting upon its promise of employing people from community in the said dispensary. Whereas in the sample area of Pishin, out of three clusters only one cluster Bostan has Government Health facilities. There is one hospital in Bostan city and One RHC (Rural Health Centre) at Umer Abad.
Distance of Health Facilities In the sample area of Mastung, health facilities are located at different distances* ranging from 2 to 25 km. It was observed that the longer the distance, the poorer is the access of women to health facilities. Women’s health condition was very bad in Shanawaz cluster being located at the distance of 25 km from health facilities. On the other hand women living in Pringabad cluster were found with better access as health facilities are located at the distance of 2 km. In Bostan cluster of Pishin sample area health facilities are located at the distance of one to four k.m. In Toora Shah the nearest health facility (BHU),
* Distance refers to the nearest available health facility
- 4 - is located at a distance of 2 km in Mulk Yar. The third cluster Haiderzai has no nearest health facilities. Generally people from the cluster go to Government Hospital Pishin for their treatment which is located at the distance of about 10 km. Moreover in case of serious illness patients are taken to Quetta. Capacity to Utilize Health Facilities Regarding utilization of available health facilities, more than 77% respondents were found not using government health facilities in the sample area of Mastung. 23% respondents said that they are utilizing the existing health services only to the extent of “Check-ups” and “small quantity of medicines”. In this regard Kungar and Shahnawaz clusters depict very depressing picture where none of the respondents used any Government Health facilities, as in these two areas no health facility exists. On the other hand vast majority (96.6%) of the respondents do not utilize any Government health facility in the study area of Pishin. Reasons for not using available health facilities include long distance, sub-standard medicines, ignorance about health facility, non-availability of health facilities, social sanctions and higher cost involved in reaching health services. In the sample area of Mastung, more than 42% of respondents held “long distance” responsible for not benefiting from the health facilities. While 29.4% expressed their dissatisfaction over the poor quality of health services.
FIG 1 REASONS FOR NOT USING HEALTH FACILITIES
PERCENTAGE 80
60
40
20
0 Mastung Pishin
Long Distance Poor Quality SAMPLE AREAS Higher Cost Social Sanctions Ignorance
Besides, more than 21% of the respondents said that they could not use health facilities due to higher cost involved in reaching them. More than 4%
- 5 - respondents did not avail health facilities for the reason of ignorance. Apart from the above reasons, social sanctions* emerged as another factor inhibiting women from using government health facilities. They account for 2.9%. Contrary to this in Pishin sample area, 58% respondents were not using health facilities due to sub standard medicines. Long distance is another reason mentioned by 26% of the respondents. Social sanctions came out as an important reason restricting 11% of respondents from availing health facilities. Moreover non affordability of cost was held responsible by 5% of the respondents. One thing is common in both the sample areas that women either with some level of education or involved in economic activities have better access to health services. The above scenario reveals that not only the existing health facilities are inadequate, but also the capacity of women to utilize them is very limited. These two barriers are mainly responsible for the poor access of women to available health facilities in both the surveyed areas. The above findings further indicate that distance of health facilities is an important determinant of access. Women’s access is relatively better in the areas where health facilities are located at short distances. While in the remote areas where the health facilities are not existent their access is very poor. The majority of respondents pin pointed long distance and sub-standard medicines as the main reasons for not utilizing the available health facilities. However, social sanctions are the second dominant reason in the sample area of Pishin. Due to peculiar cultural pattern, women are not allowed to visit health institutions without accompanying male members of the family. While in Mastung, social sanctions are not so severe that could limit women’s access to health facilities. Similarly another common reason is the non-affordability of cost in reaching the health facilities in both the sample areas. Women’s Attitude towards Different Modes of Treatment Women’s attitude towards availing health facilities is an important indicator with respect to their access to the health services. In this regard mode of treatment, use of prescribed medicine and practicing prevention† (Parhez) are the important elements to be taken into account.
* Social sanctions refer to those socio-cultural constraints that inhibit women’s participation in the development process. These barriers exist in the tribal society in the form of customs, beliefs and attitude that confine women mostly to the domestic sphere. Family planning, going to doctors without male partners are still considered social taboos in sample areas. † Prevention means avoidance of certain food items.
- 6 -
Mode of Treatment Mode of treatment includes traditional (herbal medicinal plants), spiritual (Taweez and Dam) and modern methods. In both the sample areas, people avail both traditional and modern health facilities. In Mastung more than 53%, of the respondents consulted private doctors for their treatment. Government Hospitals are the second preference of respondents accounting for 22.2%. Spiritual way of treatment was adopted by 2.6% respondents. Hakeem, Homeopaths and medical stores are the other sources consulted by about 2% of the respondents. Like Mastung, the major mode of treatment in Pishin is private doctor. More than 62% respondents prefer to consult private doctors. FIG 2 MODE OF TREATMENT
PERCENTAGE 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Mastung Pishin
SAMPLE AREAS Private Doctor Govt.Hospital Spritual Treatment Homeopathic Others
However, in the sample area of Pishin, the spiritual mode of treatment is the second major source adopted by 16% respondents. Homeopathic treatment is used by 8.6% respondents. Moreover Government Hospitals are another channel utilized by 7.3% respondents. Leaving aside the above sources, a thin proportion (2.6% each) of respondents were using health centers and medical stores for their treatment. Use of Prescribed Medicine As far as use of prescribed medicine is concerned, more than 84% of women complied with doctor’s prescription in Mastung. While respondents who did not use prescribed medicine constitute about 16%.
- 7 -
FIG 3 USE OF PRECRIBED MEDICINE
PERCENTAGE 10 5
10 0
95
90
85
80
75 Mustung Pishin SAMPLE AREAS
Use Don't Use
Whereas in Pishin 88% women used prescribed medicine while those not using account for only 12%. In this regard, several reasons were pin pointed by respondents from both sample areas. They include (a) Expensive medicines, (b) Non availability of medicines, (c) Recovered from disease, (d) Ineffective medicines (e) Side effects. In the study area of Mastung out of those respondents who did not use prescribed medicine a significant number (68.2%) stated expensive medicine as a major reason. FIG 4 REASONS FOR NOT USING PRESCRIBED MEDICINES
Mastung Pishin
Expensive Medicines Non Availability of Medicine Recovery from Desease Ineffective Medicine Side Effect
- 8 -
The second major reason came out as non-availability of medicines accounting for 13.6%. The third reason pointed out by 9.1% respondents is recovery from disease. Among other factors, side effects and ineffectiveness of medicines were the factors inhibiting women from using prescribed medicine. They constitute 4.6% each. On the other hand, a considerable number (83.3%) of respondents stated higher prices of medicines as a reason for not using prescribed medicine in the sample area of Pishin. Non availability of medicines account for 11.1%. Ineffective medicine is another reason mentioned by 5.6% respondents. Prevention Practices As regards prevention the big majority (92.2%) of respondents acted upon. While those who did not practice prevention is 7.2% in the sample area of Mastung.
FIG 5 PREVENCIAN PRACTICES
PERCENTAGE 12 0
10 0
80
60
40
20
0 Mastung PishinSAMPLE AREAS
Prevention Practiced Prevention Not Practiced
However, in sample area of Pishin, 100% respondents followed prevention as advised by doctors. Interpreting the above situation regarding women’s attitude towards availing different means of treatment, the majority of respondents are inclined towards private doctors in both the study areas. This trend is attributable to several factors like poor Government Health facilities, shortage of female staff, psychological satisfaction from private treatment, absentee doctors and paramedical staff. Apart from above factors, non availability of specialists in rural areas encourage people to consult private doctors. In addition, majority of women have faith in spiritual way of treatment for certain diseases such as paralysis, infertility, psychological problems, insomnia, hysteria, epilepsy,
- 9 - evil eye and bad soul.* In this regard, they visit shrines, “Pirs” and “Mullhas”. The percentage of women adopting this mode of treatment is higher in Pishin than that of Mastung. Simply because women in Pishin seem to be more credulous and superstitious as compared to Mastung. Moreover non availability of medicines and its expansiveness indirectly encourage women to adopt spiritual ways of treatment in both the sample areas. Conclusions and Recommendations In formulating recommendations, we have considered not only the findings and conclusions of this study but also the views of key informants like health authorities and community notables. These recommendations are workable and can be implemented provided concerted and sincere efforts are made by the concerned parties. In fact these recommendations seek changes at policy, institutional and grass root levels. If policies are framed in the light of these suggestions, it will bridge the gap between providers and users of health facilities. Hopefully, decision makers will use them for improving the access of women to health facilities. The recommendations are as under:
1. The majority of women expressed their dissatisfaction over the available Government Health services. What is required is to build trust of women on Government Health facilities. In this regard improvement of health services through expended access, better quality and increased utilization can serve the purpose.
2. More information should be generated through conducting micro level surveys and its findings be widely disseminated in local languages.
3. Awareness among rural women about health problems is very poor. Through regular campaign, their awareness can be enhanced. In this connection mass media, NGOs and regular visits of mobile teams can play a significant role.
4. The role of community in the delivery of health services cannot be neglected. Their effective participation can ensure sustainability in the provision of health facilities. During the survey, we found that community was quite positive towards this end. What is needed is to motivate and organize them around the principals of self help and participatory approach.
* Evil eye & bad souls are the phobias & fears commonly found in women for which they consult spiritual healers, peers & Mullahs.
- 10 -
5. Social restrictions against women are very severe. Their mobility is therefore, limited. In such a situation their access can be improved by providing health facilities at the nearest.
6. Acute shortage of lady doctors and other female staff came out an important problem effecting women’s access. The need arises to sanction more posts in favour of lady doctors and female staff. Furthermore financial incentives and other facilities should be raised in order to attract them to work in rural areas.
7. Absenteeism of doctors especially lady medical officers was reported from some respondents. Their attendance has to be ensured for better access of women to health facilities.
8. Available local skills and knowledge about health should be developed for optimal utilization of health facilities.
9. Communication barriers undermine women’s access to health services. Doctors and other paramedical staff should be trained in communication skills. In this regard, familiarity with local dialect can bridge the gap to a greater extent.
10. Due to cultural stigmas, women are normally reluctant to join health profession. Most of them do not like to work with male practitioners and in far flung areas. It is therefore, proposed that female doctors and other staff be posted at the nearest centers of their home districts.
11. It was observed that people highly appreciate the appointment of Lady health workers (LHWs) in the villages under Prime Minister program. No doubt the program is commendable but people were not satisfied with the efficiency of these LHWs. Their efficiency should be monitored so that the program could be made sustainable.
12. During survey it was noticed that local Lady health visitors (LHVs) were in acute shortage. To overcome this problem, local girls be motivated to join this service. They need to be trained especially from and for the rural areas. In this regard age and academic relaxation be granted for entering health training programs. 13. Policy should be changed from sophisticated care to primary health care, curative to preventive, urban to rural and hospital to outreach health facilities.
- 11 -
14. Burden of Disease (BOD) of women is higher as compared to men. But they are not involved in the decision making process. What is required is to let them articulate their needs, aspirations and priorities at all levels of policy making.
15. Rural women are comparatively less benefited from the available health facilities. Special programs taking rural women as a target group have to be chalked out to overcome the backlog. In this connection, more financial resources be allocated.
16. The existing rural health centers and dispensaries be upgraded by providing essential supplies and equipments. In this regard President Primary Health Initiative (PPHI) role was highly appreciated in both the districts.
17. A permanent Monitoring and Evaluation system should be evolved to improve the performance of health delivery system.
18. Some knowledgeable community members mentioned that Quackery practices are proving dangerous to human health. Appropriate legislation should be made so as to check such practices.
19. During discussion with health authorities, it came out that female patients are not interested in consultation, rather they are interested in medicines. What is needed is to increase awareness about the benefits of consultation services.
20. Finally, our study leads us to suggest that Government health services be priced. It was observed that people are willing to pay users charges provided the service is of good quality. The trend of people to consult private practitioners further substantiates our suggestion.
References
Ahmed, Ambreen. (1990). Gender differentials in access to health care for Pakistan children, UNICEF Islamabad.
Aslam, Nasir. (1997). Commission Report on Status of Women in Pakistan.
Blanpain J, Davis K. (1989). Health Policy, Vol. 12 Amsterdam.
- 12 -
BRSP & UNICEF (1994). Community based project for safe motherhood, project plan of action Quetta.
Govt. of Balochistan (1997). “District Profile” Mastung. Planning and Development Department,
Govt. of Balochistan (1997). “District Profile” Pishin. Planning and Development Department.
Govt. of Balochistan (1997). Ready Reckoner statistical cell of Provincial Health Directorate Balochistan, Quetta.
Government of Balochistan. (2007). An Analysis of the situation of women and children in Balochistan.
Government of Pakistan (2005). Ministry of Health National Health Survey.
Pakistan Medical Research Council (2008). National Health Survey of Pakistan.
Pakistan National Report (1995). Fourth World Conference on Women Beijing.
UNDP (1998). Area Development program Balochistan Comprehensive area review volume I, Pakistan.
UNICEF (1994). Second Family Health Project. Safe motherhood project plan of action Quetta.
UNICEF (1980). Socio-economic surveys of rural areas of Balochistan.
WHO (2007). World Health Organization. Family and reproductive health coverage of maternity care.
World Bank (2006). Country Study on gender and poverty in India.
- 13 -
BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. XXXI NO. 2, 2014
Impact of Inflation and GDP Growth on Unemployment Rate in Economy of Pakistan
Economics
Erum Khushnood Lecturer, Department of Economics, University of Sindh Jamshoro, Pakistan Shahida Habib Alizai Lecturer, Gender Development Studies, University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan Abdullah Dostain Senior Veterinary officer, Livestock & Diary Development Department, Government of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan Zahid H. Channa PhD scholar at Sindh Development Stuies Centre, University of Sindh Jamshoro, Pakistan
1. Abstract Human resource utilization is a crucial factor for the development of economy of a country but in underdeveloped countries like Pakistan underutilization of human resource is an important issue that harmfully affects the economy of the country. There are various macroeconomic variable supposed to be responsible for existence unemployment in Pakistan. Therefore, this study focused to analyze the trends in unemployment during last decade in Pakistan and to determine the extent at which macroeconomics variables (i.e. GDP growth rate and inflation rate) positively or negatively influence unemployment rate in country. Study also paying attention to develop policy recommendations to overcome the scenario of unemployment in economy of Pakistan.
Key words: Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Inflation Rate, Unemployment Rate, Utilization 2. Introduction Human resource play significant role in economic enlargement of developed and underdeveloped countries of the world. Pakistan is sixth most populous country in the world having 60 percent economically active population (Economic Survey of Pakistan, 2012-13, p.166). Statistical figures
- 14 - indicate that available human resource in Pakistan not properly utilized this lead to existence of high unemployment rate in the economy of Pakistan. There are various macroeconomic variable (including inflation and GDP growth rate) affects unemployment rates in the economy of Pakistan. Theoretically there is a relationship found between unemployment and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate. On other hand unemployment rate is also vastly associated with inflation. This study focused to evaluate the movements and influence of inflation and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth on unemployment rate in Pakistan. This research paper is divided into four different parts. Part one provides introduction, part two presents the summary of literature review. Part three provides research methodology. The final part based on the study results, conclusions and recommendations.
3. Review Literature “Unemployment comprises all persons 15 years of age and above who during the reference period were “without work”. Whereas, unemployment rate is the unemployed population expressed as a percentage of the currently active population” (Economic Survey of Pakistan, 2012-13, p11). Underutilization of human capital or unemployment rate negatively affects the economic development of the country. Pakistan is an underdeveloped country of the world its economy demands proper utilization of its available resources. However, high unemployment rates is persist in the country this lead to poverty, low investment and economic instability in the country. Underutilization of human resource of any country can be affected by various macroeconomic variables including inflation and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate. The relationship between unemployment with Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate and with inflation discussed as following.
3.1 Unemployment and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Growth Rate High and sustained economic growth leads to the strong and stable economy of the country (Muhammad and Raza, 2013). Economic growth is a significant factor that has an effect on unemployment rate. Theoretically an optimistic relationship should be existing among economic growth and depressing with unemployment. “When recession hit an economy it not only reduces produced output but also leads to lying off previously employed workers. On the other hand, when an economy recovers from a recession it not only starts producing more output but also hires previously unemployed workers” (Mallik and Chowdhury, 2001). However, empirical relationship between unemployment rate and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate may be direct or inverse; it depends on the economic scenario of the country
- 15 - during particular period of time. In 1962 Arthur Melvin Okun in his empirical analysis found significant inverse relationship between unemployment and gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate in a country (Zafar and Zahid, 1998). Tunah (2010) studied the macroeconomic variables and found significant positive impact of real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) on the reduction of unemployment rate in Turkey. El-Agrody et al. (2010) said that there is a considerable negative connection is found between unemployment and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate in Egypt. Pakistan has potential to overcome the problem of high unemployment rate by enhancing its national output. According to Jilani et al., (2010) in Pakistan during past decade, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth remain unstable this lead to high rate of unemployment in country.
3.2 Inflation and Unemployment Inflation is the continuous rise in the price with the passage of time and declination in the value of money (Economic Survey of Pakistan, 2012- 13). According to Blejer (2000) and Qayyum (2006) inflation promotes uncertainty in economy of the country and due to high inflation in economy of any country government face difficulties in running policies efficiently. In past various theories and research studies have been presented in order to describe the impact of inflation on unemployment rate. The relationship between inflation and unemployment was first reported by A. W. Phillips in 1958 (Muhammad and Raza, 2013). Philips curve present the inverse relationship between unemployment and inflation rate. “Inflation and unemployment both vary from economy to economy. Some economies have found high inflations related to higher unemployment. Some economies have found high inflation moderately related to unemployment and others high inflation with low unemployment” (Muhammad and Raz, 2013, p388). High rate of inflation enlarges workers’ self-motivations to work & produces off-putting result on unemployment (Lui, 2009). Syed et al., (2009) analyze impact of inflation in economy of Pakistan and said that high inflation rate in persists in economy of Pakistan which has depressing impact on human resource utilization in the country.
To sum up Pakistan is rich in human resource but high unemployment rate endure in the economy. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate and inflation have significant impact on reduction of unemployment rate. Therefore, this study focuses to analyze the level at which growth in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and inflation rate influence unemployment rate in Pakistan during last decade.
- 16 -
4. Methodology This research is paying attention on the empirical correlation involving inflation, GDP growth and unemployment rate in the economy of Pakistan. This research study is secondary data based therefore, annual time- series data for the period 2000 to 2012 have been taken. In order to examine the impact of GDP growth rate and inflation on unemployment, Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) was applied and regression model was prepared. The secondary data was taken for these variables from the website of State Bank of Pakistan and Economic Survey of Pakistan, 2012. SPSS and MS-Excel were used to analyze the data. The findings of this study would provide numerical facts for phenomena which help to improve and generate compatible initiatives.
Multiple Regression Equation: y =b0+ b1x1+ b2x2 Where: y= dependent variable (i-e unemployment rate) b0=intercept/constant b1 & b2 = coefficient x1= Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate x2=inflation rate
5. Findings Fast economic growth enhances the economic activities and increases the employment opportunities in an economy which in turn reduce the unemployment rate. Unstable economy of under develop countries like Pakistan demands high and sustainable growth in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) but figure 1 confirms slow and fluctuated growth in GDP during past decade in Pakistan. Furthermore, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate and unemployment rate in Pakistan not appreciably enhanced. The major causes of high unemployment rate in Pakistan are the faster increase in population and low participation of women in labor market. On other side unequal income distribution, underutilization of available resource, energy crises, political instability leads to slow and unstable growth in output.
- 17 -
Figure-1: GDP Growth Rate and Unemployment Trends in Pakistan n=13
Source: State Bank of Pakistan & Economic Survey of Pakistan, 2012
Figure 2 present trends of inflation and unemployment rate in Pakistan during last decade without significant improvement in their relative positions. Ineffectual monetary policy, poverty, high demand, insufficient output production, underutilization of capital etc. leads to high inflation and high unemployment rate in the economy of Pakistan. Figure-1: Inflation and Unemployment Trends in Pakistan n=13
Source: Economic Survey of Pakistan, 2012
It is general perceive that economic growth leads to reduction in unemployment rate. In figure 3 (A) regression line shows positive/direct relationship of GDP growth rate with unemployment rate within economy of
- 18 -
Pakistan. This shows that during mentioned time period, economic growth has not that powerful impact which can trim down the unemployment rate in Pakistan. Whereas, in figure 3 (B) regression line for inflation rate & unemployment highlights falling trend, this indicative that during last decade in Pakistan increase in price makes economic activities fast and create more employment opportunities for peoples. Value of person correlations (i.e. 0.63) indicates that unemployment rate has positive relationship with GDP growth rate in Pakistan. It is mentioned that growth in GDP plays very important role to prevail over the difficulty of unemployment but only growth in GDP not sufficient. There are some other factors also have considerable impact in order to reduce unemployment rate such as proper utilization of recourses and effective control of quick growth in population however, these are the major issues in economy of Pakistan.
Figure-3: Regression line for Inflation-Unemployment Rate and GDP Growth Rate-Unemployment Rate in Pakistan N=13 Years (2000 to 2012)
Table 1 presents summary of empirical results for regression model. Value of R square (i-e 0.64) indicates that 64% variations in unemployment rate in Pakistan during last decade is explained by this regression model. The value
- 19 - of F-Statistics (i-e 9.037) indicates that the equation as a whole is statistically significant in explaining relationship between dependent (i.e. unemployment rate) and independent variables (i.e. inflation and GDP growth rate).
Table-1: Summary of Empirical Results for Regression Model Statistical Measures Results
R Square .644
Adjusted R Square .573
F-statistics 9.037* Significant at 0.01 level
In table 2 values of t-statistics for both independent variables is significant however, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate has positive impact and Inflation rate has negative impact on unemployment rate in Pakistan. The value of B coefficient for Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth shows that average decrease of unemployment rate (i.e. 0.209) is associated with one percent decline of real GDP growth. The value of B coefficient for general inflation shows average decline of unemployment rate associated with a rise of 0.119 percent of inflation rate.
Table-2: Variables in Equation for Regression Model
Un standardized Standardized Model Coefficients Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta (Constant) 6.718 .736 9.123 .000 Gross Domestic Product .209 .099 .431 2.408 .041 (GDP) Growth Rate
General Inflation -.119 .046 -.532 -2.604 .026 Dependent Variable: Unemployment Rate in % The success of government policies is reflected in price stability, high Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth and near to the ground unemployment rate. However, review of literature and the findings of this study highlights that
- 20 - inflation and economic growth have significant impact on unemployment rate in economy of Pakistan. The values of statistical measures (i.e. F-statistics and R-square) confirm the validity of regression model.
6. Conclusion High unemployment rate is a foremost issue of weak and unstable economy of Pakistan; this is due to off-putting impact of a range of macroeconomics variables (such as price instability, low growth in GDP, limited contribution of women in labour force and high growth in population etc). This study has examined the impact of inflation and GDP growth rate on unemployment rate in Pakistan. The empirical analysis shows that both independent variables have significant impact on prevailing unemployment rate in Pakistan. However, the correlation between unemployment and inflation is negative (i.e. -0.70). On other side correlation between Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and unemployment rate is positive (i.e. 0.63). Therefore, it is recommended that Government of Pakistan have to formulate it’s both fiscal and monetary policies more effective in such a way that inflation would come down and economic growth become much faster that generate opportunities of employment and diminish poverty level. It suggested that home and foreign investment should be encouraged for getting speedy economic growth and low unemployment rate. There is need to amplify female labour force sharing and to control quick enlarge in population growth.
7. References
Bhalla, Surjit S. (2007). Second Among Equals: The Middle Class Kingdoms of India and China. Washington DC: Peterson Institute of International Economics.
Blejer, M. (2000). Inflation Targeting in Practice: Strategic and operational issues and application to emerging market economies. International Monetary Fund.
Cecchetti, S. G. (2000). Making Monetary Policy: Objectives and Rules. Oxford Review of Economic Policy 16:4, 43-59.
- 21 -
De Gregorio, Jose. & Guidotti, P. E. (1995). Financial development and economic growth. World Development, Vol. 23(3), pages 433- 448.
Economic Survey of Pakistan (2012-13). Economic Advisor Wing. Finance Division. Islamabad.
El-Agrody, N. M., Othman, A. Z., & Hassan, M. B.-D. (2010). Economic Study of Unemployment in Egypt and Impacts on GDP. Nature and Science, 8 (10), 102-111.
Lui, L. Q. (2009). Inflation and Unemployment: The roles of goos and labor market institution. 1 31.
Mallik, G. and Chowdhury, A. (2001). Inflation and Economic Growth: Evidence from four South Asian Countries. Asia-Pacific Development journal, 13
Muhammad Umair, and Raza Ullah. (2013). Impact of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Inflation on Unemployment Rate: A Study of Pakistan Economy in 2000-2010, International Review of Management and Business Research, Vol. 2 Issue.2
Obamuyi, T. M. (2009). An investigation of the relationship between interest rates and economic growth in Nigeria, 1970 - 2006 , Journal of Economics and International Finance Vol. 1(4), pp. 093-098
Qayyum, A. (2006). Money, Inflation, and Growth in Pakistan. The Pakistan Development Review, No.2: pp. 203-212.
Sidrat Jilani, Farooq-E-Azam Cheema, Muhammad Asim. (2010). Exploring Impact of Macro Economic Variables on Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Pakistan, Journal of Management and Social Sciences, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 65-73
Smyth, D. J. (1992). Inflation and the Growth Rate in the United States. Natural Output. Applied Economics 24: 567-570
.State Bank of Pakistan. (2010). Hand Book of Statistics on Pakistan Economy.
- 22 -
Syed Yasir Mahmood Gillani, Hafeez Ur Rehman and Abid Rasheed Gill. (2009). Unemployment, Poverty, Inflation and Crime Nexus: Co- integration and Causality Analysis of Pakistan Pakistan Economic and Social Review Volume 47, No. 1 (Summer 2009), Pp. 79-98
Tunah, H. (2010). The Analysis of Unemployment in Turkey: Some Empirical Evidence Using Co integration Test. European Journal of Social Sciences, 18 (1), 18-38.
Zafar, Z. and Zahid, M. (1998). Macroeconomic determinant of economic growth in Pakistan. The Pakistan Development Review, vol. 37 (no.2), pp.127-148.
Zaidi, S.A (2005). The Issues in Pakistan Economy. Oxford University Press, Karachi.
- 23 -
BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. XXXI NO. 2, 2014
Perception of the Respondents Regarding Imperative HRD Activities in Balochistan, Pakistan Economics Noor Ahmed Assistant professor, Pakistan Study centre, University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan [email protected]
Ahmed Ali Mengal Economist, Agriculture Research Institute ARI Quetta, Pakistan
Bijar Khan Research officer, Pakistan Study centre, University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan
Abstract Human resource is the precious asset and has crucial role in economic development of the province; the quality of human resource is the key to progress. Present study was examined to the respondent perceptions about HRD (Human resources development) activities. For this purposed 375 respondents were selected through the simple random sampling of diverse professionals. A comprehensive and detailed interview schedule was designed. Finding of the research study revealed that less than half (49.1%) of the respondents were between the age of 36 to 45 years and most (34.7%) of the respondents did not receive any in-service professional training; while the overwhelming majority (82.9%) of the respondents was living within joint family system. Significant differences were observed among the groups perception related to the imperatives areas of HRD by using One-way ANOVA, Post Hoc Duncun (mean for group in homogeneous subset). Further the finding of the study showed that the highly statistical significant at p<0.05 were observed between the perceptions of the respondents.
Key words: Balochistan, HRD (Human resources development), Perception
Introduction Human resources development as a theory is a framework for the expansion of human capital within an organization through the development of both organizations and individuals to achieve performance improvement in
- 24 - their knowledge, skill and attribution. Human resource development always pinpoint the integrated use of training, organization, and career development efforts to improve the collective efforts for individual, group and organizational. It develops the key competencies that enable individuals within organizations to perform current and future jobs through planned learning ways so as to accelerate the educational capacity of individual with the term of organization missions, visions, norms and values. The thematic definitions of human resource development exclusively focused on specific learn objectives and interventions. The HRD framework views employees as an asset to enterprise whose value will be enhanced by development education in future. A successful human resources development program will prepare the individual to undertake a higher level of work (Wikipedia, 2011). Human resources development is the framework that focuses on the organizations competencies at the first stage, training, and then developing the employee, through education, process to satisfy the organizations long- term needs and the individuals’ career goals and employee value to their present and future prospects. Recent innovative studies and development shows that it is possible to encompass human resources development as a concept of business economics. When used as a concept in human resources development to emphasized the intelligence has the task to collect, structure, provide, promote, pull and document information/data with regard to the different target groups, within or outside the control of the company, which all have the characteristics to have an influence on the success of the strategies of the business, and hereby support better business decision- making. Human Resource Development in Balochistan prospect Balochistan has great potential for economic development. Its physical and geo-strategic characteristics make its position highly conducive for the economic development but the socio-cultural profile of the province is somewhat worrying. The strategy must be devised to remove such differences and to produce a scientific society where every individual in the society must be contributing according to his skills and competence and in the coordination with the efforts of others to achieve the objectives of economic development. The dispersed population of Balochistan which is predominantly rural has not induced the private sector to play its role as the risk is high and the profit margins are low. The Government. can play the role of catalytic agent in developing infrastructure by bringing the vast majority of population into a mainstream and removing disparities among the different sections of society by their mutual interaction and creating harmony to pave way for an ideal development friendly society which can work whole
- 25 - heartedly in a unified manner to produce positive results on the economic development of Balochistan. Problem statement Balochistan is the backward province of the country. The province regards to worse human index, fragile infrastructure, poor sanitation, poorer human resource development and dreadful poverty. The deficiency in professional’s particularly in Balochistan province mainly due to lack of investment and interest in human resources skill/development of different stakeholders which create the negative impact on manpower productivity, educational capacity and economically development of the province. There are huge gap between existing potential and actual potential with the term of human resource development. There is dire need to develop the appropriate strategies design new modules and tact’s to reduce the gape within system regarding HRD process. Therefore, keeping in view above facts and accuracy present research was developed to promote the upward movement towards development at community level regarding HRD activities.
Objectives of the Study
There are following specific objects of the study are:
1. To find out the demographic profile of the respondents. 2. To compared the respondent’s perception bout HRD activities such as soft human skills and imperative areas of human resource development. 3. To develop the HRD model based on the recommendations.
Methodology Survey is considered the best method to carry out researches in the field of social sciences. Meier (1958) refers to methodology as “the logic of scientific procedures”. It is a procedure where the successful trials are repeated and errors are avoided in the final questionnaire (Good and Hatt, 1952). The study was conducted in the Balochistan a province. Present research paper was designed to obtain the respondents perception regarding HRD practices in Balochistan province. The empirical study largely based on primary data. The data were collected by survey method by using simple random sampling technique through Fitzggibbon table (Fitzggibbon, 1987). The perceptions of the respondents were measured on five point Likert- scales. Total 375 professionals from were personally interviewed for collection of primary data during the years of 2010-11. Personal visits were
- 26 - frequently paid and each respondent was personally interviewed through the detailed questionnaire prepared for this purpose. The data, thus gathered were analyzed by using computer software SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) and interpreted.
Result and discussion Age is the important demographic characteristic of the respondents the data regarding this aspect presents in Fig-1.
Fig-1: Distribution of respondents regarding their age (N=375).
Most (49.1%) of the respondents were between the age of 36 to 45 years. Whereas (27.5-20.3%) of the respondents were above 46 years, and 26 to 35 years of age respectively.
Fig-2: Distribution of respondents regarding length of service (N=375).
- 27 -
The present study explores the length of services of respondents. The data of this aspect depicts in Fig-2. One third (23.5-26.1%) of the respondents were 16 to 20 and more than 20 years of service length. Whereas 18.1-18.7% of the respondents between the range of 5 to 10 years and 11 to 15 years length of services respectively.
Fig-3: Distribution of respondents regarding types of family system (N=375).
- 28 -
Mostly the Balochistan people preferred joint and combine family system due to its same culture, tradition and society mores. Fig-3 shows the relevant data. The overwhelming majority (82.9%) of the respondents was lived within joint family system while most (17.1%) of the respondent’s preferred nuclear family system.
Table-1: Departmental comparison among the respondents perception regarding soft human skills (N=375).
Ranking value Items Agriculture Education Forestry NGOs Livestock (soft human Mean Sig* Mea square skills) SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD n
Managerial / .000* administrative 1.732 .445 1.883 .464 1.953 .695 1.481 .578 1.813 .456 .288 8.51 * skill Effective .000* communicati 1.732 .445 1.852 .392 1.892 .481 1.471 .577 1.852 .456 .225 10.16 * on skill Team .000* 1.732 .445 1.883 .464 2.013 .668 1.471 .577 1.853 .456 .280 11.36 building * Enhancing .000* 1.772 .421 1.913 .339 2.013 .647 1.521 .578 2.003 .537 .257 12.16 productivity * Strategic .000* 1.22 .412 2.033 .569 2.083 .712 1.551 .599 1.953 .364 2.98 11.67 planning * Time .000* 1.962 .667 2.072 .528 2.132 .741 1.521 .578 2.112 .665 .395 12.18 management * Career .000* 2.683 1.03 2.332 .844 2.322 .903 1.521 .578 2.192 .888 .647 21.39 planning * Scale: 1= ineffective, 2= effective, 3= moderate, 4= high effective, 5=most effective SD = Standard deviation * Significant * * Highly Significant p<0.05
Respondents were asked to rate their perceptions regarding the soft human skills, in this regard the respondents perception were checked on 5 point Likert-type scale (1=ineffective, 2= effective, 3= moderate, 4= high effective, 5=most effective) as shown in Table-1. The result of One-way ANOVA carried out among the variables regarding soft human skill. The significant at p<0.05 were observed between the variables. Highly significant differences found between the perceptions of the respondents were: managerial /administrative skill (f= 8.51), effective communication skill (f= 10.16), team building (f= 11.36), enhancing productivity (f= 12.16), strategic planning (f=11.67), time management (f= 12.18) and career planning (f= 21.39). As compared to group one the 2nd group i.e. (Education, Livestock and Forestay Departments) respondents were considered that the managerial /administrative skill were high effective and soft human skill in their respective Departments. Similar, Education, Livestock and Forestay
- 29 -
Departments professionals (respondents) were of the view that the team building as regards the major and effective human skill in this regard the discrepancy was observed among the respondent perceptions. Whereas Agriculture Department respondents perceived that the career planning was the most effective human skill. Significant differences were observed among the perceptions of the respondents related to the soft human skill.
Table-2: Departmental comparison among respondents perception regarding imperative areas of HRD (N=375).
Ranking value Imperative Agriculture Education Forestry NGOs Livestock Mean areas of f-value Sig* Mea square HRD SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD n
.000* Strategic 3.673 1.00 3.292 1.04 3.072 1.70 2.531 1.39 3.132 1.057 12.55 10.08 management * Competency .000* 3.634 1.14 3.073 1.04 2.873 1.07 1.731 .777 2.712 1.024 1.035 34.50 level * Knowledge .000* 2.843 1.14 2.954 1.08 3.244 1.07 2.271 1.23 2.562 .948 1.207 8.61 management * Communicati .000* 3.354 1.13 3.093 1.09 3.474 .977 1.671 .741 2.882 1.078 1.029 37.89 on skill * Performance .000* 3.912 .470 3.792 .643 3.772 .781 2.721 1.40 3.732 .741 .756 23.54 management * Leadership .000* 4.002 .717 3.912 .574 3.792 .793 1.691 .788 3.912 .738 .528 139.2 development * Scale: 1= more important, 2= important, 3= less important SD = Standard deviation * Significant * * Highly Significant p<0.05
The respondents further were inquired to provide their ideas and perceptions regarding the imperative areas of HRD. Three (3) point Likert- scale whereas 1 stands for more important, 2 stands for important and 3 stands for less important were used. The data are presented in Table 2. Significant differences were observed among the groups related to the imperatives areas of HRD by using One-way ANOVA, Post Hoc Duncun (mean for group in homogeneous subset). The highly significant differences were recorded on the statements i.e. strategic management (f= 10.08), competency level (f= 34.50), knowledge management (f= 8.61), communication skill (f= 37.89), performance management (f= 23.54) and leadership development (f= 139.2) at p<0.05. However, respondents of the Agriculture, Education and Forestry Departments perceived that strategic management considered as the important and imperative areas of HRD. Whereas, Agriculture department’s staff rated that competency level were
- 30 - more important areas of human resource management. While, group three and four obtained the highest means score as compared to group 1 and 2 about the knowledge management statement. However, as compared to group 3 and 4, the group 1 and 2 were obtained the lowest means score regarding the communication skill pertaining to the HRD areas. The significant discrepancy was observed in 6 statements.
Fig-4: Human Resource Development Model
Each and every study whether explicit or implicit base on a model, in social and behavioral sciences depend of the variable of interest and their expected co-relation among them as shown in Fig-4. Balochistan province faced some sort of chronic problems related to the Human Resource Development such as disperse population, fragile infrastructure, worse communication/ transportation, subdue human indicators, low human indexes, uncertainty, poorer educational structure at rural as well as urban areas, lack of political, social and economic arrangements. In order to remove and obviate issues and problems pertaining to the HRD at province level
- 31 - were elaborate the following model. Based upon the present model the economically viable, socially acceptable, technologically sound and appropriate were the central role to scale up the HRD themes and vision at province level.
Recommendation and suggestion The notion of human resource development takes as its focus the development of knowledge, skills and capabilities. Moreover, there is an interventionism implicit in HRD; it is an activity or series of activities initiated and supported by one constituency in order to improve others. Almost always acknowledgment of the importance of human capital is an unstated assumption in any form of HRD. Keeping in view following suggestion were recommended. Strengthen the capacity building of the respondents. It is therefore suggested to promote the dynamic lifelong learning policies with the term of professional education, institutional development and economically capacity pertaining to HRD activities. Promote entrepreneurial skills, and raise awareness among educators and trainers of the important role of enterprises. It is therefore suggested that vocational and career information skill should be enhances through the trainings.
- 32 -
References
Fitzggibbon, C.T. and L.M., Lynn (1987). Table for determining sample size from the given population. How to design a program evaluation? Newbury Park CA: Sage Publications.
Goode, W. J, & Hatt, P, K. (1952). Methods in Social Research, New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co, Inc.
Meier, Gerald M. (1958). Leading issues in Economic Development. Oxford University press, new building, North point, Hong Kong.
Wikipedia, (2011). Human Resource Development. Pages from HRD.
- 33 -
BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. XXXI NO. 2, 2014
Rural Support Programmes as Agent of Change in Pakistan: A Case Study of Punjab and Sindh
Economics
Ambreen Zeb Khashkelly Assistant Professor Department of Economics University of Sindh Jamshoro Sindh, Pakistan Email: [email protected]
Rafiq Ahmed Chandio Assistant Professor Department of Economics University of Sindh Jamshoro Sindh, Pakistan Email: [email protected]
Kehar Khan Khoso Deputy Registrar Planning, University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan
Abstract Rural support programs (RSPs) are essentially NGOs they are outside the government and they are non-profit organizations and have developed substantial capacity to generate funds internally. The aim of this paper is to examine the contribution of Punjab and Sindh rural support programmers to rural livelihood improvement in areas of community participation, community physical infrastructure, health care and education and human resource development. The major findings of this paper was that social mobilization process of Punjab RSP has not fostered or helped community organizations developed institutional capacity to undertake projects on their own as joint entities. The frontline workers especially social organizers of Sindh RSP have not put enough efforts to nurture community organizations and helped expand the program by demonstration. Sustainability remain a challenge particularly as it pertains to community organizations and access to credit despite progress made by PPAF and other credit institutions. However a number of areas such as monitoring and evaluation, human resource development and gender disparity did not receive the attention they deserve. Despite difficulties associated with working in many villages of the target population, the
- 34 - performance of both Punjab and Sindh RSPs have been moderately satisfactory. The future of both the two RSPs deserve serious consideration.
Keywords: Rural support program (RSP), Sindh, Punjab.
1.0 Introduction Rural support programmes in Pakistan have come a long way since Agha Khan rural support programme AKRSP started operation in Northern areas and Chitral valley towards the end of 1980. In Pakistan, there were by Mid-2007 ten rural support programmes RSPs working in 93 out of 127 districts in the four province (Punjab, Sindh, NWFP and Balochistan) Northern areas, Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK) and Islamabad capital territory (ICT). The rural support programmes were working in 2,747 of the 4,627 union councils in 93 districts. They have facilitated about 1.66 million households from 100,678 community organizations of which 1.91 million men and women were members. (Khan, 2009). The first rural support programme began on a small scale organising poor people in several remote and sparsely populated districts in the mountainous north from these modest beginning the scheme scaled up rapidly country wide led and promoted energetically by Dr. Shuaib Sultan Khan the head of first RSP. (Rasmussen et al 2005). The failure of the first social action programme (SAP) in the early 1990s by and large which excluded community participation led the donors and government to work through RSPs and similar civil society organisations as partners in order to involve the poor (target groups) as active participants. Since the late 1990s several developments have driven the government to take the participatory route to rural development. For one thing the increased outreach of rural support programes and their demonstrated ability to mobilise people through participatory organisations for development has provided good evidence that this route was worth taking. In addition, the international donor community are in support of the community based approach to foster equitable development. (Khan, 2001). The RSPs rely on a community driven model of development that seeks to simultaneously empower poor people and improve service delivery. Communities are mobilised with government, civil society and private sector to improve the quality and delivery of social services sometimes by linking people to existing service providers and sometimes by providing services themselves. More importantly however, the RSPs are autonomous government (Rasmuseen, et al 2005).
- 35 -
1.1 Objectives The major objectives of this paper were.
1. To examine the contribution of Punjab and Sindh rural support programmes in areas of Community Participation, Community Physical infrastructure, Health care, Education and Human Resource development. 2. To identify the Challenges, Strength and Weaknesses. 3. To Assess their Progress, Achievements and Future direction 4. To Recommend Strategies for Improving the Operations of RSPs. 2.0 Methodology The present paper is a descriptive study which will examine Punjab and Sindh rural support programmes aim at improving the living standard of the target communities. Besides assessing their progress achievements strength and weaknesses the authors explores what will be the impact of these rural support programmes to the poor households in the study areas.
3.0 Result and Discussion
3.1 Punjab Rural Support Programme Punjab rural support programme PRSP was established as a support organization in the same mould as Sindh rural support programme (SRSP) and National Rural Support Programme to foster participatory community organizations COs as the vehicle for rural people to improve their living standard. The aim was poverty reduction and improvement of rural poor quality of life and its strategy to harness peoples potential to help themselves. PRSP has adopted to its strategy and operations according to the perceptions of its managers available resources and the specific conditions of communities. The programme is present in the 28 districts of Punjab working in partnership with rural communities in various activities. Its core programme which it operates through community organization COs exist in 20 districts. In the eight districts PRSP work as a contractor for different public sector agencies to deliver services to rural areas in education, health care and building community infrastructure.
3.2 Community Participation By the end of 2006 rural communities in partnership with PRSP had formed 18, 125 community organizations COs with 301, 756 members in 20
- 36 - districts of Punjab Table1 the average size of the men and women COs are 18 and 15 members respectively. According to the assessment of PRSP staff about 4500 community organizations COs 2,700 men and 1,800 women do not meet the requirements and are not engaged in activities as group with PRSP. In two area development projects funded through government of Punjab PRSP has also established parallel programme of social mobilization in areas where its core programme works through other community organizations.
Table-1 Community organization members In Punjab 1998-2006
MEMBERS OF COS MEMBER OF CO MEMBERS Period All Men Women Mix All Men Women 1998-99 1241 683 496 62 28,028 18,710 9318 1999-2000 2181 1414 734 33 39,593 31,449 8144 2000-2001 2857 1685 1122 50 47,167 29,296 17,871 1998-2001 6279 3782 2352 145 114,788 79,455 35,333 2001-2002 2289 1289 978 22 33,811 19,890 13,821 2002-2003 1446 795 578 73 31,416 21,593 9823 2003-2004 1726 975 750 1 23,489 13,142 10,347 2005-2005 2049 1116 900 33 30,913 18,320 12593 2006 4336 2460 1839 37 67,339 39,606 27,733
Source: Punjab Rural support Programme Annual Report 2007.
3.3 Community physical Infrastructure Initially PRSP offered three options to communities to build the local physical infrastructure that they thought were high on the list of their priorities and for which they were willing to share the cost and participate in the implementation process and take responsibility for operation and maintenance. The second option for schemes that required more financial resources was to take a loan from PRSP and complete the identified project. The third option for large and costly schemes was to link the communities with outside agencies government and donors on a cost sharing basis. As shown in Table 2 in partnership with PRSP COs Community organisation members have completed over 4,000 community physical infrastructure schemes at a cost of Rs. 1.03 m providing benefits to about 784 000 rural households. The beneficiary household include those not necessarily participating in community organizations.
- 37 -
Table 2 Community physical infrastructure schemes 1998-2006
Period Number Total cost Average cost Beneficiary of scheme Rs households 2000-2001 18 3.70 205,556 5,352 2001-2002 728 152.87 209,986 248,430 2002-2003 194 92.59 477,320 55,481 2003-2004 1377 287.26 208,613 216,215 2004-2005 84 29.33 349,167 25,321 2005-2006 634 136.19 214,811 87,336 2006-2007 1056 325.90 308,617 145,778 Total 4091 1,027.84 251,244 783,913
Source: Punjab rural support programme Annual report 2007
3.4 Health Care and Education One of the goals of PRSP is to improve the facilities and service for basic health care and education. In its first four years PRSP organized mainly through linkages with the provincial health departments and other outside agencies medical camps a vaccination and immunization drive for children and family planning workshops for women. It also enabled several thousand women to be trained as traditional birth attendants and lady health workers. PRSP’s involvement in basic education can be traced back to its inception. In the first year, it helped rural communities establish ten community primary schools mostly with their own resources. The objective of these schools was to gather out of school children and provide early childhood education to the very young. Besides its involvement in community primary schools, PRSP has worked with the government of Punjab in up-grading seven primary schools to middle level with the community contributing one-fifth of the cost and providing basic facilities to the primary and middle schools for girls.
3.5 Human Resource Development The PRSP has recognized the crucial role of human capital in enhancing capabilities increasing resource productivity and improving people’s lives. It has not developed adequate institutional capacity to meet the diverse needs of its own staff and communities. It has depended largely on outside agencies to provide training.
PRSP records show that the organization conducted or arranged a large number of sessions, events, workshops and courses ranging
- 38 - from 1 to 10 days which were attended by 239, 030 participants. Table 3 shows details on average 30 percent of the participants were women ranging from around 25 to 39 percent. No follow up seems to have been undertaken to measure the effects of various training programmes on participants in terms of their services, employment status and income levels. (Khan, 2009).
Table 3 Community Organization Members Trained by PRSP 1998-2006
Period Total Men Women 1998-99 30,042 21,861 8181 1999-2000 40,945 32,332 8613 2000-2001 30,432 22,036 8396 1998-2001 101,419 76,229 25,190 2001-2002 35,975 25,397 10,578 2002-2003 40,591 28,371 12,220 2003-2004 20,138 13,154 6984 2004-2005 16,365 9821 6544 2005-2006 24,542 15,013 9529
Source: Punjab Rural support programme Annual Report 2007.
3.6 Sindh Rural Support Programme
Sindh rural support programme is the youngest of all rural support programmes in Pakistan. SRSP partnership with rural communities involves delivery of services such as building of physical infrastructure giving small loans and providing training in vocational skills to men women and youth. In the nine districts of upper Sindh SRSP is present in 59 out of 431 union councils. Generally in all the nine districts, agriculture plays an important role in the rural economy but this role depends on the supply of water, incidence of water logging and salinity and links to market. In 2003 on its own initiative government of Sindh decided to give RS 1000m as an endowment to SRSP as a private non-profit organization. It was in July 2003 that SRSP began its activities in Sukkur where it took over on going work of social mobilization from national rural support programme SRSP.
3.7 Community Participation SRSP has adopted a well-tested principles underlying COs that communities should be willing to form organizations in which both men and
- 39 - women jointly can actively participate in building their communities. They should be accountable to each other, maintain transparency in their deliberations, decision making processes and follow the rules of good governance. At the end of 2006 there were 1951 community organizations CO with 36, 898 members Table 4. According to estimates of rural households in the districts only 2 percent of rural households are involved as members in the community organizations COs. The COs formed by women accounted for 27 percent of the total and women constituted one quarter of all members.
Table 4 Community Organization and Members for Sindh 2003- 2006.
Period Number of Cos Number of CO Members Total Men Women Total Men Women 2003-04 382 273 109 8125 6040 2085 2004-05 626 485 140 14728 11381 3347 2005-06 1535 1168 367 30701 23903 6798 End of 2006 1951 1432 519 36898 27776 9122
Source: Khan M H 2009 Participatory Rural Development in Pakistan Experience of Rural Support Programmes in Pakistan oxford university press page 323.
3.8 Community Physical Infrastructure In view of the fact that the vast majority of rural communities in Sindh are deficient in physical infrastructure which defines people quality of life. The SRSP is working with other organizations such as the PPAF Pakistan poverty alleviations fund. International organizations like UNDP, DFID, and provincial government act as a bridge between communities and the funding agencies. By the end of 2006 community organizations in the programme area had completed 172 CPI schemes costing Rs. 50.54m Table 5. The community share in the cost of the completed schemes is estimated at 27 percent. These projects have brought benefits to about 6000 households. In the first two years 40 schemes were completed almost entirely with the help of funds from PPAF. Majority of the completed, schemes are related to the supply of drinking water, irrigation water, tube wells, pipe lines and lined water courses.
- 40 -
Table-5 Community physical infrastructure schemes in Sindh 2003-2006
Period Number of Total cost Cost per Number of CPI schemes CPI beneficiaries schemes Rs.million scheme households completed 2003-04 23 5.33 231,696 487 2004-05 17 5.22 306,882 480 2005-06 132 39.99 302,955 5005 End of 2006 172 50.54 293,837 5972
Source: Khan MH 2009. Participatory Rural Development in Pakistan Experience of rural Support Programme in Pakistan Oxford University Press Page. 342.
3.9 Health Care and Education Sindh Rural Support Programme SRSP did very little in the area of basic health care and education it merely arranged training of 62 traditional birth attendants. It established two community schools for primary education. Since then it has taken one major initiative that has the potential for making the basic health care facilities more accessible and effective for rural communities. In the second half of 2006 as part of the president’s primary health care initiative SRSP entered into a contract with government of Sindh health department to help restore, renovate and manage over 250 basic health units and other primary health care facilities in five of its programme districts Sukkur, Larkana, Jacobabad, Khairpur and Nausheroferoze. The objective of this project is to improve the basic health services for rural communities which the government is not able to provide.
3.10 Human Resource Development In the first year of operation SRSP was not able to establish a credible HRD capacity for both its own staff especially social organizers and community members. It had to depend almost entirely on NRSP resource persons. The HRD section in SRSP is not strong enough to organize training programmes on its own. It has to develop a coherent strategy and draw up a medium term five year plan to meet the growing needs of the organization and community. There are three types of training for communities:
(1) Includes orientation session for community visits and managers of Cos teaching them management skills
- 41 -
(2) The second includes specialized training for crop and livestock husbandry (3) The third programme includes vocational skills that individual COs members can use to either work for themselves through new trades. SRSP has trained 8563 COs members, 906 were women and most of them in the second and third years Table 6 most of these trainees were COs activists presidents and managers. (Khan, 2009).
Table 6 Community members trained by SRSP in Sindh 2003- 2004.
Period All trainees Men Women 2003-2004 901 852 49 2004-2005 5837 5513 324 2005-2006 1825 1292 533 End 2006 8563 7657 906
Source: Khan MH (2007) participatory Rural Development in Pakistan experience of Rural Support Programme in Pakistan Oxford University press page 324.
4.0 Challenges and Problems Participatory development through social mobilization is constantly repeated and has been embraced by donors and government alike. Communities participating in the movement are no longer treated with honour. There is a growing engagement or rural support programems RSPs as partners with all level of government. The greatest challenge for the RSPS is in facilitating the implementation of nation-wide development projects and the financial support it has been given for scaling up the process of social mobilization. The RSPs have to address the challenge they now face in mainstreaming or scaling up the process of social mobilization in a hurry. The need to increase the density of community organizations COs involving more union councils in district. More villages or communities in each union council and more households in each village. This is the meaning of scaling up in practical terms. Given this challenge the role of good activist men, women and three Cs character commitment and competence takes the centre stage in meeting the challenges. (Anka et al, 2010)
- 42 -
4.1 Linkages and Partnerships Punjab rural support programme has strong partnership with government of Punjab. The PRSP has also established and used linkages with government line departments, international donor agencies and NGOs. PRSP has been a partner with or contractor for outside agencies in 18 projects and ventures to give services and build the infrastructure for rural communities of these 13 projects are from government of Punjab, three from PPAF and two from international donor agencies. Sindh rural support programme has developed linkages with some of the government line departments e.g. health, agriculture, livestock and education particularly for the training of community members. It has also established linkages with the district government in the programme area and has provided training to the members of citizen community Boards (CCBS).
4.2 Progress and Achievements Punjab rural support programme PRSP had expanded to eight new district (Toba Tek Sigh, Hafizabad, Mandi Bahauddin, Kasur, Sheikhpura, Okara, Papattan and Sialkot) bringing the total number to 20. The programme adopted a dual approach and core programme based on social mobilization was supplemented by a new procedure from 2006 till date PRSP concentrated its resources on helping people establish participatory organizations providing opportunities for members of COs to acquire skills in a variety of disciplines and vocations they regarded as important giving small loans to COs members for crops, livestock and small enterprise. The achievements recorded by PRSP were it has helped nearly 305,041 rural households representing 15 percent of all rural households in the union councils and 7 percent in the districts. PRSP helped communities to establish 20, 122 COs with 333,714 men and women members. By the middle of 2007 these members has saved Rs. 148 m and borrowed Rs. 3.456 bn. The COs and PRSP have together completed over 4000 community physical infrastructure schemes at a cost Rs. 1.03 bn. Sindh rural support programme maintained its basic programme in five districts but expanded its out reach to 17 union councils in these districts during the second year of its operation. In the third year the programme was extended to Larkana and Naushero Feroze bringing the number of districts to seven. The number of union councils in which the programme was present rose from 17 to 42 by early 2006. In the forth year of operation SRSP expanded the programme to nine districts from seven in upper Sindh. The achievements recorded by SRSP were in the nine districts of upper Sindh SRSP is present in 59 out of 431 union councils. In these union councils it has helped 33.166 households out of 172, 607 rural households but only 3
- 43 - percent of rural households in the districts form 2,425 COs with 40, 879 members. By the middle of 2007, the CO members had saved Rs. 13 m and 12, 460 of them borrowed Rs163.77 m in 16, 532 small loans. The organized communities have completed 177 physical infrastructure schemes at a cost of Rs. 50 m in which nearly one quarter was contributed by CO members. 4.3 Future Direction of RSP The future direction for the core programme appears promising provided it continues to have strong support form government. In terms of financial resources RSPs have adequate support from DFID to meet the mandate until the end of 2010. RSPN has set a target of Rs. 33 m as revenue in the year 2011 in which it expects to spend Rs. 20m on its operation. It plans to meet this target through resources which it hopes it can generate in the current period. In addition it has hired a cadre of professionals and has plans to enhance their capacity and quality through training, material incentives, good working environment and recognition of talents and merit. Their future strategy is divided in to three parts.
1. Capacity building RSPS, NGOs and community organizations. 2. Grants for public private partnerships and development of products for the poor. 3. Advocacy and linkages for policies favourable to the poor and participatory organizations.
4.4 Strength and Weakness of RSPs a. Strength Rural support programmes have special ability to reach the poor and other segments of society overlooked by public and commercial sectors RSPs facilitate local resource mobilizations and have programmes of local participation in development. Service delivery at low cost and innovative service delivery at low cost and innovative solutions to novel problems are their strength. The most important factor to the success of RSPs is the quality of leadership. Specifically it is the ability to relate with humility and love with the poor. (Anka, 2009). b. Weaknesses The monitoring and evaluation mechanism of many RSPs is weak. When it comes to evaluation of the organization’s efficiency and effectiveness in terms of results from its inputs and activities. It was observed
- 44 - that the M and E professionals in RSPs do not even use the minimum standard practices available for evaluation. The capacity for impact assessment components of the evaluation is almost non-existent. (Anka, 2009). 5.0 Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations Rural support progrrammes RSPs are essentially NGOs they are outside the government and they are non-profit organizations and have developed substantial capacity to generate funds internally.
The major objectives of the paper were to:
1. Examine the contribution of Punjab and Sindh RSPs in areas of community participation, community physical infrastructure, health care and education and human resource development. The paper further identified the challenges, strength and weaknesses and assess progress achievement and future direction. Finally strategies were recommended improving the operations of PSPs.
5.1 Conclusion The major conclusion drawn from the paper were the Punjab RSP have not made the transition in its role from service provides to facilitator for communities. The social mobilization process has not fostered or helped community organizations developed institutional capacity to undertake projects on their own as autonomous individual and joint entities. It seems the future of PRSP is contingent upon the development of policies pursued by the government, unless it can establish or acquire financial autonomy to play its role as a genuine facilitator for communities.
The front line workers especially social organizers of SRSP have not put enough efforts or resources into identifying, fostering and using community activities to nature COs and help expand the programme by demonstration. Furthermore the credit availability programme if not structured and managed well and has the potential for undermining rather than strengthening the process of social mobilization. SRSP has started addressing the issue of gender imbalance it has put more resources and effort into building strong organizations for women so as to improve their living standards.
- 45 -
5.2 Recommendations
Punjab and Sindh RSPs should determine more precisely what results and impacts are to be achieved in each programme area within specific scheme.
Punjab and Sindh RSP’s monitoring and evaluation system needs to be improved in particular regarding results and definition of indicators. Economic problems have to be addressed more competitively including absolute poverty. Punjab and Sindh RSPs should look into the possibility of establishing a community radio which if established will play it a major role for the development of the two province. Women should be encouraged to go for higher education both in Pakistan and abroad. Workshops should be organized for gender awareness in rural areas. Provide capacity and development support to social mobilization and strengthening of community organizations in general. Strengthening rural support programmes to promote innovations that can be scaled up and replicated by the government and donor organizations merits more attention and resource allocations. Coordination is a critical area where RSPs quickly can establish is added value in providing social services to the community. If coordination is to improve it has to be prioritised by the individual actors who will put coordination capacity at the disposal of the RSPs involved. Punjab and Sindh RSPs needs to prioritize its areas of intervention to provide maximum support. We must try to stay focused on a few probity areas. Punjab and Sindh RSPs should use benchmarking and the identification of best practices as a way to improve performance.
- 46 -
6.0 References
Anka, L.M. (2009). Empirical Analysis of the Determinants of Rural Poverty in Sindh Province of Pakistan. Unpublished PhD Dissertation Submitted to University of Sindh Jamshoro Sindh Pakistan.
Anka, et al (2010). Perception of Village Development Organizations Regarding Poverty Alleviation Programmes in District Badin. Annual Research Journal of Women Studies Institute of Women Development Studies University of Sindh Jamshoro Pakistan Vol 2 2010 Pp 1-16.
Bardara, G. and A. B. Izu. (2006). Role of NGOs and Civil Society in Global EnvironmentalGovernance.http//envrionemnt.research.yali.edu/docu ments
Banur, T., and Najam, A. (2002). Civic Entrepreneurship: A Civil Society Perspective on Sustainable Development Vol 1 Gandhara Academy Press Islamabad Pakistan.
DFID. (2000). Target Strategy Paper TSP: Poverty Eradication and the Empowerment of Women, London DFID.
ELLISF. (2000). The Determinants of Rural Livelihood Diversification in Developing Countries. Journal of Agricultural Economics Vol 51 Pages 289-302.
Gloeker, M.A. (2001). Principles of Social Mobilization Strategy for Northern Areas Conservancies, Gilgit MACP/IVCN/UNDP/GEF and Government of Pakistan.
Gul, R. (2006). Impact of Aga Khan Rural Support Programmes Gender Strategy on Rural women in district Chitral. Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad.
Hussain, G. (2002). Human Resource Development (Process, Progress and Prospects) Through Learning Support Initiatives, Baltistan AKRSP Aga Khan Rural Support Programme.
- 47 -
Jeevangee, Z. (1996). A Combative Analysis of Male Managed versus Females (WOS) in the Gilgit Field Management Unit (FMU) AKRSP.
Khan, H. (2007). NGOs and Gender Development the Case of AKRSP in District Chitral NWFP.
Khan, M. H. and Shuab, S. K. (1992). Rural Change In the third world: Pakistan and the Aga Khan Rural support Programme Wesport Connecticut Greenwood press USA
Khan M.H. (2009). Participatory Rural Development in Pakistan. Experience of Rural Support Programmes. Oxford University Press Karachi Pakistan. Khan, A. H. (1978). Ten Decades of Rural Development Paper SNo1 Michigan State University USA.
Khan, M. H. (1998). Climbing the Development Ladder with NGOs Support Experiences of Rural People in Pakistan Oxford University Press Karachi Pakistan.
Khan, M. H. (2001). Community Organizations and Rural Development Experiences in Pakistan Vanguard Press Karachi.
Khawja, N. (2002). The Impact of Women Organization on the Household Decision Making Role of members Chitral Monitoring Evaluation and Research Section AKRSP Aga khan Rural Support Programme.
NGO Resource Centre. (2003). Governing Bodies of Intermediary NGOs in Pakistan. Aga Khan Foundation Karachi Pakistan.
PRSP. (2007). Punjab Rural Support Programme Annual Report Government of the Punjab Lahore Pakistan.
Rasmussen, S. F., MM Piracha,. R Bajwa,. A, Malik and Mansoor (2005). Scaling up Rural Support Programmes in Pakistan. Ending poverty in South Asia Ideas that work www.books.google.com/books 2005.
Snillie, I. and John, Halley. (2001). Managing Change: Leadership Strategy and Management in Asian NGOs London Earth scan.
- 48 -
SRSP. (2009). Sindh Rural Support Programme Planning Monitoring and Evaluation Report Government of Sindh Karachi Pakistan.
UNDP. (1998). Interim Evaluation Report of the National Rural Support Programme United National Development Porgramme UNDP Pakistan office Islamabad.
Wood. G. A. Malik and Sumaira, S. (2006). Valleys in Transition Twenty years of AKRSPS Experience in Northern Pakistan Oxford University Press Karachi Pakistan.
- 49 -
BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. XXXI NO. 2, 2014
Negative Implications of Multigrade Teaching in District Jaffarabad Balochistan
Education
Prof. Dr. Javeed Ahmad Saddique Research Supervisor, Dean H.I.E.S.S Hamdard University Karachi, Pakistan Muhammad Akram M.Phil. Student H.I.E.S.S Hamdard University Karachi, Pakistan Munir Ahmad Jamaldini M.Phil. Student H.I.E.S.S Hamdard University Karachi, Pakistan Abstract In many rural areas of Pakistan there are primary schools with fewer resources or with lack of teaching staff which provide multi-grade classroom teaching, in such situation students of two or three grades are accommodated together and single teacher controls the Class. This research has investigated the problem of the primary schools having fewer resources or with lack of teaching staff provides multi-grade classroom teaching, in such situation students of two or three grades are accommodated together and single teacher controls the Class. The primary purposes of this research is to identify the conditions in multi-grade classrooms of primary schools of district Jaffarabad which cause poor teaching performance and also to examine critically the demands of primary school teachers in multi-grade classrooms with possible long term solutions. Indeed, the study owing to lack of time and resources were restricted to only thirty teachers. Quantitative approach was research stratagem. A questionnaire was used as research instrument. The Research population was the teachers of primary schools in District Jaffarabad Balochistan. Thirty teachers of primary schools from district Jaffarabad were research sample. The data has been analyzed through tabulation and graphics. It was found that there are negative effect of Multi-grade teaching on teachers’ teaching performance. Responses of teachers showed that Multi-grade classroom teaching requires various positive changes as well. In view of the findings constructive recommendations and suggestions were made.
- 50 -
Key words: Balochistan, Classroom, Jaffarabad, Multi-grade Teaching, Performance, Primary Education.
Introduction Pakistan inherited impoverished system of education. Since its independence no significant changes have occurred in the overall education system predominately in primary education. In many rural areas of Pakistan, there are primary schools having fewer resources or lack of teaching staff which provide multi-grade classroom teaching, in such situation students of two or three grades are accommodated together and single teacher controls the Class. District Jaffarabad is one of the most populated and agricultural districts and is in high ranking in term of having large number of public schools. In most of the schools there has multi-grade system where teachers adjust primary grades from 1 to 5 combinly. The basis of this study is to examine negative implications of multi-grade teaching on teacher’s performance. The sample for this research is teachers of primary schools belonging to Sohbatpur area. Multi-grade classroom discusses the teaching of students of different grades, ages and aptitudes in the same group. This is quoted inconsistently in the literature as 'multi-level', 'multiple classes', 'composite classes. This is preferred in developing countries, where the age of enrolment to school fluctuates and where grade replication is common. Same Definition is also supported by Angela Little. Primary education is a stage of education in which children receive education for basic literacy and numeracy steadily until they reach secondary level. Indeed, Children from class one to five are enrolled to primary education in Pakistan. While on the other end, in developed countries children from grade one to six are in primary level. Teacher performance is the way in which a teacher performs his / her skills in classroom to provide acquaintance and utilization of their competences. This is outcome of their struggle in the classroom with which students and use of teaching material in appropriate way.
Problem Testimonial A study on negative effect of multi-grade teaching on teacher’s performance.
Research questions: To explain main situations of multi-grade teaching in a primary school. How do these issues affect teacher’s performance? What provisions can be made for improving teachers’ performance in
- 51 -
multi-grade classrooms.
Limitations of the study The study was limited to the primary school teachers from “District Jaffarabad”. I restricted the study owing to lack of time and resources. Only thirty teachers were selected and the study was further de-limited to the Negative implications of multi-grade teaching on teacher’s performance of district Jaffarabad Balochistan.
Significance of Study The study will be momentous in many features .This will give a clear perception of the issues faced by primary teachers in multi-grade classrooms. The consequence may differs for the fact that this study when finalized will contribute some information which may be of help to the organizations to make a policy that will help to provide resources to primary school teachers. The study will provide the material on the significance of trained teachers who are proficient of teaching in multi-grade classes. The study will be significant for the students as well as to the teachers. This study will also help to find remedies to primary teacher’s poor performance and further will provide with sufficient recommendations for setup of effective teaching. It will guide to make better system for primary level teachers’ teaching in a multi-grade classroom.
Literature Review Multi-grade schools are important be in succession for propaganda immature cultivation in production countries and battle-cry mastermind argue they duff be pervade agile means rising students outcomes and expending education access in conscience-stricken countries and regions.
Multi-grade doctrine is a choice spin an unsullied prepare is answerable for dogma nearly than unite commingle control at a grow in couple classroom and is a eons ago taught the twin point thoughtless foreigner match take components books, irrespective of the Education capacities of children of each age group. The preferred degree in immature areas is suited to inadequate holdings both human and financial. Multi-grade dogma assembly grievously formal on top of everything else in behalf of it is typically systematic an misrepresentation foreign the set of dogmas air Imagine, smith and Barker (1987) the multi-grade classroom is an institute pattern, which are widely used in United States.
- 52 -
N.S Bhardwaj (2008) Teachers in Mono fuse guide has more majority as compared to multi-grade teachers chronicle multi-commingle teachers essay one or additional period pain of work and to meet students learning needs which along with course completion may into the bargain effect students learning. They take on a spirit to crack to handle up with different level at same Era. Multi-grade teachers element multi-dimensional challenges, these are academic and as well as local issues. But the unreserved business of a school is their tenet sketch which cannot be effective and advantage matter-of-fact consequent;
Separate Curriculum provision
• Responding to Students Needs • Planning and preparing • Textbooks for multi-grade classrooms • Time Management • Managing multilevel Learning Events
Multi-grade principles as a proposal have placed duties on teacher for unconventional approaches to meet the need of multi-grade classes. A precept technique in multi-grade classroom contrasts on buss condition. If unite direct is tenet obligation of around grades, she to chis express regrets belief and grace lively and breath the school may set the pupils on the bases of grades, ages, and sex, form diverse groups as well. Student’s scholar takes, more, and assists them to contest on another. (Juvane, 2005; Brusque, 2005) inject identified curricula in multi-grade teaching is certainly high-spirited, and returns in vain instruction as well, multi-grade classrooms must be given separate textbooks. Multi-grade teaching atmosphere is hither in unexcelled of the schools in our Pakistan. Thus, instant a teacher handles out of the ordinary grades, Fight based way of life, identical insight & cataloging room background must take place for effective savoir vivre in the classroom. The teacher has to shelter all the approaches accessible for a direct and involved learning. The prime giving out of a teacher is to repentant forever greenhorn hustling in learning activities without wasting student’s time. Incidentally the reserved of the able stand, the change off students is thankful to complicate in their learning deeds. Multi mix teaching, involves teaching learning actions, production of teaching learning supplies, planning and forming.
(Tamil Nadu) In stripped root to achieve objectives. Succinct (2005) multi-grade teachers’ conscious the mono-grade class as the appropriation
- 53 - order and the multi-grade as the “second class” obligation. Teachers are collective cold to bit in multi-grade classrooms, they judge journey gill effect yowl “get the same” as in mono-grade classrooms and they have insufficient educational materials to support learning in the multi-grade classroom.
Collingwood (1991) Coaching created for single grade is not appropriate to multi-grade curriculum and should be planned for multi-grade classroom teaching.
Kyne (2005) instructional plans are keys to advance the quality of teaching and knowledge in the multi-grade classroom. The promotion of lines that increase the level of student individuality and cooperative group-work incline to be recommended.
Lingam (2006) a teachers decision to choose a particular teaching tactic, over others, should be understood, a number of issues influenced the teachers to operate the program methods. • Lack of professional preparation; and • Limited resources for teaching and learning
• Most of the teachers receive trainings to work in single grade classrooms their familiarity of teaching technique is based on whole class coaching but when these teachers are placed in to multi-grade classroom, they need additional trainings, aids to be operative. There are many of rewards for multi-grade teachers but variability of trials as well, instruction, classroom organization and administration all are compound and challenging. Multi-grade teachers cannot ignore developmental neither differences in students nor be ill-prepared for every day’s tutoring. Demand on teacher time requires well developed organizational skills. Essentially, multi-grade classrooms not for the diffident, inexpert or inexpert teachers.
Titus (2004) Multi-grade teachers’ expression diverse trials, many teachers are either untrained or proficient in single grade pedagogy. Tsolakidis etal. (2005) originate the subsequent to be common requirements among multi-grade teachers there is a deficiency of actual execution organization. The curricular necessities in multi-grade schools agonize as a result; teachers have no hypothetical background on how to teach in multi- grade schools; in most of the syllabi of the departments of education no such subject classed multi-grade teaching is taught.
- 54 -
There is a lack of continuous training and support for teachers.
There is a lack of communication between multi-grade schools and educational community (Teachers) regard the multi-grade classroom as objectionable duty and give significance to teach in single graded resourced classroom.
(White & Reid, 2008) A teacher skilled for single grade teaching is given the charge of teaching in multi-grade setting. The training of teachers should be according to the dwelling and the truths of the situation where the teacher is made-up to teach.
Anaya Karmani Hussain (2013) training teachers to accurately accomplish multi-grade conditions are a approach with abrupt applicability and are eagerly implementable to increase children’s access and involvement in education. In small villages in remote areas, the multi-grade school can also function as a means of firming education for all and this all can be conceivable when teachers are given trainings to teach multi-grade classes, and assist is provided to them for fabricating lesson plan distinctly and good curriculum scheduling made for multi stages.
Multi-grade teaching as a scheme has engaged tasks on teachers for advanced methodologies to meet the need of multi-grade classes. Teaching skills in multi-grade classroom diverges on teacher’s position. If one teacher is schooling charge of all grades, she can make teaching and learning operative and laidback, the teacher may group the pupils on the bases of grades, ages, and gender, create diverse groups too. Students learn more, reinforce, and inspire them to vie on another.
(Juvane, 2005; Little, 2005) using monogramed syllabi in multi-grade teaching is very overwhelming, and results in unfertile coaching as well, multi-grade classrooms must be given distinct schoolbooks. Multi-grade teaching setting is widespread in most of the schools in our Pakistan. So, when a teacher grips many grades, commotion based learning, peer learning & class room culture must take place for operative learning in the classroom. The teacher has to acclimate all the procedures available for a natural and involved learning. The important duty of a teacher is to make every learner involve in learning activities without degenerative students time. With the help of the skilled children, the other students are made to involve in their learning activities. Multi grade teaching, involves teaching learning
- 55 - activities, creation of teaching learning materials, planning and organizing. Little (2001) teacher must formulates activities where both grades can work together and the amount of grade related successive work is reduced. The teacher has almost the same or somewhat different objectives for both levels. He/she may guess something of higher level of the theme from the upper level and rarely the teacher may have some diverse aims for different levels, both the levels are provided equal opportunities to learn and practice the perception in hand and teacher and cope the classrooms efficiently. N.S Bhardwaj (2008) activity based learning is very supportive to enhance self-learning. Teacher can locally organize self-learning material in the corner of classroom. Activity based learning cannot become a part of regular class but can be used as a complement part in a multi-grade classroom. It makes teacher less hampered and students understanding best situations to learn. Teachers Performances can be enhanced if they are trained enough to use such happenings. (Susan Vincent)Teaching in the multi-grade classroom is not easy task for teachers. It is more complex and challenging than the single-grade classroom. A teacher cannot ignore changing differences in students or be ill prepared for a day’s instruction. Demands on teacher time require well- developed managerial skills. Consequently, the multi-grade classroom is not for the in expert or untrained teacher.
Research methodology Quantitative approach was research stratagem. Justification for choosing the quantitative approach of research owing to the deficiency of time and the most significant motive was that to used questionnaire which is the instrument of quantitative research. The questionnaire is used as research instrument. The Research population was the teachers of primary schools in District Jaffarabad Balochistan. Thirty teachers of primary schools from district Jaffarabad were research sample. The data had analyzed through tabulation and graphics.
Findings Findings from above research are illustrated as the negative effect of Multi-grade teaching on their teaching performance. Responses of teachers showed that Multi-grade classroom teaching requires various positive changes. Teachers are the primary source of knowledge in schools, their performance matters a lot for better outcome of students and academic success. Multi-grade classroom teaching affects teacher’s performance because
- 56 -
Teachers need proper training to teach in the Multi-grade classroom system.
Schools infrastructure must be suitable for the needs of Multi-grade system.
Teaching aids are necessary for better performance of teachers.
Separate books and curriculum planning for Multi-grade teachings is essential.
Such teaching approaches are implied, which enhance teacher and student performance.
Suggestions and recommendations:
1. The government should start in service and pre services, trainings separating for Multi-grade teachers. In such trainings teachers will be guided to build better classrooms by Classroom management techniques, Instructional strategies, Lesson Planning, Use of instructional materials. 2. Rural areas in which primary schools have Multi-grade classroom system, sufficient teaching aids should be provided to teachers there for their better performance. 3. Self-learning approaches like activity based learning, peer learning and group activities should be introduced into national curricula to enhance teachers and students' performance. 4. Government should scrutinize the options of providing school based drill to teachers as desired by them for skilled development. 5. Teachers should have a sound academic background. 6. Teachers who are employed in Multi-grade set should be provided with more reassurance, material support and training inputs in order to benefit them develop a positive outlook toward teaching in Multi-grade circumstances. 7. Multi-grade teaching should be embedded in teacher education curricula. 8. Texts and other reading material for Multi-grade schools should be developed separately, including different strategies of teaching for example small group, pair learning and self-learning. 9. A strong observing, rating and response instruments should be built in the territory in order to facilitate the well-organized use of Multi-grade teaching techniques.
- 57 -
Conclusion The following conclusion is founded on the finding of the survey involving “the negative effect of Multi-grade classrooms on the teacher’s performance” from the psychoanalysis of the data it has been reasoned out that insufficient Multi-grade classrooms effect negatively on the teacher’s performance. Skilled teacher is essential for effective instruction and learning to hold home. Inexpert teachers face stimulating condition in the Multi-grade classroom. Instructors leading a teaching space and determining the intelligence of the students so it is necessary for teachers, they should be skillfully fortified with Multi-grade teaching techniques and fabrics. It is necessary for Multi-grade schools provide teachers such facilities. School teachers should be specified according to their academic qualification and professional accomplishments. Summing all up teachers ought to be well aware at each section of educational movement and there must be such teacher training programs for Multi-grade classroom settings that get optimistic variation in the recital of Multi-grade teachers via guidance and documentation.
References
Ali, Nawab. (2011. August). The possibilities and challenges of multigrade teaching in rural Pakistan. (http://ecommons.aku.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&conte xt=pakistan_ied_pdc c) Angela, W. Little. (2001). (Multigrade teaching: towards an international research and policy agenda) (www.elsevier.com/locate/ijedudev) Angelina, white. little. (2009. August 10th). Multigrade teaching: challenges and Opportunities. http://multigrade.ioe.ac.uk/ChinaUNESCO- OxfamConferenceAugust2009.pdf Bruce, A. Miller (1991). A Review of the Qualitative Research on .Multigrade Instruction (http://www.jrre.psu.edu/articles/v7, n2, p3- 12,Miller.pdf) Byro, A. Brown. (2010). Multi-grade Teaching Review of Issues, Trends and Practices Implications for Teacher Education in South Africa. (www.printerboyz.co.za) Catherine Mulryan-Kyne. (2004). Teaching and Learning in Multigrade Classrooms: What Teachers Say
- 58 -
(http://www.jstor.org/stable/30077492) Chris, Berry, Dr. (Multi-grade Teaching: A discussion document) (http://www.ioe.ac.uk/multigrade) C. Montero, 21 (2001). 499–520, (Multi-grade teaching in Peru, Sri Lanka and Vietnam: an overview) International Journal of Educational Development (www.elsevier.com/locate/ijedudev) Catherine, Mulryan-Kyne. (2007). the preparation of teachers for multigrade teaching( https://www.spd.dcu.ie/site/education/)
Dr Byron A Brown. Faculty of Education, University of Fort Hare. (2008), (Multigrade teaching: A review of selected literature and implications for teacher education and training in South Africa) (Christopher Thomas and Christopher Shaw)Issues in the Development of Multigrade Schools Margaret Gayfer. (1994). The Multi-grade Classroom: Myth and Reality: a Canadian Study By Canadian Education Association (Googlebooks.com)
SALOSHINI MUTHAYAN. (October 1999), A Case Study of Multigrade teaching in Canada: Implications for South Africa
Siddique. (1990). an Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Teacher Preparation Programs in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan http://thejournalofbusiness.org/index.php/site/article/viewFile/124/123
N.S Bhardwaj. (2008), Multigrade teaching ( Googlebooks.com)
Susan, Vincent. (1999. November). Rural Education Program the Multigrade Classroom: a resource handbook for small, rural schools UNESCO. (1989). Multigrade Teaching in Single Teacher Primary Schools. V. Jean Russell, Kenneth J. Rowe and Peter W. Hill. (December, 1998). Effects of multigrade classes on student progress in literacy and numeracy: Quantitative evidence and perceptions of teachers and school leaders98. (http://www.swin.edu.au/aare/98pap/rus98154.html)
- 59 -
BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. XXXI NO. 2, 2014
Balishtan or Balochistan, Ancient name and history
History
Ghulam Farooq Assistant Professor, Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan Parvez Ahmed Research Officer, Pakistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan Yousaf Ali Rodeni Assistant Professor, Pakistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan Mrs. Saeeda Mengal Assistant Professor, Department of History University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan
Abstract Balochistan is the biggest province of Pakistan. It is known all over the world for its geo-political, geo-strategic importance and rich mineral resources. Its total area is 340,000 sq. miles. At present Balochistan is divided into three countries, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan. This region is confluence between east and west because of geographical importance but it is not visible still that when the word Balochistan was used for the first time by writers and historians? How this region was influenced by foreign interferences where Balochistan was standing when the Aryan attacks had changed the map of the world? This article is important in the sense because it not only highlights the historical prospects of Balochistan but also focuses on the role of attackers and rulers who occupied this region at different times. This article is a small effort to find out the ancient name of this region, identification of people who lived here, there life style, culture etc. in light of work of famous historians of Balochistan. The objectives behind this study are to overview the ancient name and history of word Balochistan and as well as to find out the original natives of the said area. This study is descriptive in nature and the Primary and secondary, both kind of sources were consulted for the purpose.
- 60 -
Key words: Abbasid, Arabs, Aryan, Balishtan, Balochistan, Dashth, Hillocks, Ibn-e-Hokal, Mastunj, Mekran, Mineral Resources, Sibbi, Walishtan.
Introduction Balochistan, which is at present divided between three different countries of the world, is a compact unit. Its total area according to historians is 340,000 sq. miles. (Baloch: 1987.P-19) But this area is divided in Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan and each part is called Balochistan separately. The part of Balochistan which is incorporated with Pakistan, its total area is 1,34,002 sq. miles (Kausar: 1997. P-13) Sindh and Punjab are in the east Khyber Pakhtun Khua in north east, Afghanistan is in the north, Iran is in the west and in south the coast of Mekran, Arab Ocean’s (Baloch Ocean) 600 miles long seashore is located in this part of Balochistan. It is mostly a mountaineous region where short and high mountain ranges are spread in different angles. The west region of Balochistan is deserted and consists of plane land. Kharan, Chaghi, Dalbandin, Taftan, Nokundi, and Noshki are located in this desert. Although they are located in central, southern and northern mountain ranges of Balochistan. Central Harboi range, Suleman range, Toba kakari hills (Imran range), Kirther range, Pub Mountain, central Mekran range and Sehan are included in famous mountains. Although forests are very rare in these mountains, but these forests are rich in various bushes, herbs, and precious minerals. Many types of minerals and mineral resources had been discovered from these mountains, and many of them have been used. There is no such a river in Balochistan which flows through the year continuously, but in rainy days water flows in drains and canals from mountains which ruins most of areas. These canals and drains which are called “Khaur or Jhal” in Balochi, flows in rainy days and ruins everything that comes in the way. Although water is available in few rivers throughout the year which used for agriculture and irrigation, Hangol, Rakhshan, Nari, Mula, Bolan, Zhob, Kech, Dasht, Nahang, Baddo, Porali, koshak, Hub and Pub Rivers are included in famous rivers of Balochistan.
Historical background of Balochistan The political and national history of Balochistan is very old and immeasureable; land marks of ancient age are the witness that politically Balochistan was very important from ancient times till today. Literary the warm sea has increased the importance of Balochistan and its people. Expertises have declared it a confluence between the east and west because of its geographical importance. (Baloch, 2012. P-51) It is a fact that without crossing the huge and vast but difficult way of Balochistan, one cannot travel
- 61 - from east to west or west to east, because huge and vast deserted regions, plane lands and difficult mountainous rivers are located from both angles. And this midway from Iran to Sindh is consists of hundreds of miles. The biggest problems are the unavailability of food and water which create troubles for travelers, but apart from these problems Balochistan had been an important region since ancient past. Most authentic sources have proved that Balochistan became a human living region since Neolithic and Agriculture era. The first biggest village system of the world was established in this region. Thousands of hillocks of clay are witness to a big population of people who were living here in village system in ancient agriculture era. This village system was ruined by Aryan attackers and earlier by Jhukar civilization of Sindh. These words of D.D Kosambi are absolutely true that the early population of Balochistan was destroyed by Aryans. He writes: “There (Aryan’s) biggest achievement was cruel destruction of the boundaries of greater river cultures of before Christ. Aryan’s have adopted the local technique and moved ahead which was suitable for them. Destructions which they left back were tough for locals to recover”. (Kosambi: 2012. P-109) Ancient civilization of Balochistan was located away from river regions, where instead of vast and grand city a united village system was established. Ancient human cultured life began there and technical work had started in shape of different industries. Ceramic, Pottery Industry, Carpanting, Farming and Agriculture were started from this part undoubtedly. This spread its net from east to west and became the cause of birth of civilization. Later it faded in front of uprising powers. A time came when this complete region influenced by foreign interference’s and ancient culture, civilization abolished when this region was completely influenced. Ancient people of Balochistan couldn’t develop due to Aryan attacks and always were the victims of attackers. The attacks and occupation of Aryans in east and west had changed the map of the world. Cruel attackers made huge states by force, many Aryan families established marvelous states in India and Iran when they came into power and became famous in the history. After Aryan attacks written history was established, different nations came into being and regions had been divided among various nations. The wheel of history moved on while grinding the land of Balochistan. Attackers continued to come one after another which resulted in the backwardness of this region from other dense populated areas in the process of social evolution. After Aryan attacks people of Balochistan gathered and became united under the rule of local tribes but powerful nations always kept attacking and ruined this region. In 550 B.C Aryan Achaemenians have destroyed the government of Med Baloch tribes and established a new kingdom. (Baloch, 2012. P-284) Med Baloch tribes
- 62 - started their government in 837 or 550 BC most probably in present Iranian region. (Ibid. Pp-283-84) Because Assur (Assyrians) of Iraq were increasing and rushing towards Med region this danger united Meds to face the challenge. All the tribes of this part became united and Kaikubad Med was declared the first ruler. Badakhshani dictates it as Deveksas and he writes the year of death 655 BC. (Badkhishani: 1967. Pp-19-20) this region was given a name of Medistan (Media) where Kaikubad and his tribal people lived. This period is not so visible in the history but we can find details in pre-history and from the writings of Herodotus (Herodotus: 2001. P-73) Alberoni (Alberoni: 2002. P-148) Firdausi (Firdosi: Mascow. N.D. Pp-30-207) Mirza Maqbool Baig Badakhshani (Badkhishani: 1967. P-73). Med tribes were defeated in a battle by Achaemenians in command of Ibn e Kumbisas and occupied their state. (Herodotus: 2001. Pp-80-84) Achaemenians changed the name of this region and new name was Faras (Iran) as it was his forefather’s name. This shows that he was an Aryan. Now Baloch region was occupied by Iranians and later this government was abolished by Alexander in 331 BC. (Badkhishani: 1967. Pp-144-66). He conquered this region till India, defeated Raja Pores and moved to Bayas River. He returned through Jahlawan (Region of Balochistan presently Khuzdar and surroundings) Lasbela and Mekran. Greek Historians have also mentioned the names of these regions. Alexander moved from Balochistan in 326 BC and died in 323 BC. (Ibid. Pp- 179-84) His descendants fought for his states and General Salyokus Nectar succeeded and eastern occupations of Alexander including Balochistan came in his control. (Ibid. Pp-179-84) Salyokus Nectar attacked India where a brave young king Chandergupt Moria was ruling and his minister Chankia Acharia was a genius and clever person. Salyokus Nikotar (Nectar) was defeated badly when he attacked India in 305 BC. Chandar Gupta Moria demanded war losses and Nectar was left in disgrace. (Dehwar: 1990. Pp- 190-91) This region was far away from them and resources were not enough that’s why they left it and this region remained autonomous. At that time Baloch region was divided between Hindus, Bactria and Greeks, Ashkani tribes in south khurasan established their government with the support of local tribes in 249 BC. (Badkhishani: 1967. P-227). This united the Meds Region slowly. Ashkani is an important Baloch tribe and they are also called Askani or Ashkhani. Infact this period was known as disorder but important in the sense that Government was established by local tribes. (Ibid. P-225) They stopped Greek and Indian activities in the region and local people were freely allowed for their activities. Ashkani government was destroyed by a Persian tribe named Sassanid. The pioneer of the Government was Ardsher bin Papak. (Ibid. Pp-325-26) He defeated Ashkanies in 226 BC and Ex- Government of Iran was rehabilitated because Sassanids were saying they
- 63 - were the real descendants of Achaemenians, but the Ashkanies donot belong from them. Sassanids spread the borders of Iran till India (Punjab) in the east, Balochistan region was occupied totally and Persian civilization reached its peak. (Ibid. P-325) Arab invaders have ruined the Sassanid state in period of ten years from 634.A.D, to 644.A.D, and great Persian civilization became a past. In 644 the last year of Caliph Umr-e-Farooq, Arab troops reached Mekran and in time of Hazrat Ali they moved in interior Balochistan, later in Umayyad period they occupied Sindh as well. From early history to Arab occupations different areas of Balochistan were known in different names. Local tribes of Balochistan governned here for two times up to the Arab invasion but the ancient name Madistan couldn’t rehabilitate. Regions of Balochistan were divided with the passage of time and were known in different names for example: Mekran, Siestan, Khurasan, Kirman, Mazindran, Gilan, Tooran, Kekanan, Armabeel and Kandabeel, Mastunj, Sebi, Balishtan etc. this region was divided in various provinces during Arab period.
Balishtan or Balochistan Now a Question arises when the word Balochistan was used in written shape first? And on what areas this region was included? Definitely this would have been a controversial question in past as well. Without any research historians have given it a name according to their opinion but they did not try to find out the answer with the help of research as they might be proved wrong? Most of historians think that the word Balochistan is not very old and used in near past for this region. According to Dr Inamul Haq Kausar first time this word was used by Nadir Shah Afshar, the king of Iran in eighteenth century. He named it Balochistan because Baloch tribes were living here. (Kausar: 1997. P-13) But people also connect this word with Noori Naseer Khan that he gave this region a name after treaty of Kalat 1758. (Baloch. 2012. P-16) Infact Western and Local historians are mute about the ancient name of Balochistan. They just have estimated opinions and few of them compare it to word Balkistan. (Naseer: 1999. P-92). They also interlink it to ancient Iraq Deity Baal and try to prove that Baloch are Semitic race, In short the historians could not make a final opinion about it. Ancient history of Balochistan has been very chaotic. After Aryan attacks political and geographical changes came in all over the world .This region was also not safe from impacts. Experts of archaeology have found out some reasons which highlight the invisibility of Balochistan’s prehistory. Majority of western historians have done archaeological work in Balochistan, Iran and Oman. According to them when a government of Akkad was established in Iraq, they had huge trade relations through dry and dank ways to ancient
- 64 - civilization of Sindh. According to them caravans of Iraq moved from Mekran (Balochistan) and reached to Sindh. They also used sea for trade. Caravans cruised through the coast of Oman and moved towards Sindh along Mekran coast. According to experts, the ancient name of Sindh was Melooha and used “Magan” for Mekran. Famous historian D. D Khosambi writes about it: “The civilization of Sindh valley belongs to silver era, although long and thin pieces of biller are used for knives and other weapons. The utensils found in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa was made of silver. They were very useful and were not made of browns, they were the composition of Rang and pure silver and elements of some other iron were used. Raw material was bought from Balochistan, where it was available in large quantity and used to export to west. This result can be found in documents of babul and early history. The trade centre between Sindh and Iraq was in Bahrain in the Persian Gulf. According to tradition of Iraq its name was Talmoon where spiritual personality “Noha” has spent time to save himself from great disaster and Ghalghamesh (Gull Gamesh) find it out in search of mortality. In ancient Persian words of clay in Pekani letter tells an especially community used to trade from the way of Bahrain called “Talmoon” and recent excavation had proved these words. Although still a pile of one lake graves are unsearched. Some round stamps were found from cities of Sindh and Mesopotamia which were invented in Bahrain. Later traders had got lots of benefits in presence and security of the king of Syria but he would be their biggest customer as well. People of Mesopotamia called the Sindh region as”Melooha”.The discussion of Melooha ends in 1750 B.C; it means attackers have blocked trade ways. There was another trade Centre named Magan or Makan which could not located yet might be it was somewhere between the coast of India (Sindh) and Bahrain.(Kosambi: 2012. P-85-86) Statement of Kosambi verifies that if not Balochistan but the name of Mekran was same since pre-history and its civilization used to play the role of a bridge between civilizations of East and West. Caravans of both sides used this way to move. We can make a statement in the light of the opinions of experts and from archaeological discoveries that human being were living in Balochistan in huge numbers in past. They also had trade and cultural relations with the world. Now it is the need of time that ancient names of these regions must be searched through research on the pages of history. Study of ancient and Pre-history is needed strongly for aim and achievement of this work. Trade relations of Mekran were existing with other parts of the world of course population of Balochistan would not be exempt of it where many archaeological sites of ancient period are present in shape of hillocks.
- 65 -
Discussion of different areas of Balochistan is found since beginning of written history. When the modern name of Iran did not exist other kingdoms of that period of history like Madistan of Meds, Tooran of Tooranies, India , China, (Khatan) Central Asia and the states of semi nations of east in Iran, its capital was Babul, Egyptian kingdom in Africa. Governments of Baloch tribes were established in Madistan (Media) and Tooran (Central Balochistan including Siestan and southern Khurasan). Although the ruling family of Iran was Turkish but total population of South Tooran were tribes of Koch and Baloch. South Tooran was included on South Khurasaan, some parts of Siestan and Central Balochistan. Med tribes were Baloch and their total estate was called Madistan or Media. This state was included from north to Russia, south to Iran, some parts of Central Asia, presently west Balochistan and Siestan. It was a great kingdom and elites of Meds call them Kiyani means “Naiki”. (Badkhishani: 1967. P-19-20) In the history of that period names of various cities are visible, but word Balochistan could not be found in ancient era. After Arab attacks total areas of Balochistan was occupied by them and they ruled almost four hundred years. In that period Balochistan became a passageway for Turks and also some areas were occupied by local tribes. Periods of Arab and Turks were known as periods of anarchy because they made it a battle field where chaos and indiscipline ruled for a long time. Siestan, Mekran, Khurasan, and central Balochistan all the areas were volatile. Although Arab period also included battles and anarchy but their writers, tourists and historians collected and wrote very important information which highlighted the invisible history of these regions. Arab historians and tourists visited different areas of Balochistan and gathered entire collection of information, then gave them a written shape. Today history followers have got precious information and became aware of ancient history of this region. Historians and tourists have visited throughout Balochistan for years and then they wrote about Baloch tribes and history. Many famous historians were found in Arab period, their books on history are of highest class and today scholars get help from those old books for research. Ibn e Hokal, Allama Ibn e Khuldoon, Al-Muqaddisi, Al-Masoodi, Al-Blazari, Ibn e Rusta, Al-Yaqoobi, Ibn-e-Maskavia and Ibn-e-Khirdazba are famous geographers and historians of Arab period. These historians give detail information about Baloch tribes and their living areas in their precious books on History and Geography. History of Balochistan during Arab period and afterwards is complete and clear because of great work of these writers. With the help of these writings today we know that word Balochistan in written was used. After the study of these resources this information comes to knowledge that Balochistan was divided in different regions by Arab rulers
- 66 - for administrative needs and each region was given a different name, like Kandabeel to Gandava, Armabeel to Lasbela, Kaikanan to Kalat, Tooran to Khuzdar, Mashki to Mashkay, Makran to Mekran, Sajistan to Siestan,etc. In same way for a particular region Balishtan, Walishtan or Beloshtan was used. These words were used for a region which is known today as east and west Balochistan. Names of famous cities of Balishtan were written by Arab historians as well. According to them Balishtan was spread from Kandahar (Region of Afghanistan) to Sibbi. Mastung was also a famous city of Balishtan. A famous historian and geographer Ibn-e -Hokal used the word “Balesh and Balishtan (Walishtan)” first time in his very famous book Soorat-ul-Arz. (Ibn-e-Hoqal: N.D. P-352,55) G. Lee Strange writes that: “Arab geographers have discussed about two regions in north east of Mekran near the borders of India, “Tooran” its capital was Kassdar and “Budha” north of Tooran, its capital was Kandabeel. Kassdar was discussed earlier by a conquest Sultan Mehmood Ghaznavi. According to Ibn-e-Hokal this city was situated on the corner of a River, there was a trench in centre of city and land around city was very fertile, Grapes, Pomegranate and fruits related to cold areas were produced here. Muqaddisi says, this city is situated on both sides of waterless river. First part of castle was for Sultan and second part was used by traders to live called, Bodain or Bodin. People of Khurasan used to purchase things from shops of these traders. Muqaddisi also writes that houses were made of clay and canals were made for water but they were waterless and infected. Northern areas were always considered part of Tooran but these areas were also called part of Buddha. Biggest city of this region was Kandabeel now called Gandava. This city is located on the south of Sibbi and in the east of Kalat. Ibn-e-Hokal writes that Kandabeel was a big city, it was same Kaikaan city but trees of date were not grown here. According to books of tourists structure of the city can be imagined as like Kalat. Names of other cities of Tooran were also written but the search of them is not possible. There are differences about names. On north of Tooran and Buddha, Balis or Walishthan and its city sibbi was situated” (Strange: 1986. Pp-499-500) Now if we accept Arabic word Balis, Walish or Balish which means Baloch then undoubtedly the word that was written by Ibn-e-Hokal in 950.A.D. was Balochistan. According to Arab historians, this region spread from Kandahar to Sibi. Collectively this area was called Balish, Balis, Beloos, Walish, Walishtan or Balishthan. He aslo mentions names of some cities like Sibbi, Mastunj and Asfanjae. Location of Sibbi and Mastanj had been mentioned by historians and researchers but they could not locate Asfanjae. G. Lee Strange also writes the location of this city unknown. (Ibid.
- 67 -
P-524) The researcher has disclosed the location of this village in the valley of Dasht near Quetta and this town or village now called (Aspalanj). G. lee. Strange further writes about Balishtan: “The Arab geographers have mentioned names of areas around Sibbi as Balis, Balish (Balosh or Baloch in Arabic) or Walishtan. According to Istakhari capital of this region was Sibbi. Ruler of this region used to live in trench which was located on some distance from Asfanjae. Exact location of this place is unknown, only information we have it was located in north of Sibbi near road to Zarnaj. Istakhri and Firdosi have discussed Mastung or Mastunj city and they have also mentioned two thousand two hundred villages of it.” (Ibid. Pp-524-25) From above statements it is clear that during Arab period the word Balishtan was used for Quetta, Sibbi, Mastung and Kandahar etc. If we thoroughly observe the comparison of words then Balish is the wrong form of Balosh, somewhere it is written beloos. Writer of book” Tabqat-e-Nasiri” says that belos was old name of Kandahar. (Siraj: 1995. P-1018) This statement makes it further clear that word Balishtan, Walishtan, or Beloshtan used for above mentioned areas in Arab and Abbasid period importantly. Persian and Arab historians who came later used word Balish, Walishtan or Balishtan in their books and write names of various cities considering it a province. The writer of this research article has published an article in Balochistan review and proved it in light of many historical facts that word Balochistan was used in Abbasid period. (Baloch, 2010. Pp-22-27) Major. H.G Reverti who was a famous British army officer, writer and translator of many important books also mentioned name of Qandahar as Balyos many times in his book “Notes on Afghanistan and Balochistan”. (Raverty: 1999. Pp-801-02) He discuss the Arab province Balishtan in his same book too. (Raverty: 1999. P-802) The detail of statement is not possible in this short essay but proof about the province Balishtan, Walishtan or Beloshtan of Arab period can be found in books which have been given in references.
Conclusion In light of the statements of historians it is visible that word Balochistan was first time used by Arabs. Ibn-e-Hokal was the first historian who used this word in his book Soorat-ul-Arz and declared it an important province of Abbasid Caliphet; he also mentioned various cities like, Sibbi, Mastanj and Isfanjay etc. Researchers and scholars received help from books of Ibn-e- Hokal about Balochistan and different cities then included them in their publications. These statements makes it clear that word Balochistan was used in Abbasid period and it might be that this word had been used in Persian era
- 68 - as well and later Arabs have continued the same name. It is also possible that words Belosh and Balish came out of word Baloch which later called Walishtan or Balishtan. Remember that neighbors of Baloch, Afghan or Pashtoon tribes use words Belos or Balos for Baloch people and same problem is with Arabs that they cannot pronounce “ch”, so it is also possible that this word was used for this region before Islam. Surely Baloch populations were living in south Afghanistan from pre-history and references are found in ancient books in detail. This area used to call south Khurasan and Siestan where the majority of population was Baloch and they were the ancient and real inhabitants of this region. References of Baloch settlers are found in historical books and more research on this topic can be helpful in finding facts and bringing the ancient name of Balochistan in the spotlight.
- 69 -
References
Al-Beroni, Abu-Rehan. (2002). Aasar-ul-Baqia. Muqtadirrah Qaumi Zaban, Islamabad. Badkhishani, Maqbool Baig, Mirza. (1967). Tareekh-e-Iran: Az Qaum Maad ta AAl-Sasan. Majlis Tarraqqi Adab, Lahore. Baloch, Farooq. (2010). Balis or Belos the ancient name of Qandahar, Balochistan Review. Bi-annual Research Journal,Vol: XXIII, No.1. ISSN No:1810-2174, Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta. Baloch, Farooq. (2012). Balochistan kay tehzeebi naqoosh. Fiction House, Lahore. Baloch, Farooq. (2012). Khan-e-Azam Naseer Khan Noori Hakoomat-o- Siasat aur Shakhsiat-o-Kirdar. Fiction House, Lahore Baloch, Inayatullah. (1987). The Problem of Greater Balochistan. GMBH. Stuttgart, Germany Dehwar, Mohammad. Saeed. Malik. (1990). Tareekh-e-Balochistan. Nisa Traders, Quetta. Firdosi, Ab-ul-Qasim. (N.D). Shahnamah. Moscow. Herodotus, (2001). Dunya ki qadeem tareen tareekh. Translated by: Yasir Jawwad, Nigarishat, Lahore. Ibn-e-Hoqal, (N.D). Soorath-ul-Arz. Manshoorat Darul Maktabah Al-Hayat, Beirut. Kausar, Inamulhaq. (1997). Balochistan azadi kay baad. Mushawirah Taleemi Tehqeeq, Quetta. Kosambi, D.D. (2012). Qadeem Hindustan: Tehzeeb-o-Tammaddun. Book Home, Lahore. Naseer. Gul Khan, Mir, 1999, Koch-o-Baloch. Sells & Services, Quetta Siraj, Minhaj-ud-Din. (1995). Tabqat-e-Nasiri. Translated by: H.G. Raverty (Maj:) Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta
- 70 -
Strange, G. Lee. (1986). Jughrafia Khilafat-e-Mashriqi. Translated by: Professor Mohammad Jameel-ur-Rehman, Muqtadirrah Qaumi Zaban, Islamabad.
- 71 -
BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. XXXI NO. 2, 2014
British Forward Policy in Balochistan
HISTORY Shazia Jaffar Research Officer Pakistan Study Centre University of Balochistan. Quetta, Pakistan
Abstract In the British forward policy, the social and economic infrastructure of Balochistan represented almost all characteristics of a desert society, such as isolation, group feeling, hospitality, tribal enmity. There was not any area in Balochistan that could be considered an urban settlement. This paper presents a historical survey of the involvement of Balochistan in the particular era, those circumstances and factors have been examined that brought the British to Balochistan. The first Afghan war was fought apparently to send a message to Moscow that the British would not tolerate any Russian advances towards their Indian empire .To what extant the Russian threat, or for that matter, the earlier French threat under Napoleon, were real or imagined, is also covered in this paper.
Key words: Afghanistan. British Balochistan, Chandragupta Maurya, Forward Policy, Gulf, Kalat, Persian.
Summary The holistic account of British Forward policy in Balochistan begins with the Great Game in which Russia, France and England were involved. The Russians were looking for access to warm water. After many abortive attempts Russian concentrated on the central Asian steppes in order to find route to the Persian Gulf as well as the Indian Ocean. The British perceived the Russian advances in the central Asia as a threat to their Indian empire because of the ancient historical, religious and cultural linkages between Central Asia and South Asia. This linkage goes all the way back to the period of Indus valley civilization. Successive Indian rulers from Chandragupta Maurya onwards persued a Forwards policy towards Central Asia. In turn successive Central Asia leaders and people penetrated South Asia during the latter long period of internal weakness. Both the areas were particularly linked since the sultanate period. A part from religious, cultural and linguistic links, commercial relations were perhaps more important. The British did not
- 72 - want to lose the trade with central Asia, No wonder; Russian advances in central Asia were cause for much concern in London. In the end of the eighteen century the Russians had occupied the Central Asian steppes and in fact had started sending diplomatic mission to Iran and Afghanistan. (Louis 1977 p362). After his initial success in Egypt and Syria in 1798, Napolean has sent mission to the Qajar Shah of Iran. A military mission was also sent to train the Iranian Army. The other area of the French contact was Mysore under Tipu Sultan who was fighting a war against the British after the defeat and death of Tipu Sultan in 1799, the French concentrated on Iran. The Russian defeated the Iranians in 1807, Iran lost more territory to Russia and they also lost faith in the French pledges of help against the Russians. The British did not wait for long to take advantage of the situation, the British resident in Basra offered the Shah of Iran 125,000 amount and several diamonds from George 11th to fight the Russians, not only that he sent Mountstruarts Elphinstone to Peshawar, where the ruler of Kabul, Shah Shuja-Ul-Mulk had his capital in winter. Elphinstone managed to extract a treaty of mutual defense between the British and the Afghans. (Fraser1967,p 80) Although the battle of Waterloo in 1815 put an end to the French threats to the British India, the Russian presence remained effective in the region. Russians emerged as major rivals of the British in Asia. The Iranians tried to recover their lost territories from the Russians but invariably ended up losing even more, The “Anglo-Persian treaty” of 1814, (Anwar, 1963p4) which promised military and financial aid to the Iranians against Russia. Infact when Shah Abbas Mirza Qajar tried to recover part of the Caucasus in 1826. (Tyler. 1967.p 81)With the help of the British, it again resulted in a disastrous defeat. To add to their woes, the British never fulfilled their commitments. By the treaty of received a heavy indemnity from the Iranians along with external territorial rights and commercial advantages. It seemed that British had some sort of understanding with Russians and infact wanted to weaken Iran so that it would no longer pose a threat the British interests in India and Afghanistan on the one hand, they signed treaties with Iran for help in case of foreign invasion and on the other, with Afghan against the Iranians, it was evident in Elphinstone’s contacts with Shah Shuja. (Louis, 1977,p 365) In 1809, Shah Shuja was replaced, and after unsuccessful attempts to seek help from different rulers of the area, he fled to Lahore in 1813, he became a British pensioner, by now the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh had become a formidable power and the British sought their help in reinstating Shah Shuja to the throne of Kabul. However, after many years of civil war, Afghans acknowledged Dost Mohammad Khan as the Amir of Kabul. In the process, the Afghans had lost their territories in Sindh and Balochistan. The
- 73 -
Mirs of Sindh and Khans of Balochistan had broken away from the influence of Kabul. During the turmoil and uncertainty in Afghanistan, the Sikhs had occupied Peshawar in 1834. In 1836 Amir Dost Mohammad Khan defeated the Sikhs, they had almost recovered Peshawar but instead of occupying the city, he sought British approval. He sent a letter to the new Governor General, Lord Auckland, and asked permission for retaining Peshawar. (Louis 1977, p 369) Ironically, “Auckland himself”, according to the Fraser Tytler, “in fact, was the responsible for the First Afghan War”, (Tytler 1967, p 84) According to him “Auckland went to war to safeguard the internal rather than the external frontier. (Yapp, 1980, p253) He dispatched Captain Alexander Burnes to sort out the Afghanistan situation. Burnes arrieved at Kabul in 1837. He declared that the objectives of his mission were to restore commercial relation between India and central Asia and to work out the policy for opening River Indus for commerce. (John William 1999, p18) Amir Dost Muhammad Khan wanted British help in recovering Peshawar, only to realize soon that British would do nothing at the expense of their relationship with the Sikh. Interestingly, on December 19, 1837, a Russian Diplomat, Captain lvan Vickovich, arrived at Kabul with letter from the Russian Government, for the same purpose that Burnes had come. (Norris 1967, p134) In order to make the British position absolutely clear Burnes, the British envoy delivered the following ultimatum to Dost Muhammad Khan on March 6, 1838, “You must desist from all correspondence with Persia and Russia: You must never receive agents from them or have ought to do with him without our sanction: You must dismiss Captain Vickovich with courtesy: You must surrender claims to Pashawar on your. Account as that chief belongs to Maharaja Ranjeet Singh, you must also respect the Independence of Qandahar and Pashawar and cooperate in arrangement to unit your family”. (Louis1977, p371) The British did not recover Peshawar from Sikhs, Disappointed and frustrated Dost Mohammad Khan entered into negotiations with the Russian representative. This event in Kabul made the British reassess their policy in the region, which ultimately led to their occupation of Balochistan. Lord Auckland sent an army to Persian Gulf to occupy Kharaj Island in June 1838. At the same time, a treaty was signed between the British, the Sikh ruler (Ranjit Singh) and Shah Shuja, the treaty stipulated that with the Sikh and the British help Shah Shuja would rule Kabul and Qandahar. (john William1999,p319-23) In turn Shah Shuja would recognize the Sikh government in the Punjab, in North-west Frontier including Peshawar and Kashmir, but excluded from further advances against the Amirs of Sindh.
- 74 -
Shah Shuja surrendered himself before the British and aligned his destiny with the Indian subcontinent, rather than with Central Asia. The Governor General was convinced that a friendly power and intimate connection with Afghanistan, a peaceful alliance with Lahore and an established influence in Sindh are objects for which some hazard may well be run. (Embree1979,p30- 31) Consequently, the British raised a large military force known as the Army of Indus, at Ferozpur to attack Afghanistan and install Shah Shuja on the throne of Kabul. When the time came for the Indus Army to attack on Afghanistan, Ranjit Singh not only withdraw his pledge to support the mission, but also refused to Indus Army (general Keane) to march through his territory. General Keane had to find an alternative route through sindh and Balochistan. Keeping in view the most hostile government, he denuded Balochistan a better resources to keep his army moving. (Naseer. 2000, p.49) The British had already signed a treaty with the Khan of Kalat in, March 1839, who honored this agreement to the best of his abilities. The Indus Army reached Quetta in 1839, for its onward journey to Qandahar. The Indus Army occupied Qandahar and entered Kabul along with Shah Shuja without any resistance. Dost Muhammad Khan fled to Bukhara. During this period two important events influenced the future. Ranjit Singh died in 1839, and thus the British prospects of occupying the Punjab became brighter, secondly the Britsth realized that the Shah Shuja was extremely unpopular among the Afghans and if they withdrew their forces, he would be dethroned, it was therefore decided to maintain a British garrison in Afghanistan. Realizing the difficulty of persuading the Afghan chief to accept a British ‘stooge” as their leader, William Macnaghten was sent to do the job. Almost every conceivable move was made to reconcile the people to Shah Shuja but in vain, in the letter of Captain Macgregor, he confessed. ‘I have been striving in vain to sow Nifaq (dissension) among the rebels and it is perfectly wonderful how they hang together’ Finally, in desperation, the British decided to leave Afghanistan and their retreat proved the foolishness of the adventure. Their retreat began on January 1842. In addition to the hazards of the freezing weather, the resistance and the attacks of the local people combined to make this retreat one of the most humiliating and bloody in the history of wars. (Naseer.2000 p, 53) The first Afghan war proved to be more disastrous for Sindh and Balochistan. The British had realized the importance of the both there area and central Asia policy. The logistic important of the area especially the coasted area of Balochistan attacked them for pursuance of their forward policy westward. They wanted to capture a suitable port (Jiwani) which was
- 75 - on few days cruise from London to Bombay, they had already acquired Karachi Port facilities in 1820s. They were well aware of the political and administrative set up of the local ruler. By signing a treaty in October 1841. The Khan of Kalat agreed that the British Government would station troops in Kalat, control its foreign relations and rule the state with the British Resident. Within the next few years. The British had annexed Sindh (1843) and the Punjab (1849) and now there was hardly any possibility for the Khan of Kalat to look for a potentially in neighborhood. (Aitchison vol .xi p, 351-52) Now the British realized that it was their best interest to keep the pressure through the frontiers to make sure that the Russians did not succeed in their efforts to move towards Herat and then to Qandahar. But when the Iranians, encouraged the Russians, occupied Heart in 1853, it was considered as a clever Russian move the British immediately moved to establish friendly relations with Amir Dost Muhammad khan of Kabul through treaty of Peshawar in 1855. But the new treaty (1854) recognized the khan as an independent ruler while he was expected to oppose the enemies of British and to be friendly with their supporters. Another treaty was signed at Mastung in 1876, by which khan’s authority was recognized over the area from south of Kalat to Arabian Sea and west of Sindh to Iran including Lasbela. The treaty of 1862 was further strengthened, when the boundary between Balochistan and British Indian was defined and Kalat was declared and as a neighboring state of India. The subsidy was also doubled. (Aitchison, p353) The Khan of Kalat signed the treaty of 1863 to safeguard the British installations. The British Government agreed to pay 20,500 rupees per annum to the Khan for the establishment of posts and development of traffic along the trade routes. In this year khan received further boost from the death of Amir Dost Mohammad khan, the ruler of Kabul. In fact, the British Agent in Qandahar repoted to the government that khan of Kalat, Mir Khudadad khan had offered the province of Shal (Quetta) to the ruler of Qandahar if they latter would assist him in consolidating his position at Kalat.(Aitchison p357) The British had realized now that, for the Khan to be an effective and successful ruler, it was essential that he should have the best of relations with the sardars of different tribes in his area, it was stipulated that it would be better if the British presence were secured in that area to ensure that this relationship remain good and cordial as wells as to keep an eye ever the activities of the khan. It was in the view that British occupied Quetta in 1876 through the treaty of Mastung. This treaty was imposed on the khan by the special representative of the Governor General Sir Robert Sandeman, in this way the British influence in affairs of Balochistan had increase. Now the
- 76 - situation had changed and the British had assumed more power in this region. This treaty of course led to the construction of telegraph and railway lines through the kalat territory. The influence around Quetta and Bolan Pass and the Khan’s control was reduced to nominal. (Mir Ahmed.1890p22-23) In order to understand the subsequent events in Balochistan, we have to take into account how the British perceived their interests in Afghanistan. As discussed earlier, the relevance of the vast territory of Balochistan to the British Empire became manifest during the first Afghan war (1839-1842), which was apparently fought to protect Afghanistan from Russian influence. Since Balochistan provided easy access to Qandahar and Herat, development in Afghanistan and Central Asia shaped the British policy towards Balochistan. A loyal and friendly Balochistan definitely meant a safe and reliable launching pad for the necessary intervention in Afghanistan and even in Iran. We shall see how the ‘Great Game’ shaped the destiny of Balochistan after the second Afghan War. On the other hand the situation changed in Afghanistan, when the new viceroy, Lord Lyten, added fuel to the fire, he demanded that Mir of Kabul Sher Ali should accept a British resident at his court, on the refusal, he invaded Afghanistan in 1878, and second Anglo-afghan war started, frustrated Amir Sher Ali had to escape to Turkistan. He died near Balkh in 1879. Amir sher Ali was succeeded by his son, Amir Yaqub Ali Khan in 1879.in order to prevent further advances of the British Amir Yaqub Ali acceded to their demand in the treaty. The Gandamak treaty added the District of Kurram, Pishin, Sibbi, Loralai and the Pashtoon territories and the permanent control of Khyber and Michni passes to the British Empire. Not only the treaty extended the boundaries of Balochistan it reduced Afghanistan to dependency. This was very important development because now the British had established themselves on the western frontiers of Balochistan within the next decade; a broad railway line was constructed up to Chaman by tunnels through the hilly areas. In the words of Edward Oliver, Balochistan thus became the first point of advance in the forward policy. The next decade saw the establishment of the British administration in Balochistan, which remain intact more or less for a long time. The near Eastern part of Balochistan mostly by Pashtoons, came under the direct administration of the Balochistan Agency. Further division of Balochistan took place in 1877 where by some Baloch tribes of Darajat were put under the Punjab administration like Buzdar, khetran, khosa Laghari, Qaisrani etc. In order to finalize the demarcation of the border between Balochistan and Afghanistan, a “Baluch Afghan Boundary Commission” in 1895, colonel (khuda buksh. 1974p18-20)
- 77 -
McMohan brought to a successful conclusion the demarcation of Durand Line from Gomal to koh-i-Mulk Siah, Sir Thomas Holdistch proposed a boundary between Balochistan and Iran in order to remove the threat of the raiders and to demarcate the area under the khan the British government and the Shah of Iran had already approved a proposal in Tehran in 1871. According to the Major General Goldsmith, Panjgur, Parum, kohuk, Boludea, including Mand, Tump, Nasirabad, kej, Dehs, to the eastward and Dasht all its dependencies as far as sea, were declared to be beyond the Persian frontiers. By the end of the nineteenth century, The British had consolidated their hold on Balochistan reduced the status of Khan of Kalat and secured their borders with Iran and Afghanistan through railway Line and road links, and cantonments.(Administrative report, p.9) The British had established themselves as ruler of Balochistan without much opposition. The received enthusiastic support from the royal sardars during the First World War. The British thought that Government would invade Indian Empire through Balochistan, and would ultimately break their Indian Empire. In 1916, The German agents allegedly killed two British officers, Lt Horst and Lt Hughes in Makran, which resulted in the unleashing of several Punitive expeditions under General Dyer. The area hit were Jhalawan in 1915-16 and Marri-Bughti areas in 1918.(dyer1921p454-55) The whole Pashtoon belt adjacent to the Afghanistan border, including the Zhob, Killa Saifullah, Loralai, Sanjawi, areas were up in revolt at the advent of third Afghan war in 1919. The British had to face resistance from the pashtoon freedom fighters in Balochistan. The first two decades of the twentieth century witnessed many development that affected people of Balochistan significatly. During 1915-1919, the British faced revolts from both Baloch and pashtoon tribes. The Durand Line was drown under a treaty signed on November 1893 between Sir Mortimer Durand on behalf of the British Indian and Amir Abdul Rehman of Afghanistan. Thus Afghanistan emerged as the buffer state lying between the imperial British India and the Czarist Empire (after 1917, the Soviet Union) in the central Asia. (ahmedzai2000p216)
Conclusion Firs it can be said that by the time political activities began in Indian on large scale, Balochistan was still struggling to cope with the policies of the British administration. After the death of Mir Mehmood Khan in 1931, Lord Willington, The viceroy of India, visited Balochistan to install the new Khan (Mir Azam Khan) himself, a grand Durbar was held at Quetta on April 1932 for the purpose. After Mir Azam Khan, Mir Ahmed Yar Khan, succeeded him in
- 78 -
1933, which eventually helped the transformation of Balochistan from a British dependency to a part of Pakistan. The British had employed the policy of divide and rule by keeping the Khan under their supervision and acting as intermediaries between the Sardars and the Khan. They ensured the Khan and the tribal chief that confusion and complications existed between their relationships. They had established their rule in Balochistan but continuously faced opposition from different tribes. They used strategic points to achieve their aim in Balochistan demarcation of boundaries, and actively intervening in the affairs of the two neighboring Muslims states of Afghanistan and Iran. The Russian and the French influence was over, the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, emergence of Germany as a major power, Turkey being its ally; never let the British sit comfortably. All this determined the nature of administrative patterns of the British rule in Balochistan. In case the new state of Pakistan for a better or worse, lives with realities that link it with the great transformation of politics that took place in the sub-continent in the mid-nineteenth century.
Reference
Ahemdzai, Mir. Naseer. Khan. Baluch. (2000). Tarikh-i-Balochistan. Quetta vol vi. P. 216. Aitchison, (1993). A collection of Treaties, New Pehli. Vol xi pp 350-51. B Awan. (1985). Balochistan Historical and Political Process. London, Fraser, tytler. Afghanistan. London P-84-85. First administrative Report of the Balochistan agency culcutta, 1886. P.9. J, I. Norris. (1967). The first Afghan War 1832-1842. Cambridge p134 John, William. Kaye. (1999). A history of the War in Afghanistan. London. 1874, 2nd, New Dehli, vol 1 p319 Louis, Dupree. (1977). Afghanistan. Karachi. p362. Mir Ahmed yar khan. (1970) ‘Mukhtasar Tareekh Qaum –i-Baloch Wa khawaneen-i- Baloch. Quetta, p22-23. Mir Khuda Baksh Birjani Marri Baluch. (1974). Searchlight on Balochis and Balochistan. Karachi, PP 188-20. T, Embree. (1979). Pakistan, western Border lands. P.P 30.
- 79 -
BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. XXXI NO. 2, 2014
United States’s Withdrawal from Afghanistan; Its Impacts on Pakistan and Balochistan
International Relations Mirwais Kasi Assistant Professor, Department of International Relations, University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan Dr. Abdul Manan Bazai Chairperson department of International Relations, University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan Dr. Kaleemullah Barech Assistant Professor, History Department University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan Tajuddin Kakar M.Phil Scholar, Department of International Relations, University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan
Abstract This paper will shed light on the post withdrawal scenario in Afghanistan; its impacts on Pakistan and Balochistan. Keeping in mind the long and porous 2250km Durand line, ethnic and religious affinity of the people along both sides of the border, which is further cemented by socio cultural similarities. Hence, Pakistan will not remain un-affected by any positive or negative development in Afghanistan. Pakistan always extended full support to Afghanistan and housed more than three million Afghan refugees. FATA and Balochistan remains the epicenter for refugees and Overt and Covert maneuverings. Economically, Pakistan suffered USD 78 billion in last ten years. Sacrificed precious lives of more than 50,000 law enforcement agencies and civilians. Balochistan and FATA would bear the brunt of instability that would follow the coalition troop’s withdrawal. This paper contains feasible recommendations for the prosperous future of Afghanistan. The rapidly changing geopolitical environment needs modest and thought provoking solutions for lasting peace in Pakistan and Afghanistan.
Key words: Afghanistan, Balochistan, Durand Line. Epicenter. Geopolitics. Maneuverings. Religious Affinity.
- 80 -
Introduction President Obama’s answer to a question after the 2012 Chicago NATO Summit regarding withdrawal is worth mentioning. “The gains are still fragile. (But) I don’t think there is ever gonna be an optimal point where we say, this is all done, this is perfect, this is just the way we wanted it and now we can wrap up all our equipment and go home. This is a process, and it’s sometimes a messy process, just as it was in Iraq. (The express tribune Feb12, 2014) United States led coalition forces will leave Afghanistan by the end of 2014, thereby, destine the afghan crisis to uncertain future. (ABC News, 2011). The unclear’ exit strategy’ of the United states will have implications on bilateral and multilateral relations of Pakistan and Afghanistan. (The Nation 6th January, 2014). Further, withdrawal of troops would create a vacuum in Afghanistan. (Dawn News 30th January, 2014). But this vacuum should be filled by Afghans not outsiders. Tug-of-war for power and domination would follow the withdrawal. External stakeholders and internal stakeholders will play their hands for achieving their interests through state and none state actors. (FRC Report 28th December, 2012). The history of post Soviet withdrawal will repeat itself. The greatest threat to the entire region is that anarchy in Afghanistan will create even more instability in Pakistan. However, the United States succeeded in signing the Bilateral Security agreement with President Ashraf Ghani Ahmedzai that contains among other clauses the clause of stationing minimal size of the United States troops on the pattern of South Korea, where the US is maintaining its troop’s presence for the security of the host nation. Second, if the high peace council HPC roadmap 2015 is followed in letter and spirit that includes the disarming of all armed groups through dialogue in future and respect for Afghan constitution: peace and stability would return to Afghanistan after the troops withdrawal. (High Peace council November, 2012). The post withdrawal scenario would also implicate on the security situation in Baluchistan. Nonetheless, Pakistan should revive its strategy before the US forces leave Afghanistan. (Pakistan on the Brink. Page no 207). Impacts on Pakistan and Balochistan US withdrawal will definitely affect Pakistan. The border with Afghanistan would be even more insecure and an insecure border would definitely be a security threat. (Arshi Salem IRS) Trust deficit haunts the relations of Pakistan, Afghanistan and United States regarding Afghan issue. No one wants to own the issue rather blames each other for the instability in Afghanistan. As the West holds Pakistan responsible for the Afghan crisis whereas Pakistan pin points at the mismanagement of the same by the west. The ground reality is: pashtoon being 42 percent of the total population is
- 81 - ignored in the echelons of power, hence, they feel disgruntled and looking for other options, including support to Taliban. (Arshi Saleem.IRS,) contrary to the ground reality Pakistan is being blamed as the creator and sustainer of Taliban which is otherwise. Post withdrawal will give chance to Taliban to resurface and the same would cast doubts in relations of west with Pakistan thereby US withdrawal will implicate Pakistan’s relations with the west. (FRC Report Page-7) Post-2014 drawdown would follow an era of horror and terror in Afghanistan that would cross its tentacles abroad. The region in general and Pakistan in particular will be affected. Moreover, real estate prices in Quetta, Peshawar and all other major cities will go up (post-2014 by m ziauddin.The express Tribune Feb 12, 2014) De-stabilization of Afghanistan would also destabilize the border areas of Pakistan as was the case in 1990’s. The terror that haunts the nock and corner of Pakistan from the last decade is the offshoot of ongoing war on terror in Afghanistan, and the upcoming abrupt withdrawal will add fuel to the fire. Therefore, it is in the fittest of things, as was suggested in the Ankara summit among Pakistan, Turkey and Afghanistan, that a political solution should be reached at; to avoid any untoward situation after the pull out of foreign troops. (post-2014 Afghanistan and Pakistan by Javid Hussain. The Nation February 18, 2014) Pakistan is paying the price of the instability in Afghanistan. The rise of religious/ethnic groups is the direct offshoot of the afghan crisis. US withdrawal will prove another influx of refugees that would throng the major cities of Pakistan. The same would implicate on demography and Economy. (Arshi Saleem) Pakistan is, currently, facing sectarianism issue in major cities. Tides of refugees will give an impetus to the same. Sectarian killings will be intensified. As religious and militant organizations have ideological bonds and the same would further destabilize the law and order situation in the country. (Arshi saleem) Pakistan is fearing another abandonment by the US, as was the case after the US served its interest of containment of communism in Afghanistan by defeating Soviet Union. US left Pakistan high and dry and even promulgated preselar amendment that conditionalised all aid to Pakistan and even cut a lion’s share of the same. However, ignoring Pakistan while dealing with Afghan issue would be the ever biggest mistake by the United States. Pakistan remains central to Afghanistan. There will be no peace and stability in Afghanistan without the support of Pakistan. (Ibid) The Imminent change over in Afghanistan holds dire consequences for Pakistan; if the later remains un-prepared to the post withdrawal scenario- 2014. The small force that US leaves behind; will it be able to sustain peace?
- 82 -
The answer is a loud and clear “No”. The only option left with Afghan Government and US is to have a “Negotiated Settlement” and take Pakistan onboard for the same. Pakistan by releasing key Taliban prisoners already showed considerable willingness to support peace deal in Afghanistan. (Munir Akram-No Policy Clarity. Dawn 30March, 2014) Pakistan always advocated an Afghan owned and Afghan led settlement in that country. Because the same is in the interest of regional and international peace and would guarantee a secure future for that war torn country. The post-withdrawal crisis in Afghanistan will be having direct bearing on the law and order situation in Balochistan. Indian Spy agencies that are already active in Afghanistan, will expedite their activities to destabilize Balochistan by funding and abetting anti State elements. Further, Quetta will see rise in Sectarian killings, Kidnappings, extortion, unemployment and drugs. Afghanistan being the largest cultivator of Opium in the World and slum areas. The province of Balochistan will bear the brunt of the problem because of the geographical proximity and ethnic affinity of the people living along both sides of the border. The influx of refugees will not only disturb the demography but also burdened the already reeling Economy. Law and order would be the worst hit by the influx of refugees. (Pakistan on the Brink. Preface. By Ahmed Rasheed.)
Recommendations
1. Installation of Biometric system should be ensured at border entry points from Afghanistan to Pakistan so that Militants and terrorists could be stopped / identified easily. 2. The plan of selective fencing of border should be executed immediately to stop spill over to Pakistan from Afghanistan and from Pakistan to Afghanistan. As the Tehrik Taliban Pakistan (TTP) have safe havens in adjoining Afghan provinces from where they carry their “hit and run” missions. 3. Refugee Card containing complete information of the holder should be mandatory for all the refugees entering Pakistan. The Card should be issued by UNHCR in collaboration with Pakistan, having a chip inserted into it. 4. Reconciliation is the only way out to follow for the durable peace in Afghanistan. All internal stakeholders, that include Afghan government, Taliban, warlords, and northern alliance, should bury their hatchet and join hands for the better interest of war turn country. Taliban by opening
- 83 -
their office in Qatar showed considerable willingness for resolution of the crisis through dialogue. The new government must come forward with open arms to bring Taliban in power corridor. 5. Legitimacy of the central government in Afghanistan is always in question. The only way to give currency to the central government is to execute all the projects through the same. Over and above, jurisdiction of the central government is limited to Kabul the same should be extended beyond Kabul that would enhance the trust of the people over the central government. 6. Development projects are largely carried out in the northern part of the country, whereas, all Pashtoon dominated areas are less developed, hence, given rise to dissention and alienation among the inhabitants. There should be even development throughout the state. 7. Representation of all ethnic groups should be on the basis of population. Therefore, no one feel being deprived of the due share in the resources. 8. The US is in dire need of “honorable Exit” from Afghanistan: that is only possible through the co-operation of Pakistan. Therefore, US should not bypass Pakistan while formulating any strategy pertaining to Afghanistan. 9. Refugee Card containing complete information of the holder should be mandatory for all the refugees entering Pakistan. The Card should be issued by UNHCR in collaboration with Pakistan, having a chip inserted into it. 10. Non-issues should not be taken as issues; rather real issues should be given preference that would lead to reconciliation among all the stake holders.
Conclusion Asia is comparable to a living body composed of soil and water. The heart that beat inside the body is Afghanistan. The destruction of Afghanistan would be the destruction of Asia. And in their progress and prosperity lies the well-being of Asia. (Allama Iqbal, Poet & thinker) United States, inspite of, prolonging its stationing of forces in Afghanistan have to leave the country sooner rather than later. The gains made so far entirely depends on the success of unity government comprised of President Ashraf Ghani Ahmadzai, a Pustoon, and Abdulla Abdullah, a Tajik. Regional powers role cannot be underestimated and the regional powers have to play their positive role and have to leave the Afghan issue to Afghans and must not interfere. India should also stop using Afghan soil for realizing her ill designs against Pakistan. Pakistan’s Province Balochistan is already facing multiple Challenges and would not be able to sustain another influx of refugees. Law and order
- 84 - that is gained somewhat stability would again be in tatters. Therefore, it is in the fittest of things that Afghan issue should be resold amicably to avoid any untoward post-soviet withdrawal like situation in the region.
References
ABC news. (2011, 06. 22). Politics retrieved from ABC news.
FATA Research Centre Report on post withdrawal scenario in Afghanistan and its impacts on FATA .Released on 28th December, 2012.
FATA Research Centre Report.Page-07.
Five Years On: Resurgence of Taliban and the fate of Afghanistan. By, Arshi Saleem Hashmi Regional Studies.Vol.No-1, winter 2006-2007. http//abcnews.go.com/politics/president-obama-rders-start-us –troops (2012)
High Peace Council November, (2012).
No Policy Clarity. By Munir Akram.Dawn News 30 March, 2014.
Pakistan on the brink: The future of America, Pakistan and Afghanistan.page No-207.ISBN.978014143122838.Author.Ahmed Rashid.
Post-2014. By.M Ziauddin.The Express Tribune Feb 12, 2014.
Post-2014 Afghanistan and Pakistan. By Javid Hussain.The Nation February 18, 2014.
The Express Tribune. (2014, February 12).
The nation. (2014, January 6). Challenges and opportunities by k.iqbal.
The Dawn. (2014, January, 30). US-Pakistan Strategic Dialogue. A Step forward. By Anwar Iqbal. .
- 85 -
BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. XXXI NO. 2, 2014
The Geo-Strategic Location of Balochistan Could Yield Economic dividends for Pakistan
International Relations
Abdul Qadir Lecturer, Department of International Relations University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan [email protected]
Dr. Abdul Manan Chairperson department of International Relations, University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan Abstract Balochistan is the largest and resource rich Province of Pakistan and Geo-strategic position of Balochistan can lead to economic rewards for the country. The purpose of the study is to highlight the geo-strategic significance of Balochistan and focus on important prospects for the region. The study is descriptive in nature and mostly secondary data has been collected for the conduct of the research. The study finds that Balochistan hold immense assets like the Gwadar port, natural resources and geographical position to transform the region. Foreign investment can be attracted to explore the untapped resources of the Province for the general uplift of Balochistan and Pakistan.
Key words: Rugged, Geo-strategy, Natural resources, TAPI gas pipeline, Gwadar
Introduction To the foreigners the Province of Balochistan in Southern Pakistan wouldn’t amount to any paramount importance as a good part of it is uninhabited land. Its scattered population and rugged mountains gives an impression of a primitive land. However, on closer inspection the hidden value of the land sparkles and the possibilities seem endless. Geostrategy is a territorial based foreign policy concept associated with geographic factors such as potential alliance partners, location and terrain (Duncan, Webster, 2009). Geostrategy is also concerned with the strategic importance of a land and its waterways. Balochistan Province has a
- 86 - strategically important location and its close neighbors are: Iran, Afghanistan and in the south is the Arabian Sea which is a gateway to the Gulf-States. The central Asian states could also be linked through Afghanistan via road/rail. The province shares 805 kms border with Iran and 1200 Kms long border with Afghanistan. The terrain in the bordering areas of the province is rugged and arid with very less vegetation and agriculture. The Province has a coastline of 770 kms which makes it strategically important. Gwadar, pasni, Jewani, Ormara, Somiani and Gaddani are natural ports in the Province. The coastline of Balochistan is 70% of Pakistan’s total coastal belt. It has huge potential for development, tourism and seaports (Haider, 2004). Gwadar port is operational and is 400 Kms to Strait of Hormuz which is an important route for the oil tankers bound for Japan nand Western countries. It is located on the intersection of sea lanes opening up Balochistan coast to all directions, South and West Asia and Africa. It is important for most of the countries of the region located in Central Asia, South Asia, West Asia and also China (Siddiq Baloch, 2002). Many analysts feel that US has the apprehension that Gwadar port could provide a Check Post to Chinese for monitoring Ship traffic to and from oil rich Middle east as China is the second biggest importer after the U.S. They suspect that from Gwadar China could monitor Indian Naval activity in the Arabian Sea and American Naval activity in the Gulf. Chinese investments in Gwadar will give strategic depth to China, which is considered as a concern by India and to some extent by United States (Ascher, Mirovitskaya, 2013). Some Americans have described it as the westernmost link in the “string of pearls”, a line of China friendly ports stretching from mainland China to the Persian Gulf, that could ultimately ease expansion by the Chinese Navy in the region (Walsh, 2013). Therefore, America and India are not in favour of development of Gwadar Port. Gulf States, especially UAE and Iran consider Gwadar as an emerging rival port in the region. They fear that Gwadar port will share the economic and trade activities which otherwise they can exclusively enjoy (Malik, 2012). But it is the Strategic and economic interest of Pakistan that Gwadar Port should be developed. Gwadar is intended to serve the specific needs of Central Asian trade and connect through rail and road to China, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan (Daniels, 2013). China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is likely to link the Chinese city of Kashgar with Gwadar have promising prospects. This huge project could usher an era of socio- economic development in Balochistan/Pakistan. The economic corridor can lead to the essential development of infrastructure in Balochistan. The expansion of the Karakoram Highway and the involvement of the construction of Gwadar were also part of this economic vision (Gul, 2015).
- 87 -
But due to war in Afghanistan any road/rail link with Central Asian States in near future seems not possible. Therefore, good business opportunities with Central Asian States have been lost and Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India ((TAPI) gas pipe-line project has not started yet. Despite the fact that both the U.S and the ADB are promoting the project, the unending turmoil in Afghanistan as well as the deteriorating political situation in Pakistan are the main concern regarding the successful implementation of the project (Dutt, Bansai, 2012) On the other hand Pak-Iran gas pipeline project has been approved despite foreign pressure. The pipeline which would bring Iranian gas to Pakistan through its western Balochistan province, will stretch 1000 miles (1,600 km) from Iran’s gas-rich Asalouyeh region into the Pakistani heartland (Draitser, 2013). The U.S pressured Pakistan not to go ahead with the Iran Pakistan Pipeline as U.S had imposed sanctions on Iran because of its nuclear program. Iran has completed its side of the pipeline and expects Pakistan to complete the other half that runs through Balochistan. The completion of the pipeline is crucial to meet the energy demands of the Pakistan and pull Iran out of international isolation. Pakistan is also acting as a front-line State against war on terror. A good portion of supplies to NATO forces from Karachi Port to Afghanistan passed through Balochistan. Karachi-Quetta-Chaman route plays a pivotal role in Afghan transit trade and Quetta-Zahedan (Iran) road/rail link are strategically significant routes. Due to war in Afghanistan, the Taliban factor is also affecting Balochistan and there is talk of ‘Quetta Shura” in Western media. It is alleged that Taliban fighters have their sanctuaries/hideouts in Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa and Balochistan province. The Strained relations between U.S and Iran are also affecting Balochistan. “Jundullah” attacks in Iran have resulted to the closure of Iranian border while trade and business of the people have suffered much in bordering areas with Iran. The vast expanse of the province has led to the detonation of Atomic bomb in ‘Ras-koh’ mountain in Chaghai on 28th May, 1998 and many missile tests were carried out in Balochistan. This all signifies the strategic importance of Balochistan. The economic resources also play a significant role in geo-politics. The tremendous mineral resources of the province both metallic and non- metallic play a key role in its importance. The province is rich in coal, gas, Baryte, Gypsum, Chromite, Iron ore, Lime Stone, Copper, gold, Zinc, lead, Granite, Onyx, fluorite, sulphur, etc. However, the full potential of the province for oil and gas have not been fully explored, neither off-shore nor inland. The huge mineral resources both tapped and untapped create attraction for investment by Multinational Corporations and foreign
- 88 - governments. Examples were the concessions granted and agreements made with MCC (Saindak Gold and Copper project) and TCC (Reko diq Gold and Copper project). The agreement between the Government of Pakistan and MCC (China) had given an edge to China which received almost complete and free infrastructure facilities provided by Government of Pakistan. Further copper blocks were exported to China and no purification/refining plant had been established at Saindak. As far as ReKo Diq Project is concerned, agreement with M/S Tethyan Copper Company (TCC) and Antafagosta Minerals of Chile and Barrick Gold Corporation of Canada has been cancelled. According to the agreement 75% of shares were for the TCC and 25% is for the Government of Balochistan. Geological Survey of Pakistan estimates that there are deposits of 12.3 million ton copper and 12.3 million ounces of gold at Reko Diq. The Sui Gas fields were discovered in Balochistan in 1952. Besides Sui, other gas fields have been discovered in Uch, Pirkoh, Loti, Zen, Save and Jandran. The Balochistan gas fields are meeting more than 30% of the country’s gas requirements even today. Pakistan’s proven natural gas reserves- in 2006 estimated at 28 trillion Cubic feet (tcf) – as much as 19 trillion tcf (68 percent ) are located in Balochistan (Wirsing, p-7). Coal is another important mineral which is found in abundance in Balochistan. According to an estimate coal deposits in Balochistan are 617 million tons and the possibility of establishing coal based power generation could be looked into to meet energy crises.
Conclusion The Geo-strategic location of Balochistan has the scope to change the economic landscape of the Pakistan. The Province is steeped natural resources and is a gateway to the resource rich countries of Middle East and Central Asia. The Gwadar port has the potential to transform the lives of people in the region. Any trade link between Pakistan (through Balochistan Province) and central Asia could materialize only when there is stability in Afghanistan, therefore projects like TAPI, at present, seem to be a figment of imagination. Iran is closing its borders with Balochistan (Pakistan) and is already on the path of increasing trade with India. Iran is also developing “Chahbahar” Port with the support of India and could make inroads in Central Asia though Iran. The long standing Economic Co-operation Organization (ECO) has remained dormant and there is little possibility of its re-activation. In the existing scenario, Balochistan’s strategic location can yield results only when xenophobic attitude against foreigners and foreign investors is removed. Foreign reputed companies could be attracted to
- 89 - explore and drill at Balochistan coast for oil and gas-both offshore and seawater. Vast resources pf mineral could be exploited which would bring royalties to Balochistan Government. Reko Diq Project (which is in limelight) was shut down after disagreement by Government of Balochistan and M/S Tehthyan Company. It would be a commendable job if power to negotiate and trade with neighboring countries is delegated to the Balochistan Province. In this way Quetta and Gwadar could be the hub of economic activities. The Province has fulfilled the demands of energy craving population for many years and invaluable minerals can usher an age of prosperity for the striving masses. Whether it is the TAPI and Iran-Pakistan pipelines or the natural resources the province of Balochistan provides a lifeline for the economy of Pakistan.
References
Ascher, W & Mrovitskaya, N. (Eds.). (2013). Development Strategies, Identities and Conflict in Asia. Palgrave Macmillan. P-143
Baloch, S. (2002). Political Economy of Balochistan. Express Publications Patel Housing Society. P-24
Daniels, R. (2002). Strategic Competition in South Asia : Gwadar, Chabhar and the risks of Infrastructure development. American Foreign Policy Interests Vol: 35 No.2, Pp 93-100
Draitser, E. (2013). Iran-Pakistan ‘lifeline’ : Pipeline aims for global power balance. Retrieved April 5, 2015, from http://www.rt.com/op- edge/gas-pipeline-pakistan-iran
Duncan, et.al. (2009). World Politics in the 21st Century. Houghton Mifflin Company. P- 234
Dutt, S & Bansai, A. (2012). South Asian Security: 21st Century Discourses. Routledge, U.S.A. P-243
Gul, I. (2015). Pakistan, China and the Economic Corridor. Retrieved April 9, 2015, from http://www.tribune.com.pk
- 90 -
Haider, S.F. (2004). Economic Development of Balochistan. Shabbir udin, Karachi, p-11
Malik, H.Y. (2012). Strategic Importance of Gwadar Port. Journal of Political Studies.Vol: 19 No. 2 (2012), Pp. 57-69
Walsh, D. (2013). Chinese company will run strategic Pakistan port. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/01/world/asia
Wirsing, R.G. (2012). Baloch Nationalism and the Geopolitics of Energy Resources.Strategic Studies Institute. P-7
- 91 -
BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. XXXI NO. 2, 2014
An acoustic analysis of speech of London-based Baloch learners of English*
Language & Literature
Nasir Abbas Syed Assistant Professor, Department of English Language & Linguistics, Lasbela University Uthal Balochistan, Pakistan [email protected] Dr. Gul Hasan Baloch Pro Vice Chancellor Lasbela University Uthal Balochistan, Pakistan
Abstract According to feature model (FM) (Brown, 2000), a pair of new L2(Language 2) sounds can only be acquired if a feature which differentiates between the two new L2 sounds is active in the feature geometry of the L1 of learners. Conversely, the new L2 sounds may not be acquired in adult age if the feature which differentiates the two L2 sounds is not active in the L1 of the learners; according to the FM, a new L2 feature cannot be acquired in adult age. This study poses a challenge to the feature model. Balochi does not have aspiration contrast (Elfenbein, 1997). Thus, according to the FM, English aspiration contrast should not be acquired by adult Baloch learners of English. To test this prediction, an experiment was conducted with a group of L2 Baloch adult speakers of English living in London. All participants speak and listen to English by native speakers for more than 4 hours daily. In the experiment, the participants read a list of English words carrying English plosives, which were recorded. The VOTs for plosives were calculated using Praat (Boersma & Weenink, 2012). The results show that the participants
* The authors are immensely obliged to Dolat Khan for providing accommodation and arrangement of meetings with the Baloch community of London for data-collection in this study. We also acknowledge the contribution of the participants who voluntarily spared time from their busy life and provided specimens of their speech which made this research project a reality. *Lasbela University Uthal, Balochistan.
- 92 - had developed two separate VOT ranges for aspirated and unaspirated stops of English. This indicates acquisition of a new feature [spread glottis]. The acquisition of English aspiration contrast by the Baloch learners poses a challenge to the FM prediction that a new L2 feature cannot be acquired in adult age. The study also identifies other factors which play more effective role than the L1 in L2 acquisition.
Key words: Balochi, English, L1 (Language 1), L2 (Language 2), L2 acquisition, VOT (Voice Onset Time).
Introduction The influence of L1 grammar on L2 acquisition particularly the acquisition of phonology is strongly established in the L2 literature (Lado, 1957). Most of the research on acquisition of L2 phonology in the last quarter of the previous century was directed towards perception as well as production of L2 sounds. Models of second language acquisition like perceptual assimilation model (Best, 1994, 1995), speech learning model (Flege, 1995), etc are mainly based on perception of L2 sounds and its relationship with production. Most of the latest models of second language acquisition agree that L1 interferes in acquisition of L2 phonology. One such model of second language acquisition is feature model (Brown, 1997, 1998, 2000) also called FM. The current study focuses on this model. The main research question is whether adult L2 learners can acquire a pair of new sounds which are differentiated by a feature that is not active in the L1 of learners? The FM also addresses this question. One of the main objections raised against the feature model is that it is based on the experiments conducted by Brwon herself at her own with the speakers of only East Asian languages (Larson-Hall, 2004). Therefore, the current study is based on an experiment conducted with speakers of Indo-Aryan languages spoken in Pakistan and India. This provides a new context for testing the predictions of the FM.
1. Theoretical background An important question which has been discussed in the L2 literature at large is why adult L2 learners cannot acquire quite native like competence in production of a second language despite spending decades on acquiring the L2. Such an example was observed in Iverson et al (2008) which reports on the failure of Sinhalese learners in acquiring English [v w] contrast despite living in London among native speakers of English for approximately 28 years. On the other hand, a child acquires L1 in maximum five-six years of
- 93 - his/her early life. Does it mean that ability to learn a second language terminates at a specific age as the supporters of the critical period hypothesis (Lenneberg, 1967; Patkowski, 1990; Penfield & Roberts, 1959; Scovel, 1988) claim? According to Brown (1997, 1998, 2000), L1 grammar impedes the operation of the universal grammar ultimately resisting acquisition of an L2 contrast which the L1 grammar lacks. According to Flege (1995), it is not the critical period which matters much, rather it is the existence of an already acquired L1 which impedes the acquisition of an L2. Although Flege and Brown agree that L1 resists L2 acquisition in some cases but they have divergent interpretations for this. In the opinion of Flege, L2 learners develop an equivalence classification between similar L1 and L2 sounds as a result of which they cannot perceive the difference between an L2 and the corresponding L1 sound. Thus, they not only perceive both (L1 and L2) sounds as the same but also produce them as a single sound. This is because strong equivalence classification between two sounds leads to development of single phonetic category for the two sounds. On the other hand, Brown considers that it is the L1 phonological feature geometry which resists accurate perception of L2 sounds. Thus, the former considers phonetic perception and latter considers phonological features as a reason for failure of L2 acquisition.* It is very rare to find an adult learner who speaks an L2 with such a native like accuracy that monolingual speakers of the L2 cannot identify him/her as a non-native speaker. Being aware of this, the researchers working on L2 acquisition accept that even those learners who are able develop new phonetic categories for L2 sounds, produce the L2 with accent to the extent that their speech can be easily identified by a layman native speaker as different from the speech of native speakers of the L2 (Flege, 1995). There is a large body of literature on L2 acquisition. Most of the researchers agree that L1 interference is one of the major reasons of inaccurate L2 acquisition. However, according to the claim of Brown (1997,1998), no one before her identified the reason why and how L1 influences L2 acquisition. Brown argues that L1 feature geometry does not allow adult learners to accurately perceive any L2 contrast which does not exist in the L1. It is here that Brown differentiates the input and intake (1998, p.139). According to Brown, "although input is required for language acquisition, the specific intake will determine the developmental stages of the grammar." Input becomes intake when a learner detects a specific contrast in L2. And a learner
* It must be noted that there may be other factors which cause failure to acquire an L2. These factors may be lack of proper learning conditions, motivation and/or input, etc. In the current discussion we discuss the reasons of failure of L2 sounds in ideal learning environment.
- 94 - can only perceive the new L2 contrast if it is based on a phonological feature which is already active in the L1 of the learner. The argument of Brown is based on the idea that acquisition of L1 phonological system leads to the loss of general ability to discriminate phonetically different sounds (Werker & Tees, 1984). Conclusively, the feature model claims that new sounds which are differentiated on the basis of a phonological feature which is active in the L1 may be acquired but a sound pair which is differentiated on the basis of a phonological feature which is not active in the L1 cannot be acquired in L2, because L1 feature geometry only perceives a difference which is already active in the L1. Other differences are blocked. Brown (1997, 1998, 2000) conducted several experiments with Chinese, Japanese and Korean learners of English. The experiments were done using different methods focusing on different sound pairs. Every time she reached the conclusion that the L2 learners could develop a new L2 contrast only if the relevant phonological feature was active in the L1 of the learners. If the relevant L1 feature was not active, the L2 learners could not acquire an L2 contrast. The Japanese learners could not acquire [l r] contrast because the feature [coronal] which differentiates [l] from [r] is not active Japanese; similarly, since the feature [distributed] which differentiates [s] from [θ] is not active in the phonological feature geometry of Chinese, Korean and Japanese languages, the [s θ] sound pair could not be acquired by these learners regardless of the varying input or other factors. On the other hands, the participants successfully acquired [p v] sounds, which although new, are contrasted on the basis of the feature [continuant] which is active in the L1 of the participants. In the acquisition of such sound pairs, the factors like time spent on learning or input, etc. was also found to be influential factors. On the basis of these experiments, Brown concludes that only these new sound pairs can be acquired by adult L2 learners which are contrasted on by a phonological feature already active in the L1 grammar.
2. Context of the study Brown's model is based on her own research on only East Asian languages. The current study focuses on a new context. Balochi is a language spoken mainly in Pakistan, Iran and Afghanistan and other Middle Eastern countries. Balochi has voiced and voiceless phonemes but it does not have voiceless aspirated stops in its phonemic inventory. Thus, the feature [spread glottis] which differentiates unaspirated stops from the aspirated ones is not active in Balochi. According to the predictions of the FM, the adult Baloch learners of English may not be able to acquire English aspiration contrast
- 95 - regardless of whatever input they receive. The current study aims to test this prediction. Many Baloch families of Turbat have moved to London and go living there for years. This project focuses on the English speech of adult male Baloch speakers who started getting input from native speakers of English in London after their puberty. The group of participants is uniform in the sense that the learners all belong to one district of Balochistan i.e. Turbat. Therefore, influence of dialectal variation of the participants' mother tongue is strictly controlled. Besides, all participants of this study moved to England after they had passed the critical period of language acquisition. Therefore, any achievement in their speech will contribute towards the theoretical discussion of role of critical period and effects of post-puberty input received by L2 learners. The current study is based on an acoustic analysis of aspirated [ph th kh] and unaspirated [p t k] allophones of English plosives. Major acoustic cue studied in this experiment was voice onset time. Voice onset time (VOT) is the time interval between the burst of a stop and the onset of vocal fold vibration for the following vowel (Docherty, 1992). It is calculated in milliseconds. If a stop is produced with aspiration, the VOT is bigger and if it is produced without aspiration, it is produced with relatively smaller VOT. Normally, 30-40 milliseconds is a cut off point between voiceless unaspirated and aspirated stops. Aspirated stops are in the range starting above the cut off point whereas VOTs of unaspirated stops remain under this cut off point. Previous research also shows that normally dorsal stops /k/ have bigger VOT than coronal /t/ or labial /p/ stop (Cho & Ladefoged, 1999; Docherty, 1992; Lisker & Abramson, 1967; Syed, 2013b, etc.). The following section provides details of the participants and research methods used for collection and analysis of data.
3. Research Methodology Twelve participants who speak Balochi as mother tongue participated in this test. Balochi does not have aspiration contrast at phonemic level (Elfenbein, 1997). However, phonetic allophonic distribution in Balochi is very interesting. The speakers of Makrani Balochi have only unaspirated stops and those of Eastern Balochi have only phonetically aspirated stops in their L1 phonemic inventory. The participants of this study were all speakers of Makrani Balochi, living in London at the time of data collection. The detail of the participants is given in the following sub-section.
- 96 -
3.1. Participants Twelve Balochi speakers participated in this experiment. All of them were living in the United Kingdom. Six of them were students and the remaining six were doing some jobs. The six student participants were also doing part time job as receptionists in hotels which provided them opportunity to interact with public and speak and listen to English spoken by native and non-native speakers. The details of the participants are given in Table 1.
Table 1: Detail of the participants Factors Data* Age of Arrival in UK (years) 23.33(03.98) Age in years 29.92(05.65) LOR† in UK (months) 79.08(66.57) Speaking English hours/day 04.92(02.78) Listening English hours/day 05.92(02.15)
Table 1 shows that the average age of arrival of the participants in the United Kingdom is above 23 years which means they started listening to native English after they had passed the critical period of language acquisition. In an interview which was recorded before the main experiment, the participants were asked if they had regularly listened to native speech of English for more than a month before coming to the UK, which they replied in negative. In response to one of the questions, they informed that they had never gone to any other English speaking country before coming to the UK. As Table 1 indicates, the mean length of residence of the participants in the UK is 79.08 months. However, standard deviations given in the parentheses show a large amount of variation among them. One of the participants had only four month stay at London. Except for one Balochi speaker, all other participants had been living in the UK for more than six months. According to Flege and Liu (2001), maximum of L2 learning occurs during early six years. Best and Tyler (2007, p. 21) and Flege and Fletcher (1992, p. 377) also agree to the idea that maximum of L2 learning occurs in early 6-12 months of learning. Thus, eleven out of twelve participants had learnt maximum of what they had to learn from their interaction with native speakers during their stay in the United Kingdom. The performance of only one participant may not change the results because his overall performance was not significantly different in the group. One of the questions asked from
* Standard deviations are given in parentheses. † 'LOR' stands for length of residence.
- 97 - the participants in the interview was how many hours the participants speak and listen to English with native speakers. According to the data given in Table 1, the participants speak and listen to English spoken by native speakers for approximately four to five hours. The dialectal variation in the L1 of the participants was controlled to the possible extent. For this, the selection of the participants was purposive. Only those participants were selected who speak the same dialect of Balochi. The participants were all from District Kech of Balochistan Province in Pakistan who speak Western Balochi (Elfenbein, 1997). In this way, the group of participants are uniform in terms of their L1, linguistic, cultural and educational background, etc.
3.2. Data collection Before data collection, the nature of experiment was explained to the participants without informing them about the main purpose of the experiment. A written permission was also obtained from the participants to record and use their voices for research purpose without showing their identity. Ethical approval for this study was also taken from University of Essex, Colchester, United Kingdom. Before recording the speech of the participants, a semi-structured interview was conducted with the participants to get information about their linguistic background and other information required for the current experiment. The information detailed in the previous section was elicited in the interview. Afterwards, a written list of words was given to the participants and they were asked to produce the stimuli in natural normal speed. The productions were recorded using M-Audio digital recorder. The recordings were analysed acoustically using Praat software (Boersma & Weenink, 2012). The standard principles of acoustic analysis as suggested by phoneticians (Foulkes, Docherty, & Jones, 2010) were followed in taking measurements of VOTs. Audacity 1.3 Beta Unicode software was used to segment the target words (stimuli) from the recordings of sentences. The list of stimuli carried the target words and some distracters. The target words started with plosives and with s+stop clusters. All the target words were immediately followed by the low vowel [a] which is considered most neutral in its effect on the VOT of the preceding consonants (Syed, 2011). That is why the low vowel [a] is preferred choice for researchers in experiments (e.g. Best, McRoberts, and Sithole (1988), Guion, Flege, Akahane-Yamada, and Pruitt (2000), etc based on perception tests). The list of the target words used as stimuli in this experiment is given in (1). (1) park, spark, tart, start, car, scar
- 98 -
These words were presented in the list along with the distracters in such a random sequence that each of the target words was written three times each as exclusive words and three times in carrier sentences. In this way we obtained six repetitions of each of the above words by each of the participants. In the following sections, results are presented and analysed.
4. Presentation of data As discussed in the previous section, there were three repetitions for each of the target words list in (1). A statistical analysis shows that there is no significant difference between the average VOTs obtained in words and sentences. Therefore, the VOTs obtained in words and sentences were averaged. The mean VOTs are presented in Table 1. These VOTs are based 72 tokens for each of the sounds (3 repetitions *2 contexts (word & sentence) *12 participants).
Table 2: VOT for English plosives by Baloch speakers Mean VOT Sound (standard deviation) [ph] 31.89(15.88) [p] 17.65(12.46) [th] 41.33(13.84) [t] 32.97(08.51) [kh] 62.38(11.62) [k] 46.36(11.55)
A repeated measures analysis of variance RM ANOVA confirms that place of articulation contrast is highly significant in the VOTs (F=57.747, p<.0001). The aspiration contrast is also significant (F=14.892, p=.003). However, no significant interaction was noted between place and articulation and aspiration contrast (F=2.607, p=.096). For a detailed pair-wise comparison of aspirated and unaspirated stops, the mean VOTs were compared separately at each place of articulation. The results of the t-test applied on the data are given in Table 3.
Table 3: Aspiration contrast at various places of articulation Place of articulation T Sig (two-tailed) Labial /p/ 3.453 .005 Coronal /t/ 2.097 .060 Dorsal /k/ 4.480 .001
- 99 -
Table 3 shows that the aspiration contrast in VOTs of the participants is highly significant at labial and velar place of articulation whereas that on coronal place is marginally significant. These individual pair-wise comparisons finally confirm that the participants have acquired two separate ranges of voice onset time for aspirated and unaspirated allophones of English plosives.
Analysis and discussion The data presented in Table 2 shows that there is a linear increase in the voice onset time for aspirated and unaspirated plosives of English produced by Baloch learners living in London. The VOTs of labial stops are the lowest and those of the dorsal stops are the highest with the VOTs for the coronal stops in between. Figure 1 reflects this picture.
Figure 1: Linear increase in VOT for plosives
These results are in line with the existing theories which predict a direct relationship between voice onset time and place of articulation. The phoneticians have already proved that the distance of point of articulation and vocal folds has inverse relationship with VOTs of stops, which means a bigger distance between the point of articulation and the vocal folds of speakers yields a shorter voice onset time and vice versa (Lisker & Abramson, 1964). Previous research has already established this relationship
- 100 -
(Cho & Ladefoged, 1999; Kent & Read, 2002; Lisker & Abramson, 1964 etc.). The current study provides some further evidence to this view.* The main purpose of this study is to test the predictions of the feature model in the context of adult Baloch learners of English who live in London and get input from native speakers of English. The results of the t-test presented in Table 3 confirm that the participants of this study have developed two separate ranges of voice onset time for the aspirated and unaspirated allophones of English plosives. These two ranges are significantly different from each other at all three places of articulation.† These findings pose a possible challenge to the feature model. The model predicts that a new phonological feature is only acquired during the critical period of language acquisition when a child acquires mother tongue. For a second language acquisition, Brown predicts that a new sound contrast can only be acquired if the relevant feature which differentiates between the two sounds of a pair is already active in the L1 of learners. In the current context, the relevant feature which differentiates between aspirated and unaspirated English plosives is [spread glottis] (Clements & Hume, 1995). The aspirated sounds [ph th kh] are [+spread glottis] and the unaspirated stops [p t k] are [-spread glottis]. The feature [spread glottis] is not active in Balochi, since the speakers of Western Balochi do not have both aspirated and unaspirated phonemes in their L1. In this context, FM would predict that adult Baloch learners of English may not acquire the feature [spread glottis] in adult age. Previous studies have already demonstrated that Pakistani (Mahboob & Ahmar, 2004; Rahman, 1990, 1991) and Indian (Gargesh, 2004) learners of English do not develop separate VOT ranges for aspirated and unaspirated sounds of English. They rather produce these two sounds without aspiration. Baloch speakers of English living in Pakistan, like other Pakistani learners, do not maintain aspiration contrast in English as well as Urdu. It means, the participants of this study had not developed separate VOT ranges for these English sounds at the time of their arrival in the United Kingdom. As their own statements confirm, they started listening to English by native speech only after their arrival at London. Before their arrival at London when they were living in Pakistan, they had only access to Pakistani English which does not maintain aspiration contrast.
*For parallel views on increase and decrease of VOT, see Lisker and Abramson (1967), Stevens, Keyser, and Kawasaki (1986), Hardcastle (1973), Suomi (1980) and Docherty (1992). † Although the significant level in the comparison of aspirated and unaspirated allophones of coronal phoneme /t/ is bigger than .05 but it is very close to this level. Besides, some statisticians claim that the significant level for research in social sciences must be fixed at the p value of .1 instead of .05 .(Larson-Hall, 2010).
- 101 -
These factors confirm that London-based Baloch learners have acquired separate VOT ranges for aspirated and unaspirated allophones of English. These findings pose a big challenge to the feature model which claims that a new phonological feature cannot be acquired in adult age. The Baloch learners of English, as the findings of this study confirm, have acquired a new feature i.e. [spread glottis] in adult age. The findings of this study support the objection raised against the feature model by Larson-Hall (2004) that the claims of Brown's feature model get empirical support only from her own experiments conducted with speakers of only East Asian learners of English. We need to test these predictions on speakers of other languages of the world. There may be two possible objections against the current findings. First, the VOT ranges of native English speakers may be different from those of the participants of this study. If we compare the VOT of stops produced by Baloch speakers with those of native speakers of English, we realize that the VOTs of the participants of this study are significantly different from the VOTs of the same sounds produced by native speakers of English.*The point of argument in this regard is that acquisition of a new sound never means quite native-like production; it rather means development of a separate phonetic category for that particular sound in the L2 phonemic inventory of learners (Flege, 1995). In the above data we found that the Baloch learners of English have developed separate categories for English aspirated stops which already do not exist in their L1. The second possible objection to these findings is that Brown's predictions are about acquisition of new L2 phonemes but the current study focuses on allophones of English stops. This may be a valid objection. However, an important point to note is that allophones are also part of grammar of a language. The learners have to acquire those sounds which means they have to develop a separate category for those sounds and discriminate them from the closer sounds. To our understanding, the acquisition of allophones is rather more difficult than acquisition of phonemes. We hypothesize on the basis of these findings that the participants of this may also acquire aspiration contrast in at phonemic level. For example, in Urdu which national language of Pakistan aspiration contrast is phonemic. It is not irrelevant to point out here that all participants of this study had acquired Urdu in adult age.† A future project in this regard is to acoustically analyze the VOTs of Urdu stops (which are phonemes) produced by these participants to further confirm the findings of this study.
* For a comparison, see voice onset time for allophones of English plosives in Docherty (1992) or Syed (2013a). † Urdu being a national language of Pakistan is acquired by almost all educated Pakistanis.
- 102 -
References
Best, C. T. (1994). The emergence of native-language phonological influences in infants: A perceptual assimilation model. In C. Goodman & H. Nasbaum (Eds.), The development of speech perception: The transition from speech sounds to spoken words (pp. 167-224). Cambridge MA: MIT Press. Best, C. T. (1995). A direct realist view of cross-language speech perception. In W. Strange (Ed.), Speech perception and linguistic experience: Issues in cross-language research (pp. 171-204). Timonium MD: York Press. Best, C. T., McRoberts, G. W., & Sithole, N. M. (1988). Examination of perceptual reorganization for nonnative speech contrasts: Zulu click discrimination by English-speaking adults and infants. Journal of experimental psychology: human perception and performance, 14(3), 345-360. Best, C. T., & Tyler, M. D. (2007). Nonnative and second-language speech perception: Commonalities and complementarities. In O.-S. Bohn & M. J. Munro (Eds.), Language experience in second language speech learning: In honor of James Emile Flege. (pp. 13-34). Amsterdam: J. Benjamins. Boersma, P., & Weenink, D. (2012). Praat: doing phonetics by computer. Brown, C. A. (1997). The Acquisition of Segmental Structure: Consequences for Speech Perception and Second Language Acquisition. (PhD), McGill University, Montreal, Quebec. Brown, C. A. (1998). The role of the L1 grammar in the L2 acquisition of segmental structure. Second Language Research, 14(2), 136-193. Brown, C. A. (2000). The interrelation between speech perception and phonological acquisition from infant to adult. In J. Archibald (Ed.), Second language acquisition and linguistic theory (pp. 4-63). Malden Mass: Blackwell. Cho, T., & Ladefoged, P. (1999). Variation and universals in VOT: evidence from 18 languages. Journal of Phonetics, 27(2), 207-229. Clements, G. N., & Hume, E. V. (1995). The internal organization of speech sounds. In J. Goldsmith (Ed.), A handbook of phonological theory (pp. 245-306). Oxford: Blackwell. Docherty, G. J. (1992). The timing of voicing in British English obstruents. Berlin: Foris publications. Elfenbein, J. (1997). Balochi Phonology. Phonologies of Asia and Africa 2, 761-776.
- 103 -
Flege, J. E. (1995). Second language speech learning: Theory, findings, and problems. In W. Strange (Ed.), Speech perception and linguistic experience: Issues in cross-language research (pp. 233-277). New York: Timonium, MD. Flege, J. E., & Fletcher, K. L. (1992). Talker and listener effects on degree of perceived foreign accent. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 91(1), 370-389. Flege, J. E., & Liu, S. (2001). The effect of experience on adult's acquistion of a second language. Studies in second language acquisition, 23, 527-552. Foulkes, P., Docherty, G., & Jones, M. J. (2010). Analyzing Stop. In F. P, D. G. J & J. M. J (Eds.), Sociophonetics: a student’s guide (pp. 58-71). London: Routledge. Gargesh, R. (2004). Indian English: Phonology. In B. Kortmann (Ed.), A Handbook of Varieties of English (pp. 815-829). Oxford: Blackwell. Guion, S. G., Flege, J. E., Akahane-Yamada, R., & Pruitt, J. C. (2000). An investigation of current models of second language speech perception: The case of Japanese adults’ perception of English consonants. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 107(5), 2711-2724. Hardcastle, W. J. (1973). Some observations on the tense-lax distinction in initial stops in Korean. Journal of Phonetics, 1, 263-271. Iverson, P., Ekanayake, D., Hamann, S., Sennema, A., & Evans, B. G. (2008). Category and perceptual interference in second-language phoneme learning: An examination of English /w/-/v/ learning by Sinhala, German, and Dutch speakers. Journal of experimental psychology: human perception and performance, 34(5), 1305-1316. Kent, R. D., & Read, C. (2002). The acoustic analysis of speech: Singular San Diego, CA. Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics Across Cultures: Applied Linguistics for Language Teachers. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press Larson-Hall, J. (2004). Predicting perceptual success with segments: a test of Japanese speakers of Russian. Second Language Research, 20(1), 33- 76. Larson-Hall, J. (2010). A guide to doing statistics in second language research using SPSS. New York: Routledge. Lenneberg, E. (1967). Biological foundations of language. New York: Wiley. Lisker, L., & Abramson, A. (1964). A cross-language study of voicing in initial stops: acoustical measurements. Word, 20(3), 384-422. Lisker, L., & Abramson, A. (1967). Some effects of context on voice onset time in English stops. Language and Speech, 10, 1-28.
- 104 -
Mahboob, A., & Ahmar, N. H. (2004). Pakistani English: Phonology. In E. W. Schneider (Ed.), A Handbook of Varieties of English: A Multimedia Reference Tool (pp. 1003-1015). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Patkowski, M. S. (1990). Age and Accent in a Second Language: A Reply to James Emil Flege. Applied Linguistics, 11(1), 73-89. doi: 10.1093/applin/11.1.73 Penfield, W., & Roberts, L. (1959). Speech and Brain Mechanisms. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Rahman, T. (1990). Pakistani English: The linguistic description of a non- native variety of English. Islamabad: National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University. Rahman, T. (1991). Pakistani English: some phonological and phonetic features. World Englishes, 10(1), 83-95. Scovel, T. (1988). A time to speak: A psycholinguistic inquiry into the critical period for human speech. Cambridge: Newbury House Stevens, K. N., Keyser, S. J., & Kawasaki, H. (1986). Toward a Phonetic and Phonological Theory of Redundant Features. In J. S. Perkell & D. H. Klatt (Eds.), Invariance and variability in speech processes (pp. 426- 463). New Jersey: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates. Suomi, K. (1980). Voicing in English and Finnish stops: A typological comparison with an interlanguage study of the two languages in contact. Turku: Publications of the Department of Finnish and General Linguistics, University of Turku. Syed, N. A. (2011). Perception and production of consonants of English by Pashto speakers. The Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Peshawar, XIX(1), 119-146. Syed, N. A. (2013a). Age and language variation: a study of VOT for plosives in Essex English. Essex Graduate Students Papers in Language and Linguistics, 14, 78-87. Syed, N. A. (2013b). Voice onset time for plosives in Saraiki: Implications for the acquisition of English aspiration contrast. EFL Annual Research Journal 2012 Shah Abdul Latif University Khairpur, 14, 1- 15. Werker, J. F., & Tees, R. C. (1984). Phonemic and phonetic factors in adult cross-language speech perception. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 75(6), 1866-1878.
- 105 -
BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. XXXI NO. 2, 2014
The Trend of Urdu Novel in Balochistan
Language & Literature
Dr. Khalid Mahmood Khattak Chairperson, Department of Urdu Literature, University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan Ms. Humera Saddozai Department of Urdu, Government Girls Degree College Quetta, Pakistan
Abstract In Balochistan Urdu Novel started with the trends of reformative purpose along with the Romanticism school of thought. After the existence of Pakistan many women entered in the field of novel writing, connected its social life with Romanticism and presented it in such a way that reformer would be obvious. The novel written after 1970, consumed the modern trends in such a way that the trends of international level were also presented in them. In 21st century the novels of Balochistan show new levels and elements of trends. it is proved that the novel represents the highest standard of Novel in any country.
Key words: Balochistan, Fiction, Urdu novel.
Introduction Novel writing started in Balochistan between 1915 and 1920. The first Urdu novel of Balochistan was "Muhabbat ka Devta Urf Brabar Ki Choot". It was written by Jagan Nath Sehti. Where this novel is lost in the whirl pool of the time? It is still unknown that what the actual subject of the novel was. In 1947 after the division of Hind many people migrated from one place to another. Due to this migration many people of Balochistan specialy Hindus and Sikhs also migrated from Balochistan to India, so it became difficult to find out their addresses. Jaggan Nath Seehti the writer of first novel of Balochistan left Lorali, Balochistan. There is not any record about when and where he had gone. Neitherr in old data nor in new researche such information is available and there is no indication that after division of Hind 1947 he might be settled in any area of India. During that time no one could
- 106 - preserve his novel so that with the passage of time first Urdu novel of Balochistan disappeared and now there isn’t any trace of this novel. Dr. Imam-ul-Haq Kousar writes in his books “Balochistan Mein Urdu” that the novel of Jaggan Nath Seehti was written in between 1915 to 1920 and now there isn’t any trace of this novel. Old educated people of Loralli have studied this novel due to which its presence is confirmed. Dr. Zia-ur-Rehman just included the information in his research that 200 copies of this novel were published. After 21 years of this novel another novel "Balochistan Ka Majboor Badmash" was written. Its name shows that this novel is painted in the colors of Balochistan; local influence is evident in its language. The language of the novel is very simple. Maulana Hoot Balochistani has shaped these characters similar to local people. These characters get great importance in the novel and the story revolves around these characters. Regional and skilled characters in the novel have increased its significance according to the circumstances of Balochistan. The characters strengthen the art of novel. The quality of these characters is further strengthened from this statement. In spite of subject theme and plot, some of the modern novel and distinctive element is the most important characterization which should be consistent with the life. (Inam-ul-Haq: 2006: P, 203) In the novel Balochistan is sketched and the beautiful scenes are presented in actual manner. The theme of the novel shows and the background of the story reveals about the youth of Balochistan. The first episode of "Balochistan Ka Mashoor Badmash" was published on 9th February, 1936 at Karachi, in the weekly magazine “Balochistan". The writer of this novel is Mulana Hoth Balochistani. His novel was based on the culture and tradition of Balochistan. In his story some issues are also discussed on which highlighted the ethics of tribal values. These trends in the novel includes the opinion of the editor of the newspaper. This novel is interesting and ethical. (Balochistan: 1936) It shows that the editor had read the whole novel, which is based on cultural and moral trends. In the civilization of the Balochistan the socio- culture and life style have been expressed. In spite of these aspects the trend of story is also present. There is common trend to divide the stories into chapters. In this novel the author has divided the novel into chapters by adopting the style of story writing. Its first chapter appeared as "(Pit-Clad Beggar (Gadri Poosh Faqeer)" then it was not allowed to publish. Before the publishing of first episode, it was decided that the novel will publish in series of episodes. But in the available publications of the journal there is not any other episode of
- 107 - this novel. The writer has not given his opinion as to why the publication of the episodes did stop. In Balochistan Nasim Hijazi lived for some time before and after the existence of Pakistan. During his stay in Balochistan he wrote the novel “Shaheen”. Although the subject of this novel was historical yet we can clearly find the issues of Balochistan. Where the impact of languages of Balochistan influenced him, the imaginary scenes and atmosphere of the Balochistan is also present. After the foundation of Pakistan the whole country was grieved and the author was living in the same atmosphere. That is why his novel was based on that society and he accepted its effects. Through this novel, he tried to awake the Muslims from illusionary dreams. In this novel the Balochistan traditions, culture, lifestyle are mentioned and characters in this novel are similar to the common men of Pakistan. It appears that all novels are written on the issues of Balochistan. We can find the promotion of culture and society in this novel. Due to this aspect of life it improve the importance of the novel. The person who is the subject of the novel represents the society of that era. There is drama and sketch in the novel portraying the modern epic. Novel is the study of the inner life. The aim of novel is to describe the life and mutual relationships of the characters and in the process the novel becomes animated. (Fardous: 2007: P, 83) The novel is historical that describes the events of Andalusia and attempts to inspire the Muslims. That is why this novel is having a symbolic status. Along with these trends the author has adopted rectifying trends. In Balochistan women Urdu Novelists are also writing novels. In the decade of 1960s, Yasmin Sufi, Hamida Jabeen, Riffat Zeba and Kaiser Shaheen were the novelists. These women write stories on ups and downs of domestic life and also summarized the global issues, expectancy pleasure, masculine psychology, restrictions and women education. Most of them are often in the public interest and the novels were written for fun remedial theme. These novels are also of great importance. The real objectives of the novels are entertainment and keeping the interest is of prime importance. However these characters in the novels correlate with imaginary pictures, letters of beloved, religion, basic problems and ethics of the society. (Fardous: 1999: P, 30) The novel of Hameeda Jabeen “Ambreen” is written on the need and importance of Women’s education. Those aspects of behavior and psychology of women which is based on romance and domestic issues related to society are described. The trends of her novels are social.
- 108 -
The women’s behavior and psychology aspects which basically based on romance and domestic issues are showed in social way. Her novels are based on social values and she discussed the social problems of that era. All authors adopted the situations of that time in their novels. A woman can express the problems of other females that she faces in her home, because she can understand her problems very well. The Hameeda Jabeen’s novel “Ambreen” has a romantic touch in which romance in story expresses hidden situations and feelings of characters are expressed. They wrote about social evils as well as about their cure. “Khawaboo ki basti” is the novel of Fardous Anwar Qazi which is published in the 1990. In this novel the writer highlights the political aspects. The novel based on unbalanced system in politics, the class distinguishing and the order of powerfull man and this type of politics is so common that even it also effects the education department. Student organizations seem busy for the assistance of students but actually they all are associated with political parties and have their own interests. Because of such conditions students become violent instead of being united. In the novel the romantic touch can be seen and all characters remember their past days. In this novel the writer tries to remove the class differences. In novel the effects of area on people of Balochistan, language and characters have also been discussed. The topic of this novel is about politics of Pakistan, means that the politics is explain in the form of story. In Urdu novel writing this novel is a good attempt that shows the poor politics of Pakistan, which creates unlawful situation, bad governance of educational system and differences in literature and political issues. (Forman Fatah: 2012: PP, 103-104) The novel of Khalid Iqbal Joyia ''Parawo'' is written in 1991. It reflects the environment of Balochistan. The topic of ''Parawo'' is based on society in which many people came to live in one camp and explain their stories. The novel expressed clearly how different people are grouped together in one place. “Parawo'' is such a story in which the writer very carefully explains both the art and ideas of the society. (Farooq Ahmed: 1998: P, 192) The novels which have been written in the beginning show the high quality of novel writing skills. The skill of novel writing passes several evolutionary stages in the 20th century. Writers try to write the novels in the based on all kinds of issues. This novel is the key theme of all novels written in the 21st century. The novels of the West show several directions. Among them one direction is the awareness of art and novel writing. The art of novel writing also portrays those aspects of life where before no one put attention
- 109 - on it and also introduced several directions of literature. (Khursheed ul Islam: 2064: PP, 86-87) In 21st century the beginning of Urdu novel in Balochistan starts by the novel “Dashte wafa”of Agha Gul. Author has the sense to portray his novel in the scenario of that century. That is why the writer wrote the title of “First novel of Balochistan in 21st Century” on the first page of novel to show that in this century this novel is not only unique but also brings the new directions of the 20th century. The main focus of this novel is regional politics. In which the up and downs of political scenario and its effects on different issues are also promoted. With this motivation the element of patriotism is also very clear in the novel. In the story pain in love is the collective interest, so the romantic issues are the main part of the novel, but customary trends are dependent on political trends or both trends progress simultaneously. In 20th century the political scenario was influenced by the novel ''khawaboo ki basti'' Agha Gul highlighted this political scenario and discussed all the political confusion and showed their impact on the conventional disturbance.. Patriotism and romantic trends are the outcome of these associations. These trends are being flourished from early novels in Balochistan. The basic theme of the novel “baila” is love and is written by Agha Gul. The discomfort and anxiety of love are linked with strong and weak financial situations. In the basic theme of novel the importance of education is mainly emphasized. In this novel the influence of local community is dominant and the casting of the character in the story is molded according to local trends. Sometimes in the novel just like the scene of the Quetta to Karachi journey depicts the old family culture, found in old practices. In old trends the domestic atmosphere is very clear where the family’s dispute and problems are discussed and romantic factors are also existing. In the novel the purpose is for improvement and the ethical values of individual are depicted. As a whole the economic conditions with traditional, cultural norms and values are also discussed. In the novel of Agha Gul language is also restricted from the local influence. Agha Gul’s novel has strong theme which shows tribal and regional life style and domestic ups and downs are also discussed. The similar trends are also seen in Shah Nawaz Ali’s novel “Shab Gazeda Sahar”. The first aspect based on the society shows domestic life where differences in behaviors of the people living in the home are discussed. In the story the remedying aspect is also present. In the novel the contiguous discussion of romantic factors are present. The pain of love, anxiety and sacrifices all are the part of the story. In social trends there is
- 110 - discussion of London and Pakistan societies. In “Shab Gazeda Sahar” world injustices on social ground are discussed and social realities are portrayed. The main character of the novel is an orphan child , who is deprived of the affection of parents love after their death, and became the victim of bad behaviour of relatives, while the marriage of the girls are arranged without their wills. The writer also discusses parent’s behaviors that they make their decision at the best of their knowledge. But their mistakes made their girls uncomfortable. The writer proofs the tragedies of love as a social phenomenon. The regional influence is dominant in this novel. Character writing, language and description, representation, tradition and culture are also portrayed under the same theme. Hashim Nadeem is also the most famous writer of 21st century, whose four novels have been published till now. Love is the basic subject of his first novel ''Khuda aur Mohabat''. In spite of all hurdles and difficulties and failure to get love, are the main themes of the novel. The domestic topic reveals the reality of conventional ups and down that both have huge difference in their life styles. Love and love marriages are thought to be a wrong and criminal acts and no one think about the lovers. Novel also shows Islamic trends. Prayers, mosques, and recitation of Kalma reveal that such thinking is prevalent. Its fundamental topic is Islam and love. It also has corrective trends. Corrections of wrong western practices are also being tried. There is also criticism of common behaviour. In this novel during character building it is attempted to create characters according to the atmosphere. He has portrayed the scene of Quetta and London. Hashim Nadeem showed regional color in the novel “Khuda aur Mohabat” The atmosphere of London is also very effective. Atmosphere, weather, University and life style are the part of story. In the background, the life style of Quetta, tradition, sacrifices for the sake of love and spreading of Islam are the main reason. The continuity of these trends in the novel is such qualities which cannot be ignored. Literature cannot be complete without a particular atmosphere. Beside with character edifice, portrait, the atmospheric expression completes the picture of life. (Mumtaz Ahmed: 1997: PP, 104- 105) The love is the subject of second novel of Hashim Nadeem “Bachpan ka December”. But this love is different from other stories because this love starts in the childhood and emotion and feelings of a child are described, which become stronger as that child grows up. In old age love, emotions and psychological problems are the main point of story. In this story some common character has been taken out from the society, so that writer tried to describe Psychology of Eastern Society,
- 111 - emotions, feelings and some social restrictions. Not only the positive aspects of the human beings are highlighted but the negative aspects are also included. In this story the aspects of improvement is present where the color of Baluchistan appears. His writing showed regional effects along with characters, so the regional colors are exposed. In description the scenes of Quetta are present. The weather of Quetta, snow and child play all are discussed. The main concern is romance which is exposed in the story in different ways. The local fashion is also present in the story. One town shows the complete picture of the society. The novelist directs the message to the reader that he thinks is suitable. On the basis of recurring personal experiences every human develops a natural style and standard. He comprehensively discusses the events. The novelist reveals events in front of reader to portray life to the reader as he feels. (Sohail Bukhari: 1996: P, 15) In the next novel of Hashim Nadeem “Abdullah” Love is made the subject of the novel. The hurdles and difficulties of real and imaginary love and their stages are explained. In this story one can find the lesson that imaginary love is the first step of real love. To get the love of almighty and his will is not an easy task, for that he has to face many trials and tribulations. After many sacrifices the real love is acquired. In that story mystical theme is adopted, and the hurdles which comes in the way of mystical love are also discussed and how to overcome that? It also has an answere that mystical love means that one shoready uld be every moment for the Allah’s will. Human beings should always be helpful to people and take care of them. In this novel society is being explained and with its bad qualities. How human beings are destroying their lives is also discussed.. The reformative aspect in this novel is that do not consider yourself superior and dominant so that you will consider the lower sects as disgraceful. Although in the novel “Abdullah” and “Abdullah ii” of Hashim Nadeem show similarities, however there are still some new topics, in which poor people are portrayed in the story, that how they are surviving their miserable lives. In this novel the feelings of the society are explained in such a way that life style and culture of a country or area become evident.
Conclusion In Balochistan the novels are written under the influence of stories. In these novels such stories are included which are very familiar, while some novels have new subjects. The novels which had been written in the 21st century have purpose of reforms, romance, progress and Islamic ideology. At the same time the novelist of the period had the advantage of above mentioned themes. We can find one or more trends in Urdu novels. This is
- 112 - uncommon that in spite of all trends only one dominates and under the influence of this trend the rest of the trends also flourish. The most significant and interesting trends are the culture, life style, society and regional sects of Balochistan. These trends have made the novel very flamboyant. Due to the influence of these trends language and written expression attained new features. This will be helpful for the dictionary of Urdu. This aspect of the novel shows the influence of local languages. In this way the novels of Balochistan get a similar status of Urdu novels and are trying to spread its impressions.
Refernces
Abu-ul-les, Siddique, Dr, (1990). Aaj ka Urdu adab. Rehber Publishers Karachi, P, 172.
Anam-ul-Haq, Kousar, Dr, (2006). Balochistan mein tazkara-e-Urdu. Edara- e-Tanseef-o-Tehqeeq Balochistan, Quetta. P, 203.
Balochistan. (1936).Weekly, 9th February, Karachi.
Fardous Anwar Qazi, Dr. (2007). Urdu Zabban ke Afsanevi Assaleeb. Higher Education Commission, Islamabad, P, 83.
Fardous Anwar Qazi, Dr. (1999). Urdu Afsana nigari k rojahnat. Tabat-e- doom, Maqtabah Aaleeya, Lahore, P, 30.
Farman Fatah Pori, Dr. (2012). Urdu nasar ka fani irtaqa. Al waqar Publications, Lahore, PP, 103-104.
Farooq Ahmad, Dr. (1998). Balochistan mein Urdu Zabban –o- Adab. Kalat Publishers, Quetta, P, 192
Khursheed ul Islam, (1964). Tanqeedain, Ali Garah, Anjuman Taraqi-e-Urdu, Hind.P P, 86-87.
Mumtaz Ahmad Khan, Dr. (1997). Aazadi k baad Urdu Novel Haayat, Issaleeb Aur Rujhanat. Anjamin Taraqi Urdu Pakistan, Karachi, P P, 104-105.
Sohail, Bukhari. Dr. (1966). Novel nigari. Maqtaba Merry Library, Lahore, P, 15.
- 113 -
BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. XXXI NO. 2, 2014
Dialectal Variation of Brahui Language in Balochistan
Language & Literature
Dr. Liaqat Ali Sani Assistant professor, Department of Brahui, University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan [email protected] Dr. Bilal Ahmed Assistant Professor, Department of Persian, University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan Waheed Razzaq Research Officer, Balochistan Study Centre University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan
Abstract This article describes the language variation of phonetic changes, speech style, vocabulary changing and borrowing words of Brahui language. This article would try to show the reasons of variation in dialects of Brahui. One of the biggest reasons regarding dialectal variation is; why the Brahui language is being linguistically affected by the neighbouring languages, like Balochi in Raxshani dilect, Urdu, English, Pashto in Saravani dialect, Sindhi, Jathki, Lasi in Jahlavani dialect. At the end some recommendations are given for preventing such dialectal changes in Brahui language. If the lingual changes continue, it would be dangerous for the Brahui language.
Key words: Acrolect, Baselect, Brahui, Mesolect, Phonic changes.
Introduction It is natural phenomena that every language in the world has more than one dialect and accent. It causes that a language spread or spoken in a country, where national frontiers are less well established, dialect continua can cause political difficulties, social behaviours ethical manners, or due to the marketability of that language precisely because people are used to thinking in terms of discrete categories rather than in ad hoc or continuum- type terms. These social changes of a language cause changes in dialect and accent. In this way the Brahui language has three major dialects.
- 114 -
The following are the main dialects of Brahui language which are being spoken in Balochistan specially and entire Pakistan in general. These speech variations or styles has social, economic and political background.
Saravani Paarvarh (Dialect) Of Brahui This is the first major dialect of Brahui which is spoken in the north part of Balochistan, where this Saravanic dialect is being spoken in Quetta, Mastung, Drengarh, Mungchar, Kalat, few parts of Bolan, Kachee, Naseer Abad and Jafar abad. Saravani dialect is most literary usable dialect of Brahui, this is how this dialect of Brahui is called standard dialect. Almost Saravani dialect has been used for all literary works. Even this accent of Brahui is being used in print and electronic media too. Saravani dialect is affected by its adjacent, English, Urdu and Pashto language (Balochistan-R: 2010)
Jahlavani Paarvarh of Brahui The dialect which is spoken in the southeast of Balochistan known as Jahlavani dialect, which spread over all Jahlavan ( Xuzdár, nál, karx, Bela, uthal, Hub Caokí), Jahlmagsi, Naseer Abad, Jafar Abad and some arias of Sindh (Mehaŕ, Faríd ábád, Kárácí, Jekab ábád, Naváb şah and Haedar ábád). And this dialect is known as the most affected Brahui dialect, Sindhi accent has been noted in huge and an undersized effectiveness of Balochi language is also noted (Balochistan-R: 2010)
Raxshanic Paarvarh of Brahui Raxshani dialect is also known as Rekí or Noşkeí which is spoken in the northwest and west of Balochistan, the speakers of Raxshani dialect are found all over Chaghi division although there are a considerable number of speakers in Southern Afghanistan, Iranian Balochistan and in Turkmenistan (Balochistan-R: 2010) A special usage of long vowels creates melodious expression in this Raxshani dialect and in comparison this is known as the pleasing manners in Brahui dialects. However this dialect is affected by Balochi, Afghani and Iranic Persian. (Sabir, 1998)
Dialectal Variation Brahui language has dialectal variation in its three dialects. This changing or speech style in Brahui phonetics has its roots since 1980s. With the passage of time this variation and changing is increasing day by day. Let’s think about following sentences.
- 115 -
1. O sabax sunaifing e. (He is reading the lesson)
2. Aslam guft, e bazar aa kava (Aslam said that he will go to bazar)
3. Basar chamat goglo na borh karenun. (We have cocked onion, tomato)
The above three sentences are simple sentences of Brahui language. These sentences contain other languages word. Like sentence no.1 has Urdu verb, which has been Brahutized. Sentence no.2 shows the variation of Dehwari and Brahui languages. The sentence is taken out from the Dehwari language. But it seems that it is Brahui sentence. Sentence no.3 contains Sindhi vocabulary but it is the Brahui speaker’s sentence. These changes in variation has their background. Ore reason of changing words or borrowing words from mother languages. A condition wherein a creole language consists of a spectrum of varieties between those most and least similar to the superstreet language (that is, a closely related language whose speakers assert dominance of some sort). Due to social, political, and economic factors, a creole language can decreolize towards one of the languages from which it is descended, aligning its morphology, phonology, and syntax to the local standard of the dominant language but to different degrees depending on a speaker's status (en.wikipedia:2014) William Stewort, in 1965, proposed that the terms acrolect and basilect be the sociolinguistic labels for the upper and lower boundaries respectively of a post-creole speech continuum (William 1965: 10). In the early 1970s Derek Bickerton popularized these terms (as well as mesolect for intermediate points in the continuum) to refer to the phenomenon of code-switching used by some users of creole languages who also have some fluency in the standard language upon which the contact language is based. University of Chicago linguist Salikoko Mufwene explains the phenomenon of creole languages as "basilectalization" away from a standard, often European, language among a mixed European and non-European population (Mufwene:1993) In certain speech communities, a continuum exists between speakers of a creole language and a related standard language.
- 116 -
There are no discrete boundaries between the different varieties and the situation in which such a continuum exists involves considerable social stratification. The following are the three major variation which were according in Brahui language are as under.
Acrolect (Eb Paarvarh) The above term is used for the style of a language’s dialect or accent which has been affected 10% from neighbouring languages or dialects. Chart no.1
10
90
STANDARED OTHER
The chart no.1 shows the example of acrolect in Brahui language. This term is known as “EYB PAARVARH” in Brahui language. In this variation the Saravani dialect of Brahui is affecting by Urdu, English and Pashto. Some example,
Gait aa bell maningy. It is bell on the gait. This is type of sentence are being used in saravani dialect of Brahui especially in district Quetta. The above Brahui sentence contains the English words Gait and Bell.
This variation shows that the saravani dialect which is known as the standard dialect of Brahui language. Some extend this dialect leaving 10% away from its standardised shape. Below are few examples of Brahui acrolect variation;
Acrolect Urdu English Balochi Chuna sabak sunaifing e. Sabak,
- 117 -
Boy is reading the lesson Sunna
Full tiet kes teny Full tied Make yourself full tied. Devaan ti charag varag Devaan marek. Charag Varag Food would be served in the meeting Tene mod e off kappa Mod, off Don’t off your mod Room ana lock ay Kohlna Room, lock kohlingut I am unlocking the room. Table no. 1
Mesolect (Nem Paarvarh) The mesolect variation of Brahui language is the form, where the standared dialect is allowing other languages to become part of the Brahui. Means this variation is beaing affected 50% or it is 50% far from standard dialect. These variations can be seen and found in all Brahui dialects.
mesolect, 50 satandared dialect, 50
Chart no.2
- 118 -
The mesolect variation of Brahui is found in saravani dialect also. In this shape of language or dialect would be 50% far from standard dialect. Dehwari dialect of the Mastung has good example of the mesolect or nem paarvarh. Dehwari is spoken in the saravani range like Mastun, Kalat and Quetta. Dehwari is the baselectal shape of the Persian language. It has been affected from Brahui language. The following are few example of Brahui and Dehwari mesolectal variation. Especially in direct and indirect speech of Dehwari language.
Mesolect Brahui Dehwari English Jik istada Jik Istada Stand up straight Messige kes Kes Message Wite a message Ali guft akram barek Akram barek Ali guft Ali said akram will come Aeno pagga ara fession Aeno pagga, ara, e. Fashion in in e. Which fashion is in nowadays
Table no.2
Baselect (Kehb Paarvarh) The baselectal variation of Brahui language shows the poor position of language. This is most affected from other languages. Mostly baselectal form of the Brahui language is found in Sindh. The kehb paarvarh or baselectal shape of Brahui is 90% far from the standared dialect of Brahui. Or is the 90% affected from Sindhi language.
- 119 -
Baselect standared dialect 10%
Sindhi language 90%
Chart no.3
Baselectal variation of Brahui is usual spoken in Sindh. It means the Brahui of Sindhi language. The following table no.3 is the example of Baselectal variation of Brahui language.
Baselect Brahui Sindhi Sajjo day gaddah wangur kam Day, karet Sajjo, gaddah kret wangur kam Worked full day like Donkey Myet ant borh kunesa Ant, kunesa Myet, borh What do you want to eat cousin?
Table no.3
Conclusion
Dialectal variations of Brahui can damage the originality of Brahui language. If it continues in the coming decades it can be produce more dialects or accents in Brahui language. The reasons of these variations can be the following,
Geographical distance between the Brahui dialects and its standard dialect is the main or major reason for dialectal variation.
- 120 -
Brahui is not the medium of instructional language of Balochistan especially Brahui populated area. Lack of electronic and print media in Brahui language can be the cause of dialectal variation. Mother tongue based education can be the effective tool to control the dialectal variation of Brahui language in the Balochistan. Because the common curriculum in Brahui can play an important role to make uniformity in Brahui language.
References
Sabir, Abdul Razzaq. (1998). Brahui Likvarh. Brahui adbi society Quetta.
Sani, Liaqat. (2010). “Balochistan Review” Bi-annual research journal, volume XXIII No.2, Balochistan Study centre, University of Balochistan Quetta.
Mufwene, S. S. (ed.) (1993). Africanisms in Afro-American Language Varieties. University of Georgia Press, Athens, GA
Stewart, William. (1965). Urban Negro speech: Sociolinguistic factors affecting English teaching, in R. Shuy; A. Davis; R. Hogan, Social dialects and language learning, National Council of Teachers of English, pp. 10–18 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-creole_continuum
- 121 -
BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. XXXI NO. 2, 2014
Islamic Modernity It’s significance in current scenario
Philosophy
Dr. Malik Mohammad Tariq Chairperson, Department of Philosophy, University of Balochistan, Quetta, Pakistan
Absrtact The Greek Philosophy was passed on through other great culture of the time, the culture of developing Muslim world and it come to medieval Europe. The Arabs received knowledge from Greeks, as well as from the Indians and Chinese, Muslims made comparison, analyzed and transmitted their findings in the primitive subjects (Sachacht: 1979:425-505). At each contact Islamic civilizations, accepting and assimilating that which agreed with its fundamental characteristic and principles and rejecting that which was contradictory to its values and norms. It was thus able to derive benefits from these contacts and to prosper (Sohail: 2003:48). There were a lot of scientific activities in the early period of Islam. The Abbasid Empire in its early period gave full thrust to blossoming of knowledge. The works of Plato, Aristotle and other great philosophers, thinkers, mathematicians, scientists, astronomers, and others were translated into Arabic and through Arabs this knowledge reached Europe. The meeting of East and West in the eleventh century led indirectly to the conception of new knowledge and modern science. When East and West met significantly once again in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the science, which the Western conquers brought with them was quite alien to the Muslims science, as a comparing to the Muslims had given eight centuries before to the Europeans. The interaction of the subdued Islamic countries with the European powers resulted in two main types of reaction: i) ‘fundamentalist Islam and ii) modernist Islam. The fundamentalists developed from a tradition of militant (or at least strongly vocal) objection to any deviation from what was seen to be mainstreaming traditional Islam. However, neither all fundamentalist Muslims were militants nor all militants were fundamentalists. Moreover, although the renewed contact with the West was an urge for many, not all fundamentalists were reacting against the European powers. An important run aground of the modernism was the desire to reinterpret Islam to meet the changing circumstances of contemporary life
- 122 -
(Alexander: 1998:335-36). However no organized reform has resulted from any segment of the modernist movement, it has gained extensive influence in the Muslim land.
Key words: Islam, Modernity,
Introduction The philosophers of Greece in ancient time constructed a detailed scientific worldview and made important advances in various fields such as astronomy, physics, biology, psychology, ethics, medicine, and politics. “Medieval Europe was the birthplace of classical modern science, which is generally; regarded to have come to birth in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and the Greek foundation was extremely important for its growth” (Hooy:1973:161-2). . Before we go to discuss modernity and the response of Islamic world to modernity, we should talk about the significance and meaning of modernity, modernism, and moderation. What is the relation between Islam and modernity? Is Islam really against modernity? The contentious issues of the relationship between Islam and modernity are not easy ones. First, we have to know what modernity is. The lexicographic meaning of modernity is condition or quality of being modern; something modern (Funk: 1968:871). The quality or state of being modern, or modern way to breathe new life and a spirit (Webster: 1986: 1452). According to The Concise Oxford Dictionary, modern means, i) of the present and recent times and ii) in current fashion; not antiquated. (COD: 1993) Modernity has several dimensions; it is regrettable that some people begin to adore modernity as blindly as some other people reject it blindly. Modernity is neither all benefit for everyone (except perhaps for the West to some extent) nor does absolute bane as staunch supporters of traditions make it out to be. One must comprehensively and critically examine the concept of modernity as propounded by the Western scholars. Modernity is a term used to describe the condition of being related to modernism. Since the term ‘modern’ is used to describe a wide range of periods, modernity must be understood in its context, the industrial age of the 19th century, and its role in sociology, which since its beginning in that era examined the leap from pre-industrial to industrial society, sometimes considering events of the 18th century as well. For the period since the middle Ages, the term Modern Times is used.
Epistemologically modernity (and consequently its other forms) is based on rational, authoritative, self-sufficient human self, negating metaphysical and traditional grounds. Modernity is a continuously moving, dynamic process. It invented, to begin with, the modern-secular, in contrast, to the medieval-sacral,
- 123 - man (Siddiqui: 1996:23-24). Modernity as understood in the forgoing account is now a global phenomenon. It encompasses nearly all that is under the sun with its peculiar cognitive normic style. It thus, directly implies technologically based economy and a state of polity with an elaborate bureaucratic technocratic institution. Both function as the primary agents of social change. These institutions leading to urbanization, modern school systems, mass media and advertising agencies along with constellation of consciousness that infuse ideas and imagery and invade societies not prepared for ideo-cultural and socio- economic metamorphosis (Sayyad: 1990:23).
Modernism is a trend of thought that affirms the power of human beings to improve, create, and reshape their environment, with the aid of practical experimentation, scientific knowledge, and technology, and is thus in its essence both progressive and optimistic. Modernism covers many political, cultural, and artistic movements rooted in the changes in Western society at the end of the nineteenth and early twentieth century. However, Modernism encouraged the re-evaluation of every aspect of existence, from philosophy to commerce, with the goal of finding that which was ‘holding back’ progress, and replacing it with new, progressive and therefore better, ways of reaching the same end. According to Webster Dictionary “Modernism means a practice, usage, or expression peculiar to or characteristic of modern times. The philosophy and practice of modern act esp. a self-conscious and deliberate break with the past and search for new forms of expression in any of the arts (an outraged press and public pronounced as it as the very model” (Webster: 1986:1451). In the Roman Catholic Church, a humanistic movement beginning in the late 19th Century, that reinterpreted the Bible, dogma, and other Church teachings in order to make them consistent with modern developments in science and philosophy . Pope Pius X declared it a heresy in 1907 (Funk: 1968:870).
For the last nearly three hundred years, the Muslim world has been lacking in producing philosophers and scientists and yet now when the Muslim world has such immense resources, it far behind the West in technology because the door of Ijtihad, that is, ‘creative thinking’, has been closed. Repeatedly in the Qur’an is stresses on thinking, that is, ‘tafakkur’ and ‘tadabbur.’ until now, by and large, the Muslim world pays no attention to them, that is, they turn their back on critical thinking.
In contrast, the striking feature of contemporary Muslim society is that it has failed to keep up with contemporary world. By this we do not mean that Muslims are ‘backward’ or ‘underdeveloped’ or ‘developing’, but rather that
- 124 - the Muslims are behind in their understanding of Islam and all that the term implies socially and politically no longer function efficaciously. This is largely due to the failure of Muslim society to adjust to change and understand Islam with reference to the changed conditions of life (Sohail: 2003:48).
The Islamic jurisprudence faced severe problem when Jurist refused to differentiate between what was permanent, fundamental, and absolute and what was momentary, temporal, transitory and changeable. Shah Wali Allah has severely criticized the narrow approach. He pointed out that the moral principles, article of faith, injunctions and prohibitions, values revealed in the Qur’an must be acknowledged as eternal truths, which can neither, be altered nor compromised. But whichever laws of punishments penalties derived on the basis of Ijtihad and Ijma are subject to change and critical review. Allama Iqbal expressed his apprehension and said: “The ultimate spiritual basis of all life, as conceived by Islam, is eternal and reveals itself in variety and change. A society based on such a conception of reality must reconcile in its life, the categories of permanence and change. It must possess eternal principles to regulate its collective life” (Iqbal: 1978:117). The fundamental framework is eternal. Truth remains unbothered; but the human conditions vary. The principles of Islam are eternal; but not their space-time operationalisation. “The Prophet Muhammad himself, as well as Rightly Guided Caliphs, varied the application of the principles of Islam as the circumstances changed, but always within the parameters of Islam. They had fully understood the spirit of Islam” (Khalifa: 1965:213).
A rising Taqlidi trend focusing on traditionally conditioned thinking and approach, and an increasing trend towards extending the purpose and role of law by defining Shari'ah as a way of life appear to be the most important factors which causing a hinder to the true Islamic values. A renewed interpretation in the study of Fiqh, represented by the various schools of thoughts, is sapping intellectual energies that might have been invested in some valuable pursuits. The outcome of this classic battle of ideas will decide the fate of the Muslims and Muslim world in the decades, may be even centuries, to come. Moreover it is equally true that the salvation of the Muslim world, which has suffered from subjugation, backwardness and humiliation for centuries, lies in seeking knowledge as the Prophet Muhammad commanded, freeing the mind from the manacles of worthless traditions and baseless taboos, firmly speaking, in religion, seeking enlightenment in the factual sense of the word through encouraging the spirit of inquiry and appliance of the principle of Ijtihad, and in practicing the insight thus gained in our daily life by
- 125 - yourself and jointly. This is the only way to an Islamic modernity and renaissance. In the “Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam” Iqbal having established that all lines of Muslim thought, “Converge on a dynamic conception of the universe” (Iqbal: 1978:124). Iqbal calls for the exercise of Ijtihad as the evolution in Islamic thought or expression of the principle of movement. He goes on to stress “The teaching of the Qur’an that life is a process of progressive creation necessities that each generation, guided but unhampered by the work of its predecessors, should be permitted to solve its own problems” (Iqbal: 1978:134). Hence Islam rejects a stagnant view of the universe and regards it as always evolving and changing known as Ijtihad. Creativity is the essence of Ijtihad. The dynamic force of the scientific technological revolution is creativity, developing new ideas and sailing in unexplored seas.
Modernity is a different term from modern times; it is derived from Modernism, a movement in art based on the consciousness that through the mechanical age of industrialism, mankind has evolved into something very new-what that would be, would have to be explored by art, and all previous concepts questioned. Modernity is simply the sense or the idea that the present is discontinuous with the past, which through a process of social and cultural change (either through improvement, that is, progress, or through decline) life in the present is fundamentally different from life in the past. This sense or idea as a worldview contrasts with tradition, which is simply the sense that the present is continuous with the past, that the present in some way repeats the forms, behavior, and events of the past. Modernity means new and better technology and an improved standard of living. However, unlike in Western societies, it also means a renewal with the Past, a return to the original ethos of Islam, of Makkah and Medina. Most Muslims do not really think of Modernity in terms of a break with the Past. Keeping this definition in view the question arises can there be any relationship between religion and modernity?
All modern religious thought is designed to bring about a reconciliation between religious thinking, practice and institutions, on the one hand, and science, technology and the social and political, economic and institution of modern civilization, on the other. The lead in this respect was taken by Christianity. Indeed, the reformation and protestant revolutions in that religion gave an active and aggressive push to Western society in the direction of what we call today modern-Western civilization. Without the overthrow of the authority of the Church of Rome, as most powerful social institution in pre- modern era in the West, and the installation of Christian authority in
- 126 - conscience of the individual, neither individualism, nor capitalism, nor free scientific inquiry would have possible in Western culture. All the good and bad has followed since the liberation of the individual from the restrictions, which had been the rule before in traditional Christianity and the traditionalism of the Church of Rome, the so-called secularization of Christianity now became the chief cultural goal of the West.
Secularization of Christianity meant that, henceforth, religious and secular matters will be separated and each will be virtually compartmentalized within its domain. Today, there is an undercurrent of such a separation in every sector of Western life. The religious and secular are not allowed mixing even in the conduct of business office of the church. According to percept, social, political, economic, governmental and state matters should be completely divested, or certainly divested in principle, from the religious, theological, and spiritual authority of God. Neither side, that is, the religious nor secular, ought to interfere in the affairs of others. This is the ideology of separation of church and state in the West. Hence this is the boundary line for all religious modernism in thought and maintains this separation. Needless to say that, in the fullest sense of the word, this has not yet achieved. It is clear that the “separation of church and state,” which it is important to realize, is a far broader concept than is implied in the above phrase. It include the separation of religion from all other sectors of life: politics, economics, ethics, science, education, industry, commerce, finance, taxation, military, law, government, medicine, justice, art, literature, architecture, sports, entertainment, and so on and so forth. The area of religion is restricted to purely religious, liturgical, spiritual, theological, and church matters. The church becomes simply one more social and cultural institution in society. At any rate, it must accept all other institutions for what they are and expect to be accepted by them in turn for what it is. But just as the state, the university, or the Business Corporation or bank has to say in the affairs of the church, the church has no say in their affairs. Neither is the church identical with community or society, because religion is not society. In a word, the Kingdom of Heaven and the kingdom of man are separate things. This is very critical point. Christianity is a church within the larger human community. But Islam is that community itself. The Christian may forsake and run from his community and take refuge in the church. The Muslim may not, because the mosque is not something apart from community.
What is crucial to realize is that secular thought and religious modernism were home-grown in the West. They were organic, native and local to its soil. They evolved over a period of centuries. As they developed, the Western mind
- 127 - and psyche developed with them. There were, to be sure, periods and episodes of painful conflict between the two in the course of their development. Often the pace of development of the two was not parallel one. Even today some people in the West feel extremely unhappy about secularism, rail against it, and even reject it.
All religions, not only Islam, face this problem earlier or later depending as when modernity dawns in the area where that religion has its lean. Christianity in the West faced it much earlier than other religions in the East. Religions are not rigid and immutable. They adapt or shrivel, or mutate into other forms. There is no reason why Islam should prove different. There is nothing in the Qur’an that suggests that Islam is less open to democracy or equality of the sexes than either Christianity or Judaism. Nor is there any inherent reason why Islam should prove less able to accept the challenge of Change. It is entirely possible that it can formulate an alternative and effective theory of Modernity that integrates faith into a more realistic and clear theory than the largely mythical Western model. Indeed, much suggests it may prove more open and flexible as a religion than either of the other two great monotheistic faiths. Here we should keep in mind that modernity could not be defined only something temporal or related to time. It is to be dealt with also as something to do with mental approach and way of accepting or rejecting a proposition. In other words, we have to speak of modernity as value. Through emphasis on Ijtihad, (the right of interpreting the Qur’an and the Sunnah or of forming a new opinion by applying analogy, as opposed to merely taqlid, which was a submission stance towards the authority of revelation and tradition) Muslim thinkers sought to reverse the decline they saw in Islamic culture (Alexander: 335-36). They saw a method by which to achieve this through revivification by an integration of Western science (and some philosophy) with Islam, along with the assumption that both were reasonable and true, and thus compatible (Ali: 2000:783:84). Islam can modernize and accept the fresh solution, even from outside its own tradition. This is achieved through analogy or Qiyas. When a situation arises for which there is no apparent textual solution than a Muslim could seek analogous situations in the life of the Prophet, apply the principles of Shari'ah and so extend the law.
Islam is not opposed to modernism. It seeks to understand, not merely what the Qur'an and Sunnah, and the other authoritative sources of tradition say how it can be applied to modern living. Traditional Muslim thought concerns itself with whether at all or how much modernity can be accommodated in traditional Islam. By contrast, modern Muslim thought concerns itself with whether and how much of traditional Islam and the accumulated and inherited
- 128 -
Muslim tradition can be accommodated in modernity. Modernity cannot be separated from change. Islam, like many other religions, was a product of fundamental social and economic changes, which were occurring in the Arab society. Islam emphasis on values while welcoming the change-taking place in the society. However, it provided human face for the change and exhorted people not to neglect their duty towards human suffering. Ali Dessouki says:
As an intellectual trend, Islamic modernism is one response to the Muslim encounter with the west in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Other such reactions have ranged from the orthodox traditionalism of Salafiyah to westernizing secularism on the one hand and to revivalism or neo- fundamentalism on the other. Thus, Islamic modernism should not be equated with all attempts to revive, invigorate, or reform Islam. Further, modernism is not solely an Islamic phenomenon but is known in other religious traditions under similar circumstances. The concern of religious modernists, Muslims, or otherwise, is to purify the religious heritage, to reinterpret some of its aspects and to fuse it with modern elements, in order to reinstitute the dignity of that heritage and establish its worth against foreign encroachment. In the case of Islam, modernist thinkers are not enemies of Western culture; indeed, they view its science, technology, and institutional forms of organization with great admiration and consider them necessary elements for the development of their countries. What they have opposed is the wholesale and indiscriminate importation of Western ideas, which, in their view, has resulted in the disintegration of moral fiber of the society and the undermining of its asalah (“authenticity”). They have emphasized the need for change through reform and adaptation and believe that a nahdah (“renaissance”) can only be achieved by turning to Islam (Ali: 2000:783-84).
There is a need for realization that the path of success lays through reform and adaptation and extends of education and gaining of modern technology. The West becomes superior in the world in last four centuries through better knowledge and modern technology. Furthermore, only those nations succeed which have the background and traditions of hard work and discipline, tolerance and national unity. Unfortunately these qualities are lacking rather just opposite of Islamic principles are adopted. It can be said that the Muslims must choose the path of reform, purify the religious heritage, to reinterpret some of its aspects and to fuse it with modern elements, and get education, knowledge of technology and progress in science rather than unlimited militancy and noisy slogans. Determined efforts are needed to combat extremists, terrorist’s militants, and bigots. The difference between moderate and militant Muslim is that both of them are the supporter of
- 129 - organizing societies whose principle are based on Islam. The difference between both of them is in their procedural direction and basic normative preferences by which they shape understanding and interpretation of Islam.
For moderate Muslims, Ijtihad is preferred method of choice for social and political change and military Jihad is the last option. For militant Muslims, military Jihad is the first option and Ijtihad is not an option at all. Ijtihad is a juristic tool that allows independent reasoning to articulate Islamic law on issues where textual sources are salient. The moderate Muslim intellectuals see Ijtihad as a spirit of Islamic thought that is necessary for the vitality of Islamic ideas and Islamic civilization. Without Ijtihad, Islamic thought and Islamic civilization fall into decay. For moderate Muslims, Ijtihad is a way of life, which simultaneously allows Islam to reign supreme in the heart and the mind to experience unfettered freedom of thought. A moderate Muslim is therefore, one who cherishes freedom of thought while recognizing the existential necessity of faith. He aspires for changes, but through the power of mind and not by waging war. The Qur’an endows with eternal principles and a dynamic outlook and animates in him a new vivacity and ardour so that he may remold and refashion his personality and life in agreement with the spirit of Islam. The Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad is the second great source of Islamic law and regarded as the cementing force of the Muslim Ummah. The authentic traditions (Ahaidth-i-Sahiha) are regarded as authority in law. The other sources are Ijma and Qiyas.
Conclusion It may be concluded that the Muslims in the present time are very much in need of recognizing Ijtihad and making it a living factor for social change. Moreover, the world, which is on collision course, can escape eventually only by harmonizing itself with the principle of Tauheed, which is common to all revealed religions. It was Islam, which gave the message to humanity that religion was neither racial and national, nor private and individual, and that the purpose was to organize and unite humankind based on monotheism despite all natural distinction. In the present scenario, there is a need of dialogue, understanding, and compromise. There must be a tolerance, flexibility, and accommodation. The world of Islam is big enough to accommodate all shades of opinion. We must tolerate each other’s existence and must-acknowledge that every human being has right to breath. We should make Islam as a tolerant way of life by granting human rights to all. It is the high time that tolerance, self-sacrifice, and compassion, which permeated in the last Sermon on the Mount of Arafat by Prophet Muhammad, should be rekindled which would
- 130 - lead to the abolition of all kind of schisms, rivalries, and animosities bed eviling land. Through these positive steps, we can really serve Islam. Rising above theocratic and dogmatic approach and embracing lofty human values for which Islam was revealed should dispel the apprehension of Non-Muslims. In this context through Ijtihad Islam will emerge to create the newest ideas and techniques for universal peace promising a better tomorrow for the down trodden and impoverished humanity. The world ‘Islam’ means complete surrender to Allah. The Holy Qur’an calls the Muslims the people of the non-extremists “middle path The Prophet Muhammad was described as (the bringer of) “mercy for the two worlds” In his conduct, he was tolerant, ever merciful, and forgiving, as he had been proving throughout his life and at the time of conquering Makkah.
Modernity owes its origin to the rise of science as an intellectual and social force. It is revolt against tradition and authority of all kind, especially the religious one. It completely displaces emotion by reason. It is rationalist in the sense that it makes reason the sole authority in the pursuit of knowledge, and is naturalist in that it seeks to explain inner and outer nature without supernatural presupposition and without any reference to transcendence. Thus, it is bound by rationalism on the one hand and naturalism on the other (Siddiqui: 1996:25- 26). “The emprico-rationalist knowledge, the mother of science and Modernity, is open-ended. It is subject to change, addition, and modification in the light of future research. Ours is an age of explosion of knowledge which demands nothing short of openness to change, rapid change, all-round change in individual attitudes, social behavior, economic pattern, political setup and, particularly, in educational planning. It is in the readiness to adjust to new conditions of life that inherent dynamism and activism”(Siddiqui: 1996:26).
We are presently living in mutually dependent world of accelerated and rapid changes. Our time is moving so speedy that unless we pay attention to the wake up calls, the world will soon pass us and treat us as a lost tribe. We have to regain the lost spirit of Islam and the habit of analysis and inquiry so that we should be able to get out of the moral chaos and intellectual state of unconsciousness and decline. Our best hope should be in, free discussion, reason, receptiveness to thought, synthesis, openness, and harmony, tolerance, accommodation of other ideas, pluralism, in addition, seeing the fellow’s point of view. Then we will be able to make a progressive, enlightened, democratic Islamic methodology. If we carry on and do not take into account these virtues, the future will become even darker for us then it is at present.
- 131 -
It may be resolved that militancy, violence and intolerance within Islam have tarnished Islam and Muslims more than their enemies. Violence and intolerance is the most deliberate disobedience of the Qur’anic injunction, Islamic ethics, and humanitarian teaching of the Prophet Muhammad. We cannot get out of the mess in which we find ourselves today unless we first look for actual causes. The significant aim for the Muslims of our country must be to correlate the relevance of Islamic teaching with the present day necessities. The world has become a global village where instant communication is the norm. We should not present Islam a hide bound, static creed having little consideration for the changing environment, new ideas, new needs, and technologies of the 21st Century. Obviously, in the altered scenario Islam should be presented as a galvanizing, thriving, progressive code of practical life urging humanity to prosper materially as well as spiritually. Muslims can undertake the formulation and spread of an Islam that is modern, moderate, democratic, liberal, good neighborly, humane, and respectful of women.
References
Alexander, Fran. (1998). Encyclopedia of World History. Oxford.
Ali, Ausaf. (2000). Modern Muslim Thought. Vol. Two, Royal Book Co., Karachi.
Concise. (1993). Oxford Dictionary, Delhi,
Funk, & Wagnall, Standard. (1968). Encyclopedic Collage Dictionary, ed. in chief, Sidney I Landan, Funk & Wagnall, USA.
Hooy Kaas, R. (1973). Religion and the Rise of Modern Science, Edinburgh, Vol. XII-XIII.
Iqbal, Muhammad. (1960). Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, Lahore.
Khalifa, Abdul, Hakim. (1965). The Ideology of Islam, Institute of Islamic Culture, Lahore.
- 132 -
Sayyed, M. A. (1990). Islamic Modernism (Socio-Cultural Analysis). Royal Book Company, Karachi.
Schacht, J., Bosworth, C.E. (eds), (1979). The Legacy of Islam. 2nd edition, Oxford.
Siddiqui, Prof. B. H. (1996, January-March). Islam and Modernity: A Dialogue, The Qur’anic Horizons, Quarterly Journal of the Qur’an Academy. Markazi Anjuman Khuddam-ul-Quran, Lahore, Vol. 1, No. 1,.
Sohail, Inayatullah,. & Gail, Boxwell. (ed). (2003). Islam, Postmodernism and Other Futures. A Ziauddin Sardar Reader, Pluto Press England.
Webster Third New International Dictionary. (1986). Ed. in Chief PP Babcock Gove, Merriam-Webster Inc. USA.
- 133 -
BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. XXXI NO. 2, 2014
University female students personal experiences, perspective of sexual harassment, (A case study of University of Balochistan)
Social Sciences Shah Khalid Baloch Lecturer, Gender Development Studies Department University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan
Abdul Wahid Khetran M.phil Research Scholar, Balochistan Study Center University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan
Abstract The purpose of conducting the present study is to analyze the worse situation of sexual harassment in university campus. The main objective of study was to know the situation or nature of sexual harassment against female students at University of Balochistan, and specifically to examine in context of students knowledge and understanding about sexual harassment and as well as to explore the impacts of sexual harassment on educational performance of female students. A sample of 100 female students was taken from dissimilar disciplines of university of Baluchistan; a structured questionnaire (consisted on both close-ended and open-ended questions) was filled by respondents. In the light of study findings mostly female students have been offended of this form of sexual abuse. They were concerned about their educational career because of frequently occurring cases of sexual harassment in campus against female students and since existence of hostile environment a huge number of victims quitted their education.
Key words: Balochistan University, Sexual harassment.
Introduction and Background Sexual harassment is a form of sexual assault, commonly includes unwelcome sexual advances, request for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature that affects an individual’s work or school performance; well there is no common or single definition of what comprised prohibited behavior. Usually international instruments define sexual harassment broadly as a form of GBV (gender based violence) and as
- 134 - biased treatment, as national laws focus very much on the illegal behavior. All definitions, however, are in agreement that the prohibited behavior is unwelcome and causes hurt to the victim. Equal employment opportunity commission defines sexual harassment as including, Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature constitute sexual harassment when (1) submission to such conduct is made either explicitly or implicitly a term or condition of an individual’s employment, (2) submission to, or rejection of, such conduct by an individual is used as the basis for employment decisions affecting such individual, or (3) such conduct has the purpose or effect of substantially interfering with an individual’s work performance or creating an intimidating, hostile, or offensive working environment. (Michele A. Paludi & Richard B. Barickman, 1991). Sexual harassment may occur in a variety of circumstances, but academic sexual harassment is more serious and common issue globally, in academic settings such as at school, college and university level we can find profound effects of sexual harassment on student’s performance. In academia sexual harassment is likely to take forms such as provision of sexual favors in exchange for grades, inclusion in activities and scholarships etc. Academic sexual harassment as defined that “ academic sexual harassment is the use of authority to emphasizes the sexuality or sexual identity of a student in a manner which prevents full enjoyment of educational benefits, climate, or opportunities.(Margaret A. Crouch, 2001) Sexual harassment is often deemed a form of illegal discrimination against an individual on the basis of her/his sex; it commonly engages an expression of sexual behavior that looks for to exploit a relationship where there is an imbalance of authority between or among faculty members/students, boss/subordinates, and supporting staff/students besides this it may also occur in a variety of ways, e.g. harassment of student by students, staff member by staff member, harassment can occur anywhere on campus, including classrooms, corridors, cafeteria, and as well as in library. There are two general types of sexual harassment situations which are Quid Pro Quo and Hostile Environment sexual harassment. Quid Pro Quo is a Latin phrase meaning this for that or something for something, means exchange between parties where one is asked to provide sexual favors in return something else. Under the EEOC definition, Quid pro quo cases involve behavior in which “submission to which conduct is made either explicitly or implicitly a term or condition of an individual’s employment [or] sub-mission or to rejection of such conduct by an individual is used as the basis for employment decision affecting such individuals”.(Michele A. Paludi & Richard B. Barickman, 1998).
- 135 -
In academia, a Quid Pro Quo sexual harassment usually involves a supervisor or teacher who has the power to make decisions about the employee or student based on whether he or she submits to sexual demands. (Mary L. Boland, 2002) Quid pro quo sexual harassment engages an individual with organizational power who expressly relations a “term, condition or right of education” to the response of a student to unwanted sexual advances. So, failure to receive a promotion, failure to be assigned preferred working durations, threats of being fired, and failure to get the grade earned such as indefensible negative employment appraisals or recommendations all show quid pro quo sexual harassment. Sexual harassment in educational settings (schools, colleges, and universities) has been the subject of research because it has been observed that sexual harassment complaints against male teachers and students are alarming, verbal sexual harassment is the most common form of sexual harassment reported by students and female students experience more widespread and more severe forms of sexual harassment than males. Terms or disliked words such as jani, janu, yar, bitch, chick etc are usually used in universities as well as in schools, colleges by males’ students as conducts to assert masculinity by debasing female peers. Another common way for males to perform their masculinity is to engage in hetero-sexual discourse by sexually objectifying their female peers and discussing sexual acts they would like to engage in or have already engaged in. This is often done near the female students, but is not always directed at them, thus creating a space where women are targeted and objectified with no outlet for response or complaint of tangible harm. Such activities create a hostile climate for most students. This behavior is generally not stopped by teachers, and sometimes it is encouraged by their tacit participation. (Elizabeth J. Meyer 2010) The issue of sexual harassment is very serious since it is estimated that over 50% of all women have experienced sexual harassment in the workplace and 20-30% of all college women have been sexually harassed (Gervasio & Ruckdeschel, 1992). It is of concern since sexual harassment interferes with human rights as the victims experience stressful physical and psychological effects which may in turn prevent them from achieving their rightful place in employment and education. (Menon A, Shilalukey Ngoma M.P, 2009) College and university campuses are places where students are deeply engaged with academic and social activities, they are also places where women face sexual harassment starting from the first day they step foot on campus. One national survey revealed that four out of five female undergraduate students said that they had been victims of violence in a dating relationship and of those women, 29 per cent reported incidences of
- 136 - sexual assault. [DeKeseredy and Kelly, 1993].in a campus survey of undergraduate students at the university of Alberta, 21 per cent of students reported having at least one unwanted sexual experience at some point in their life, with 15 per cent after age 14. Of those students who reported having an unwanted sexual experience after the age of 14, 42 per cent said that it took place while being registered at university. (A survey of unwanted sexual experience among university of Alberta students, 2001). Sexual harassment has remained a widespread problem in Pakistan. Harassment has especially been high among domestic workers, students and nurses. In a survey conducted by the Daily Times in August 2010, female govt. & private sector employees complained about the abusive and harassing behavior of their male colleagues as well as senior officials which shows that the subject needs a serious consideration and effort to create an environment which is harassment free. (Daily Times survey, 2010). Besides this many other complaints of sexual harassment have been registered against teachers and students in Pakistan. Quaid-e-Azam University which is considered one of the top among top 500 universities in the world, frequently cases of sexual harassment rocked the Quaid-e-Azam University and because of consistently increasing cases of sexual harassment finally the students requested to President of Pakistan to take action against these matters of university. Keeping in view the recent and past incidents, government passed the protection against Harassment of Women at Workplace Bill in 2010 in order to provide a safe and hostile free environment to the working women, but unfortunately this law also served as a piece of paper.
Problem statement It has been observed through previous studies that the sexual harassment is commonly occurring in educational institutions and workplaces of Pakistan. Although there is existing laws and code of conducts against sexual harassment but in spite of this we could not find any code of conduct and policy against sexual harassment in university of Balochistan. Therefore without any fear the female students and as well as female teachers are being offended of sexual assaults, on the basis of an assumption this study was conducted that sexual harassment is contrary to University’s values and moral standards, which basically recognize the self-esteem and worth of each individual. This study gives to the answer of different questions such as knowledge and perception of students about sexual harassment, intensity of sexual harassment as well as the different effects of sexual harassment on female students of university of Balochistan.
- 137 -
Methodology This study was conducted in university of Balochistan Quetta; the participants were students from the dissimilar departments of university, a sample size of 100 respondents was selected through purposive sampling method. The data was collected using structured questionnaire and the questionnaire was pre-tested, following the research ethics an informed verbal consent was obtained from the participants prior to participation in the research. The data were coded to remove any identification of participants. The data was analyzed by simple frequency distribution tables.
Results and Discussions The demographic results of the respondent’s shows females 100 (100%), as all the respondents were females. 54 (54%) respondents were at the age of 22-25, 36 (36%) were at the age of 18-21, while 10 (10%) respondents were at the age of 26-above. 29 (29%) respondents were Urdu speaking, 20 (20%) were Pashto, 18 (18%) were Balochi, 16 (16%) were Brahvi, 13 (13%) were Punjabi and 4 (4%) belong to other languages. 67 (67%) were single ,23 (23%) were engaged while 10 (10%) respondents were married.
Table 1 Frequency distribution of respondents according to their awareness regarding sexual harassment Response F % Yes 78 78% No 22 22% Total 100 100%
78 % majority of respondents perceived that they had knowledge about sexual harassment while small percentage of respondents reported not knowing what sexual harassment was.
Table 2 Frequency distribution of respondents according to their victimization of sexual harassment Response F % Yes 73 73% No 27 27% Total 100 100% 73 % majority of respondents answered that they have been offended of sexual harassment and merely 27 % respondents were not victimized.
- 138 -
Table 3 Frequency distribution of respondents according to their feelings/sentiments in case of victim of sexual harassment Response F % Feel Humiliated/degrade 25 25% Feel traumatized 16 16% Feel angry 51 51% It does not affect me at all 08 08% Total 100 100%
Above table shows 51% respondents experienced anger, 25 % respondents felt humiliated or degrade due to being victimized of sexual harassment, 16 % suffered traumatized while 08 % respondents answered that it does not affect us at all. Table 4 Frequency distribution of respondents according to their view/observation regarding to the causes of sexual harassment Response F % Low moral Standards 34 34% Absence of strict law & code of 41 41% conduct Overall gender discrimination 22 22% against women in society, Modern fashion design 03 03% Total 100 100%
41 % of the respondents considered absence of strict law and code of conduct as the cause of sexual harassment, 34 % realized that our low moral standards are cause of sexual harassment, 22 % respondents’ answer was with over-all gender discrimination against women in the society, and simply 03 % respondents’ observation was about modern fashion design as a cause of sexual harassment. Table 5 Frequency distribution of respondents according to their observation regarding occurred cases of sexual harassment in University campus Response F % Yes 76 76% No 24 24% Total 100 100%
- 139 -
76 % majority of the respondents answered that they observed the cases of sexual harassment in University campus, whereas 24 % respondents were not aware about occurred cases of sexual harassment.
Table 6 Frequency distribution of respondents according to their observation about most common ways of sexual harassment in university campus
Types of sexual harassment Response F % Type 1: verbal Quite common 51 51% Whistling, unpleasant Fairly common 45 45% comments/remarks, sexually- Some times 03 03% explicit jokes, demands for sexual Almost never 01 01% favor etc Type 2: non-verbal Quite common 45 45% Staring, offensive massages or Fairly common 34 34% calls, offensive letters, offensive Some times 16 16% literature, winking etc. Almost never 5 05% Type 3: Physical Quite common 31 31% Touching, pinching, obstructing a Fairly common 15 15% passageway, etc Some times 45 45% Almost never 09 09%
It is a multiple response table which shows the observation or knowledge of respondents about the various common ways of sexual harassment in campus. A majority of them 51 % considered verbal sexual harassment is quite common, 45 % claimed that verbal sexual harassment is fairly common, 3% respondents answer was sometimes and merely 01 % respondent’s answer was with almost never. About non-verbal type of sexual harassment 45 % respondent’s answered that it is quite common, 34 % answered with fairly common, 16 % respondents considered it sometimes while only 05 % response was almost never, responding about physical type of sexual harassment 45 % answered that it occurs sometimes, 31 % respondents considered it common, 15 % respondents realized that it is fairly common way of sexual harassment, whereas 09 % respondents answer was almost never.
- 140 -
Table 7 Frequency distribution of respondents according to their experience about status of perpetrators Response F % Chairperson’s/Heads 23 23 Male teachers 19 19 Other employees 17 17 Male students/classmates 37 37 Strangers 04 04 Total 100 100%
37 % of the respondents alleged that male students/classmates are involved in sexual harassment, 23 % respondents blamed that sexual harassment is offended by head of departments, 19 % respondents considered that mostly teachers are harassers, 17 % respondents realized that sexual harassment is done by other employees while 04% respondents claimed that strangers offend sexual harassment.
Table 8 Frequency distribution of respondents according to their personal experience about various types of dresses which encourage sexual harassment Response F % Shalwar kurta/ shalwar with 11 11% dupata Shalwar kurta/ shalwar without 16 16% dupata Sadee 10 10% Balochi and Pashto dress 14 14% Jeans 37 37% Others 02 02% Total 100 100%
Most of the respondents 37 % indicated that Jeans is an encouraging factor of sexual harassment, 16 % responded with Shalwar kurta/ shalwar without dupata, 14 % considered Balochi and Pashto dresses a promoting factor of sexual harassment, 11 % respondents viewed shalwar kurta/shalwar with dupata as a reason of harassment, 10 % respondents answered with Sadee, while only 2 % realized that any other dress style become supporting cause of harassment.
- 141 -
Table 9 Frequency distribution of respondents according to where mostly women have been harassed Response F % Chairperson & lecturer 24 24% offices etc Classrooms 39 39% Cafeteria 11 11% Corridors 17 17% Library 07 07% Other places 02 02% Total 100 100%
39 % of the respondents considered classrooms as place of harassment, 24 % students indicated that mostly students are being victim of sexual harassment in chairperson, lecturer and other offices, 17 % respondents realized that corridors are place of harassment, 11 % respondents answer was cafeteria, 07% respondents viewed that library is a place of harassment, while only 2 % respondents claimed that other places are the points of harassment.
Table 10 Frequency distribution of respondents according to their awareness regarding existence of any code of conduct or committee which deal the cases of sexual harassment in campus Response F % Yes 09 09% No 91 91% Total 100 100%
91 % a clear majority of the respondents were not aware that any committee or code of conduct exists in campus to deal with the cases of harassment, while merely 09 % respondents perceived that they had knowledge about existing of committee or code of conduct in campus. Table 11 Frequency distribution of respondents according to their personal experience about statement that does sexual harassment affects the educational performance of students Response F % Yes 89 89% No 11 11% Total 100 100%
- 142 -
89 % of the respondents indicated that sexual harassment affects the educational performance of students while a small percentage of respondents realized that it does not affect the educational performance of students.
Table 12 Frequency distribution of respondents according to their knowledge that is sexual harassment a reason which leads to dropping out of girls from higher education Response F % Yes 79 79% No 21 21% Total 100 100%
Majority of the respondents 79 % indicated that sexual harassment is a leading cause of drop outs, whereas 21 % respondents considered that it is not a cause of drop outs of female students from educational institutions.
Table 13 Frequency distribution of respondents according to their observation that the victims of sexual harassment quitted their education Response F % Yes 59 59 No 41 41 Total 100 100
Above table shows 59 % respondents alleged that a huge number of students quitted their education because of sexual harassment, whereas 41 % respondents viewed that sexual harassment did not relinquish the education of female students.
Conclusions The study under-review aimed to evaluate the hostile environment of sexual harassment against female students in university campus and examine the students understanding regarding sexual harassment its effects and other performance consequences. Sexual harassment in the educational sector is a burning issue, and in Pakistan the sexual harassment is common in all public places especially in education sector sexual harassment has been conceptualized as a form of gender based violence therefore which leaves profound impacts on women behavior, as study findings show that sexual harassment is very common in university because a huge number of cases
- 143 - have been observed against female students. Therefore due to this hostile environment the educational performance and productivity of students is being decreased consistently. It has been examined too, that sexual harassment has various negative effects on students including drop out of students, result decline, health, social and psychological affects, it has been observed from the results of the study that female students are more likely to be affected in university campus and sexual harassment is often committed by head of departments, teachers, employees, male students and as wall as strangers, absence of effective code of conduct , disciplinary action and committee illustrate the vulnerability of female students in campus which increase the concerns of students regarding to their future.
Prevention implication Results of the study illustrate that sexual harassment is a problem at UoB and the perception of the students suggests that female students are more likely to be affected. As sexual harassment creates serious concern in any institution, it is recommended that preventive measures must be taken at UoB. Because it is the responsibility of university to provide safe and hostile free environment for the students to learn. For sensitization of students, teachers and employees etc university must initiate awareness campaigns such as workshops, seminars, pamphlets and as well as open forum discussions about sexual harassment. In addition to sensitizing programs a visible strategy of complaints and regulatory procedures requires to be set up for both students and staff. It is suggested that for the facility of complainants, complaint boxes should be display in university premises and moreover the security cameras/ spy cameras must be planted in all corridors, classrooms and offices.
- 144 -
References
Boland, L. Marry. (2002). Sexual harassment: your guide to legal action, Sphinx publishing, an imprint of sourcebook, Irc. (p-9)
Crouch, A. Margaret. (2001). Thinking about sexual harassment a guide for the perplexed, Oxford university press, ( p-108)
Daily times survey. (2010. August). http://www.paycheck.pk/main/labour- laws/labour-report/sexual-harassment
DeKeseredy. & Kelly. (1993). The incidence and prevalence of women abuse in Canadian university and collage dating relationships: results from a national survey 1993.
Gervasio, A.H., & Ruckdeschel, K. (1992). College students; judgment of verbal sexual harassment. Journal of Applied Socail Psychology, 22,
Meyar, J. Elizabeth. (2010). Gender and sexual diversity in schools, Springer science of business media B.V.2010. (p-108)
Menon, Anitha, (2009). University students, perspective of sexual harassment: a case study of the University of Zambia. Medical Journal of Zambia, volume 36 Number 2, (p-86)
Paludi, A. Michele, & Barickman B. Richard. (1991). Academic and workplace sexual harassment a resource manual, State university of New York press, Albany, (p-3).
Paludi, A.Michele., & Barickman B. Richard. (1998). Sexual harassment work, and education a resource manual for prevention, State university of New York press, Albany, (pp-2-3).
Survey assault centre university of Albert. (2001). a survey of unwanted sexual experience among university of Albert students.
- 145 -
BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. XXXI NO. 2, 2014
Analysis of Taliban’s Emergence in the Pashtoon Territory
Social Sciences Para Din Assistant Professor, Area Study Centre, University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan Email: [email protected]
Abstract In this research paper the researcher aims to investigate the evolutionary emergence of Taliban in the specific Pashtoon territory on both sides of the Durand line. Pakistani security establishment considered and still views to larger extent that Taliban are inevitable in political life of Afghanistan, therefore it has never and perhaps in future can never abandon Taliban’s policy in Afghanistan even though Pakistan’s Afghan policy of strategic depth has drastically backfired. The paper will focus on the rise of Taliban and their control of Afghanistan. Moreover, the paper will also examine the role of USA in the creation of Taliban since millions of Dollars were spent to nurture Jihadis for Jihad against Soviets in 1980s. The paper examines as how the phenomenon of Taliban occupied and still continued to occupy a central position in Pakistan’s Afghan Policy in terms of its strategic goals and interests.
Key Words: Afghan Policy, Alqaida, Gul Badin Hikmatyar, Pakistan Pashtoon, Saudi Arab, Taliban, USA, Warlords.
Introduction The Taliban-from the Arabic word for student, “Taleb” are fundamentalist Sunni Muslims, mostly from Afghanistan’s Pashtun tribes. The Taliban dominates large swaths of Afghanistan and a large part of Pakistan’s Federally Administered Tribal Areas. The Taliban (Pashto), alternative spelling Taleban,( Abrams, Dennis Hamid Karzai )* (ṭālibān, meaning "students" in Pashto) is an Islamist militant and political group that ruled large parts of Afghanistan and its capital, Kabul, as the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan from September 1996 until October 2001. It gained diplomatic recognition from only three states: Pakistan, Saudi Arabia,
* Abrams, Dennis Hamid Karzai. Info base Publishing. pp. 14. "As soon as it took power though, the Taliban imposed its strict interpretation of Islamic law on the country"
- 146 - and the United Arab Emirates. The main leader of the Taliban movement is Mullah Mohammed Omar, (Skain, 2002: Pp 41) and Kandahar is considered the birthplace of the Taliban. While in power, they enforced one of the strictest interpretations of Sharia law ever seen in the Muslim world, (Maley, 2001: Pp 14) and leading Muslims have been highly critical of the Taliban interpretations of Islamic law. (Shaffer, 2006: Pp 277) The Taliban were condemned internationally for their brutal repression of women. The majority of their leaders were influenced by Deobandi fundamentalism, and many also strictly follow the social and cultural norm called Pashtunwali. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taliban-cite_note-Shaffer-10 The Taliban movement is primarily made up of members belonging to Pashtun tribes, the largest ethnic group in Afghanistan. (Clements, 2003: Pp 219)
Taliban’s Domestic Policy The Taliban set out to create the world’s most pure Islamic regime by introducing a disturbing and deeply revolutionary form of Muslim culture that came at a tremendous cost to human freedom. The Taliban’s declared aims included the restoration of peace, rigid enforcement of Islamic law, disarming the population, and defending the Islamic character of Afghanistan. (Neamatollah, 2002: p 56). They scorn democracy or any secular or pluralistic political process as an offense against Islam. Men were ordered to keep their beards to a specific length, and subjected to punishment for defiance. Members of minority groups wore labels to distinguish them as non-Muslims; a measure the Taliban argued was to protect them from religious police enforcing Islamic law. Frivolities such as television, the Internet, music, and photography were outlawed. Punishments including amputation of the hands of thieves and the stoning to death of women convicted of adultery, considered severe by European standards, were common under the Taliban. (Neamatollah, 2002: pp, 87-98)
It was the Taliban’s anti-woman agenda, however, that caused mounting concern around the world. Under the Taliban women were forbidden to work outside the home, were compelled to wear a head-to-toe covering known as a burka, and could not leave the home without a male guardian. Such issues, along with restrictions on women’s access to health and education, caused resentments among ordinary Afghans and drew the ire of the international community. To the Taliban, however, the restrictions served to preserve the honor and dignity of women who had previously been preyed upon. (Maley, 2001)
- 147 -
Despite their strict beliefs and anti-drug profile, the Taliban could not resist using opium to fund its activities, underlining the movement’s poor understanding and interpretation of Islamic law. Though the Taliban leaders led an austere life in contrast to the ostentatious lifestyle of the mujahideen warlords, their economic policy was left in the hands of chance and fate, culminating in Afghanistan’s slide into economic backwardness. The Taliban’s Islam, however, a close kin of Saudi Arabian Wahhabism, is far more perversion than interpretation. The Taliban’s version of Islamic law, or Sharia, is historically inaccurate, contradictory, self-serving and fundamentally deviant from prevailing interpretations of Islamic law and practice. (Clements, 2003: Pp 56-76) The Taliban made giant strides in uniting the country but ultimately was unable to end the civil war. The strongest opposition to the Taliban came from the Northern Alliance, who controlled the northeast region of Afghanistan. This group backed the U.S.-led coalition that ousted the Taliban from power in 2001.
Legal Recognition of Taliban The Taliban seek to establish a puritanical caliphate that neither recognizes nor tolerates forms of Islam divergent from their own. Only three countries, the United Arab Emirates, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia, established diplomatic ties with the Taliban government. Both Pakistan and Saudi Arabia distinguished themselves among foreign powers by the scale of their efforts and support for the regime. Although it is officially denied, there is widespread agreement that the Taliban gained crucial early support from the Pakistani army and intelligence services, especially in helping make the Taliban a highly effective military force. Pakistan, influenced by its geopolitical and economic interests, remained a strong diplomatic and economic lifeline for the regime.
In Saudi Arabia the Taliban’s push for a pristine Islamic society was in accord with the Saudi’s strict form of Wahhabi theology and law. Saudi Arabia bankrolled the madrassas in Pakistan that provided an ideological guide for the Taliban. A great deal of uncertainty remains about the extent of Saudi Arabia’s assistance to the Taliban but the consensus appears to be that their aid was largely financial. (Shaffer, 2006: Pp 90-43)
The Taliban enjoyed a cozy relationship with Al-Qaeda and found in the group a useful ally, especially in the significant boost Al-Qaeda provided to the Taliban’s military campaigns against the Northern Alliance. Al-Qaeda
- 148 - enjoyed a comfortable refuge in Afghanistan under the Taliban regime. (Shaffer, 2006: pp. 57S)
Taliban Emergence; Cause and effect When the Soviets invaded Afghanistan in 1979, Saudi money joined with CIA money to fund the Wahhabi-inspired Mujahideen in the fight against the Soviet. Pakistan was the conduit for that money. Pakistan's prime minister at the time, Zia ul Haq, decided who got what money. It was mainly due to Zia's alliance with Islamic extremists in Pakistan that the Taliban was born in Pakistan's Madrassas. Zia wanted to build up an Islamic militia for two reasons: To use it to fight India in Kashmir, and to use it to impose Pakistani influence in Afghanistan. Among Zia's favorites: Gulbuddin Hikmetyar, who had studied engineering at Kabul University, and who today is the leader of Hizb el-Islami, or the Islamic Party, which is allied with the Taliban. For all of Zia's and the CIA's attempts to guide events, militias and Mujahideens their way in Afghanistan (and, later, in Pakistan), both Zia and the CIA failed to understand the radical nature of the Taliban they were nurturing. "The Taliban interpretation of Islam, jihad and social transformation was an anomaly in Afghanistan because the movement's rise echoed none of the leading Islamicist trends that had emerged through the Anti-Soviet war. “They fitted nowhere in the Islamic spectrum of ideas and movements that had emerged in Afghanistan between 1979 and 1994," Rashid writes. (Shaffer, 2006: Pp 76)
The September 11, 2001 attacks on New York City and Washington refocused sustained American attention on Afghanistan for the first time since the Soviet invasion ended. The origin and rise of the Taliban became a subject of great interest. The U.S.-backed mujahidin from the era of the Soviet occupation and the Taliban, a movement developed a decade later, were fierce rivals. As such, the "blowback" argument--that Central Intelligence Agency policies of the 1980s are directly responsible for the rise of the Taliban--is inaccurate. It was Pakistan that backed radical Islamists to protect itself from Afghan nationalist claims on Pakistani territory, which Islamabad feared, might pull apart the country. Indeed, for independent Pakistan’s first three decades, nationalist "Pushtunistan" rhetoric from Afghanistan posed a direct threat to Pakistan’s integrity. (Neamatollah, 2002 Pp 98-67)
As the United States prepared for war against Afghanistan, some academics or journalists argued that Usama bin Ladin’s al-Qa’ida group and
- 149 -
Afghanistan’s Taliban government were really creations of American policy run amok. A pervasive myth exists that the United States was complicit for allegedly training Usama bin Ladin and the Taliban. For example, Jeffrey Sommers, a professor in Georgia, has repeatedly claimed that the Taliban had turned on "their previous benefactor." David Gibbs, a political science professor at the University of Arizona, made similar claims. Robert Fisk, widely-read Middle East correspondent for The Independent, wrote of "CIA camps in which the Americans once trained Mr. Bin Ladin’s fellow guerrillas."(16) Associated Press writer Mort Rosenblum declared that "Usama bin Ladin…was the type of Soviet-hating freedom fighter that U.S. officials applauded when the world looked a little different. (Clements, 2003: pp 76-48) In fact, neither Bin Ladin nor Taliban spiritual leader Mullah Umar were direct products of the CIA. The roots of the Afghan civil war and the country’s subsequent transformation into a safe-haven for the world’s most destructive terror network is a far more complex story, one that begins in the decades prior to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
Following the 1989 withdrawal of the Soviet military, Afghan president Najibullah managed to maintain power for three years without his patrons. In 1992, ethnic Tajik Mujahidin forces captured Kabul and unseated the communist president. However, Rabbani, Ahmad Shah Masud, and ethnic Uzbek commander General Rashid Dostum could not control the prize. Hikmatyar immediately contested the new government that, for the first time in more than three centuries (except for a ten-month interlude in 1929), had put Tajiks in a predominant position. Hikmatyar’s forces took up positions in the mountains surrounding Kabul preceded to shell the city mercilessly. Meanwhile, Ismail Khan controlled Herat and much of Western Afghanistan, while several Pushtun commanders held sway over eastern Afghanistan.
Kandahar and southern Afghanistan was in a state of chaos, with numerous warlords and other "barons" dividing not only the south, but also Kandahar city itself into numerous fiefdoms. Human Rights Watch labeled the situation in Kandahar "particularly precarious," and noted that, "civilians had little security from murder, rape, looting, or extortion. Humanitarian agencies frequently found their offices stripped of all equipment, their vehicles hijacked, and their staff threatened."(18) Pakistani journalist Ahmed Rashid argued that the internecine fighting, especially in Kandahar, had virtually eliminated the traditional leadership, leaving the door open to the Taliban. (Shaffer, 2006: pp 78)
- 150 -
Taliban and the Clinton Administration Following Pakistan’s lead, the Clinton administration initially supported the Taliban’s rise. Clinton’s judgment was clouded by the question that has often led American policy astray in the region: Who can best check Iran’s influence? In the 1980s, the Reagan administration armed and financed Saddam Hussein under the assumption that a totalitarian Iraq was more acceptable than an unbridled, Islamic Iran. The policy backfired in the form of two wars, one of which has yet to end. In the 1980s, the Reagan administration also funded the Mujahedeen in Afghanistan as well as their Islamist supporters in Pakistan. That blowback took the form of al-Qaeda. As the Soviets withdrew and the cold war ended, American support for Afghan Mujahedeen stopped abruptly, but military and diplomatic support for Afghanistan did not. Under the influence of Benazir Bhutto, the Clinton administration voiced itself willing to open a dialogue with the Taliban in the mid-1990s, especially as the Taliban was the only force in Afghanistan capable of guaranteeing another American interest in the region — potential oil pipelines.
On Sept. 27, 1996, Glyn Davies, a State Department spokesman, expressed hope that the Taliban “will move quickly to restore order and security and to form a representative interim government that can begin the process of reconciliation nationwide.” Davies called the Taliban’s execution of former Afghan President Najibullah merely “regrettable,” and said the United States would send diplomats to Afghanistan to meet with the Taliban, potentially to re-establishing full diplomatic ties. The Clinton’s administration’s flirtation with the Taliban did not last, however, as Madeleine Albright, incensed by the Taliban’s treatment of women, among other regressive measures, halted it when she became secretary of state in January 1997.
Conclusion Birth of Taliban was the byproduct of Pak-US Islamist and Jihadist policy against Soviets and the anarchic social and political circumstances created by warring Mujahedeen factions in the wake of Soviet withdrawal. The US withdrawal without focus on the development as it did in Afghanistan after Second World War proved the fact that USA was not concerned with people of Afghanistan but with its strategic goals on the hand and paved the way for interference in Afghanistan by the neighboring countries specially those who had stakes in the Soviet-Afghan War. The standoff between stake holders on distribution of power not only resulted in
- 151 - the paralysis of subsequent interim setup but also urged the need for a third party to take over.
Taliban who had been side by side with so called Mujahedeen in Afghan war began to appear as third power to manage Afghanistan’s affairs. Pakistan being the host of most of Taliban and bearing in mind its traditional policy of strategic depth extended generous support to Taliban that worked tremendously well for the interests of Pakistan but the event of 9/11 the attacks on US mainland hinted a dramatic shift not only in the US foreign policy but also Pakistan was left with limited options either to carry on with sponsoring fundamentalist Taliban who hosted Al Qaeda or to join international coalition against the oust of Taliban government from Afghanistan. Pakistani the then army regime being between devil and deep blue sea preferred to turn against the brotherly Taliban’s regime (as was earlier though) at least overtly and provided air and land routes and logistic support to the international alliance.
References
Abrams, Dennis Hamid Karzai. Info base Publishing. pp. 14. "As soon as it took power though, the Taliban imposed its strict interpretation of Islamic law on the country"
Analysis: (2000-14-24).Who are the Taleban?". BBC News.
Clements, Frank. A. (2003). Conflict in Afghanistan: An Encyclopedia (Roots of Modern Conflict). ABC-CLIO. pp. 219-56-76
Maley, William Fundamentalism Reborn, (2001). Afghanistan and the Taliban. C Hurst & Co. pp. 14.
Neamatollah, Nojumi. (2002). The Rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan: Mass Mobilization, Civil War, and the Future of the Region (1st ed.). Palgrave, New Yorkpp, 56-67-87-98.
- 152 -
Skain, Rosemarie. (2002). The women of Afghanistan under the Taliban. McFarland.. pp. 41.
Shaffer, Brenda. (2006). The limits of culture: Islam and foreign policy (illustrated ed.). MIT Press. pp. 57-76-78- 90-43 277.
- 153 -
BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. XXXI NO.2, 2014
Socio-Economic Characteristics of Agro Pastoralist communities in the Upland Balochistan, Pakistan: Implications for policy action
Social sciences Dr. Said Qasim Assistant Professor in Geography Department, University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan E-mail: [email protected] Cell No: +92-3349393503
Alam Tareen Assistant Professor Sociology Department, University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan
Mohammad Qasim Assistant Professor, Postgraduate college charsadda KPK, Pakistan
Abstract The main aim of this study was to give an overview of agro pastoralist’s socio-economic conditions in the upland Balochistan province of Pakistan. A sample of 200 agro pastoralists were surveyed from may 2011 to December, 2012. Simple random sampling was used to select the respondents. Primary data were collected through structured questionnaire and Focus group discussions. Descriptive statistics and priority index (PI) were used for the analysis of data. Results showed that large family sizes exist in the area with almost nine persons per family. Majority of the surveyed population was illiterate. Results also revealed that only male population in the area was engaged in agricultural activities, whereas majority of the females served as housewives due to religious and cultural norms of the society. Not a single agro pastoralist had access to any formal agricultural credit source. The study therefore, suggests that both governmental and non-governmental organizations should provide adequate amenities to improve the livelihoods of the poor farmers.
Key words: Agro pastoralists, Pakistan, Pishin sub-basin, Socio-economics
- 154 -
Introduction Pakistan is an agricultural country. Besides cultivated lands, there are rangelands which are used by pastoralists or agro-pastoralists for livestock rearing. Although the Afghan nomads can be considered as pure pastoralists, there are no pure pastoralists in Balochistan. The people in Balochistan, once pure pastoralist have now been changed to agro pastoralist system (Saleem, 1998). Knowledge about the social and economic attributes and agricultural production of the rural communities is imperative for devising policies for socio-economic uplift of the poor. This is because a healthy and sustainable socio-economic condition guarantees improved living standards. It also helps communities better understand the environment they are living in and apply those practices that assists them in better management of available natural resources. Agro pastoralists are the major stakeholders in land related issues. Their socio-economic conditions have a great impact on agricultural production and adoption of improved land management methods. The variables for instance size of a family, information of their schooling and livelihood, land tenure insecurity, agricultural land use, yield, cropping system, rearing domestic animals, livelihood sources, costs and access to credit may serve as important indicators for their socio-economic development (Qasim et al., 2011). Researchers have studied the socio- economic characteristics of pastoralists (Patel et al., 2012, Jasra et al., 2001), dairy farmers (Shinde, 2011), paddy farmers (Alam et al., 2011) ans shrimp farmers (Lekshmi et al., 2005). Singh (2003) have also studied the socio- economics of the farmers and animal feed sources. This study tried to find out the socio-economic characteristics of the agro-pastoralists in the Upland Balochistan province of Pakistan. The results of this study are considered to bear important policy implications for the agro pastoralists in Pishin sub- basin, Pakistan.
Research Methodology The research area consisted of Pishin, Quetta and Killa Abdullah districts. The total population of the area was 471,316. The Yamane equation (1967) was preferred for sample size calculation. The equation proposed a sample size of 200 with 95% confidence level. Due to homogenous nature of population, Simple random method was used for selecting the respondents. The survey was conducted from May 2011 to December, 2012. A structured questionnaire was used to collect the primary data. Focus groups were also interviewed to know about the problems faced by the respondents. The female respondents were not surveyed due to the cultural norms or parda system. The data were then entered in to SPSS software, version 16 for analysis. The questionnaires were filled by the research team of three
- 155 - students of Geography students. Focus groups were then performed by the first author of this paper. The focus group included eight to nine persons. Descriptive statistics and PI were used for the analysis of data. Although female were not allowed to participate in the interview, but the information about their number, age and occupation was given by the male respondents.
Results and discussions Family size The family size in the area was 9 individuals in a single family. The lowest and highest numbers being 5 and 14 for the family size, suggested that the family size should be arranged in to three groups of small (1-5), medium (6-10) and large (11-15). A large preponderance of the agro pastoralists (77%) belonged to the medium category. However, the large and small category of the households had 18 and 5% of the households, respectively.
Age composition of the respondents Results showed that out of the surveyed population, a large preponderance of the respondents (nearly 58%) fall in the young age group (15-50 years). Almost 27% of the respondents fall in the 0-14 and about 15% to the 50 plus age groups. The economically active households (15-50 years age groups) were more than 50%. In the male respondents, 23.7%, 61.8% and 14.5% of the respondents fall in the 0-14, 15-50 and 50 plus age groups, correspondingly. Out of the female surveyed households, 32.8%, 51.7% and 15.4% of households belonged to the 0-14, 15-50 and 50 plus age groups correspondingly. Sex ratio of male and female was 1.4 males to 1 female, correspondingly. This shows that the number of female were less as compared to male members.
Educational achievements Table 1 show that majority of the surveyed population (˃ 75%) were uneducated. However, female proportion in the uneducated class was found much higher (almost 91%) than male (nearly 63%).
Table 1: Educational status of the respondents Educational qualification Male members Female members Total Percent Uneducated 63.43 91.28 75.06 Primary 6.83 5.77 6.39 Secondary 25.99 1.74 15.86 Higher 3.75 1.21 2.69 education Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
- 156 -
Note: Kids below 5 years of age are excluded. Source: Primary data collected through field survey
Nearly 6% of the total population had achieved primary level education. The gender wise status in primary education shows 5.8% male and 6.3% female. Overall 16% respondents reported about completion of secondary level education. The gender proportion shows that female percentage in secondary education was very low as compared to male. This may be due to the fact that adult female get less opportunities of education than male. Very few respondents were reported to have achieved higher education. Here also, the male outnumbered female in higher studies. The low ratio in the higher education level is because of dropout of students at secondary schools. The students after quitting education engage themselves in other activities in agricultural, trade or any other profession.
Employment Fewer female of the area were found either students or employed and a large majority worked as housewives. This is because about 2% of the females were employed in schools as teachers and some as lady health visitors. Out of the whole female respondents, only 10% of female were found students and majority (85%) of female worked as housewives. The housewives work inside their home. They cook meals, take care of children and embroidery work. In case of males, almost 85% work in fields and graze animals. 4.7% male were working as wage labourers. Only 3.7% were in government jobs, 4.9% were students and nearly one percent had their own business (Figure 1). The reasons for the lesser male in student category as compared to female are because their drop out ratio is much higher before or after completion of secondary schools.
Figure 1: Gender wise employment in the area
- 157 -
Major earning means Table 2 shows that the respondents were inquired to prioritize their earning means. Formula given by Miah (1993) was chosen to come up with the priority index for the income sources. Results showed that agriculture is the main source of income of the respondents. Business, wages, employment and selling of livestock were ranked 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th, correspondingly. So we conclude that agriculture and livestock rearing were the main economic activities of the area. Here in this paper, we refer agriculture to growing of vegetables, fruits and crops.
Computation of PI = ∑ Sifi/N In the above equation, I = PI whose value can be 0 ≤ I ≤ 1 Si = Value at the ith priority fi = Frequency of ith priority N = Number of observation
Table 2: Income sources of the respondents Perceived Agriculture Selling Employment Wages Business Priority for livestock income Frequency Most important 189 13 10 18 5 Very important - 136 25 16 4 Important - - - - - Least important - - - - - Not important - - - - - Total 189 149 35 34 9 Priority Index 1.00 0.77 0.82 0.88 0.89 (PI) Rank order 1st 5th 4th 3rd 2nd Note: To compute PI for the income, 1.0 value was allocated to most important, 0.75 to the very important, 0.50 to important, 0.25 to least and 0.0 to the not important.
The higher profit received by the households was from fruits. Results showed that fruits and domestic animal sale gave higher financial returns to the respondents. Considerable money was also earned through wages and employment. The respondents reported that they earn less money from crops (wheat, maize and barley) which were also used by the respondents for their own family (Table 3).
- 158 -
Table 3: Means of earnings for agro pastoralists Earning sources Amount (Rupee) Average Standard deviation Fruit 2,017,618.0 1,932,328.2 Vegetable 16,710.0 46,809.7 Domestic animal selling 44,410.0 35,315.4 Small Business 15,900.0 79,180.4 Employment 30,750.0 32,484.0 Wages 32,484.0 77,533.3 Cereals 500.0 7,071.1 Source: Primary data collected through field survey
Expenses Transporting the agricultural commodities to the market was considered as more expensive than other expenditures (Table 4). The reason for this may be due to carrying fruits to the markets in other provinces of the country that needs higher amounts of money. Labour was needed to harvest, clean, pack and load the crops. Therefore, a good amount was spent on hiring labour as well. The use of pesticides, irrigation, fertilizers and tractors was also expensive. The reason for this may be that the orchards and vegetables are sprayed with pesticides, irrigated through electric tube wells, and are applied with fertilizers and preparation of land through tractors for increasing yield. The money spent on buying seeds, farm equipments and feed for domestic animals was less due to low priority attached by the agro pastoralists to them (Table 4).
Table 4: Expenses of agro pastoralists for different activities Expenses Expenses (Pakistani Rupees) Average St. Deviation Transportation 545,410.0 620,591.7 Labourers 260,380.0 22,1076.0 Pesticides 133,110.0 154,068.9 Irrigation 74,580.0 55,446.5 Fertilizer 73,760.0 94,792.6 Ploughing (Tractors) 30,196.0 21,682.6 Feed for animals 13,094.0 2,312.0 Farm equipments 2,312.0 1,710.5 Seeds/seedlings 908.0 3,154.1 Source: Primary data collected through field survey
Raising livestock Livestock rearing was common and the small ruminants were preferred by the agro pastoralists. These livestock were mostly grazed by the young members of the families. Some of the surveyed people also reported that they hire the Afghan refugees for grazing their livestock. This is because
- 159 - bulk of the households (80%) were observed raising livestock. Due to easy access to unrestricted rangelands, small ruminants were grazed by the people. The ruminants were mainly reared for milk and cash income in needy times. Results indicate that Sheep and Goats were proffered by the pastoralists than other livestock types.
Credit: Sources and accessibility Only 37.5% respondents had access to credit. A large preponderance of the respondents had no means of getting credits. The agro pastoralists were incapable of applying conservation measures for their dealing with animal diseases and also on conservation methods on their farmlands. We also tried to know if there is any difference in access to credit by land holding size. With the minimum holding of 2 acres and maximum reaching 300 acres, we organized the land holding data (in acres) in to 5 classes. These classes included marginal (0-25), small (26-50), medium (51-75), large (76-150) and very large (151-300) categories. The credit access by farm classes revealed that the marginal and small farm classes had more access to credits than other farm classes (Table 5). The reason may be that the agro pastoralists with minimum agricultural land were more eager to increase the crop yield to meet their food needs. Though, this was not supported statistically because the chi- square test.
Table 5: Credit access by land holding classes Holdings Respondents with Respondents with Total access to credit no access to credit Percent households Marginal 32.0 (24) 44.8 (56) 40.0 (80) Small 33.3 (25) 29.6 (37) 31.0 (62) Medium 14.7 (11) 8.8 (11) 11.0 (22) Large 17.3 (13) 14.4 (18) 15.5 (31) V. Large 2.7 (2) 2.4 (3) 2.5 (5) Total 100.0 (75) 100.0 (125) 100.0 (200) Chi test Sig. Level 0.424 Note: Numbers of observation are shown in parentheses.
The agro pastoralists reported that they were not provided credits by the government banks. They received credits from neighbors and relatives. No collaterals and interest were needed for taking credits from their relatives and neighbors. This indicates a very sound system of social capital. The respondents reported that they were unable to get credits due to unavailability of collaterals needed by the banks.
- 160 -
Sources of farm power Mechanical (tractors) and Humans were used as power for land preparation and other activities. Weeding and crops harvesting were mainly achieved through human labour. But tillage and land preparation was achieved through both human labour and mechanical power (Table 6). Pesticides application was also done through humans and tractors. Out of the surveyed respondents, not a single agro pastoralist had reported about the use of animal for agricultural activities. This may be because bulk of the livestock found in the area were in the form of small ruminants and cattle were only reared for milk and meat production.
Table 6: Power used for agricultural activities Power type used Activity in agricultural Tillage and Harvesting Pesticides activities preparation of land for cultivation Percent respondents Human 50.3 100.0 42.1 Mechanical 49.7 _ 57.9 (Tractor) Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: Primary data collected through field survey
Conclusions and recommendations Large size families were noticed in the area due to predominance of joint family system. Bulk of the agro pastoralists in the area was uneducated. Female of the area were not given proper attention in education sector. Farming and animal rearing were the main activities of the male in the area. Major part of the agro pastoralist’s income was used for transporting agricultural commodities to the far away markets in the country. A large preponderance of them reported ownership of their lands. The farmers were not provided any support in the form of agricultural credits by the government and NGOs. Human as well as mechanical power was used in almost equal proportion for agricultural activities. The substandard living style of the people calls for governmental as well as non-governmental organizations to help improve the living standards of the poor agro pastoralist communities in the area. The government should also focus on provisions of education, agricultural credit and extension services to these people in the area. This may boost the agricultural and meat production in the country.
- 161 -
Acknowledgement This article is a part of the PhD dissertation of the first author. The author is thankful to Mr. Zia-ul-haque, Lecturer in the Government Science College, Quetta, for his support during the data collection period.
References
Alam, Md. Siwar, C. Talib, B., & Toriman, M. (2011). The relationships between the socio-economic profile of farmers and paddy productivity in north-west selangor, Malaysia. Asia-Pacific Development Journal. 18, (1): 161-173.
Jasra, W. Rehman, A., & Afzal, M. (2001). Socio-Economics of Pastoralist Communities of Highland Balochistan, Pakistan. International Journal of Agriculture & Biology. 3 (2): 256–259.
Likshmi, P., Chandrakandan, K., Kumaran, M., & Balasubramani, N. (2005). Socio Economic Profile of Shrimp Farmers and its Influence on the Extent of Adoption of Shrimp Culture Technologies. Fishery Technology. 42(2): 225 – 230.
Patil, D. Meena, H. Tripathi, H. Kumar, S. & Singh, D. (2012). Socio Economic Profile of Sheep Reared Dhangar Pastoralists of Maharashtra, India. Journal of Recent Advances in agriculture.1 (3): 84-91.
Qasim, S, Shrestha RP, Shivakoti GP, Tripathi NK. (2011). Socio-economic determinants of land degradation in Pishin sub-basin, Pakistan. Int J Sustain Dev World Ecol. 18(1): 48–54.
Saleem, M., (1998). Pastoralism and its development in Balochistan, Pakistan. In: D.J. Miller and S.R. Craig (Eds.), Rangelands and Pastoral Development in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas. ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal
Singh, R. (2003). Survey of socio-economic profile of farmers and animal feed resources in the mountains of Himachal Pradesh. Himalayan Ecology. 13(2).
- 162 -
Shinde, S. (2011). Socio - Economic Profile of Dairy Farmers in Solapur District of Maharashtra State. Indian Streams Research Journal. 1(1): 86-100.
Yamane, T. (1967). Statistics, an introductory analysis. New York: Harper & Row.
- 163 -
BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. XXXI NO. 2, 2014
Progress towards Eradicating Extreme Poverty and Hunger: A Case Study of Quetta District
Social sciences Dr. Jan Mohammad Chairman, Department of Management sciences, University of Baluchistan Quetta, Pakistan Dr. Abdul Rasheed Assistant Professor, former chairman, Department of Commerce, University of Baluchistan Quetta, Pakistan E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract This study descriptively analysis the most important millennium development goal, eradicating extreme poverty and hunger in Quetta district. The study can help the stakeholders to assess the progress towards achieving the MDGs. The research article is based on case study measuring the achievements with respect to the goal. The study has found the poor performance especially with respect to eradication of malnutrition and therefore, suggests way forwards to effectively dent the extreme poverty and hunger in the capital of province.
Key words: Development Goals, District Quetta, Poverty, Hunger, Malnutrition, Millennium
Introduction Governments in the entire world are eager to improve the living standards of their masses. In this context, every nation has set some goals and made commitments to accomplish these goals within definite time period under the umbrella of United Nation. They have devised strategies to pave way for social sector development. Pakistan is the active member of United Nation and as such signed the Millennium Development Goals strategy of United Nations and taken steps to achieve social sector development. In this regard, SAP was initiated with active participation of the Federal and Provincial Governments, Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs), private sector and communities.
- 164 -
Public expenditure enormously increased in the key areas like health, education water & sanitation, and population welfare during this period. AS a result, some positive progress with respect to social indicators has been observed. But as per the MDGs report 2008, the achievements in these sectors are not uniform in all the four provinces. As compared to other provinces of the country, Baluchistan lags far behind that of national level progress reflecting severe challenges and constraints. The major challenges regarding the achievement of these goals include (a) shortage of fund (b) poor institutional capacity (c) Corruption and (d) lack of political commitment. Though Balochistan under the national commitment has started working on achieving eight specific goals with different targets set for the country, yet its pace is very slow rather poverty is rising at province level (Baluchistan Economic Report, 2008) which is matter of great concern. What is the status of goal, why we are legging behind and what should be the way forwards are important research questions of this research article to answer.
Methodology The methodology adopted in this research article is case study method. The scope of the study is limited to Quetta District only because of time and resources constraints. Measurable Indicators related to the above goal of MDGs have been addressed through the required secondary information. The total geographical area of Quetta District consists of 265.3 thousand sq km. The reported area of the district is 139.8 thousand sq. km that is almost 53% of the total geographical area. The population of District Quetta as per 1998 Census was 759941 but after rapid influx of refugees and the migration of population from neighboring countries and from the interior of the province, as a crude guess, is quoted to be around 2.5 million (City District Government,2007). Quetta District has got significant and a very special position among the other districts in Balochistan. Quetta district is significant because the provincial capital lies within its boundaries and as such the district plays central function in almost all spheres of social life. This district is the hub of all social, commercial economic and educational activities, and is also the seat of the provincial government because the civil secretariat is located in Quetta. As a provincial capital, all the ministries and important public and private offices are hosted in Quetta District. The District comprises of two towns; Zarghoon and Chiltan, having 37 and 30 Union Councils respectively. This study focuses on the progress towards achieving MDGs of eradicating extreme poverty and hunger and achieving universal primary education within these 67 UCs.
- 165 -
Results and Discussion
A) Reduction in extreme poverty Poverty is one of the most important issues the contemporary world is confronted with (World Bank, 2004). Public expenditure enormously increased in the key areas like health, education water & sanitation, and population welfare during this period. Many nations are trying to reduce poverty and thereby improve the living standard of their masses. As such Pakistan is also the active member of world community and decided to improve the living standard of its people by eradicating extreme poverty and hunger. The target is set for the country in general to reduce poverty and hunger. The target is to reduce poverty to half by 2015 but the situation in Balochistan is worrying and as a capital city of Balochistan, the District Quetta is lagging far behind the national statistics to achieve this goal. Information from the available sources do not depict any clear picture of the poverty levels in terms of percentage of people below poverty line of earning 1$ per day, however, as per Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP,2003), around 47% population of Balochistan, and as a guess, 40% of population of District Quetta is below the poverty line. Extreme poverty, hunger and malnutrition have become the hallmark and have caused economic stagnation during 1990s and are still continuing up-till the current year 2015.
B) Reduction in Hunger In addition to poverty, indicators on hunger has also shown increasing trend during this period. Many constraints are responsible for impeding the progress toward the achievement of the first MDG. These include; the slow growth rate and low investment in significant pro-poor areas of the economy, lack of statistics on poverty due to failure in the collection of poverty data for poverty monitoring and evaluation, poor access to and the dearth of quality essential rural social and economic services, lack of opportunities of rural employment and the nonexistence of rural level industry, and the rising level of income inequalities etc.
The extent of mild malnutrition among children in the targeted area declined sharply from 32% to 18% between 1993 and 1997 and again increased to 41%. Severe malnutrition is although rare but not completely absent. According to MDGs, the percentage of children under-five who are underweight has to be reduced to half from 38% in 1989 to 19% in 2015. The
- 166 - district currently remained out of track with regard to this indicator too. It seems difficult to achieve the target due to many constraints such as unfavorable investment, lack of proper planning and coordination etc. Apparently, no major gender differences exist in the nutritional status of children in the district. For gauging the nutrition among children, UNICEF used weight for age criterion in the past but that standard is no more valid and changed because it does not serve the purpose. Recently, UNICEF has introduced a new weight for height criterion which is considered to be useful and appropriate. A research study named as 'Nutrition Survey' conducted by UNICEF and provincial Health department in 2007 indicated that the moderate to severe malnutrition in the six districts i.e. Quetta, Kharan, Awaran, Musa Khel, Nasirabad and Jaffarabad ranges between 39% to 75% and the average of severe malnutrition is close to 40%. The national average for moderate to severe malnutrition is 38%, while for only severe nutrition, the average is 38%. The sources of feeding program include the efforts undertaken by Tawana Pakistan and under UNICEF. The descriptive data regarding the goal is given in table 1, below.
Target: Halve by 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than one dollar a day (values in % or otherwise stated)
Status of State of Indicators 2004-05 2007-08 2010-12 2015 Progress Supportive Environment Population below poverty 34 40 42 20 Worsening Un- satisfactory line (%) Prevalence of underweight in children, under 34 38 41 19 Worsening Un- satisfactory five years of age (%)
Income level of In-sufficient the people over - - - - Un- satisfactory Data the years
Source: Balochistan at a Glance, 2012. Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, 2012.
- 167 -
Figure,1 The graphical representation of the table is given in the following diagram.
45
40
35
30 Population below poverty line (%) 25 Prevalence of underweight in children, 20 under five years of age (%) Desired Average Gradual 15 Decline
10
5
0 2004-05 2007-08 2010-12 2015 As per the goal set for the year 2015 to reduce the extreme poverty and hunger, the average decline from 2004 to 2015 per year must have to be almost 1.4% to achieve the desired level of progress but the situation has further worsened and now we have to achieve 2.2% progress to reach our goal that seems to be very remote and unachievable. The reasons behind the failure to achieve the goals set for 2015 to reduce extreme poverty and hunger by half in Balochistan in general and in Quetta district in particular are political instability, unequal opportunities for education, health, insufficient urban infrastructure to support poor and marginalized segment of the society, sudden influx of afghan refugees, restraining the earning opportunities, corruption, inflation specially of food and the nonexistence of private sector in the district. To achieve the desired level of progress towards achieving the goal of reducing extreme poverty and hunger requires for the strengthening of socio-economic infrastructure, initiating pro-poor policies, provision of basic social amenities, promotion of Small and Medium Enterprises (SME), agriculture and livestock and encouraging private sector to invest to create more jobs for poor.
- 168 -
Conclusions and Suggestions Millennium Development Goals are set for the year 2015 to give a clear line of action to the nation to gradually improve the socio-economic condition of the masses. These goals are adopted by the nation under the umbrella of United Nations Development Program to take them as a challenge. These goals give clear performance benchmarks to the nation as a whole and to its constituent parts. Quetta district where the capital city of Balochistan resides is the hub of commercial and economic activities. The indicators of extreme poverty and hunger are slightly better than the provincial indicators but the general trend in the district is showing deterioration rather than improvement suggesting to revsit the strategy.So it simply indicates that we are moving away from our goal of reducing extreme poverty and hunger by the year 2015.
References
Baluchistan Economic Report, (2008. May). From periphery to core, in two volumes volume 1: summary Report Bureau of statistics. (2007). Balochistan at a glance. P&d department, government of balochistan. Development statistics of Balochistan (2007). Bureau of statistics planning & development department government of balochistan Quetta. Federal bureau of statistics. (2006-2007). Pakistan social and living standards measurement survey, government of Pakistan. Federal bureau of statistics. (2006). Pakistan statistical pocket book. Government of Pakistan. Health directorate balochistan Quetta, annual report (2007). & indoor communicable diseases report (2007). Prepared by provincial hmis/statistical cell. Hmis/statistical cell provincial health directors. (2008. March). Health institution database (hid), health management information system (hmis) –balochistan, Quetta. Planning & Development Department. (2003). Baluchistan poverty Reduction Strategy, Government of Baluchistan. The World Bank, (2004). Partnership in Development: Progress in the Fight against Poverty. The World Bank Group, Washington.
- 169 -
BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pakistan) VOL. XXXI NO. 2, 2014
Abdul Ghaffar Khan: Islamic Non-Violent Leader
Dr. Abdul Qadir Khan Asst. Professor, Department of Political Science, University of Balochistan, Quetta Dr. Zahid Ali Professor, Department of Political Science, Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan
Abstract Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan- a pushthun and a staunch Muslim who practiced, propagated and institutionalized concept of non-violence during his life. His political life was dedicated to anti-imperialist movement along Islamic lines. Paper compares non-violent movement run by Ghaffar Khan with other leaders of the world who led the same movement at one moment of the history. Futuristic analysis of source of legitimacy for his anti-imperialist non-violent politics was rooted in Islam which was not only catching essence of his highly organized political movement but also a symbiotic platform for popular and religious faction of politics. Instrumentalization of religion through forging of non-violence in social reformation and politics of pusthuns-dominated region had been witnessed for the first time. Institutionalization of religiously inspired non- violent Ghaffar’s legacy can bring peace specifically in terror-riddled Pakistan. Alternatives with state are available to deal with religion in politics. Key words: Non-violence, Instrumentalization of Islam, Political Movement, Institutionalization of non-violence, Anti-imperialism. 1.Introduction Non-violence simply means negation and absence of violence. Concept of non-violence is present in various traditions, civilizations, religions and personalities of the world. Striking distinctiveness about Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan’s usage of concept of non-violence in his life and politics was an amalgam of religion, popular politics and non-violence. Such amalgam makes a point that religion which is prone to monopolized maneuverability by religious elites and hence gives rise to violence can also
- 170 - be instrumentalized for purging the society and politics of violence. South Asian region where identity crises long lines of caste, class, tribe and religion is expressed in variant forms of conflicts within the society and between society and state, importance of interwoven relationship between religion and non-violence in politics of a country can’t be ignored. Non-violence with its roots in religion is required to dissolve the strident friction among ethnic or nationalistic identities. Ghaffar Khan did the same thing. He extracted non- violence from Islam and incorporated in his politics to coalesce people around the concept of non-violence. He fostered this politico-religious concept of non-violence among his adherents for the fight against anti- imperialism. The popularity and intensity of adherence emanating out of spiritual and moral sanction of Islam and success of resultant political movement against imperial power proved that Islam, politics, populism and non-violent resistance can be enveloped peacefully to wage a highly effective way of resistance in a unique way where politics and religion can complement one another in today’s modern world if a charismatic and selfless leader like Ghaffar Khan is present to lead. There will be four parts of this paper. First part will delve into position of non-violence in major religions through a comparative approach for underlining generalized significance of religion. Role of religion is very important in matters of peace and politics in South Asian countries specifically. Second part will be combination of literature review and leadership approach towards analysis of non-violence. Third part discusses personal life of Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan and will attempt to enquire non- violence through trait approach i.e. in the light of personality traits of Ghaffar Khan. Fourth part will discuss his politics revolving around alliances/association with religious leaders and religious issues. Fifth part will discuss link between religious movement and Ghaffar’s politics. Sixth part will analyze the amalgam of Islam and politics in institutionalization of non-violence. Seventh part will enquire how non-violence predicated on religion spoke up in popular politics. Conclusion will give alternatives to policy makers of those societies including Pakistan where religion has become inseparable. 2. Concept of Non-Violence in major Religions Hinduism, being the oldest religion of the world will be a interesting point to start from keeping in view our (Pakistanis) obsession with Indians and Gandhi-Ghaffar alliance in view. In Sanskrit, the religious language of Hinduism, himsa is doing harm or causing injury. The "a" placed before the word negates it. Very simply, ahimsa is abstaining from causing hurt or harm. It is gentleness and non-injury, whether physical, mental or emotional
- 171 -
(Himalayan Academy: 2014). It is good to know that nonviolence speaks only to the most extreme forms of wrongdoing, while ahimsa (which includes not killing) goes much deeper to prohibit the subtle abuse and the simple hurt. Core of Hinduism contains the essence of Ahimsa or non-violence (Bondurant 1988). List of five moral principles also include non-violence (Ibid). Cycle of reincarnation embodies violence in a particular status but accords non-violence a status which brings a Hindu towards religious enlightenment (Fried 1999,156). Such a prominent and preferable position of non-violence does not stop Hindu nation, predominantly living in India, from being less violent than other nations (Fischer 1997). Shastri and Shastri noted that ahimsa as concept is not only confined to religion in its meaning and attributes but also has its roots in philosophical and ethical realm. As a “positive doctrine of love friendship and equality among all living beings in the universe” ahimsa is an antidote to violence in the world. It embraces both the pursuit of good of humanity and devotion to the good of all living beings and the environment (Mayton 2009, 76-77). Buddha became well-known for the doctrine of Panchasheel which included abstention from violence or himsa, undue appropriation, sexual corruption, lying and drinking (toxication). Grace (daya), charity and non- violence (ahimsa) were three principles of propagation of Kapila. Yoga’s centre of evocation of interest in his followers involved the yamas or social necessities-refraining from violence, stealing and appropriation, saying of truth and chastity. White Hahn (1993) in concord with other Budhist scholars, believes that harmony and peace of mind are required for practice of nonviolence. An engaged Buddhist deals with nonviolent action which transcends the mind. He doesn’t tackles with non-violent speech and actions but also faces nonviolent inaction. Silence and unresponsiveness in a situation do more wonders than other way around by creating hesitation in others to say or do something harmful because of our positive presence. Jains have highest regard for nonviolence and consider it as a unsurpassed religion. Base and fountain of all principles and ethos of Jainism is mentioned in Jain scriptures as nonviolence out of which all other principles emanate (Natubhai 2004,108). Jainism recognizes the inherent and innate weaknesses and vulnerability towards sins. In view of these facts, Jianism provides a unique system to attain inner peace and happiness (Jainstudy 2014). Bhagwaan Mahaveer propounded five virtues nonviolence (ahimsa), truth (SATYA), non-stealing (ACHAURYA), continence (chastity, BHARMACHARYA) and non-possessiveness (APARIGRAH). Non- violence implies consciousness free from attachment (love) and aversion. Violence is also akin to rejection of equality and provision of justice on the
- 172 - basis of religion, race or social status. Untruth (falsehood), stealing, intemperance (unchastity) and possessiveness (greed) involve mental and physical violence of others. Thus the virtues of truth, non-stealing, chastity and non-possessiveness are integral part of non-violence. In his famous work PUURUSHAART SIDDHYUPAAYA, Acharya Amrit Chandra Suri states that all moral practices are included in non-violence (Ibid). Hazrat Esa (A.S.) or Jesus characterized God as nonviolent and viewed domination system and violent. On such juxtaposed dichotomy he crafted non-violent resistance embodying the preferable aspiration of being killed over killing others. Nonviolent attitude or behavior on the part of Jesus showed his encounters with a non-violent God. Jesus’ death on the cross testifies that God’s power, whatever it maybe, is invitational and not violent or coercive. Jesus disapproved commandments of God and history rooted in the wrath and negative sanctions of God (Nelson, 2011). Horsley (1986) equates theme of ‘love your enemies’ with the essence of morality of non- violence embedded in the legacy of Jesus. He has explained the social context in which Jesus propagated and practiced non-retaliation (Davis 2005, 24-25). Finally, talking about Islam as a source of non-violence doesn’t need any explanation because life of Hazrat Syedna Mohammad (S.A.W.) is an evidence enough to furnish the contention that Islam not only in its holy literature but also in its practical version (life of Hazrat Mohammad (S.A.W.)) stress on non-violence, tolerance and forbearance. However it is necessary to draw attention towards a very important point present in all the religions in one form or another, which demands its followers to adhere to midway between the two extremes in any context. It means that religions do not deny the presence of evil forces of society and where there is a principle demanding the follower to abstain from wrong-doing there it is also ordained that stop the wrong-doing on seeing it. Therefore, extreme of anything in general and of non-violence in particular is also not welcomed. To articulate it, versus of Qurans merit attention which require Muslims to rise up against any foreign power with full preparation and on the same time discourages them to do if there is peace and non-aggression from infidels. 3. Western Discourse on Non-Violence Gene Sharp has highlighted tactical-strategic and pragmatic- ideological as two major dimensions of concept of non-violence. He underlined nine major types of non-violence:Non-resistance, Active reconciliation, Moral resistance, Selective non-violence, Passive resistance, Peaceful resistance, Non-violent direct action, Gandhian non-violence (Satyagraha) and non-violent revolution. On the basis of these dimensions of non-violence, he categorized four types of exponents of non-violence. Four
- 173 - kinds of exponents of non-violence, according to Sharp are Tactical exponent, strategic exponent, Pragmatic exponent and ideological exponent. While tactical exponents of non-violence focus on attainment of certain goal in particular context of time and place, strategic exponent exercise long-term mission of bringing change in society by its transformation. Pragmatic exponents consider non-violent ways as most beneficial and fruitful means towards achievement of their goals. Ideological exponents adopt non- violence as a way of life due to ethical and moral reasons, through amalgamation of means and ends, which can satisfy the needs of all. Michael Randle considers civil resistance as a nonviolent political practice in which ordinary citizens and civilians don’t use formal political structure or any of its parts. Organizations (such as political parties). Roots of such nonviolent political action exist in apparatus used by civil society which is not included in formal institutional or constitutional body. Gandhi influenced the extent of Martin Luther King’s commitment to non-violence. His view of nonviolence was also monochromatic i.e. love. Love is the centre of nonviolence from which centripetal force is provided to nonviolence for its application. King underlined and drew a comparative picture of ‘three words for love in the Greek New Testament’-eros, philia and agape. Eros is the attribute of soul which enables the soul to aspire for getting itself familiar with divine. Aesthetic or romantic attachment as an emotion of love constructs the meaning of Eros. Development and nurture of this love is linked to perceptional attribute of lover. He distinguished between eros and philia by underlining meaning of philia as cherished and extreme care between friends. Philia means a kind of mutual love: love is exchanged with love. Finally King explained agape as the status of independent, global or mixed love that supplies the stimulation or devotion for non-violence as an instrument to block injustice and oppression (Atack 2012,1-16). Life of Ghaffar Khan was deeply influenced by culture and social code of conduct of the land i.e. Pushtunwali. Features of Pusthunwali are badal, malmastai, and nanawatai or revenge, hospitality, and sanctuary. Badal among other features of Pushthunwali is the fundamental reason of violent actions among Pasthuns which gave rise to many blood feuds. It simply means that whenever a Pashthun is disgraced then he would hit back to inflict the same extent of disgrace over offender in the same way. Usually land and woman are main causes of revenge or badal. As every society has its own means of settlement of disputes, Jirga is a social institution aimed at settlement of disputes in Pashthun society. Jirga consists of notable elders of an area who holds trust and respect of majority of locales. This institution is still active in Pushthun areas of Afghanistan and Pakistan (Economist, 2006).
- 174 -
4. Life of Ghaffar Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan was born in 1890 at Uthmanzai (Charsadda) district Peshawar (Khan, 1983,1). His father Bahram Khan was a well-to-do landowner of Mohammadzai clan. Abdul Ghaffar Khan was the fourth child of Bahram Khan. According to the then popular tradition, Ghaffar Khan was sent to the local mosque to take early lessons in the Holy Quran. The Pushthuns have great respect for religious education and majority of them send their children to mosques. There was hardly any government school in the rural areas and thus, in education, the NWFP was one of the most backward areas in British India. Moreover, unlike the state patronage of Ulema in other parts of the sub-continent, in the NWFP the Ulema remained at logger-head with the establishment, indeed preoccupied with Jihad to get rid of the British rulers in that part of South Asia(Ibid). Ghaffar Khan was deeply influenced by teachings of Quran so much so that later on this influence had been translated into his public life (Shah 2007). It can be observed by going through Shah’s account: “According to the popular tradition, he was sent to the local mosque to take early lessons in the Holy Quran. The pushthuns have great respect for religious education and majority of them send their children to mosques …Moreover, unlike the state patronage of the Ulema in other parts of the sub-continent, in the NWFP they remained at loggers-head with the establishment, and indeed were preoccupied with jihad against the British rulers in that part of South Asia.” Cognitive, behavioral and cognitive-behavioral psychological approach convince one on Islamic grooming of Ghaffar Khan and building of his behavior in an Islamic direction. Sigmund Freud* and his daughter Anna Freud† who were proponents of psychodynamic theories of development merit citation. Their importance given to first few years of life strengthens the argument in favor of religious development of Ghaffar Khan’s behavior.
5. Association with Haji Fazl e Wahid and Shiekh Mahmoodul Hassan Abdul Ghaffar Khan commenced his social activities as an educationist and came into close contact with another social reformer of the area, Haji Fazli Wahid, popularly known as the Haji of Turangzai. Ghaffar Khan had collaborated with Haji Taurangzai to set up Azad Islamia Madrassas as alternatives to British missionary schools in Uthmanzai, Bannu
* Sigmund Freud, born in Germany, on 6 May 1856, was an Austrian neurologist who became known as the founding father of psychoanalysis. † Anna Freud (3 December 1895 – 9 October 1982) was the sixth and last child of Sigmund and Martha Freud.She Compared to her father, her work emphasized the importance of the ego and its ability to be trained socially.
- 175 - and Kohat before the Haji moved to the tribal areas in 1914 (Haroon 2007,156). Their combined efforts resulted in the opening of educational institutions called the Dar ul Ulum at Uthmanzai and Gaddar (Mardan) in 1910. Apart from religious education, students were imparted the concept of patriotism. No details are available about the exact number of these Madrassas or the number of students, teachers and their sources of income (Shah 2000,18). The two were joined by some other pushtun intellectuals including Maulvi Fazal-i-Rabi, Maulvi Taj Mohammad, Fazal Mahmud Makhfi and Abdul Aziz, the majority of them being the graduates of the Deoband seminary (Tendulkar, 1967, 22). Abdul Ghaffar Khan was also in touch with Mahmud ul Hassan, the Chief Divine at Deoband, and Ubaidullah Sindhi, the ‘revolutionary scholar’ and a noted pupil of Mahmood Hassan. Ghaffar Khan had also participated during the early years of Maulana Mahmood ul Hassan’s tehrik, travelling and living for a time with the Babra Mulla and taking bait at the hand of Haji Turangzai. However he disagreed with the Tribal Areas mullah’s militancy and their charismatic authority and distanced himself from their methods (Khan n.d.,1-100) They even had planned for the establishment of an anti-British centre, deep inside the tribal area, but it did not materialize (Khan 1983,1). In the year 1914, he visited Deoband secretly. Such visits were later on referred to by him during his visit to India he said at Darul Uloom Deoband, "I have had relation with Darul Uloom since the time the Shaikh-ul-Hind, Maulana Mehmud Hasan, was alive. Sitting here, we used to make plans for the independence movement, as to how we might drive away the English from this country and how we could make India free from the yoke of slavery of the British Raj. This institution has made great efforts for the freedom of this country"(Jamiat-ul-Amaihind Mysore, 2014) Many deliberations took place. Understanding was created. Plot was set under the shared understanding that first a hub of support of India’s complete liberation would be constituted in Frontier tribal’s areas, then Ghaffar Khan along with his Pashthun friend Maulvi Fazle Mohamed would reach Bajaur Agency after passing through Fazle’s village, where they would wait for Maulana Obaidullah Sindhi to get themselves ready for next step. Under the same consensual understanding Ghaffar Khan announced at Uthmanzai that he would visit Ajmer Sharif for pilgrimage. He left his village on the same pretext but in reality his journey was destined for Maulvi Fazle Mohammad’s village. Having left Fazl there, both Ghaffar Khan and Fazl’s relative proceeded to Bajaur. Ghaffar Khan visited many villages of Bajaur but at the end stayed at Zagai-a village situated in Mohmand-where he spent his period of secluded prayers known as chilla in mystical terms. Chilla ended but Ghaffar had yet to see Maulana Obaidullah Sindhi for whom he
- 176 - stayed. Unwillingly Ghaffar Khan returned to his village Uthmanzai. (Gandhi, 2008, 49-51). 6. Hijrat movement-turning point Hijrat movement was an offspring of Khilafat movement. In religious discourse and debates dominated by Ulemas of that time encircled India as Dar ul Harb (Land of War) and exhorted Muslims to consider leaving Dar ul Harb and settling at Dar ul Islam as their religious duty. Afghanistan was and is our neighbor country. Government at that that time in Afghanistan was of Muslims with whom Indian Muslims were feeling their political, religious, cultural and ethnic affinity. Such feeling attracted Afghanistan towards them as their choice of selection of Dar ul Islam. Ghaffar Khan also migrated to Afghanistan along with innumerable pashthuns (Shah, 2007). Ghaffar Khan’s migration was a follow-up signal to not only religious command but also to Islamic ideology of any polity. A secular Ghaffar can’t respond to religious calls. He could have refused to migrate on the pretext that the notion of danger to Islam was an eyewash. The time, in which he had been responsive towards migration for Islamic cause was also noteworthy. Anti-British feelings and objectives brought the then Amir of Afghanistan, Amanullah Khan and religiously inclined Muhajrin on the same. Such coherence between ideas and objectives left no other option with Amanullah except to offer asylum to incoming mohajreen. As a result Afghanistan became the host of 60,000 Muhajirin. Most of Muhajrin got themselves recruited in Afghan army at Jalalabad (Qureshi 1999). They found that life in Afghanistan was not a bed of roses. Others became weary of idle life and held protest meetings. The enthusiastic, emotional and sentimental youngsters, especially those belonging to the Frontier, passed an ‘ultimatum’ to the Afghan government to equipped them with weapons so that they can wage jihad against the British or else facilitate them for their departure to Anatolia or return home. (Ibid) In fact a provisional Azad Hind Government was formed in Afghanistan with Raja Mahendra Pratap as President and Prof. Barkatullah as Prime Minister (Ali 2005). Amir responded administratively and mollified the charged muhajrin by sending his message through Abdul Ghaffar Khan that they should behave responsibly and rationally (Ibid). He knew that haste makes waste. Amanullah suggested proper military training and patience in making due strategy as a pre-requisite for Jihad. Soon, charged environment and over- ambitiousness of muhajrin tighten the noose against the necks of policy makers in Afghan government regarding their absorption and deliverance to their demand of Jihad (Shah 1987, 128-36).
- 177 -
7. Anjuman-I-Islahul Afaghana and Azad Islamia Madrassas After discussing his earlier Islamic-ridden life which preceded his non-violent movement, it is necessary to analyze the foundations of his non- violent movement. The first brick of a building determines the foundation of building and foundation of building determines the whole infrastructure. Ghaffar Khan’s first brick to constitute his non-violent movement was made up of Islamic material. The organization, foundation of which had been laid by him in April 1921 had to work and unify its supporters along Islamic lines of action. On 1 April 1921, He founded Anjuman-i-Islah-ul-Afaghana (the Society for the Reformation of Afghans). He himself became its President and nominated Mian Ahmad Shah as its Secretary. Operational body of the organization declared The stated objectives of the Anjuman included: promotion of unanimity amongst the Pushthuns about political and social affairs; ejection of social evils such as blood feuds; prevention of extraordinary expenditures on social events such as marriages and birth of child; emboldening and propagation of Pashto language and literature, and igniting the fire of ‘real love’ for Islam in the heart of Pashthuns (Shah 2000, 18). Rauf (2006) pointed out this element of real love for Islam and Anjuman’s tendencies towards Sharia Laws in his reliance on annual report of Anjuman: “The Anjuman aims at propagating the cause of Islam and imparting national and religious education in the Pashto language to the Muslim community. It has hitherto been found impossible to reform the Afghans in the matter of party feeling and morality under the existing foreign education and law. The Anjuman will try to put a stop to the evil customs which are against the laws of Shari‘at and have impaired the Pathans financially” Unity among pushthuns remained a stumbling block throughout the history. Lindholm consider pushthun society as a society where there is no leader. So society where centrifugal pulls were very active Islam was the only instrument which could have united them and rubbed out the tribal sharp lines among pushthuns. Here it is necessary to link this tribal friction in pashthun society to tribal quarrels prevalent in Arab society centuries ago. Before descent of Hazrat Mohammad (S.A.W.) in Arab society there was complete societal chaos and tribal battles and racism was on its peak. Then advent of Islam with the passage of time Arabs had been blended into religious colors to impart unity among them. However such an example is not aimed at all to compare two movements, as it was quite clear that the change which had been brought up in Arab society was unparalleled. But it shows the extent to which Ghaffar Khan was in need of Islam as building blocks in
- 178 - his movement because he knew that it is the only key to eradicate blood- feuds and tribal rifts. Second challenge for him was lavish spending on social events by Pushthuns. He was keen observer of class stratification, class society and class struggles going not only across the sub-continent but also with in the pushthun society. On the other side he was also cognizant of the pride which pushthun families take in heavy spending on their cultural gatherings and rituals such as occasions of marriages. He didn’t want to repeat the mistakes of Syed Ahmad Shaheed who violently banned such traditions with the intention of eradication of social evils. He adopted the non-violence face of same Islam which was exercised violently by Syed Ahmad Shaheed and more interesting thing to note in his endeavors was the institution which he intended to use. He first made the institution i.e. schools and organization which will engrained his ideas into minds of recipients of his educational curriculum. Last objective of the society for reformation of Afghans has the potency to characterize it as Islamic movement only. Love for Islam as an objective is enough for an organization to show his Islamic nature. But when stress is on real love for Islam then it means that vacuum is still there to fill up. It drove the organization in a quest to achieve something more Islamic which was already prevalent in the society. Such an objective in initial stages of movement clearly showed the courses in which seed had to germinated, plant had to come out and develop in full fledge trees. Islamic state for pushthuns where shariat would be functional in letters and spirit could be the ultimate end of such an objective because the only roadblock in the way of implementation of shariah had been resistance and reluctance of society. Such reluctance was lacking in pushthun society where rituals of Islam were more stresses as compared to beliefs. Story of new project of reformation of pashthun society started on On 10 April, 1921, when he opened the first branch of Azad Islamia Madrassa at his own village Uthmanzai. Later on more outlets of same project were constructed in different places of the Peshawar Valley. One can’t say with full conviction about the number of Azad schools because meticulous reading limits the choice of selection of number of schools to 70. Subjects which were taught at those schools were Holy Quran and Hadith, Fiqha, Islamic history, Pashto, Mathematics, English and Arabic. Before discussing the curriculum of the schools, a moment must be given to think about the name of such schools: Azad Islamia Madrassa. The name was actually aimed at combining two ideologies. ‘Azad’ meant freedom in English and had been pointing towards freedom from tentacles of actors who were ultimate benefactors of concentration of wealth. On the other side Ghaffar Khan was
- 179 - aware that pushthun society would never welcome any ideas antithetical to Islamic doctrines which according to most of pushthuns but not all can be produced and interpreted rightly by madrassas. So he took work with his political and societal vision. The name being symbiotic of two ideas had been given to accommodate and integrate the doctrinal differences. By this and the later work which will be discussed later on, he also proved that Islam does not only discourage financial, societal and political disparity but also has arrangement of depleting the wide gap among social statuses of society. He installed various schools to propagate his ideas. He knew that educational institute is the hub from where ideas can not only be propagated but ideological grooming of youth in his colors could also be done rapidly. Approach was bottom-up, that lower echelon of society, where most of the people are young and belong to lower class, will be targeted. Next generation who will be the product of these schools will constitute a core group responsible for mobilizing pushthun society on a large scale. Azad Islamia Madrassa was opened for provision of education. One of the major objectives of the school was impartation of religious education moral reformation and true spiritual representation of Islam. Thus theology comprised one of the important sections of the school. The Holy Qur’an, Hadith, Fiqh, history of Islam and Arabic language were included in the section separately dedicated to theological studies which was important in many aspects (Rauf 2006).
8. Islamic Essence of Anjuman Movement Ghaffar Khan brought change in his line of action after attending the Grand Conference held in Mecca in 1926, by laying down the foundational stone of an organization with the name Pushthun Jirga (Pashthun Council). Three walks of life: politics, culture and education was touched upon by this organization in pursuit of its program. Body running the organization possessed the same lot which was educated in schools founded by him. Embryonic organization attracted many towards its structure and functions and in 1929 new lot of volunteers joined it to form organization of Anjumans (servant of Gods)(Stepha, 2009). The ideology and course of strategy was wholly solely Islamic in the sense that the source embodying legitimacy among its adherents required to inject power and life in the body of organization was lessons and teachings of Hadith and Quran. He strongly believed in Last Prophet’s legacy of patience and forgiveness. He presented this legacy as strength and source of power for Anjumans.He told people that he was going to give them such a weapon that the police and the army would not be able to stand against it. That was the weapon of the Prophet but they were not aware of that (Tendulkar, 1967,22).
- 180 -
‘That weapon was patience and righteousness. No power on earth could stand against that.He further directed his adherents to tell their brethren on reaching their villages that there was an army of God, and its weapon was patience and to ask them to join the army of God. Endure all hardships. If they exercised patience, victory would be theirs (Ibid). Ghaffar Khan was fully conscious of what nonviolence had meant to a pushthun. He ruled out feeling of surprise about according to practice nonviolence. He referred to centuries-old practice of Last Prophet Hazrat Sayedna Mohammad (S.A.W.) to show that what he introduced is not something impossible to do for pushthuns. Secondly it is ordained by religion Islam and necessary for faith. Third it is a prophetic means of getting rid of an oppressor’s stranglehold (Dallmayr 1999;Lal) and hence is a distinguished kind of Jihad in which a jihadist do jihad without violence. Ulemas in North West region of colonial India were anti- establishment and so were followers of Anjuman movement (Shah, 2007). This informal, unorganized, and implicit alliance further strengthened the Islamic character of non-violent movement. Moreover the participation and membership of various ulemas in Anjuman movement clarify that a particular faction of ulemas ratified the Islamic legitimacy of movement because had it been against the Islam then Ulemas wouldn’t have participated in it. The oath taken by Khidmatgars was not free of religious inclinations. Oath consisted of message of selflessness which also remained the message of Sufis. Oath in itself is clarification about the nature of work which a follower has to do and can be considered as term of reference for loyalty to any organization. An Islamic term of reference can only be undertaken if organization will be Islamic along with its objectives. If taking oath is agreement with the objectives of organization then those who took oath before joining Anjuman Organization were agreed over Islamic mission and were doing so out of their religiosity. One of the terms of oath was ‘All my efforts will be decided to seeking the will of god and not towards mere show or becoming and office-holder’(Ibid). Secondly Khidmatgars didn’t compromise on their religion as a precondition for alliance with Congress. When Ghaffar Khan saw no light at the end of the tunnel and had been turned down by his co-religionists then he unwillingly turned towards All India National Congress. Muslim League-a Muslim dominated body remained always the first option of Khidmatars in general and Ghaffar Khan in specific. But there was no space for the wishes of common people or lower class of the society. Feudalistic mindset didn’t welcome the objectives of Khidmatgars based on classless society. Such class-oriented objectives were perceived threat for class status of political leadership of Muslim League (Ahmed, 2010).So from this, one can also draw
- 181 - the assumption that leadership and politics of Ghaffar Khan was a unique blend of popular politics and religion because symbols, slogans, political figures, sources of legitimacy and attraction of recruits for his movements were linked to Islam in one way or another. Thirdly, the reason for his alliance was again an Islamic one. He referred to Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) and such a reference was apparently very convincing. It had legitimized his alliance with Gandhi and All India National Congress. In Pakistan, it is the dominant discourse of political and academic circles that anything against Islamic injunctions is clearly against the Pakistan. But such an allegation of being leaguer of Congress had been brushed aside by Ghaffar Khan himself during his lifetime by following Islamic ideology of Islamic law and acting upon Islamic tradition. He was not a frontier Gandhi. He incorporated his non-violence out of true Islamic traditions. His cause, personality, behavior, line of action and means to organize his followers was Islamic. Moreover the perceived constitution of Islamic democratic state of autonomus Pushthuns was planned as Islamic. So if the yardstick to gauge the ‘Pakistaniat’ is to measure the adherence of Islamic principles then no one among the forefathers of Pakistan can be more Pakistani than Ghaffar Khan.
8. Conclusion His way of practicing Islam and view about it was not evolved against backdrop of society and politics. Picture of Islam with his natural as a religion can be sketched from his personality. Personality of Ghaffar Khan embodied the basic feature of religious piousness which was complete submission to Allah almighty. Such submission denotes annihilation of self. Suffering in life ends when self is finished. This fundamental lesson of selflessness was not only highly regarded by Islam but possesses a valued position in every religion. The dominant discourse sees Khudai-Khidmatgar movement with its non-violence essence as an ultra secular organization which was in league to atheist communists. Such discourse is not only owned by its colonial writers but also is ratified, propagated and reproduced by pushthun nationalists to burnish the image of Pushthuns as indignant of talibans. But on the other side ‘official nationalism’ of Pakistan demanded its pioneers to characterize non- violence of Ghaffar Khan as anti-Islamic due to his alliance as a last political resort with Ghandhi. Such dominant discourse has shadowed the activities going on beneath the surface which were intrinsically of Islamic nature. The slogans, the purpose, the ideological machinery and above all leadership i.e. Ghaffar Khan, all were Islamic. Therefore Anjuman movement seems to consist of some staunch Islamic principles/elements. Hence it is necessary to
- 182 - enquire the Islamic nature of what widely known as ‘secular’, ‘nationalist’ and ‘communism’ Keeping in view, the practical and ideological commitment of Ghaffar Khan to Islam, criticism over his faith seems to be unfounded and baseless. He made his all-out efforts to install Islam as a social order for evolution of an ideal, utilitarian, just and perfect society embodying peace and harmony among the people.. Individualism, based on selfishness was pointed out by him as the cancer of society out of which all forms and kinds of violence emanates.
References
Ahmed, Ishtiaq. (2010, January 26).Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Islam and non- violence.Daily Times. Ali, Asghar Engineer. (2005).They Too Fought For Freedom - Role Of Minorities In Freedom Struggle.Secular Perspective, Dece,1-15. Ackerman, Peter & Christopher Kruegler. (1994).Strategic Nonviolent Conflict: The Dynamics of People Power in the Twentieth Century. Westport, CO: Praeger. Atack, Iain. (2012).Nonviolence in Political Theory.Edinburg: Edinburg University Press. Aleta, L Meyer ed.(2000).Promoting Non-Violence in Early Adolescence: Responding in Peaceful and Positive Ways.Newyork: Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers.
Bondurant, Joan V. (1988).Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict. Princeton.NJ: Princeton University Press. Benedict Anderson. (2006).Imagined Communities A Brilliant Exegesis on Nationalism and The Nation.New York: Verso Books. Lindholm, Charles. (1982).Generosity and Jealousy: The Swat Pukhtun of Northern Pakistan. Columbia: Columbia University Press. Collins, Larry & Dominique Lapierre. (1975).Freedom at Midnight. New York: Simon & Schuster. Cox, Robert. (1986).Social Forces, States and World Orders: Beyond International Relations Theory’ In Robert O. Keohane, ed., Neorealism and Its Critics. (204–254). New York: Columbia University Press
- 183 -
Daniel M. Mayton II. (2009).Nonviolence and Peace Psychology: Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, Societal and World Peace.Newyork: Springer Science. Desai, Mahadev. (1930).Two Servants of God. Delhi: Hindustan Times Press. Fred Dallmayr.(1999).Border Crossings: Toward a Comparative Political Theory.Lanham, Md [u.a.] : Lexington Books. Fischer, L. (1950). The life of Mahatma Gandhi. NewYork: Collier. Gandhi, Mohandas K, (1963). Collected Works of M. K. Gandhi, vols. 42-51. Delhi: Publications Division, Government of India. Gene Sharp. (1970). “The Technique of Non-Violent Action”, Nonviolent Alternatives in Joan Bondurant V.ed. 1971. Conflict: Violence and Nonviolence .Chicago and New York: Aldine-Atherton Press. Haestrup, Jorgen. (1977).Secret Alliance: A Study of the Danish Resistance Movement, 1940-1945, vols 1-3. Trans. Alison Borch-Johnson. Odense, Denmark: Odense University Press. Hoist, Johan Jorgen. (1990). Civilian-based Defense in a New Era. Cambridge: Albert Einstein Institution Monograph Series no. 2. Horsley, Richard A. (1986). Ethics and Exegesis: "Love Your Enemies" and the Doctrine of Non-Violence LIV/1.Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 54 (1):3-31. James Frederick Davis. (2005).Lex Talionis in Early Judaism and the Exhortation of Jesus in Matthew 5.38-42.London: T&T Clark International. Khan, Abdul Ghaffar. (1983).Zama Zhwand au Jaddo Jihad (Pashtho).Kabul. Khan, Abdul Ghaffar. (1969).Mv Life and Struggle. Delhi: Hind Pocket Books. Khan, Abdul Ghaffar. n.d. Meri Zindagi Aur Jaddo Jehed.Lahore. Korea, Muhammad Soaleh. (1993).The Frontier Gandhi: His Place in History. Karachi: Oxford University Press. Natubhai Shah P. (2004).Jainism: The World of Conquerors, Volume 1.Delhi:Lala S.L. Jian Research Series. Nelson, Jack. (2001). Jesus Against Christianity: Reclaiming the Missing Jesus. Harrisbur: Pallmeyer Trinity Press International.
- 184 -
Qureshi. M. Naeem. (1999).Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics: A Study of the Khilafath Movement 1918-1924.Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV. Rauf, Abdul. (2006).Socio-Educational Reform Movements in N.W.F.P. - A Case Study of Anjuman-i-Islahul Afaghina.Pakistan Journal of History & Culture, Vol.XXVII/2. Roberts, Adam. (1969). Civilian Resistance as a National Defence. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Sana Haroon. (2007).Frontier of Faith: Islam, in the Indo-Afghan Borderland .London: C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd. Shah, Sayed Waqar Ali. (2007).North-West Frontier Province: History and Politics.Islamabad: National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research Centre of Excellence, Quaid e Azam University. Sayed Waqar Ali Shah. (1999-2000).Ethnicity, Islam and Nationalism: Muslim Politics in the North-West Frontier Province 1937- 1947.Karachi: Oxford University Press. Tendulkar, Dinanath G. (1967). Abdul Ghaffar Khan: Faith is a Battle.Bombay: Popular Prakasha. Sayed Wiqar Ali Shah. (1987).NWFP and the Khilafat & Hijrat Movements.Central Asia, No. 20, Summer.
Stepha, Maria J (Ed.). (2009).Civilian Jihad: Non-Violent Struggle, Democratization, and Governance in The Middle East.New York: Palgrave Macmillan.107-119 Dinanath G. Tendulkar, Abdul Ghaffar Khan: Faith is a Battle.Bombay: Popular Prakasha. Pushtunwali: honor among them. (2006, December 19) The Economist. Retrieved from http://www.economist.com/node/8345531/print http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2010%5C01%5C26%5Csto ry_26-1-2010_pg3_2 http://www.himalayanacademy.com/resources/pamphlets/AhimsaNonViolen ce.html http://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/h_violence.asp http://www.jainstudy.org/jsc7.01-RV-ConOfNonVio.htm http://www.jamiatulamaihindmysore.com/docs/DARUL%20ULOOM%20D EOBAND.pdf