FOUNDATIONS OF MODERN AMERICAN

Most historians agree that modern American city planning began in the late 1800s. Some affix the date to 1893 and the Columbian Exposition in , though there is less orthodoxy regarding this moment than 15 years ago. In contrast to the earlier Colonial planning period (, Savannah, Williamsburg, etc.) wherein plans preceded development, planning in the 1800s generally responded to the stimulated by the in existing and haphazardly developing . The American Industrial Revolution occurred in two waves, the first in 1820-1870 and the second in 1870-1920. The U.S. grew from 7% urban in 1820 to 25% urban in 1870 and 50% urban in 1920.

Three social movements categorized as precursors to modern American city planning (/sanitary reform, settlement house and housing reform, and parks planning) responded to the challenges and consequences of chaotic urbanization prior to modern planning's beginnings. The was a fourth response at about the same time that modern planning began. The Garden Cities Movement simultaneously commenced in England and was imported soon after. American planning grew out of and hoped to provide a broader, more comprehensive vision to these movements.

Five interrelated and overlapping 1. Sanitary Reform Movement movements of the 19th Century had 2. Parks Planning/Parks Systems Movement significant effects on the first half of 3. Settlement House/Housing Reform Movement the 20th Century and helped initiate 4. modern American city planning. 5. City Beautiful Movement

Movement Attributes Sanitary Reform (extensive overlap An outgrowth and response to the with and sometimes referred to as accelerating urbanization of the U.S. the Public Health Movement) 1840- Accompanied by an increasingly 1890. Sanitary Reform's focus was scientific understanding of infectious diseases - from filth theory to germ infrastructure and Public Health was theory. primarily concerned with preventing and contending with infectious diseases and epidemics. Primary foci:

1. Potable water supply

2. Water carriage sewerage to supplant private lot

waste removal

3. Sanitary survey planning: detailed examination of

diseases and associated physical conditions.

4. Townsite consciousness - not a systematic doctrine

but increased awareness and sensitivity to topography,

drainage, water supply, parks, crowding, density,

gross conflicts (slaughter houses in

residential areas, etc.)

5. Memphis/American Public Health Association/National

Board of Health 1878-1880 produced an exemplary

analytical model.

Parks Planning/Parks Systems Initially focused on a large, romantic pleasure Movement grounds-offered middle and upper class Americans 'the equivalent of a day in the country.' Examples: Central Park (NY), Franklin Park (), Lincoln

Park (Chicago). Later evolved into the conception of city-wide, eventually regional interconnected systems

of parks and parkways.

Significant events in:

Horace W. S. , Minneapolispark system proposal 1883; Minneapolis-St. Paul regional Park

system proposal, 1887 (Minneapolis implemented)

George W. Kessler, Kansas City city-wide system of

parks and boulevards, 1893 (multiple other players: Augustus Robert Dyer (wealthy business person),

James Pendergrast (political boss), Thomas Swope

(philanthropist))

Charles Elliot, Sylvester Baxter, Boston - extensive

regional park system (1891-1893 and beyond)

Settlement House Movement/Housing Sought to contribute to urban reform through Reform living (settling) in poor, frequently immigrant

or minority neighborhoods and mobilizing resources for social change. Emphasis on "learning by doing"

social action (John Dewey, Jane Addams)

1886-19teens.

Significant practioners/events:

Jane Addams, Hull House, a politically active

settlement house in Chicago

Mary K. Simkovitch (professionally active 1900-1949), Settlement housing and social welfare reformer in New

York City. Studied and worked at College Settlement, was head resident at Friendly Aid Home and founded

Greenwich House (all NYC); Helped organize

Cooperative Social Settlement Society and New York

Association of Neighborhood Workers.

2

Settlement House Movement Housing Benjamin Marsh, An Introduction to City Planning: Reform (continued) Democracy's Challenge to the American City (1909). Was Secretary of the Committee on Congestion of

Population in 1907 in and helped

organize the First National Conference on City

Planning (1909).

Jacob Riis (How the Other Half Lives (1890), Children of the Poor (1892))

Garden City Movement in England The Garden City Movement began with the work of Tomorrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform (1898).

Garden City Characteristics:

1. Satellite garden cities surrounding central garden City, each city essentially self-supporting but

relying on the central city for regional facilities 2. Finite population: ultimate population could not be

expanded, thus preventing deteriorating sprawl at its

edges 3. Surrounded by greenbelts and woods of public land

to be used permanently as agriculture and open 4. Included concept of land rent

Howard carried out two garden city projects in England: 1. (1903-1920)

2. Welwyn (1919-1934)

Development of Second City - Welwyn (1919)

1. Designed to have a population of 40,000 2. More successful than Letchworth because location

allowed workers to travel to and those living in

London to work in Welwyn 3. Designed with superblock street scheme -

3 Garden City Movement in U. S. Garden City Movement (England) exerted some influence in U.S. in the teens and 1920s:

1. Forest Hills Gardens (160 acres) Russell

Foundation (1909) Frederick Law Olmstead, Jr. - a

garden not a full-fledged "new town" 2. Radburn, NJ (1929) ( and Clarence

Stein) adopted updated elements of the Garden City

approach: residences in superblocks (30-50 acres)

penetrated only by cul-de-sacs, separated pedestrian

and vehicular traffic, faced homes toward gardens,

reserved the interiors of superblocks for parks,

connected the superblocks by a system of walks with

underpasses under the motorways. Lacked full range

of land uses to be a new town. 3. Immediate U.S. impact was a more complete

vision of suburban residential planning and

professional aspirations for new-towns/satellite garden cities alternatives. Three new towns built in

Depression Era

City Beautiful Movement Began with the Columbian Exposition (1893), Chicago

Key Actors: , Sr., Charles F. McKim, Augustus St. Gaudens

First example in U.S. of a substantial group of buildings designed in relation to one another and in

relation to open spaces

"White City" team could not agree on color scheme,

painted it all white

Daniel Burnham justified subsequent City Beautiful plan on grounds that:

1. The of public works that attract the wealthy makes pleasant the life of the poor, are accessible to

all men, and create a unifying civic pride 2. The attraction of those with wealth creates a flow of

money that filters down to all citizens 3. Creation of broad tree-lined avenues brings light,

air and nature to the 4 City Beautiful Movement (continued) Contributions of the City Beautiful Movement:

1. Helped revival of city planning from post-colonial planning dormancy. Helped lead to planning's

establishment as an integral part of local government. 2. Led to the professional consultant role for "planning

experts"

Deficiencies of the Movement:

1. Catered to an upper class constituency

2. Treated issues affecting poor people superficially

or not at all

3. and adornment had limited practical

utility to many.

4. Lack of legitimation of any public control over the

private actions that were decisive in setting the quality of urban environment

5. Emphasis on parks and boulevards required public investment rather than controls

Decline of the Movement in the 1920s

1. Big business lost interest as the forces for societal

change saw their power decline

2. Muckraking journalism exposed extensive

corruption in municipal service delivery

3. Extensive adoption of automobile led to

corresponding need for roads and highways

4. Necessity of municipal sewer and water supply

expanded infrastructure budgets 5. City Efficient replaced City Beautiful as the emphasis

of city planning Although City Beautiful declined, its emphasis on

physical site planning was internalized in planning

efforts regulating the development of the .

Planning in Transition During the 19-teens, U.S. planning focused more on physical//infrastructure issues and began

to adapt from the German model (without importing the cooperative housing, public

5

land owner­ship and innovations in municipal finance

which were integral to the German urban policy framework).

The U.S. Progressive (political) Movement emphasized professionalization of civil service and (naively) tried

to depoliticize elements of local governance through appointed boards and commissions such as planning

commissions.

City Efficient Rise of City Efficient

1. New emphasis of cities and American City Planning

Institute on technical details of city planning brought civil engineers, lawyers, and administrators to the fore­

front replacing architects and landscape architects 2. Housing reformers and settlement house people's

roles were diminished, and they continued their work poor communities outside the narrow definition of

Planning

3. Advent of the automobile required major public works projects which drew attention and resources

away from many civic building projects and social efforts

4. New laws and court cases being developed resulted in land use, zoning, land subdivision control and

administrative/regulative devices replacing "civic

center" as the focus of planning activities.

Summary prepared from Laurence C. Gerckens , American City Planning Since 1900 A.O. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University, 1975. Modified by Larry Keating, FAICP, 2009, 2011.

6 Individuals Who Influenced Planning Before 1978 APA identified 25 individuals who significantly influenced the practice of planning before APA was established. AICP already has designated more than half of them as National Planning Pioneers

Hippodamus 5th century B.C.

Hippodamus of Miletus was a Greek architect who introduced order and regularity into the planning of cities, which were intricate and confusing. For Pericles, he planned the arrangement of the harbor-town Peiraeus at Athens. When the Athenians founded Thurii in Italy, he accompanied the colony as architect. Later, in 408 B.C., he superintended the building of the new city of Rhodes. His schemes consisted of series of broad, straight streets, intersecting one another at right angles.

Benjamin Banneker 1731-1806

Benjamin Banneker, one of the nation's best-known African American inventors, was born in Maryland, which was then a British colony. He was the grandson of a white indentured servant from England and a former slave. Always interested in mathematics and science, in 1753, Banneker was inspired to build his own clock out of wood based on his own and calculations. The clock kept accurate time until Banneker's house burned with all its contents in 1806. Banneker taught himself astronomy and advanced math from books and instruments borrowed from his neighbors, the Ellicotts, who shared his interest. He made astronomical and tide calculations and weather predictions for yearly almanacs, which he published from 1792 to 1797. Banneker's almanacs were compared favorably with Benjamin Franklin's Poor Richard 's Almanac. He sent a copy of the manuscript for his almanac to Thomas Jefferson, along with a letter in which he challenged Jefferson's ideas about the inferiority of blacks. Jefferson replied politely but failed to comment on either the almanac or Banneker's issues. In 1791, Banneker was asked by Major George Ellicott to help survey the "Federal Territory,” now Washington, D.C. Banneker agreed and became one of three surveyors appointed by President George Washington. For a period of three months in the spring of 1791 Mr. Banneker worked in a tent in what was then the independent jurisdiction of Georgetown. His work involved locating the boundary stones of the Federal District using his own astronomical calculations. For his scientific skills, spirit of pioneering and contribution to the establishment of the nation’s capital, we honor Banneker's memory.

Pierre L'Enfant 1754 -18 52

Pierre L'Enfant was the French architect and engineer responsible for the design of Washington, D.C. The plan of the city is based on principles employed by Andre Le Notre in the palace and garden of Versailles, where L’Enfant’s father had worked as a court painter, and on Domenico Fontana's scheme (1585) for the redesign of Rome under Pope Sixtus V. Through the use of long avenues joined at key points marked by important buildings or monuments, the U.S. capital city is a symbolic representation of power radiating from a central source.

Baron Haussmann 1809-1891

Haussmann was a French civic planner who is associated with the rebuilding of Paris. He was born in that city of a Protestant family of German descent. Commissioned by Napoleon III to instigate a program of planning reforms in Paris, Haussmann laid out the Bois de Boulogne, and made extensive improvements in the smaller parks. The gardens of the Luxembourg Palace were cut down to allow of the formation of new streets, and the Boulevard de Sebastopol, the southern half of which is now the Boulevard St. Michel, was built through a populous district. Additional, sweeping changes made wide "boulevards" of previously narrow streets. A new water supply, a gigantic system of sewers, new bridges, the opera and other public buildings, and the inclusion of outlying districts were among the new Haussmann's achievements. His bold handling of the public funds called forth Jules Ferry's indictment, in 1867.

Frederick Law Olmsted Sr. 1822-1903

Frederick Law Olmsted is widely recognized as the founder of American landscape and the nation's foremost parkmaker. His first, most loved, and in many ways his best known work was his design of Central Park in New York City (1858-1876) with his partner Calvert Vaux. But Olmsted would go on to have a significant influence in the way cities and communities are built to incorporate the idea of nature and parks. He was one of the first to espouse the principles of the City Beautiful movement in America and to introduce the idea of suburban development to the American landscape.

George Pullman 1831-1897

George Pullman was an American inventor and industrialist. Although Pullman dropped out of school at age 14, he eventually became one of Chicago's most influential and controversial figures. He arrived in Chicago in 1855 and discovered that city streets frequently were filled with mud deep enough to drown a horse. He suggested that the houses be raised and new foundations built under them, a technique his father used to move homes during the widening of the Erie Canal. In 1857, with a couple of partners, Pullman proved his technique would work by raising an entire block of stores and office buildings. He used his money and success to develop a comfortable railroad sleeping car, the Pullman sleeper, in 1864. Although the sleeper cost more than five times the price of a regular railway car, by arranging to have the body of slain President Abraham Lincoln transported from Washington, D.C., to Springfield on a sleeper, he received national attention and the orders began to pour in. Pullman built a new plant on the shores of Lake Calumet, several miles from Chicago. In an effort to make it easier for his employees, he also built a town with its own shopping areas, theaters, parks, hotel and library for his employees. When business declined in 1894, Pullman cut jobs, wages and working hours. His failure to lower rents, utility charges, and the cost of products led his workers to protest. The Pullman Strike was eventually broken up by federal troops sent in by President Grover Cleveland.

Camillo Sitte 1843-1903

Camillo Sitte is best known among urban planners and architects for his book City Planning According to Its Artistic Principles (1889). He strongly criticized the prevailing emphasis on broad, straight boulevards, public squares arranged primarily for the convenience of traffic, and efforts to strip major public or religious landmarks of adjoining smaller structures that were regarded as encumbering such monuments of the past. Sitte proposed instead to follow what he believed to be the design objectives of those whose streets and buildings shaped medieval cities. He advocated curving or irregular street alignments to provide ever-changing vistas. He pointed out the advantages of what came to be known as "turbine squares" - civic spaces served by streets entering in such a way as to resemble a pinwheel in plan. His teachings became widely accepted in Austria, Germany, and Scandinavia. In less than a decade, his of came to be accepted as the in those countries.

Daniel Burnham 1846-1912 Daniel Burnham was raised and educated in Chicago. He gained his early architectural with William Le Baron Jenney, the "father of the skyscraper.” However, Burnham earned an even greater reputation for his influence as a city planner. He supervised the layout and construction of the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition. In 1909, Burnham and his assistant Edward H. Bennett (who designed the Michigan Avenue Bridge) prepared The Plan for Chicago, which is considered the nation's first example of a document. Burnham also worked on other city plans, for Cleveland, , Washington, D.C., , and other cities. Burnham’s most famous quote continues to inspire: "Make no little plans; they have no magic to stir men's blood and probably themselves not be realized. Make big plans; aim high in hope and work, remembering that a noble, logical diagram once recorded will not die."

Jacob August Riis 1849-1914

Jacob August Riis used photography and writing to reveal the terrible conditions of the urban poor in the US. He was the author of two books that looked at life in the slums of New York: How the Other Half Lives (1890) and Children of the Poor (1892). His books led to the first federal investigation of conditions and to changes in New York's housing laws that became national models. Riis was one of the leading housing reformers in the history of American city planning. Source: CPC Study Manual for the 2004 AICP Examination.

Ebenezer Howard 1850-1928 Howard came to America from England at the age of 21. He settled in Nebraska, and soon discovered that he was not meant to be a farmer. He moved to Chicago and worked as a reporter for the courts and newspapers. By 1876, he was back in England, where he found a job with a firm producing the official Parliamentary reports, and he spent the rest of his life in this occupation. Howard read widely and thought deeply about social issues, and one result was his book To-Morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform (1898), reprinted in 1902 as Garden Cities of To-Morrow. This book called for the creation of new suburban towns of limited size, planned in advance, and surrounded by a permanent belt of agricultural land. Many suburbs were modeled after Howard's "Garden Cities." He believed they were the perfect blend of city and nature. His ideas attracted enough attention and financial backing to begin Letchworh, a garden city in suburban London. A second garden city, Welwyn, was started after World War I. Their success led the British government to develop New Towns after World War II. This movement produced more than 30 communities, most significantly Milton Keynes. Howard's ideas inspired other planners such as Frederick Law Olmsted II and Clarence Perry.

Patrick Geddes 1854-1932

Patrick Geddes has been described as one of the founders of modern town and . His ideas have influenced planning practice, regional , and environmental management. Geddes, a Scot, was the son of a regular soldier. He had none of the privileges of wealth or position, yet by the age of 24 he was a biologist of great promise, his research papers already published by the British Royal Society. The British Association for the Advancement of Science sent him on a research mission to Mexico, where he contracted an illness that caused temporary blindness. Even after his recovery, he was unable to continue his research, which caused eyestrain when using a microscope. Deprived of his first outlet for study, Geddes turned to social analysis and applied his scientific methodology to the processes of economic, social and environmental change. In 1888, he took up a part-time post as Professor of Botany at University College, , and held this position until 1918. During this period, when he was based primarily in , he became interested in urban and regional planning and issues.

Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. 1870-1957

Arguably the intellectual leader of the American city planning movement in the early twentieth century, Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. was a worthy son of a distinguished father. While still an adolescent, "Rick" Olmsted worked and studied under his father before entering Harvard. After graduation in 1894, he entered his father's firm and a year later, as the elder Olmsted's health deteriorated, he and his half- brother took it over under the name Olmsted Brothers. His active involvement in began in 1901 with his appointment as one of four members of the Senate Park Commission with Daniel Burnham, Charles McKim, and August St. Gaudens. He maintained a special interest in Washington, serving on theFine Commission from its founding in 1910 to 1918. During the First World War, he was manager for town planning in the U.S. Housing Corporation. This body planned and built near war industries a large number of housing projects, some of them approaching new towns in size. From 1926, when it was established, to 1932 he was a member of the National Capital Park and Planning Commission. Olmsted was one of the moving figures in establishing the National Planning Conference and was its president from 1910 to 1919. When the professional members of this group and others formed the American City Planning Institute in 1917, they elected Olmsted the first president. In the 1920s, he was also a member of the Advisory Committee on City Planning and Zoning, established by Commerce Secretary Herbert Hoover. Olmsted helped design the innovative Forest Hills Gardens project in , as well as the industrial town of Torrance, California. He also prepared plans for existing cities: , Utica, Boulder, New Haven (with ), and (with Bion J. Arnold and John R. Freeman), Rochester (with Arnold W. Brunner and Bion J. Arnold); and Newport.

Clarence Arthur Perry 1872-1944

An originator and popularizer of the "Neighborhood Unit Concept," Clarence Perry codified Raymond Unwin's designs of neighborhood. (Unwin thought of the street, the district, and the town as larger wholes.) While living in the garden suburb of Forest Hills Gardens, New York, he worked on his scheme for the "neighborhood unit" - a self-contained residential area that would be bounded by major streets, with shops at the intersections and a school in the middle. The concept for the self-contained neighborhood unit was made public with the publication of Housing for the Mechanic Age (1939). Perry also was the author of the "Regional Survey of New York and its Environs" (1929). Source: CPC Study Manual for the 2004 AICP Examination.

Alfred Bettman 1873-1945

Alfred Bettman is generally credited with saving zoning from constitutional defeat in Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty Co., 272 U.S. 365 (1926). A Harvard graduate and corporate lawyer from , Bettman was appalled by the municipal corruption he saw around him and decided that city planning was the key to reform. In 1915, he drafted a bill in Ohio that authorized cities to create citizen- dominated planning commissions. The law specified that once the commission adopted the plan, it could not be violated by the city council. This was the first such planning legislation in the country and set the stage for local community planning in America. Bettman was asked to serve on Herbert Hoover's Blue Ribbon Committee to draft the Standard City Planning and Zoning Enabling Acts in 1924 and 1928. He also drafted the Tennessee Zoning and Planning Enabling Statutes (1935). He served as the first president of the American Society of Planning Officials (1934-1938), one of APA's predecessor organizations.

Clarence Stein 1882-1975

Clarence Stein studied architecture at and the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. Stein worked in the office of Bert ram Grosvenor Goodhue, where he assisted in the planning of the San Diego World's Fair (1915). Along with and Henry Wright, Stein was a founding member of the Regional Planning Association of America, a group instrumental in importing Ebenezer Howard's garden city idea from England to the . Stein and Wright collaborated on the design of Radburn, (1928-32), a garden suburb noted for its superblock layout. Stein wrote Toward New Towns for America (1951).

Le Corbusier 1887-1965

Le Corbusier was without doubt the most influential, most admired, and most maligned architect of the twentieth century. Through his writing and his buildings, he is the main player in the Modernist story, his visions of homes and cities as innovative as they are influential. Many of his ideas on urban living became the blueprint for post-war reconstruction, and the many failures of his would-be imitators led to Le Corbusier being blamed for the problems of western cities in the 1960s and 1970s. In the 1920s and 1930s, Le Corbusier 's most significant work was in urban planning. In such published plans as La Ville Contemporaine (1922), the Plan Voisin de Paris (1925), and the several Villes Radieuses (1930- 36). He advanced ideas dramatically different from the comfortable, low-rise communities proposed by earlier garden city planners. During this 20-year span, he also built many and several small apartment complexes and office buildings.

Robert Moses 1888-1981

Moses was an extremely influential official in 20th century New York City. As the shaper of a modern city, his only peer is Haussmann. Although he never held elective office, Moses was the most powerful person in New York City government from the 1930s to the 1950s. Moses literally changed shorelines, built roadways in the sky, and turned vibrant neighborhoods into slums. Moses displaced hundreds of thousands of people, and contributed to the ruin of the South Bronx and the decline of public transit. However, in a way, Moses’ projects were necessary. His mistakes were in believing that "cities are for traffic," and "if the ends don't justify the means, what does?" Despite his racism and evident disdain for less wealthy citizens, Moses did many jobs effectively. The development of Jones Beach as a public park reflects these contradictions. Jones Beach was preserved as a very valuable public resource and it was made more accessible to many via expressways. But the purposeful construction of bridges carrying cross streets over the expressways too low for the passage of city busses on the expressways restricted both race and class accessibility. Moses’ replacement of Tammany Hall corruption with civic productivity and efficiency restored many people’s trust in government. Shortly after President Franklin Roosevelt 's inauguration, the federal government had millions of dollars to spend on putting people to work, but states and cities had few projects ready. New York City was an exception. At one point, one­ quarter of federal construction dollars were being spent in New York and Moses had 80,000 people working under him.

Lewis Mumford 1895-1988

Lewis Mumfo rd 's long life was marked by work in urban planning, history, and political and social commentary. He viewed architectural congestion as dehumanizing and he was instrumental in founding the Regional Planning Association of America in 1923. His series of writings tracing the history of cities over the last 1,000 years was very successful and included The Culture of Cities (1938), The Condition of Man (1944), and The Conduct of Life (1951). Mumford continued his prodigious output well into his later years, producing The Pentagon of Power in 1971. Mumford received the National Medal of Arts in 1986.

Catherine Bauer 1905-1964

Catherine Bauer was a leading member of a group of idealists who called themselves "housers" because of their commitment to improving housing for low-income families. In her lifetime, she made a substantial contribution to changing the concept of social housing in the United States and inspired a generation of urban activists to integrate into the emerging welfare state of the mid-twentieth century. H. Peter Oberlander and Eva Newbrun trace her fascinating life and career in their book Houser (2000). In the late 1920s, Bauer spent time in Paris, where she befriended Fernan Leger, Man Ray, and Sylvia Beach. Back in New York, she collaborated with Lewis Mumfo rd and she became involved with the architects of change in post-WWI , among them Ernst May, Andre Lurcat, and Walter Gropius. Convinced that good social housing could produce good social architecture, and moved by the visible ravages of the Depression, she became a passionate leader in the fight for housing for the poor. She co- authored the Housing Act of 1937 and advised five presidents on urban strategies. Her book, Modern Housing, published in 1934, is regarded as a classic.

William Levitt 1907-1994

William J. Levitt did not invent suburbia, but by producing the two-bedroom home fast, cheaply, and in enormous numbers, he changed the face and the dynamic of life in America. The grandson of a rabbi who emigrated from Russia to Brooklyn, Levitt put affordable roofs over the families of thousands of GI’s returning from World War II. On a stretch of Long Island potato fields, aptly named Levittown, the dreams of his war-weary countrymen began to take shape. Slapping together 30 or more houses a day, Levitt sold them at first for less than $7,000 apiece. The ultimate in modernity, his homes boasted refrigerators and washers and were even "television equipped,” as Levitt ads crowed.

Jane Jacobs 1916-2006

Jane Jacobs was born in Scranton, Pennsylvania. Her father was a physician and her mother taught school and worked as a nurse. After high school and a year spent as a reporter on the Scranton Tribune, Jacobs went to New York, where she found a succession of jobs as a stenographer and wrote freelance articles about the city's many working class districts, which fascinated her. In 1952, after a number of writing and editing jobs ranging in subject matter from metallurgy to U.S. for foreign readers, she became an associate editor of Architectural Forum. She became increasingly skeptical of conventional planning beliefs as she concluded that the city rebuilding projects she wrote about did not seem safe, interesting, lively, or economically beneficial for cities once the projects were operational. She gave a speech to that effect at Harvard in 1956, and this led to an article in Fortune magazine entitled "Downtown Is for People.” This in turn led her to write The Death and Life of Great American Cities. The book was published in 1961 and contributed to the debate about urban renewal and the future of cities. described The Death and Life of Great American Cities, 30 years after its publication, as "perhaps the most influential single work in the history of town planning.... [It] can also be seen in a much larger context. It is first of all a work of literature; the descriptions of street life as a kind of ballet, and the bitingly satiric account of traditional planning theory can still be read for pleasure even by those who long ago absorbed and appropriated the book's argument s."

William Whyte 1917-1999

Whyte was born in West Chester, Pennsylvania. He joined the staff of Fortune magazine in 1946, after graduating from Princeton University and serving in the Marine Corps. His book The Organization Man (1956), based on his articles about corporate culture and the suburban middle class, sold more than two million copies. Whyte then turned to the topics of sprawl and urban revitalization, and began a distinguished career as a sage of sane development and an advocate of cities. In 1969, Whyte assisted the New York City Planning Commission in drafting a comprehensive plan for the city. Having been critically involved in the planning of new city spaces, he subsequently analyzed how these spaces were actually working. He developed an original methodology. He applied for and received a grant to study street life in New York and other cities, in what became known as the Street Life Project. With a group of research assistants, and with camera and notebook in hand, he conducted pioneering studies on pedestrian behavior and city dynamics. Whyte walked the city streets for more than 16 years. As unobtrusively as possible, he watched people and used time-lapse photography to chart the pathways traveled by pedestrians. What emerged from his new form of empirical analysis is an extremely human view of what is staggeringly obvious about people's behavior in public spaces (such as taking the shortest distance between two points), but seemingly invisible to the unobservant. The core of Whyte 's work was predicated on the years he spent directly observing human , and he authored several texts about urban planning and design and hum an behavior in various urban spaces. He served as an advisor to Laurance S. Rockefeller on environmental issues and as a key planning consultant for major U.S. cities, traveling and lecturing widely. He was a Distinguished Professor at Hunter College of the City University of New York and a trustee of the American Conservation Association. Whyte was active in the Municipal Society, the Hudson River Valley Commission, and President Lyndon B. Johnson's Task Force on Natural Beauty.

Kevin Lynch 1918-1984

Kevin Lynch was a significant contributor to twentieth-century city planning and city design. He was educated at Yale University, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and the Institute of Technology. He became a professor at MIT in 1963, and eventually earned professor emeritus status. Aside from research and teaching, Lynch was consultant to the state of Rhode Island, New England Medical Center, Boston Authority, Puerto Rico Industrial Development Corp., M.I.T. Planning Office, and other organizations. Lynch produced seven books during his outstanding career. In his most famous work, Image of the City (1960), he described a five-year study that used Boston, Los Angeles, and Jersey City as case studies. His research revealed which elements in the built structure of a city are important in the popular of the city.

Ian McHarg 1920-2001

Ian McHarg was one of the true pioneers of the environmental movement. Born near the then gritty, industrial city of Glasgow, he gained an early appreciation of the need for cities to better accommodate the qualities of the natural environment that until then had largely been shunned. After serving in World War II, McHarg emigrated to the United States to attend , where he earned degrees in and city planning. He was responsible for the creation of the Department of Landscape Architecture at the University of Pennsylvania. In 1960, he hosted "The House We Live In" on the CBS television network - an early effort to publicize discussion about humans and their environment. The show, along with a later PBS documentary, helped make McHarg a household name. He published his landmark book, Design With Nature, in 1969. In it, McHarg spelled out the need for urban planners to consider an environmentally conscious approach to land use, and provided a new method for evaluating and implementing doing so. Today, Design With Nature is considered one of the landmark publications in the environmental movement, helping make McHarg arguably the most important landscape architect since Frederick Law Olmsted.

Paul Davidoff 1930-1984

Davidoff founded the Suburban Act ion Institute in 1969. The institute challenged exclusionary zoning in the courts, winning a notable success in the Mt. Laurel case. This led to the requirement by the state supreme court of New Jersey that communities must supply their "regional fair share" of low-income housing. Davidoff developed the concept of "advocacy planner." He contended that a planner serves a given client group's interests and should do so openly; a planner could develop plans for a particular project and speak for the interests of the group or individuals affected by these plans. Source: CPC Study Manual for the 2004 AICP Examination.

National Planning Pioneers, 1986-2015

Charles Abrams

As an international housing consultant, Charles Abrams had a major impact on housing policy after World War II. He was a longtime adviser to the United Nations and, in the 1950s, he chaired the New York State Commission Against Discrimination. In the mid-l 960s, he headed a task force that recommended consolidating New York's housing activities, a proposal that led to the creation of the New York City Housing and Development Administration. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1993.

Frederick J. Adams

Frederick J. Adams (1901-1980) founded the city and regional planning department at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1932. Adams insisted that the planning program should be interdisciplinary while also making sure that the field maintained its own identity. His students helped to create university planning programs at the University of California at Berkeley, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, Ohio State University, and Pennsylvania State University at State College. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1996.

Thomas Adams

British-born planner supervised work on the 1929 Regional Plan of New York and Environs. Adams was a prolific of low-density residential developments that were commonly referred to as "garden suburbs." Upon returning to Great Britain, he served as one of the early presidents of the Institute of Landscape Architects, which became the . Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1989.

Sherry Arnstein

Sherry Arnstein became a household name among planners in 1969 when she published her ground-breaking article "A Ladder of Citizen Participation" about the hierarchy of public involvement. The article has been reprinted 80 times and translated into Chinese, Japanese, Dutch, French, and German. Arnstein's work influenced how planners and communities go about engaging the public in the planning and decision-making process; provided the theoretical framework for ; and organized planners' understanding of meaning public participation as a way for citizens to be equal partners in shaping programs and plans. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 2005.

Edmund N. Bacon

Edmund N. Bacon, Philadelphia's planning director from 1949 to 1970, is honored for bringing national attention to the rebuilding of the American city in the post-World War II era. In Design of Cities, Bacon explains his philosophy of design, derived in part from his study of great urban design achievements of the past, and shows how it applies to the revived design of mid-twentieth century Central City Philadelphia. Designated a national Planning Pioneer in 1993.

Frederick H. Bair, Jr.

Much of today's planning theory and practice is based on the writings and experience of Frederick H. Bair Jr., author of The Text of a Model Zoning Ordinance. He also refined the land­ use intensity system, which he first adapted to Norfolk, Virginia. Besides writing three editions of Model Zoning, he wrote commentaries for Land Use Law & Zoning Digest, was a founder of the Florida Planning and Zoning Association (1950), and practiced professionally, first with the Florida Development Commission and then as an independent consultant at his own firm, Bair & Abernathy. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 2006.

Harland Bartholomew

Harland Bartholomew was the first planner ever to be put on staff by an American city. It was Newark, New Jersey, that hired Bartholomew to work on a comprehensive plan in 1914, a year after he started his planning career. Soon after, he started his own firm, Harland Bartholomew & Associates, in St. Louis, where he initiated the idea of placing a resident planner in a community to implement the plan. His 1932 book, Urban Land Uses, is considered a classic in quantitative analysis. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1988.

Edward Murray Bassett

Edward Murray Bassett (1863-1948) chaired the commission that produced New York City's landmark 1916 zoning code plan. Bassett had a long-time career as a lawyer, one-term Congressman, and participant in a wide array of civic boards and commissions, including the National Conference on City Planning, a forerunner of the American Planning Association. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1992.

Catherine Bauer

Today's debates about public housing have a familiar ring to those who know the work of Catherine Bauer, who described many of the problems in her 1934 book, Modem Housing. Bauer's views had a strong influence on the housing legislation of the New Deal, but in the 1950s she became an equally articulate advocate for long-range planning to guide metropolitan growth. In a 1951 essay titled "Social Questions in Housing and Community Planning," she laid the foundation for what would later be called social planning. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1988.

Edward H. Bennett

Born in Wiltshire, England, Edward H. Bennett worked with architect Daniel H. Burnham on the 1909 Plan of Chicago. In the plan, Burnham and Bennett created a document that gave essence to the City Beautiful planning philosophy. He also served on the Chicago Plan Commission into the 1930’s. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1989.

Alfred Bettman

Alfred Bettman was a Cincinnati lawyer who drafted the bill, passed by the Ohio legislature in 1915, that enabled the creation of local planning commissions in the state. He played a key role in establishing the constitutionality of zoning in the 1926 U.S. Supreme Court decision involving the City of Euclid, Ohio, and Ambler Realty Company. He died in 1945. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1991.

Walter H. Blucher

Walter H. Blucher (1901-1989) was the planning director of Detroit from 1925 to 1935 and the executive director of the American Society of Planning Officials (one of the predecessor organizations of the American Planning Association) from 1934 to 1953. Under his direction, ASPO organized training sessions and a job placement service, and created the Planning Advisory Service. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1996.

Ernest J. Bohn

Ernest J. Bohn was a Cleveland city council member who, in the mid-193Os, founded what is now the National Association of Housing and Redevelopment Officials, and created the nation's first metropolitan housing authority. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1991.

Daniel H. Burnham

Architect Daniel H. Burnham (1846-1912) is renowned for the influential 1909 "Plan for Chicago," the first metropolitan-regional plan in the country. His architectural firm, Burnham and Root, planned the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition - also influential because its classical style architecture inspired legions of city halls, public libraries, and banks throughout the country. One of Burnham's last projects was the People's Gas Building in Chicago, now home to the American Planning Association. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1989.

Charles H. Cheney

California planner Charles H. Cheney (1884-1943) was a founding member of the American City Planning Institute in 1917. He is credited with helping win passage of the state's first planning law in 1915 and with developing such regulatory instruments as protective covenants, architectural controls, and homeowner associations. Cheney organized the first California Conference on City Planning, held in Monterey, California, in October 1914. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1993.

F. Stuart Chapin, Jr.

F. Stuart Chapin, Jr., is professor emeritus at the University of North Carolina, where he taught from 1949 to 1978. He is known for applying methods to the study of urban growth, systematizing the study of activity patterns, and emphasizing citizen participation in the planning process. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1993.

Paul Davidoff

Paul Davidoff (1930-1984) founded the Suburban Action Institute in 1969. The institute repeatedly challenged exclusionary zoning in the courts, winning a notable success in the case involving the town of Mt. Laurel, New Jersey. That decision led to the New Jersey State Supreme Court requirement that communities must supply their "regional fair share" of low-income housing. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1996.

Frederic Adrian Delano

Frederic Adrian Delano was president of the American Planning and Civic Association from 1925 to 1937, promoting city, state, and national planning. In 1927, he became chairman of the Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs, the most extensive data-based regional planning effort undertaken in the country at that time. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1989.

Earle S. Draper

A transplanted New Englander, Earle S. Draper began his career in the South, working as a landscape architect for renowned planning consultant John Nolen. Striking out on his own in 1917, Draper became known for his plans for textile mill towns, including Johnson & Johnson's model community of Chicopee, . In 1933, Draper became the first director of land planning and housing for the Tennessee Valley Authority. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1987.

Simon Eisner

Simon Eisner is a Californian who has been active in planning since the late 1930s. He co­authored the 1943 Los Angeles Plan for Freeways; introduced comprehensive planning to numerous local governments as a consultant; founded the planning curriculum at the University of Southern California; and co-authored The Urban Pattern (fifth edition, 1986) with Arthur Gallion. Designed a National Planning Pioneer in 1991.

Carl Feiss

Carl Feiss served as director of Columbia University's housing and planning division during the 193Os. In 1938, he earned one of the first master's degrees in city planning from Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 1944, he left New York City to become the planning director of , , and to establish the urban planning department at the University of Denver. Later, as a consultant, Feiss campaigned for passage of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, which authorized the establishment of a national registry of historic places. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1998.

George Burdett Ford

In 1913, George Burdett Ford (1879-1930) joined with engineer Ernest Pl. Goodrich to create the Technical Advisory Corporation of New York, the nation's first private planning consulting firm. Ford went on to produce the New York City code of 1916, the first comprehensive zoning ordinance in the country. During the 1920s, he was an urban planning and zoning consultant to more than 90 U.S. cities and towns. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1997.

Paul and Percival Goodman

Two brothers, Paul Goodman (1911-72) and architect Percival Goodman (1904-89) contributed significantly to planning theory and literature. Their 1947 book, Communitas, was a classic study of urban design and the II art

of building cities. “The Double E”, published in 1977 by Percival Goodman, explores the relationship between and economics. Designated National Planning Pioneers in 1994.

Aelred J. Gray

Aelred J. Gray, who started as a planner for the Tennessee Valley Authority in 1935, directed the community planning assistance program and later developed the floodway regulation concepts that led to the National Flood Insurance Program. He led the effort to establish a graduate planning school at the University of Tennessee. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1991.

Frederick Gutheim

Frederick Gutheim (1908- 1993) was the co-author of the 1976 master plan for the U.S. Capitol and creator of the historic preservation program at George Washington University in Washington, D.C. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1991.

Irving Hand, FAICP

Professor Irving Hand, FAICP, has had a significant national impact on the planning profession, especially on developing a regional planning approach. He provided oversight for the creation of Pennsylvania's first Appalachian . Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 2014.

S. Herbert Hare

Sid J. Hare (1860-1938) and S. Herbert Hare (1888-1960) were farther-and-son partners in the Kansas City landscape architecture and planning firm of Hare and Hare. Among the firm's projects during a half-century of practice were various subdivisions in the Country Club Plaza District in Kansas City and the new town of Longview, Washington, designed for the Long-Bell Lumber Company in 1922. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1992.

Elizabeth Herlihy

Elizabeth Herlihy (1880-1953) was the first woman member of the American City Planning Institute. She was a veteran staffer at the Boston City Planning Commission and chairperson of the Massachusetts Planning Board. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1990.

John Tasker Howard

John Tasker Howard (1911-1995) was planning director of Cleveland, Ohio, and a professor of city and regional planning at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, his alma mater. Howard served as president of the Ohio Planning Conference, on the board of the American Society of Planning Officials, and as president of the American Institute of Planners. In 1960, he became the first president of the Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning, helping to guide academic planning programs during a period of rapid expansion. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1998.

Henry Vincent Hubbard

Henry Vincent Hubbard was the first chairman of the first university planning program at Harvard University. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1989.

Theodora Kimball Hubbard

Theodora Kimball Hubbard was the author of the first comprehensive bibliography on planning. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1989.

Harlean James

Harlean James (1877-1969) was a longtime secretary of the American Civic and Planning Association. In 1952 she was awarded the Pugsley Gold Medal "for constantly and effectively espousing the cause of parks at all s of government, but particularly at the state and national levels through articles, editorials. speeches, correspondence and testimony given before Congressional Committees." Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1990.

T.J. Kent, Jr.

T.J. Kent, Jr., was the first chairman of the first graduate planning program on the West Coast at the University of California at Berkeley. He also authored The Urban General Plan (1964). Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1990.

George Edward Kessler

George Edward Kessler (1862 -1923) designed the Kansas City, Missouri Park System and site of the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair. He was a founding member of the American Institute of Planners and a member of the National Council of Fine Arts. During his career, he produced plans for dozens of communities, park and boulevard systems, schools, and private estates. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1990.

Pierre Charles L'Enfant

Known for his 1792 plan of Washington, D.C., whose radial streets and grand vistas influenced generations of American planners, Parisian born Pierre Charles L'Enfant was made a major in the Continental Army in 1778 and was later charged with creating a plan for locating public buildings in the new capital city on the Potomac River. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1992.

Kevin Lynch

Kevin Lynch was a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, his alma mater. His most famous work, Image of the City, was published in 1960 and the result of a five-year study on how people perceive and organize spatial information as they navigate through cities. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1990.

Benton MacKaye

Conservationist and forester Benton MacKaye is most well known for having conceptualized and later having helped create the Appalachian Trail. He studied at Harvard University and went on to publish The New Exploration in 1928. The book was the first to apply the principles of Patrick Geddes of , the father of regional planning, to regional development in the United States. MacKaye's efforts in the l920s created the foundations for the Tennessee Valley Authority and the Rural Resettlement Program. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1999.

Ian Lennox McHarg

Ian Lennox McHarg, a Scottish-born landscape architect, changed the face of the planning profession through his ecological principles and approach to plans and design. In 1954, McHarg joined the faculty of the University of Pennsylvania where he pushed for the creation of the Department of Landscape Architecture and Regional Planning. He is renowned for his advocacy of ecological planning and for the layered mapping techniques that created the foundation for today's geographic information systems. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1997.

Albert Mayer

Albert Mayer made outstanding contributions to new town development in the United States during the 1930s and had exceptional foresight, demonstrated by his prediction in 1938 that uncontrolled suburban growth would strain transportation and erode the countryside. In 1946, he initiated direct citizen participation in planning, decades ahead of the rest of the country. Mayer used his 1967 book, The Urgent Future, to expose the abuse of statistics in planning to justify the continuation of what has always been. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 2000.

Harold V. Miller

Harold V. Miller was a longtime head of the Tennessee State Planning Commission. He also coauthored section 701 of the U.S. Housing Act of 1954, a program that helped to stimulate the establishment of planning schools and departments that were needed to keep up with the demand for professionally trained planners to undertake local and regional planning work that had been neglected since the Great Depression. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1990.

Corwin R. Mocine

Corwin R. Mocine, whose firm developed the Petaluma Plan of 1971, had a lifetime commitment to planning. In 1940, he helped found Telesis, an organization of San Francisco Bay Area architects and planners that is often credited with laying the foundations of post-World War II planning efforts in the region. He was active in the American Planning Association's two predecessor organizations, the American Society of Planning Officials and the American Institute of Planners. He served as AIP president in 1960-61. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1997.

Arthur Ernest Morgan

Arthur Ernest Morgan, from Ohio, was named head of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) in 1933. He created the foundations for the authority's regional programs and for the new town of Norris, Tennessee. Among his many books is The Making of the TVA (1974). Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1991.

Robert Moses

Robert Moses (1888-1981), left his mark on New York City, Long Island, and Westchester County during the mid-20th century. Although never elected to public office, he was considered one of the most powerful persons in New York State government from the 1930s to the 1950s. He was primary administrator in the design and construction of more than 400 miles of parkways, the Triborough Bridge, and Jones Beach, the world's largest public bathing beach. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1994.

Lewis Mumford

Lewis Mumford (1895-1990). Author and critic. Promoted the idea of planning through such books as The Culture of Cities (1938) and The City in History (1961), the latter receiving the National Book Award. He believed that urban planning should accentuate a natural relationship between people and their living spaces. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1989.

Jesse Clyde Nichols

Jesse Clyde Nichols, better known as J.C. Nichols was a major residential and commercial real estate developer in Kansas City, Missouri, during the early 20th century. His most famous projects were the Country Club Plaza and the Country Club District. Designed in 1922, the Country Club Plaza became the nation's and the world's first automobile-oriented shopping center. The Country Club District is the largest contiguous master- in the country. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1989.

John Nolen, Sr.

John Nolen, Sr. was a prolific planner, known for his model new towns of Kingsport, Tennessee (1915), Venice, Florida (1926), and Mariemont. Ohio (1926). In 1907, he produced a city beautiful plan for the town of Roanoke, Virginia. His "General Plan for the Remodeling of Roanoke," initiated by the Women's Civic Betterment Club, provided a blueprint for developing the town's street grid and parkway system. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1997.

Charles Dyer Norton

The Regional Plan Association, led by Charles Dyer Norton, initiated its Regional Plan for New York and Its Environs. Published in 1929, the plan was the world's first comprehensive, long­ range metropolitan plan for the New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut tri-state area. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1989.

Charles McKim Norton

Charles Norton was director of the Regional Plan Association of New York from 1945 until his retirement in 1969. Guiding completion of the organization's second regional plan. He led the drive to create the Gateway National Area of New York and New Jersey, the nation's first urban national park. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1991.

Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr.

Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr., (1822-1903), a landscape architect, designed many well-known urban parks, most notably Central Park in New York City. He produced plans for entire systems of parks and parkways that connected cities to green spaces, such as the park system he designed for Buffalo, New York. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1990.

Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr.

Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., (1870-1957) is best known for continuing the work of his father, Frederick Olmsted, Sr., and his lifetime commitment to wildlife conservation and national parks, including projects at the Everglades and Yosemite National Park. He also designed Forest Hill Gardens in Queens, New York and Palos Verdes Estates in Los Angeles County, California. He served as the first president of the American City Planning Institute. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1990.

Lawrence Orton

Lawrence Orton was the New York Regional Plan Association's secretary in the mid-1930s and a longtime member of the New York City Planning Commission. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1989.

The Outdoor Circle

The Outdoor Circle is a nonprofit community group that has been active in Hawaiian affairs since 1912. In the 1920s, the group succeeded in eliminating billboards in that state - an accomplishment that was bolstered in the 1960s by a strong state sign control law. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1992.

Harvey S. Perloff

Harvey S. Perloff (1915-1983) was dean of the School of Architecture and Urban Planning at the University of California at Los Angeles from 1968 until his death. In 1982, he received the first distinguished planning educator award of the Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning. In the 1950s, Perloff headed the planning school at the University of Chicago. He is known for a series of books, including Planning the Post Industrial City, published by the American Planning Association in 1980. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1992.

Clarence Arthur Perry

Clarence Arthur Perry is the originator of the "neighborhood unit" concept, which he developed in the 1920s as associate director of the Department of Recreation of the Russell Sage Foundation. He based his principles on Forest Hills Gardens in Queens, New York, where he lived. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1991.

Planners for Equal Opportunity (1964-74) In May 1964, a group of community activists and city planners in New York, concerned about the impact of federal housing and highway programs on the poor and people of color, decided to establish a national organization committed to economic and social . Three months later, on August 17, Planners for Equal Opportunity (PEO) was created during a meeting of the American Institute of Planners in Newark, New Jersey. A number of PEO's 600 members are now involved with its successor, Planners Network. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 2001.

Gifford Pinchot

Gifford Pinchot, America's first professionally trained forester, was one of the individuals credited with helping to initiate the conservation movement in the United States. In 1896, President Grover Cleveland appointed him to the National Forest Commission. Under President Teddy Roosevelt, Pinchot served as Chief Forester of the U.S. Forest Service, during which time the number nationally designated forests increased from 32 to 149, for a total of 193 million acres. Pinchot implemented the practice of selective rather than unrestrained harvesting of America's forests. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 2003.

John Reps

Professor Emeritus of city and regional planning at Cornell University, John Reps chaired the department from 1952 to 1964. Reps is widely known for his books on American urban history and his research into early maps and city views. His 1979 opus, Cities of the American West, won the Beveridge Award for best book on American History. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1996.

Jacob August Riis

Jacob August Riis (1849-1914) used photography and writing to reveal the terrible conditions of the urban poor in the U.S. Born in Denmark, Riis came to the United States in 1870. How the Other Half Lives (1890) and The Children of the Poor (1892) led to the first federal investigation of slum conditions and to changes in New York's housing laws that later became national models. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1992.

Charles Mulford Robinson

Charles Mulford Robinson was a chief promoter of the City Beautiful movement and was well­ known as a pioneering urban planning theorist. At the University of Illinois at Urbana­ Champaign, Robinson became the first professor of city planning (civic design) in the country. He wrote the first guide to city planning in 1901, titled The Improvement of Towns and Cities. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1990.

James W. Rouse

James W. Rouse chaired the committee that recommended the urban renewal program included in the federal Housing Act of 1954. He is known equally as a major shopping center developer, builder of the new town of Columbia, Maryland, and creator of festival marketplaces. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1994.

Charlotte Rumbold

Charlotte Rumbold helped found the Ohio Planning Conference in 1919, the first statewide citizen-based planning group. As a lobbyist for the group in the 1920s and 1930s, she won legislative support for planning enabling laws, zoning and subdivision regulations, and public housing. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1991.

Mel Scott

Mel Scott (1906-88) was author of American City Planning Since 1890, published in 1969 and now a planning history classic. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1990.

Ladislas Segoe

Ladislas Segoe, a native of Hungary who came to the U.S. in 1922, had a distinguished career as a private planning consultant from 1928 to 1968. Segoe was an unwavering advocate of independent, professional planning and is most well-known as editor of Local Planning Administration, also known as the "green book." First published in 1941, and successively thereafter, they were the most influential planning books in the country through the 1990s. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1991.

Ronald Shiffman, FAICP

Ronald Shiffman, FAICP, has provided program and organizational development assistance to community- based groups in low- and moderate-income neighborhoods. His development of the model for community development corporations is a direct result of this groundbreaking work in the 1960s to rebuild Bedford- Stuyvesant through economic development programs. He also co­ founded one of the country's first university design centers - Pratt Institute Center for Community and Environmental Development- and pushed for New York City's first inclusionary zoning policy as a commissioner on the NYC Planning Commission. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 2013.

Donald Shoup, FAICP

Donald Shoup's work has redefined the relationship between transportation and land use. He has extensively studied parking as a key link between transportation and land use, with important consequences for cities, the economy, and the environment. Shoup's book, The High Cost of Free Parking and his other innovative ideas have led to cities across the country reevaluating their parking policies with the new realization that parking has impacts not only in the here and now, but in the greater community and environment for years to come.

Flavel Shurtleff

Flavel Shurtleff (1879-1974) was cofounder, with Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., in 1917, of the American City Planning Institute (ACPI). Shurtleff served ACPI as secretary from 1918 to 1934 and secretary of the National Conference on City Planning from 1910 to 1935. He is the author of Carrying Out the City Plan. Published in 1914, it was the first widely used American city planning text. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1992.

Mary Kingsbury Simkhovitch

Mary Kingsbury Simkhovitch (1867-1951) organized one of the nation's first settlement houses, Greenwich House in New York (described in her 1938 autobiography, Neighborhood: My Story of Greenwich House). She chaired the Committee on Congestion of Population, the group that organized the First National Conference on City Planning in 1909. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1992.

Robert E. Simon, Jr.

In 1962, Robert E. Simon, Jr. purchased 6,700 acres in northern Virginia where people of all ages, races, and incomes could live in the same community for all their years. To fulfill this vision, Simon persuaded the Fairfax County Board of supervisors to pass the nation's first Planned Unit Community zone. The town of Reston offered a warm and welcoming community to people seeking social openness, citizen participation, and personal freedom. Reston breathed new life in to the American new towns movement in the early 1960s. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 2002.

William E. Spangle

William E. Spangle, in 1938, received the first degree in city planning awarded by the University of California at Berkeley. He was a founding member of Telesis, the group responsible for initiating regional comprehensive planning in the San Francisco Bay Area. His consulting firm, established in 1959, became widely known for its recommendations concerning geological hazards. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1992.

Clarence S. Stein

Clarence Stein studied architecture at Columbia University and the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. He worked in the office of Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue, where he assisted in the planning of the San Diego World's Fair (1915). Along with Lewis Mumford and Henry Wright, Stein was a founding member of the Regional Planning Association of America, a group instrumental in importing Ebenezer Howard's garden city idea from England to the United States. Stein and Wright collaborated on the design of Radburn, New Jersey (1928- 32), a garden suburb noted for its superblock layout. Stein wrote Toward New Towns for America (1951).

Telesis (1939-53)

Telesis was formed in 1939 with the goal of preserving and enhancing the unique environmental and cultural qualities of the San Francisco Bay region. In 1940, Telesis produced a popular exhibit on metropolitan planning at the San Francisco Museum of Modem Art. The exhibit led to the resurgence of master planning and regional planning efforts in the Bay area. Telesis members also played a major role in creating the planning program at the University of California at Berkeley in 1948. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 2001.

Rexford Tugwell

Rexford Tugwell (1891-1979) devised a plan to resettle the Depression-era poor in suburban new towns. Three towns were built: Greenbelt, Maryland; Greenhills, Ohio; and Greendale, Wisconsin. Later in his career, Tugwell served briefly as New York City planning director and as governor of Puerto Rico, where he drafted innovative laws that guided the island's postwar development. In 1946, he founded a planning program at the University of Chicago that influenced a generation of planning educators. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1995.

Lawrence Veiller

Recognized as the leading American proponent of housing standards, codes, and enforcement during the early decades of the 20th century, Lawrence Veiller was a housing reformer and a critic of the dumbbell flats built throughout New York City after the passage of the "old law" in 1879. He led the successful campaign for revision of house laws that resulted in the "new law" of 1901. He served as deputy commissioner of the New York City Tenement House Department, organized the National Housing Association, and served as its first director. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 2000.

Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown

The husband and wife team has had a profound influence on both the architecture and planning professions. Partners and owners of Venturi Scott Brown and Associates, the couple focused their work on how people interact with their environments and each other - taking that interaction into consideration in their designs and plans. Their landmark book, Learning from Las Vegas (1972), explored why so many people visited a city that was heavily criticized by architects and looked at everyday , , and ordinary buildings. It also reintroduced the idea of communication as a function of architecture, especially in cities. Designated National Planning Pioneers in 2014.

Francis Violich

Francis Violich, AICP, an educator and consultant, is widely recognized for his influence on urban planning in Latin America in 1944 and culminating with the book Urban Planning for Latin America: The Challenge of Metropolitan Growth in 1987. He retired from the city and regional planning faculty at the University of California at Berkeley in 1976. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1992.

Charles Henry Wacker

A businessman and philanthropist, Charles Henry Wacker (1856-1929) was appointed Chairman of the Chicago Plan Commission in 1909. From 1909 until 1926 as Commission Chairman, he advanced the Burnham Plan for improving Chicago through speeches and publicizing the plan through newspaper articles. In 1916, he published the Manual of the Plan of Chicago as a textbook for local students. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1989.

Lillian Wald

Beginning her career as an advocate for community improvements ministering to the health needs of the poor, Lillian Wald discovered that those needs could not be addressed without comprehensive attention to the problems of the community and the region in which the poor resided. She sought legislative and design solutions for child welfare, transportation, housing, playgrounds, and open space. She helped organize the First National Conference on City Planning in 1909 and, in 1929, helped initiate the "Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs." Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 2000.

David A. Wallace

David A. Wallace, AICP, (1918-2004) contributed significantly to the fields of planning and urban design as a professional, builder of communities, and teacher. As a founding partner of Wallace Roberts & Todd and a professor of city and regional planning at the University of Pennsylvania, he brought a specialized of the potential for urban redevelopment and revitalization strategies. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 2009.

Gordon Whitnall

The city and county of Los Angeles owe their planning commissions to Gordon Whitnall (1888- 1977). In 1920, he succeeded in a seven year campaign to establish a city planning commission and then became the city's first planning director. In 1922, Whitnall helped organize a regional planning conference in Los Angeles County. The same year, as a result of his efforts, the Los Angeles County Regional Planning Commission was established - the first county planning commission in the country. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1994.

Donald Wolbrink

Donald Wolbrink headed the Hawaii office of Harland Bartholomew & Associates from 1948 to 1964. During that time, the firm designed a comprehensive planning program that resulted in the 1961 passage of the nation's first statewide land-use regulatory system and comprehensive plan. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1994.

Edith Elmer Wood

Edith Elmer Wood (1871-1945) wrote the landmark Slums and Blighted Areas (1934), which documented for the first time the extent of the nation's housing problems. Wood was a founder of the National Housing Conference. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1991.

Henry Wright

Henry Wright (1878-1936) was an architect and advocate of the garden city movement. He worked with Clarence Stein in the 1920s on Sunnyside Gardens in Queens, New York and Radburn in Fairlawn, New Jersey. Sunnyside Gardens was one of the earliest developments in the country to embrace the "superblock" model in the United States. In the 1930s, he designed Chatham Village, an APA Great Neighborhood, in Pittsburgh. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1991.

Significant Events American Planning History 1565-1978 Prepared for AICP Exam Review

Lawrence C. Gerckens, FAICP Modified by Larry Keating, FAICP

Dates Location Significance People Notes

1565 St. Augustine , FL First European permanent settlement in continental U.S. 1682 Plan/Philadelphia First major in the U.S.: first William Penn contential U.S. Thomas Holme 1695 Plan/Annapolis, MD First radio-centric street plan in U.S. Francis Nicholson

1699 Williamsburg, VA Masterpiece of American colonial city Francis Nicholson planning 1733 Savannah, GA Ward park system: followed for over James Oglethorpe 120 years 1785 Northwest Ord. Established land sectioning system west of the Appalachians 1790- Plan/Washington, D.C. FirstS U. . Grand Plan Pierre Charles L'Enfant George Ellicott Benjamin Banneker

1800 Washington, D.C. First occupied

1807 Governor & Judges Extensive radial plan Woodward/Hull Plan for Detroit 1811 National Road begun First Federal Highway {U.S. Route (completed in 1840) 40} 1848 Plan/Salt Lake City "City of Zion" plan Brigham Young; Joseph Smith 1852- Reconstruction of Paris, Model for "City Beautiful " planning Napoleon Ill; 1870 Baron Von Haussmann 1856 Central Park, NYC First major municipal purchase of Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr. parkland 1857 Central Park First major English Garden in U.S. Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr.

1857 "Greensward" Plan Calvert Vaux

1867 New York City First major tenement house regulation 1868 Riverside, IL Model curved street "suburb" Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr. Calvert Vaux 1876 Munn v. Illinois U.S. Supreme Court : first time the Court upholds regulations for private enterprise

1879 New York City "Old Law" tenement house act

1880 Pullman, IL Model industrial town built George Pullman

1880 New York City Census shows NYC first American city with over one million people 1883- Minneapolis/St. Paul Regional park system plan Horace W. S. Cleveland 1887 Park Plan 1888 Looking Backwards Best selling book promotes city and natoinal planning 1889 New York City Poverty Gap Playground: first local Jacob Riis ("Small Park mini-park in a slum Movement") 1890 How the Other Half Books that focus on the problems of Jacob Riis Lives slums and on poverty in America 1892 Children of the Poor Jacob Riis

1892 U .S. study of slums First Federally funded study of city housing problems 1893 Chicago, IL Columbian Exposition: stimulates city Daniel Burnham, Frederick planning; foundations for City L. Olmsted Sr., Charles F. Beauitful Movement; some claim McKim, Augustus St. "birth" of Modern American City Gaudens Planning 1893 Kansas City, MO Metropolitan Park George Kessler

1894 Pullman Strike Plan Workers Protest and Riot Eugene Debs

1896 South Shore Dr. First attempt to "Haussmannize" Daniel Burnham Chicago , IL Chicago 1897 Boston, MA First American subway

1898 A Peaceful Path to Starts the Garden City Movement Ebenezer Howard Real Reform 1901 New York City "New Law" tenement house act

1902 McMillian Plan for First complete update of L'Enfant's Daniel Burnham Washington original plan Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. Charles McKim Augustus St. Gaudens 1903 Letchworth, England First "Garden City" Ebenezer Howard

1905 Manilla, Philippines First application of "City Beautiful " Daniel Burnham

1906 Plan of San Fransico First application of "City Beautiful" on Daniel Burnham the mainland Edward Bennett 1907 Pittsburgh, PA First comprehensive social science Shelby Harrison city survey 1907 Hampstead, Garden First neighborhood unit design in Raymond Unwin Suburb England suburb 1907 Hartford, CT First U.S. permanent local and offical planning board 1909 Plan of Chicago First plan of general scope in U.S. Daniel Burnham city>2M; Sometimes referred to as Edward Bennett first American regional plan Frederick A. Delano Chris H. Wacker Charles D. Norton 1909 Washington, D.C. First National Conference on City Benjamin Marsh Planning and the Problems of Henry Morgenthau Congestion 1909 Wisconsin First state enabling act for planning

1909 Los Angeles, CA First use of zoning on extensive area of raw land to shape future development 1909 "The Principles of City First American course in city planning James Sturgis Pray Planning" Harvard U. 1910 Washington, D.C. National Commission of Fine Arts William H. Taft created 1910- Forest Hills Gardens, First American application of the Frederick L. Olmsted, Jr. 1913 NY neighborhood unit idea 1914 Newark, NJ First municipally employed planner Harland Bartholomew

1916 State of Ohio Planning Enabling Act: model for Alfred Bettman planning commissions 1916 New York City First comprehensive zoning Edward Bassett ordinance Nelson Lewis 1916 U.S. Highway Act First in U.S. since the National Road

1917 American City Planning First professional planning Frederick L. Olmsted, Jr. Institute (ACIP) created organization in America (first president) 1917- U.S. shipyard housing First non-military public housing built 1919 programs by the federal government 1919 Bronx River Parkway, First American parkway NY 1919 Ohio Planning First statewide citizen's association in Conference support of planning; model for APA 1920 U.S. Census First Census to show more than 50% of Americans as "urban" 1921 New York and New Port of New York Authority created; Jersey First bi-state functional authority 1922 Los Angeles, CA First county planning board Gordon G. Whithall Hugh Pomeroy 1922 Kansas City, MO Country Club Plaza: first auto- J.C. Nichols oriented suburban shopping center 1922 Longview , WA Exceptionally well-planned industrial S. Herbert Hare town; room for each land use to George Kessler expand 1923 Cambridge, MA First Graduate Degree program with Harvard University City Planning in title: "Master Landscape Arch. In City Planning 1925 Cincinnati, OH Cincinnati Plan of 1915 : first major Alfred Bettman city to officially adopt a Ladisias Segoe comprehensive plan George B. Ford Ernest P. Goodrich 1926 Cincinnati, OH First major city to adopt a C.I.P. Alfred Bettman Ladislas Segoe P. Blandford

1926 Euclid v. Ambler U.S. Supreme Court supports Alfred Bettman comprehensive zoning J. Metzenbaun 1926 State of New York Establishes first state housing Clarence Stein subsidy program; first state plan Henry Wright 1928 Fairlawn, NJ Radburn built by City Housing Corp .: Clarence Stein "City for the Motor Age"; model for Henry Wright superblock developments Alexander Bing 1929 New York City Regional plan of NY completed: Clarence Perry includes "Neighborhood Unit Plans" 1929 Harvard University Creates first graduate school of City Henry V. Hubbard Planning Theodora K. Hubbard 1933 New Deal Programs Civilian Conservation Corps. Public Rexford Tugwell Works Admnistration Charles Elliot Harold L. Ickes Robert Kohn Many others 1933 Tennessee Valley First federal regional planning effort Arthur Morgan Authority created Earle S. Draper Howard K. Menhinick

1933 Cleveland, OH First state enabling act for public Ernest Bohn housing 1933 Washington, D.C. National Planning Board Harold L. Ickes Robert Kohn Charles Elliot 1934 Washington, D.C. FHA Mortgage Insurance created

1934 American Society of First national organization of citizens Alfred Bettman; (1st Planning Officials in support of planning President) (ASPO) 1935+ Greenbelt, M.D; Greenbelt towns built by U.S. Rexford Tugwell Green Hills, OH; Department of Agriculutre John Nolen Greendale, WI; (Green Brook, NJ-not built) 1935 Washington, D.C. National Resources Committee Name Change

1937 U.S. Housing Act First legislative commitment to public Catherine Bauer housing Ernest Bohn Robert Wagner Coleman Woodbury 1937 National Resources "Our Cities: Their Role in the Ladislas Segoe Committee Economy": first federal Charles Elliot comprehensive study of urban problems and planning approaches 1939 ACPI becomes American Institute of Planners (AIP) 1940 First Census to show First census of housing quality U.S. Census American cities losing population to the suburbs 1941 Local Planning Becomes the overarching planning Ladislas Segoe American Administration textbook in postwar period City Management Association 1943 End of overt National National Resources Planning Board Planning terminated by Congressional refusal to fund 1943+ Oak Ridge, TN New communities constructed for Hanford, WA federal governement at nuclear reactor/bomb plants 1944- Pittsburg; Harrisburg, A. Bettman writes redevelopment Alfred Bettman 1945 PA legislation: adopted by Pennsylvania · in 1945: Golden Triangle 1946 Pittsburg, PA Golden Triangle Urban Renewal Project begun 1947 Atlanta , GA Atlanta metro planning created by state legislature: first regional planning agency in U.S. publicly funded from beginning 1948 National Trust for Historic Preservation created 1949 U.S. Housing Act Creates urban redevelopment program: requires compliance with city plan 1950s , MD Becomes well known for the "Baltimore Plan" of cleanup-paintup- fixup 1954 U.S. Housing Act Creates "Urban Renewal, " the "Title 1. Section 701" program and large scale pubic housing 1954 Detroit, Ml Northland Mall: prototype enclosed Victor Gruen shopping plaza 1954 Berman v. Parker U.S. Supreme Court : U.S. "Bill of William 0 . Douglas Rights" for Urban Renewal 1956 U.S. Highway Act Creates Interstate Highway System legislation 1958 Minneapolis, MN Skyway System conceived Larry Irvin

1959 U.S. Housing Act Provides 50/50 (fed/local) funding for virtually all planning in the U.S. 1961 U.S. Housing Act Creates "221-d-3" interest subsidized housing for low and middle incomes: new major federal housing subsidy program 1961 Washington, D.C. "Corridors and Fingers Plan ": basis for Washington Metro Subway 1965 U.S. Dept. of Housing Robert Weaver and Urban (1st Secretary) Development created 1966 Demonstration Cities Creates the "Model Cities" program and Metropolitan Development Act 1960s Advocacy planning "Advocacy and Pluralism in Planning" Paul Davidoff initiated to assist the disenfranchised in America 1968 Civil Rights Act Creates the " Federal Fair Housing" Law; Parallel Supreme Court decision 1968 U.S. Housing Act Creates "235" and "236" interest/ rent subsidy programs 1969 "Circular A-95" (Bureau Creates a form of regional planning of the Budget) review 1970 Dayton, OH Miami Valley Regional Planning Dale Bertsch Commission adopts a "Fair Share Housing Plan" 1971 Chicago, IL Transfer of development rights John Costonis concept developed Jared Shlaes 1972 St. Louis, MO Pruitt -Igoe high-rise public housing community demolished with dynamite 1975 Petaluma, CA U.S. Courts supports "managed growth" 1975 Mount Laurel, NJ State Supreme Court requires developing communities to provide their "fair share" of regional low- income housing 1978 In Penn Central the historic landmark status of Grand Central Station in New York is upheld

1978 Hawaii becomes first state to adopt statewide land-use legislation 1978 AIP and ASPO merged to create the American Planning Association (APA) and, within it, The American Institute of Certified Planners (AICP)