Coastal and Lower Elwha River, Washington, Prior to Dam Removal—History, Status, 1 and Defining Characteristics

Home , Dam removal, Ediz Hook, Elwha Dam, Elwha River, Glines Canyon Dam, Lake Aldwell

Chapter

By Jeffrey J. Duda, Jonathan A. Warrick, and Christopher S. Magirl

Abstract Characterizing the physical and and are currently in low numbers. Dam biological characteristics of the removal will reopen access to more lower Elwha River, its estuary, and than 140 km of mainstem, flood plain, adjacent nearshore habitats prior to and tributary habitat, most of which dam removal is essential to monitor is protected within Olympic National changes to these areas during and Park. The high capture rate of river- following the historic dam-removal borne sediments by the two reservoirs project set to begin in September has changed the geomorphology of 2011. Based on the size of the two the riverbed downstream of the dams. hydroelectric projects and the amount Mobilization and downstream transport of sediment that will be released, the of these accumulated reservoir Elwha River in Washington State will sediments during and following dam be home to the largest river restoration removal will significantly change through dam removal attempted in downstream river reaches, the the United States. Built in 1912 and estuary complex, and the nearshore 1927, respectively, the Elwha and environment. To introduce the more Glines Canyon Dams have altered key detailed studies that follow in this physical and biological characteristics report, we summarize many of the key of the Elwha River. Once abundant aspects of the Elwha River ecosystem salmon populations, consisting of including a regional and historical all five species of Pacific salmon, context for this unprecedented project. are restricted to the lower 7.8 river kilometers downstream of Elwha Dam

Chapter 1 2 Coastal Habitats of the Elwha River, Washington—Biological and Physical Patterns and Processes Prior to Dam Removal

Introduction inputs (such as sediment, nutrients, and Puget Sound ecosystems, with the goal freshwater), and local and large-scale of developing research efforts focused Coastal environments are climatological forcings (Moore and on priorities identified by stakeholders, among the most important ecological others, 2008). The diverse biological management agencies, and the public components of Puget Sound, a communities present in these areas also for the restoration and preservation of large fjord-estuary in northwestern have complex responses, interactions, Puget Sound (Gelfenbaum and others, Washington State. The more than and feedbacks with these physical 2006). To date, MD-CHIPS science 3,000 km of Puget Sound shoreline is factors. Added to this natural physical has focused on three areas: (1) the classified into a diverse array of forms and biological variability are human effects of urbanization on nearshore according to geologic, oceanographic, influences that have dramatically altered ecosystems, (2) restoration of large and anthropogenic features (Shipman, the amount, quality, and distribution of river deltas, and (3) the recovery of 2008). Common forms include rocky estuarine habitats throughout the region nearshore ecosystems (U.S. Geological coasts, beaches, bluffs, embayments, (Collins and Sheikh, 2005; Todd and Survey, 2006). This report summarizes and deltas. Puget Sound and the others, 2006). Reconstructions of the the research and monitoring activities Georgia Basin are part of the Salish distribution and size of historical coastal of MD-CHIPS scientists and partners Sea (fig. 1.1), which is fed by rivers habitats, compared with their current relating to the Elwha River restoration in the Cascade Range and Olympic condition, show a dramatic reduction in project. Mountains. These rivers carry melt the amount of river-mouth estuarine and The Elwha River flows northward water from glaciers, snowmelt, and local wetland habitat, approaching more than from the heart of the Olympic rainfall. This inland marine water body 95 percent loss in some areas. A suite of Mountains to the Strait of Juan de Fuca is connected to the Pacific Ocean by human drivers, which include industrial west of Port Angeles, Washington. The the Strait of Juan de Fuca to the west and non-point source pollution, resource Elwha River restoration involves the and the Strait of Georgia to the north. extraction, recreation, and development largest dam removal project to date Characterized by a relatively young affect the remaining estuarine wetlands. in the United States and provides the tectonic- and glacier-influenced geology, Nevertheless, the intact estuarine unprecedented opportunity to study spatially variable oceanography, and habitats play an important role in the the ecological effects of dams and the unevenly distributed levels of urban and life history of many species, especially removal of these dams as an ecosystem anthropogenic impacts, Puget Sound is juvenile salmonids, because these restoration technique (Hart and others, home to a diverse array of biological young fish reside in river-mouth 2002; Duda and others, 2008). Although communities and charismatic species estuaries during their migration from characterized as a restoration project, (Buchanan, 2006; Dethier, 2006; Kriete, freshwater rearing areas to the sea many of the ecosystem responses and 2007; Mumford, 2007; Penttila, 2007; (Beamer and others, 2003; Fresh, 2006). trajectories following dam removal Strickland, 1983). The regions where Estuarine habitats are believed to offer may be novel and precisely predicting rivers flowing into Puget Sound meet more protection from predation and ecological outcomes is challenging. salt water (sub-estuaries within the higher growth potential compared to Thus, it is imperative that this greater Puget Sound fjord-estuary) alternative nearshore habitats. Exposure restoration project is monitored and are an especially important habitat of the juvenile salmonids to estuarine studied closely, so that ecosystem type, particularly for salmon, an iconic salinity gradients also facilitates their responses can be characterized and natural, cultural, and economic symbol physiological transition from freshwater predictive techniques can be advanced. for the region (Simenstad and others, to salt water. The MD-CHIPS project was developed 1982). Recently, there has been increased to characterize the physical and As an interface between fresh focus on restoring Puget Sound biological characteristics of the Lower and salt waters, river-mouth estuaries ecosystems and these efforts have Elwha River, its estuary, and nearshore and their surrounding habitats are highlighted the estuarine ecosystems’ habitats prior to dam removal with the among the most productive and capacity to support biodiversity, understanding that these characteristics biologically rich ecosystems on Earth commerce, and recreational would provide important baseline (Goldman and Horne, 1983; Keddy, opportunities, despite various impacts conditions for comparisons following 2000). The river-mouth estuaries of and threats to overall system health dam removal. To introduce the more Puget sound are both dynamic and (Puget Sound Partnership, 2009). The detailed studies that follow in this complex because they are influenced U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) multi- report, many of the key aspects of the by physical forcings from the Pacific disciplinary Coastal Habitats in Puget Elwha River ecosystem are summarized Ocean (such as wave action, currents, Sound (MD-CHIPS) initiative was here including a regional and historical and upwelling of nutrients), seasonally developed to promote interdisciplinary context for this unprecedented project. and annually varying levels of river collaboration among scientists studying Coastal and Lower Elwha River, Washington, Prior to Dam Removal—History, Status, and Defining Characteristics 3

Figure 1.1. The Salish Sea, which includes the Strait of Juan de Fuca, Strait of Georgia, Puget Sound, and the Olympic Peninsula, Washington and British Columbia, Canada. (Used with permission [Freelan, 2009])

Chapter 1 4 Coastal Habitats of the Elwha River, Washington—Biological and Physical Patterns and Processes Prior to Dam Removal

Elwha River Dam Removal and River Puget Sound region. Moreover, the Elwha River restoration Restoration Project project will be the largest dam-decommissioning project in the history of the United States in terms of the projected release The Elwha River, on the Olympic Peninsula of of sediment and the size of the existing hydroelectric projects. Washington State, offers a unique opportunity for restoration Decommissioning will involve simultaneous removal of the because 83 percent of the watershed lies within Olympic Elwha Dam (32 m high, constructed from 1910 to 1913 at National Park (ONP), a World Heritage site (accessed river kilometer [RKm] 7.9; fig. 1.3) and Glines Canyon Dam March 12, 2011, at http://whc.unesco.org/en/list) and (64 m high, completed in 1927 at RKm 21.6; fig. 1.4). These International Biosphere Reserve (United Nations Educational, actions offer the unique opportunity to assess the effectiveness Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2010;fig. 1.2). of a large dam removal in restoring the watershed and Restoration of the Elwha River was congressionally mandated recovering and salmon populations. The upper Glines Canyon by The Elwha River Ecosystem and Fisheries Restoration Act Dam and its reservoir Lake Mills are in the National Park, (Public Law 102-495) and represents the single largest river- whereas the lower Elwha Dam and its reservoir Lake Aldwell restoration project currently (2011) planned for the greater are in an area of mixed ownership and land use (fig. 1.5).

124° 123°

S tra it o f Ju an d e Fuca

48°

P Olympic A

C Peninsula

47°

Base image from Landsat. Projection: Universal 0 10 20 30 Kilometers Transverse Mercator Zone 10. EXPLANATION Olympic National Park boundary 0 10 20 30 Miles Elwha River watershed Figure 1.2. Aerial photograph showing view of the Olympic Peninsula and Puget Sound, Washington, showing the Elwha River watershed and the boundaries of Olympic National Park.

tac11-0558_fig1-02 Coastal and Lower Elwha River, Washington, Prior to Dam Removal—History, Status, and Defining Characteristics 5 ) The dam creates the Lake Aldwell reservoir. C ) The dam creates the Lake Aldwell reservoir. A ) Elwha Dam is a concrete gravity dam with adjacent buttress- B. D. ashington, completed in 1913. ( Diagram and photographs showing the Elwha Dam, W

A. C. type intake sections flanked by spillways. ( B ) The dam measures 32 meters high and is 137 wide at its crest. ( D ) A large delta of sediment deposits has formed at the head reservoir. Figure 1.3. tac11-0558_fig1-03

Chapter 1 6 Coastal Habitats of the Elwha River, Washington—Biological and Physical Patterns and Processes Prior to Dam Removal ) The dam creates the Lake Mills reservoir. ( D ) A large C ) The dam creates the Lake Mills reservoir. A ) Glines Canyon Dam is a varied radius, single arch D. B. ashington, completed in 1927. ( A. Diagram and photographs showing the Glines Canyon Dam, W

C. concrete dam. ( B ) The dam measures 64 meters high and width varies from 15.8 at its base to 82.3 crest. is current ly (2011) operated as run-of-the-river (equivalent flows entering the reservoir from Elwha River are released spillways). ( (Photograph B by Scott Church, private citizen, used with permission, date unknown.) delta of sediment deposits has formed at the head reservoir. Figure 1.4. tac11--558_fig1-04 Coastal and Lower Elwha River, Washington, Prior to Dam Removal—History, Status, and Defining Characteristics 7

123°45' 123°30' 123°15'

Strait of Juan de Fuca

Port Angeles

ELWHA DAM Lake Indian Creek Aldwell Lake Sutherland Little River Lake Crescent 12045500

Hu ghes Creek Olympic Griff Creek National 48° GLINES CANYON DAM Park Lake r e C Mills an ric k ur ree H k r C W e ulde 12044900 o re Bo lf C ek Olympic re C t National a an River C illi L Park

E l w h a

R i v k e

e r

L r o e s iv t R R ie iv ld er Go Figure location H a y e s R iv Washington e r

47°

45' G o d

EXPLANATION B k i D u n

e c l C a k

b r Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe Reservation i a n r re g h C o r r s Olympic National Park boundary e

r Elwha River watershed

12045500 USGS gaging station and number

Base map from USGS National Elevation Data 0 42 6 8 Kilometers Projection: Universal Transverse Mercator Zone 10, 10 meter resolution 0 2 4 6 8 Miles Figure 1.5. Elwha River watershed, northern boundary of Olympic National Park, major tributaries, Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe Reservation, Elwha Dam (Lake Aldwell), Glines Canyon Dam (Lake Mills), and City of Port Angeles, Washington.

tac11-0558_fig1-05 Chapter 1 8 Coastal Habitats of the Elwha River, Washington—Biological and Physical Patterns and Processes Prior to Dam Removal

Constructed without fish-passage (Curran and others, 2009), most of Dam Removal and Release of structures, the dams have altered the sediment load transported by the Sediment Stored in Reservoirs the size and composition of salmon upper Elwha River has accumulated populations in a river that once in the two reservoirs. Surveys Mobilization and downstream produced 10 distinct runs, comprised conducted in 1994–95 determined transport of sediments currently 3 of steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus that approximately 11 million m of (2011) accumulated in the reservoirs mykiss) and all 5 species of Pacific sediment had accumulated in Lake (figs. 1.3D, 1.4D) during and following salmon—Chinook (O. tshawytscha), Mills (upper dam) and had accumulated dam removal is expected to significantly coho (O. kitsutch), chum (O. keta), pink behind the lower dam in Lake Aldwell change downstream river reaches, the (O. gorbuscha), and sockeye (O. nerka). (Randle and others, 1996). The latest estuary complex, and the nearshore Also affected were sea-run cutthroat estimate (2010) of combined sediment environment to the west (Freshwater trout (O. clarki), anadromous bull trout volume in both reservoirs is about Bay) and east (Ediz Hook) of the 3 (Salvelinus confluentus), eulachon 19 million m (Bountry and others, river mouth (fig. 1.6). Studies of the (Thaleichthys pacificus), and lamprey 2010; Czuba and others, 2011, chapter 2, reservoir sediment composition (U.S. (Lampetra tridentata), which have life this report). Other changes caused by Department of the Interior, 1995b; cycles that also require migration to or the dams include increased armoring Randle and others, 1996; Childers and from freshwater. Salmon populations and channelization in parts of the river others, 2000) indicated that 85 percent downstream of Elwha Dam currently downstream of each dam; increased and 95 percent (in Lake Mills and are estimated at about 1 percent of their in median particle size (Pohl, 2004; Lake Aldwell, respectively) was sand, pre-dam numbers (U.S. Department Morley and others, 2008, Draut and silt, and clay. A portion of this fine of the Interior, 1995a); the amount of others, 2011); increased average age sediment will be readily transported spawning habitat has steadily decreased of riparian flood plain forests (Kloehn during and immediately after dam during the decades following dam and others, 2008); and some decreased removal (Randle and Bountry, 2008). construction (Pess and others, 2008). flood plain complexity and lateral Based on numerical model studies This degradation of spawning habitat migration of the main channel (Draut (Randle and others, 1996) and a 1995 has been caused by a massive reduction and others, 2008; 2011). Geomorphic reservoir draw down experiment in in the supplies of sand and gravel to the changes have affected instream benthic Lake Mills (Childers and others, 2000), lower river from the sediment trapping invertebrate assemblages and patterns extremely high suspended-sediment effects of the two reservoirs, which in of periphyton standing crop (Morley concentrations could occur in the turn has resulted in a coarsening of the and others, 2008), as well as salmon Elwha River following dam removal. riverbed with time. Two fish hatcheries populations (Wunderlich and others, A simulation model by Konrad (2009) operated by the State of Washington 1994; Brenkman and others, 2008; suggests that during the 2- to 3-year Department of Fish and Wildlife Connolly and Brenkman, 2008; Pess deconstruction period, the suspended- (Chinook salmon) and the Lower Elwha and others, 2008). Another component sediment concentration in the river Klallam Tribe (coho, steelhead, and of functioning flood plain river could exceed 10,000 mg/L for several chum) supplement salmon populations. systems, large woody debris (Abbe and weeks each year, with periodically high Four fish species (Puget Sound Chinook, Montgomery, 1996; Latterell and others, concentrations for as much as 3–5 years steelhead, eulachon, and bull trout) 2006), also has been intercepted by following dam removal, depending upon in the Elwha are federally listed as the reservoirs (although dam operators hydrological conditions (Randle and threatened under the U.S. Endangered regularly pass rafted logs through the others, 1996). Anticipation of high- Species Act. dams), further changing flood plain suspended sediment concentrations Construction of the Elwha and dynamics and fish habitat downstream led to development of unprecedented Glines Canyon Dams fundamentally of each reservoir. However, efforts by mitigation measures for the restoration changed the Elwha River ecosystem, the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe to place project, including construction of including its estuarine and nearshore engineered log jams in the lower Elwha two new water-treatment facilities, components. Similar changes due River has helped rehabilitate some areas the planned suspension of reservoir to dam construction have occured (Coe and others, 2006, 2009; see also in other rivers around the world side bar in Warrick and others, 2011a, (Baxter, 1977; Petts, 1984). Because chapter 3, this report). of a high sediment trapping capacity Coastal and Lower Elwha River, Washington, Prior to Dam Removal—History, Status, and Defining Characteristics 9

123°35' 123°30'

Figure Strait of Juan de Fuca location

Washington 48° 10'

EXPLANATION Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe Reservation

E Port Angeles

l Study sites w h

Vegetation R

i v 112 e Offshore biology r Water quality Groundwater 101 Surface water 112 ELWHA DAM

ll e w 101 ld A e k 48° a 05' L

Base map from USGS National Elevation Data 0 1 2 Kilometers Projection: Universal Transverse Mercator Zone 10, 10 meter resolution 0 1 2 Miles Figure 1.6. Estuary and nearshore study sites, lower Elwha River, Washington. Samples were collected by the U.S. Geological Survey multi-disciplinary Coastal Habitats in Puget Sound team and the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe. drawdown when salmon would be affected (“fish windows”), Upon entering the Strait of Juan de Fuca, sediment will and operation of conservation hatcheries to protect native fish be dispersed by waves and tidal currents and deposited on stocks. Over the long-term, the Elwha River bed downstream the sediment-starved beaches and seafloor of the Elwha delta of the dams is expected to aggrade by as much as 1 m in some (see Warrick and others, 2011, chapter 5, this report). After areas (U.S. Department of the Interior, 1996; Konrad, 2009), decades of sediment reduction due to the dams, the nearshore requiring additional mitigation measures such as raising seafloor has coarsened (Warrick and others, 2008) and appears existing flood-protection levees, construction of new levees, to have developed benthic communities characteristic of and transitioning sewage treatment on the Elwha Klallam Tribal coarse sediment and hard bottom substrate (Rubin and others, reservation from septic to municipal (City of Port Angeles). 2011, chapter 6, this report). Release of massive amounts of Additional details of sediment delivery are provided by Czuba fine sediment during and following dam removal will have and others (2011), in chapter 2 of this report. unknown affects on bottom communities in the nearshore and

tac11-0558_fig1-06 Chapter 1 10 Coastal Habitats of the Elwha River, Washington—Biological and Physical Patterns and Processes Prior to Dam Removal

deep water habitats off the river mouth. The other approach, a BACI design, drain the steep mountainous terrain The ultimate fate of these sediments incorporates experimental and control in coastal ranges (Emmett and others, depends on complex interactions among treatments (sites). This allows the 2000). On the Olympic Peninsula, waves, currents, and the freshwater researcher to account for natural river mouth estuaries and their wetland plume of the Elwha River (Gelfenbaum variability in a parameter of interest complexes typically are less than and others, 2009; Warrick and Stevens, that is occurring at both sites, which 1–2 km2 (Todd and others, 2006). 2011). Once sediment supply is restored allows a differentiation of these effects Comparing the river-mouth and a long-term equilibrium is reached, from treatment effects. Because there estuaries of the coastal Olympic the coastal environment will still be are numerous parameters of interest Peninsula, the Strait of Juan de Fuca, affected by other anthropogenic features. in the Elwha River restoration project, and the Puget Sound (fig. 1.7) is For example, coastal bluff armoring that ranging from terrestrial to aquatic and instructive to highlight the differences in results in a reduced coastal sediment biological to physical (each of these sizes, geomorphologies, and hydrologic supply (Shaffer and others, 2008) still operating at different spatial scales), conditions. These differences influence will be present following dam removal. there is no single effective “control” the biological conditions among these The development of key site for the Elwha River. For some sites, which can vary considerably. For monitoring needs, hypotheses, and studies, the Quinault River has been visual comparisons of these estuaries, the appropriate spatial and temporal used (Kloehn and others, 2008; Morley we used 2009 aerial imagery from the scales for data collection and analysis and others, 2008) due to its similar U.S. Department of Agriculture National benefited from a series of scientific watershed area, slope, and discharge Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP), workshops (Clallam County Marine (McHenry and Pess, 2008). Others have displayed at 1:24,000 or 1:85,000 scales. Resources Committee, 2004; Stolnack used the Elwha River upstream of Lake The side-by-side comparisons of the and Naiman, 2005; Stolnack and others, Mills as a reference section (Draut and river mouth estuaries on the Olympic 2005; Randle and others, 2006; see others, 2008, 2011; Kloehn and others, Peninsula (Hoh, Queets, Quinault, also summary in Woodward and others, 2008) for physical processes. Overall, Elwha, and Dungeness Rivers) show [2008]). Among the many study designs these design constraints necessarily that they each cover a relatively small available for evaluating restoration limit the statistical power available area, with limited off-channel aquatic actions (Roni and others, 2005), the to assess the effects of dam removal. habitat and virtually non-existent tidal most common study design for the However, as Roni and others (2005) flats (fig. 1.8). The widths of river various Elwha River related projects point out, valuable knowledge can mouths along the Pacific coast are is an intensive “before and after” (BA) result from unreplicated BA and BACI generally larger than those within the approach, although others are using a, designs couched in the framework of a Strait of Juan de Fuca and differences in “before-after control-impact” (BACI) case study, combining multiple lines of wave energy are also apparent from the approach where appropriate control inquiry. size and extent of breaking waves in the sites exist. The former approach relies photographs (fig. 1.8; see also Warrick on replicating data collection through and others, 2011b, chapter 5, this report). time from multiple sites over multiple The Puget Sound river mouth estuaries, years before dam removal, subsequently Comparison of Regional however, are somewhat larger than their returning to these sites for multiple years Estuaries coastal counterparts. The Skagit River following removal to measure responses. estuary (fig. 1.9) is the largest of the Strictly speaking, an ideal experimental Estuaries are semi-enclosed eight presented in fig. 1.7. In addition design would require replication of the water bodies with a connection to to its larger size, a higher diversity of treatment (dam removal) in multiple the ocean, where freshwater from a estuarine habitat types is apparent, with locations. Practically speaking, the river mixes with seawater. In western complex assemblages of tidal flats, Elwha River dam removal is the only North America, these estuaries can be tidal marshes, and tidally influenced such project of its kind in the greater highly variable in their size, origin, and distributary channels. Likewise, the Puget Sound region. Thus, replication functions. Although Puget Sound is the Snohomish and Nisqually river mouth is available only within the treatment second largest estuary in the United estuaries (fig. 1.10) are larger and more (termed pseudoreplication by Hurlburt States, most estuaries on the U.S. Pacific diverse than the estuaries of the Olympic [1984]) and results must be assessed coast are relatively small (less than Peninsula, although both are smaller through multiple lines of evidence. 100 km2 in area), especially those that than the Skagit. Coastal and Lower Elwha River, Washington, Prior to Dam Removal—History, Status, and Defining Characteristics 11

124° 122°

CANADAU.S.A.

Washington Figure Skagit location

S tra it of Jua n de Fuca

Olympic

48° Peninsula

P Elwha Dungeness u g

Hoh e

t Snohomish

S o

u E

Queets n G

d N

Quinault R

P A

C I E F D I C A

S 47° A

C O Nisqually C

Base map from USGS National Elevation Data 0 1020 30 40 50 Kilometers Projection: Universal Transverse Mercator Zone 10, EXPLANATION 10 meter resolution Queets River basin name 0 10 20 30 40 50 Miles

Figure 1.7. Location of eight river watersheds used to compare the size of river mouth estuaries in the Puget Sound and Olympic Peninsula, Washington.

tac11-0558_fig1-07 Chapter 1 12 Coastal Habitats of the Elwha River, Washington—Biological and Physical Patterns and Processes Prior to Dam Removal

Elwha River estuary Dungeness River estuary 123°34'30" 123°34' 123°33'30" 123°8'30" 123°08' 123°07'30"

48° 09'

48° 08' 30"

Hoh River estuary Queets River estuary 124°26'30" 124°26' 124°25'30" 124°21'30" 124°21' 124°20'30"

47° 32' 30"

47° 45'

47° 32'

Quinault River estuary 124°18'30" 124°18' 124°17'30" 0 0.5 1 Kilometer

0 0.5 1 Mile Scale 1:24,000 47° 21' St rait of Jua n de Fuca

Olympic Elwha Peninsula R

P A Dungeness C Hoh R I R F I C

C Queets R

N Quinault R

Universal Transverse Mercator zone 10, and U.S. Department of Agriculture NAIP Figure 1.8. Aerial images showing five river mouth estuaries of (National Agricultural Imagery Program) 2009 imagery the Olympic Peninsula, Washington.

tac11-0558_fig1-08 Coastal and Lower Elwha River, Washington, Prior to Dam Removal—History, Status, and Defining Characteristics 13

Skagit River estuary 122°30' 122°25'

48° 21'

48° 18'

Universal Transverse Mercator zone 10, and 0 1 2 Kilometers U.S. Department of Agriculture NAIP (National Agricultural Imagery Program) 2009 imagery 0 1 2 Miles Elwha River estuary Scale 1:85,000 123°35' 123°34' 123°33'

48° 09'

48° Figure 1.9. Aerial images comparing the size of the Skagit River and the Elwha River 08' estuaries, Washington.

tac11-0558_fig1-09 Chapter 1 14 Coastal Habitats of the Elwha River, Washington—Biological and Physical Patterns and Processes Prior to Dam Removal

Snohomish River estuary 122°14' 122°13' 122°12'

48° 02'

48° 01'

Nisqually River estuary 122°43' 122°42' 122°41'

47° 06'

47° 05'

Universal Transverse Mercator zone 10, and 0 0.5 1 Kilometer U.S. Department of Agriculture NAIP (National Agricultural Imagery Program) 2009 imagery 0 0.5 1 Mile Scale 1:24,000

Figure 1.10. Aerial images of the Snohomish River and Nisqually River estuaries, Washington.

tac11-0558_fig1-10 Coastal and Lower Elwha River, Washington, Prior to Dam Removal—History, Status, and Defining Characteristics 15

The Elwha River A. Western Elwha River estuary Estuary: History and Definitions

The mouth of the Elwha River has undergone substantial change over the historical record as sediment sources were curtailed by the dams. Further change resulted Dudley Pond from human modification and natural river processes, such as channel meandering and avulsion. levee The earliest written accounts of the lower Elwha River are from the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Todd and others (2006) suggested that the Elwha River had previously discharged into the Strait of Juan de Fuca through several distributary channels. For example, the General Land Office survey of 1874 noted at least three distributary channels, and an 1891 U.S. Army map and the 1908 U.S. Coast and Geodetic B. Dudley Pond Survey topographic maps showed two channels (Todd and others, 2006). The number of distributary channels of the Elwha River mouth was reduced to a single channel for most of the 20th century (Todd and others, 2006; Draut and others, 2008). Humans are largely responsible for these changes, due to active modification of the flood plain and channel between the 1940s and 1980s (Draut and others, 2008), as well as from the reduced sediment supply from damming. Human modifications included physical movement of the channel and levee building on both sides of the flood plain. The effects of these modifications can be seen, as an example, in the formation and persistence of Dudley Pond on the west side of the river mouth (fig. 1.11), which was created Figure 1.11. (A) West Elwha River estuary and (B) the northern shore of Dudley Pond through the construction of a flood- showing bloom of green algae common for this location during summer, near Port Angeles, control levee in 1964 through the Washington. ([A] Aerial photograph taken by Ian M. Miller, University of California, Santa middle of the active river mouth Cruz, January 14, 2009; [B] photograph taken by Jeffrey J. Duda, U.S. Geological Survey (Draut and others, 2008). October 10, 2007.)

tac11-0558_fig1-11 Chapter 1 16 Coastal Habitats of the Elwha River, Washington—Biological and Physical Patterns and Processes Prior to Dam Removal

Throughout the 20th century, Table 1-1. Study areas and descriptions for coastal areas and lower Elwha River, the Elwha River channel continued Washington. to change its position in response to lateral meander migration and Study area name Description episodic avulsion. These natural Elwha River processes resulted in annualized rates of channel movement of approximately Lower Elwha River The tidally influenced part of the Elwha River near its mouth. 2–10 m/yr. Some of the highest rates East estuary of channel movement were along the lowest 3 km of the river, including the ES1 A part of the eastern estuary complex nearest to the river’s river mouth, an area characterized by mouth. This area was a larger, lentic water body, prior to winter storms in November, 2006 that eroded much of the low stream gradient and a broad flood habitat. plain (Draut and others, 2008; 2011). These historical changes to the lower ES2 A large lentic waterbody east of ES1. This is a former river Elwha River (discussed in detail in mouth channel that is tidally influenced standing water. Warrick and others, 2011a, chapter 3, Intraestuarine Channel A channel that connects ES1 and ES2 that is tidally influenced this report) are central to the formation and flows to the east on a rising tide and to the west on an and evolution of the river mouth estuary, ebbing tide. the coastal wetlands, and the habitats Bosco Creek A spring-fed perennial water source flowing into the eastern and ecosystem functions they support. side of ES2. This water source is connected to the Lower For example, most of the coastal lakes Elwha Klallam Tribal Hatchery and receives outflow from along the Elwha River delta, which rearing ponds. serve as important rearing habitat for Western Estuary salmon, are former river channels cut off from the current channel by avulsions. Dudley Pond A disconnected water body west of a privately constructed The dynamic history of the Elwha River dike on the western part of the estuary. and its flood plain plays an important West Estuary Channel A slough (secondary distributary channel) bordered to the role in the formation and evolution of (WESC) west by the dike that is confining Dudley Pond the lower river and estuary ecosystem. Nearshore The total wetland complex at the mouth of the Elwha River is Freshwater Bay The nearshore west of the Elwha River mouth approximately 0.35 km2 (table 1.1). The Ediz Hook The eastern boundary of the Elwha River nearshore east of the western area of this complex (0.10 km2) river mouth is comprised of two main wetland West Beach The beach west of the Elwha River mouth components (referred to herein as the west estuary). The 0.028 km2 remnant East Beach The beach east of the Elwha River mouth of the historical estuary—known locally as Dudley Pond (fig. 1.11B)—is The levee eliminates access to the spring-fed freshwater source that also contained by the 275 m levee discussed pond by migrating fish. Resident fish serves as the supply and outflow of above. The other major feature of the consist largely of a single species, the the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe’s fish west estuary is a 0.068 km2 off-channel threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus hatchery. A mosaic of vegetation south habitat on the eastern side of the levee aculeatus) (Shaffer and others, 2009). of the beach includes mixed hardwood that is influenced by river stage and The east estuary is 0.25 km2 and is forests and willow thickets. Vegetation tides. Although groundwater exchange composed of interconnected lagoons communities of the Elwha River estuary and tidally influenced seepage maintain and interestuarine channels (fig. 1.12). are described by Shafroth and others some degree of connectivity between An important source of freshwater to (2011), chapter 8 of this report. this habitat and the river channel, the the east estuary is from Bosco Creek, a impounded Dudley Pond appears to have limited hydrological connectivity to the Elwha River or the ocean. Coastal and Lower Elwha River, Washington, Prior to Dam Removal—History, Status, and Defining Characteristics 17

A. Hydrology of the Elwha River and its Estuary

The climate of the Elwha River basin is characterized by warm, dry summers and cool, wet winters. Most precipitation at upper elevations falls as snow with rain predominating below elevations of about 1,200 m. Because the Elwha River watershed spans the rain shadow created by Mount Olympus and the Bailey Range, the drainage contains the steepest precipitation gradient on the Olympic Peninsula (fig. 1.13). Mean annual precipitation is more than 6,000 mm on Mount Olympus near the headwaters of the Elwha River and about 1,000 mm at the river mouth. Long-term weather records (1948–2005) from the Elwha Ranger Station (approximately RKm 18.2, 110 m elevation) indicate an average annual B. precipitation of 1,430 mm (Western Regional Climate Center, 2007); most precipitation falls from October through March (fig. 1.14). Discharge of the Elwha River has been monitored continuously by the USGS since 1918 at McDonald Bridge (streamflow-gaging station 12045500, Elwha River at McDonald Bridge near Port Angeles, WA); the site also was monitored from 1897 to 1901. The gaging site, 7.9 km downstream of Glines Canyon Dam and 13.8 km upstream of the river mouth, has a total drainage area of 697 km2, 84 percent of the total Elwha River drainage area. Prior to 1975, the discharge at McDonald Bridge was strongly influenced by, “...frequent, rapid, and dramatic stream flow fluctuations for power generation purposes” (U.S. Department of the Interior and others, 1994, p. 8). Between 1975 and Figure 1.12. (A) East Elwha River estuary and (B) beach 2000, as part of a settlement agreement with the Washington berm looking south. ([A] Aerial photograph taken by Ian M. Department of Fisheries, Glines Canyon Dam and Elwha Dam Miller, University of California, Santa Cruz, March 28, 2008; [B] were operated largely as run-of-river by managing discharge photograph taken by Jeffrey J. Duda, U.S. Geological Survey, at the dams to equal river flow entering the reservoir. Since October 20, 2007.) March 2000, the Bureau of Reclamation, with National Park Service oversight, has operated both projects as run-of-river, except during September and October when lower river flows have been augmented by drafting Lake Mills at the request of the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife and Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe (Brian Winter, Olympic National Park, written commun., 2010).

tac11-0558_fig1-12 Chapter 1 18 Coastal Habitats of the Elwha River, Washington—Biological and Physical Patterns and Processes Prior to Dam Removal

123°45' 123°30' 123°15'

Strait of Juan de Fuca

1,500 1,000 Port Angeles 2,000

2,500 ELWHA DAM Lake Indian Creek Aldwell Lake 1,500 Sutherland Little River 1,000 Lake Crescent 2,000 2,500 12045500

3,000 4,500 4,000 3,500 1,500 Olympic Elwha Ranger 2,000 2,500 National Station

48° 3,000 GLINES CANYON DAM Park Lake Mills ek Cre lder 12044900 Bou ek Olympic re C t National a an River C illi L Park

E l w 4,500 h a

4,000

R 3,500 i v k e

e r 3,500 e 2,000 r

C 4,000 g

5,000 L r o e s iv t 5,500 R 2,500 R ie iv ld er Go 6,000 6,500 7,000 H Mt Olympus a y e s R iv e r

5,000 3,000 47° 4,000

4,500 45' G o d

i D n

e la 3,500 C ba r r re C 4,000 r 4,000

4,500 5,000

3,500 4,500 5,000 4,500 5,500

Base map from USGS National Elevation Data 0 42 6 8 Kilometers Projection: Universal Transverse Mercator Zone 10, 10 meter resolution 0 2 4 6 8 Miles

tac11-0558_fig1-13 Coastal and Lower Elwha River, Washington, Prior to Dam Removal—History, Status, and Defining Characteristics 19

25 300 EXPLANATION Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe Reservation 20 250 Olympic National Park boundary 15 200 Elwha River watershed

12045500 USGS gaging station and number 10 150

Precipitation contour—Index contour at 1,000 1,000 feet, interval is 500 feet 5 100 Precipitation, in millimeters Annual precipitation, in millimeters 0 50 Air temperature, in degrees Celsius 250 to 1,000 1,000 to 1,500 -5 0 1,500 to 2,000 Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2,000 to 2,500 Month 2,500 to 3,000 EXPLANATION 3,000 to 3,500 3,500 to 4,000 Air temperature 4,000 to 4,500 Precipitation 4,500 to 5,000 Maximum 5,000 to 5,500 Average Minimum 5,500 to 6,000 6,000 to 6,500 Figure 1.14. Graph showing annual trends in air temperature 6,500 to 7,000 7,000 to 7,500 and precipitation in the Elwha River watershed, Washington, June 1948–December 2005. Long-term monthly averages, maximum and minimum air temperatures, and precipitation Figure recorded at the Elwha Ranger Station (RKm 18.2) at an elevation of location 110 m. Modified from Duda and others (2008). Washington

Figure 1.13. Map showing isohyetal contours of annual precipitation across the Elwha River watershed, Washington. Estimated precipitation data from PRISM Climate Group (2010).

tac11-0558_fig1-14 tac11-0558_fig1-13+Explanation Chapter 1 20 Coastal Habitats of the Elwha River, Washington—Biological and Physical Patterns and Processes Prior to Dam Removal

The mean annual discharge for the river at the 100 McDonald Bridge gaging station (12045500) is 43 m3/s (1,520 ft3/s) based on 95 years of discharge data. Elwha 90 River discharge is bimodal with a peak discharge in the 80 wet winter months due to rainfall and a peak discharge 70 in the late spring and early summer due to snowpack melt (fig. 1.15). The two months with the largest mean 60 monthly discharge are June with 63 m3/s (2,230 ft3/s) 50 3 3 and December with 60 m /s (2,120 ft /s). Typically, the 40 smallest flow is in September, with a mean monthly discharge of 11 m3/s (388 ft3/s). Extreme low flows often 30 are calculated using a log Pearson Type III approach 20 (Hann, 1977) to determine statistical limits of minimum 10 discharge. For the Elwha River, the 10-year recurrence- 0 interval 7-day low discharge is 7 m3/s (247 ft3/s). Monthly mean discharge, in cubic meters per second Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep The maximum recorded discharge of 1,180 m3/s Month (41,600 ft3/s) occurred November 18, 1897, and seven EXPLANATION annual peak discharges in the record were greater than 75th percentile 3 3 800 m /s (28,300 ft /s) (fig. 1.16). The second largest Average 3 3 peak of 1,020 m /s (35,900 ft /s) occurred December 3, 25th percentile 2007, affording researchers the opportunity to observe the Elwha River response to a significant discharge event. Figure 1.15. The 25th percentile (lower bars), median All the recorded annual peak discharges have occurred (50th percentile, diamonds), and 75th percentile (upper between October and April, and 78 percent of the peak bars) of monthly mean discharge as measured at U.S. discharges occurred between November and January, Geological Survey streamflow-gaging station 12045500, consistent with climatology of rivers throughout western Elwha River at McDonald Bridge near Port Angeles, Washington (Mass, 2008). Washington. Annual exceedance probabilities (AEP) of peak discharge (also known as flood recurrence intervals) were calculated using the annual peak-discharge record of the 1,400 Elwha River at McDonald Bridge weighted according to variance (Tim Cohn, U.S. Geological Survey, written 1,200 commun., 2010) using a regional regression equation 1,000 for the Elwha River (Sumioka and others, 1998)

(table 1.2). The size of the 0.50 AEP event (2-year flood) 800 is 400 m3/s (14,100 ft3/s), the size of the 0.04 AEP event 3 3 (25-year flood) is 948 m /s (33,500 ft /s), and the size 600 of the 0.01 AEP event (100-year flood) is 1,240 m3/s 3 (43,700 ft /s) (fig. 1.17). These flood-frequency 400 calculations included the peak discharges in 1897 and 2007 as well as the influence of retention capacity of 200 Lake Mills. After the Glines Canyon Dam is removed and the capacity to attenuate the flood hydrograph is lost, peak Annual discharge, in cubic meters per second 19001890 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 peak flows are expected to be slightly larger. Using the Water year watershed regression estimates of Sumioka and others (1998), the 0.01 AEP event (100-year flood) for the Figure 1.16. Annual peak discharges measured at U.S. Elwha River at McDonald Bridge without the presence Geological Survey streamflow-gaging station 12045500, of the dam would be about 1,400 m3/s (49,100 ft3/s), Elwha River at McDonald Bridge near Port Angeles, 10–15 percent greater than peak discharges moderated by Washington. the reservoir capacity.

tac11-0558_fig1-15

tac11-0558_fig1-16 Coastal and Lower Elwha River, Washington, Prior to Dam Removal—History, Status, and Defining Characteristics 21

Table 1.2. Flood-frequency discharge magnitudes calculated Summary for the Elwha River at USGS streamflow-gaging station 12045500, Elwha River at McDonald Bridge near Port Angeles, Washington. Over the past century, the Elwha River ecosystem has undergone substantial changes due to the presence [Abbreviations: m3/s, cubic meter per second; ft3/s, cubic foot per second] of the Elwha and Glines Canyon Dams. Dam removal will cause the Elwha River and its coastal environments Annual Recurrence Discharge Discharge to change once again as sediments are released from the exceedance Interval (m3/s) (ft3/s) probability (years) reservoirs following dam removal and salmon recolonize the watershed. Recent scientific studies conducted in 0.5 2 400 14,100 anticipation of dam removal have described the current 0.1 10 752 26,600 condition of the river and coastal ecosystems. This report 0.04 25 948 33,500 provides a scientific snapshot of the lower Elwha River, 0.02 50 1,090 38,500 its estuary, and adjacent nearshore ecosystems prior to 0.01 100 1,240 43,700 dam removal, serving as a document that can be used to measure and evaluate the responses and dynamics of various ecosystem components following dam removal.

1,800 1,600 Acknowledgments 1,400 Support for the MD-CHIPS Elwha project was 1,200 provided by the U.S. Geological Survey. Cindi Barton, 1,000 Susan Benjamin, Leslie Dierauf, Guy Gelfenbaum, John

800 Haines, Frank Shipley, Michael Shulters, and Lyman Thorsteinson provided guidance and support for the 600 MD-CHIPS program. We thank our partners, including

400 the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe, National Park Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington Department 200 Discharge, in cubic meters per second of Fish and Wildlife, NOAA National Marine Fisheries 0 Service, and Peninsula College for their support and 1 10 100 Log peak flow recurrence intervals, in years collaboration. Mark Mastin calculated statistical values 10 of flood frequency and low-flow discharge. Special Figure 1.17. Weighted recurrence-interval peak flows thanks to Theresa Olsen for making the NAIP derived calculated for the Elwha River at U.S. Geological Survey figures and finalizing all GIS-based maps for this streamflow-gaging station 12045500, Elwha River at Scientific Investigations Report. Our work benefitted McDonald Bridge near Port Angeles, Washington, with the from discussions with many colleagues and we would upper and lower 95 percent confidence intervals. like to thank Guy Gelfenbaum, Eric Grossman, Frank Shipley, Scott Smith, and Tim Randle for their thoughtful discussions.

Chapter 1

tac11-0558_fig1-17 22 Coastal Habitats of the Elwha River, Washington—Biological and Physical Patterns and Processes Prior to Dam Removal

References Cited Childers, D., Kresch, D.L., Gustafson, Czuba, C.R., Randle, T.J., Bountry, S.A., Randle, T.J., Melena, T., and J.A., Magirl, C.S., Czuba, J.A., Cluer, B., 2000, Hydrological data Curran, C.A., and Konrad, C.P., Abbe, T., and Montgomery, D., 1996, collected during the 1994 Lake Mills 2011, Anticipated sediment delivery Large woody debris jams, channel drawdown experiment, Elwha River, to the lower Elwha River during and hydraulics and habitat formation Washington: U.S. Geological Survey following dam removal, chap. 2 of in large rivers: Regulated Rivers Water Resources Investigations Duda, J.J., Warrick, J.A., and Magirl, Research and Management, v. 12, Report 99-4215, 115 p. C.S., eds., Coastal habitats of the p. 201-221. Elwha River, Washington—Biological Clallam County Marine Resources and physical patterns and processes Baxter, R.M., 1977, Environmental Committee (CCMRC), 2004, prior to dam removal: U.S. Geological effects of dams and impoundments: Technical workshop on nearshore Survey Scientific Investigations Annual Review of Ecology and restoration in central Strait of Juan Report 2011-5120, p. 27-46. Systematics, v. 8, p. 255-283. de Fuca: Prepared for CCMRC by Triangle Associates, Seattle, Wash., Dethier, M.N., 2006, Native shellfish in Beamer, E., McBride, A., Henderson, R., 141 p. nearshore ecosystems of Puget Sound: and Wolf, K., 2003, The importance Seattle, Wash., Seattle District, of non-natal pocket estuaries in Coe, H.J., Kiffney, P.M., and Pess, G.R., U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Skagit Bay to wild Chinook salmon: 2006, A comparison of methods to Puget Sound Nearshore Partnership an emerging priority for restoration: evaluate the response of periphyton Report No. 2006-04, 26 p., accessed La Conner, Wash., Skagit System and invertebrates to wood placement April 10, 2010, at http://www. Cooperative, 9 p., accessed April 10, in large Pacific coastal rivers: pugetsoundnearshore.org/technical_ 2010, at http://www.skagitcoop.org. Northwest Science, v. 80, p. 298-307. papers/shellfish.pdf. Bountry, J., Ferrari, R., Wille, K., and Coe, H.J., Kiffney, P.M., Pess, G.R., Draut, A.E., Logan, J.B., and Mastin, Randle, T.J., 2010, 2010 survey report Kloehn, K.K., and McHenry, M.L., M.C., 2011, Channel evolution on the and area-capacity tables for Lake 2009, Periphyton and invertebrate dammed Elwha River, Washington: Mills and Lake Aldwell on the Elwha response to wood placement in large Geomorphology, v. 127, p. 71-87. River, Washington: Denver, Colo., Pacific coastal rivers: River Research U.S. Department of the Interior, and Applications, v. 25, p. 1025-1035. Draut, A.E., Logan, J.B., McCoy, R.E., Bureau of Reclamation, Technical McHenry, M., and Warrick, J.A., Service Center, Report No. SRH- Collins, B.D., and Sheikh, A.J., 2008, Channel evolution on the 2010-23, 66 p. 2005, Historical reconstruction, Lower Elwha River, Washington, classification, and change analysis of 1939–2006: U.S. Geological Survey Brenkman, S.B., Pess, G.R., Torgersen, Puget Sound tidal marshes: Report to Scientific Investigations Report C., Kloehn, K.K., Duda, J.J., and Washington Department of Natural 2008‑5127, 28 p. Corbett, S.C, 2008, Predicting Resources, Aquatic Resources recolonization patterns and Division, Olympia, Wash., 120 p. Duda, J.J., Beirne, M.M., Larsen, K., interactions between potamodromous Barry, D., Stenberg, K., and McHenry, and anadromous salmonids in Connolly, P.J., and Brenkman, S.J., M.L., 2011, Aquatic ecology of response to dam removal in the Elwha 2008, Fish assemblage, density, the Elwha River estuary prior to River, Washington State: Northwest and growth in lateral habitats and dam removal, chap. 7 of Duda, J.J., Science, v. 82 (special issue), regulated sections of Washington’s Warrick, J.A., and Magirl, C.S., eds., p. 142‑152. Elwha River prior to dam removal: Coastal habitats of the Elwha River, Northwest Science, v. 82 (special Washington—Biological and physical Buchanan, J.B, 2006, Nearshore birds issue), p. 107-118. patterns and processes prior to dam in Puget Sound: Seattle, Wash., Puget removal: U.S. Geological Survey Sound Nearshore Partnership Report Curran, C.A., Konrad, C.P., Dinehart, Scientific Investigations Report 2011- No. 2006-05, Seattle District, U.S. R., and Moran, E., 2009, Estimates of 5120, 175-224 p. Army Corps of Engineers, 24 p., sediment load prior to dam removal accessed April 10, 2010, at http:// in the Elwha River, Clallam County, www.pugetsoundnearshore.org/ Washington: U.S. Geological Survey technical_papers/shorebirds.pdf. Scientific Investigations Report 2009‑5221, 28 p. Coastal and Lower Elwha River, Washington, Prior to Dam Removal—History, Status, and Defining Characteristics 23

Duda, J.J., Freilich, J.E., and Schreiner, Gelfenbaum, G., Stevens, A.W., Kriete, B., 2007, Orcas in Puget Sound: E.G., 2008, Baseline studies in the Elias, E., and Warrick, J.A., 2009, Seattle, Wash., Seattle District, Elwha River ecosystem prior to dam Modeling sediment transport and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, removal—Introduction to the special delta morphology on the dammed Puget Sound Nearshore Partnership issue: Northwest Science, v. 82 Elwha River, Washington State, USA Report No. 2007-01, 30 p., accessed (special issue), p. 1-12. in Mizuguchi, M., and Sato, S., eds, April 10, 2010, at http://www. Proceedings of Coastal Dynamics pugetsoundnearshore.org/technical_ Emmett, R., Llansó, R., Newton, J., 2009: Tokyo, Japan, Impacts of papers/orcas.pdf. Thom, R., Hornberger, M., Morgan, Human Activities on Dynamic C., Levings, C., Copping, A., and Coastal Processes, Paper No. 109, Latterell, J.J., Bechtold, J.S., O’Keefe, Fishman, P., 2000, Geographic 15 p. T.C., and Naiman, R.J., 2006, signatures of North American west Dynamic patch mosaics and channel coast estuaries: Estuaries and Coasts, Goldman, C.R., and Horne, A.J., 1983, movement in an unconfined river v. 23, p. 765-792. Limnology: New York, New York, valley of the Olympic Mountains: McGraw-Hill, 464 p. Freshwater Biology, v. 51, p. 523-544. Freelan, S., 2009, Map of the Salish Sea and surrounding basin: Western Hann, C.T., 1977, Statistical methods Magirl, C.S., Curran, C.A., Sheibley, Washington University map, accessed in hydrology: Ames, Iowa, The R.W., Warrick, J.A., Czuba, J.A., April 11, 2011, at http://staff.wwu. University of Iowa Press, 378 p. Czuba, C.R., Gendaszek, A.S., edu/stefan/SalishSea.htm. Shafroth, P.B., Duda, J.J., and Hart, D.D., Johnson, T.E., Bushaw- Foreman, J.R., 2011, Baseline Fresh, K.L., 2006, Juvenile Pacific Newton, K.L., Horwitz, R.J., hydrologic studies in the lower Elwha salmon in Puget Sound: Seattle, Bednarek, A.T., Charles, D.F., River prior to dam removal, chap. 4 of Wash., Puget Sound Nearshore Kreeger, D.A., and Velinsky, D.J., Duda, J.J., Warrick, J.A., and Magirl, Partnership Report No. 2006-06, 2002, Dam removal—Challenges and C.S., eds., Coastal habitats of the Seattle District, U.S. Army Corps opportunities for ecological research Elwha River, Washington—Biological of Engineers, 28 p., accessed and river restoration: BioScience, and physical patterns and processes April 10, 2010, at http://www. v. 52, p. 669-681. prior to dam removal: U.S. Geological pugetsoundnearshore.org/technical_ Survey Scientific Investigations papers/pacjuv_salmon.pdf. Hurlburt, S.H., 1984, Pseudoreplication and the design of ecological field Report 2011‑5120, p. 75-110. Gelfenbaum, G., Mumford, T., experiments: Ecological Monographs, Mass, C., 2008, The weather of the Brennan, J., Case, H., Dethier, M., v. 54, p. 187-211. Pacific Northwest: Seattle, Wash., Fresh, K., Goetz, F., van Heeswijk, Keddy, P.A., 2000, Wetland ecology— University of Washington Press, M., Leschine, T.M., Logsdon, M., 281 p. Myers, D., Newton, J., Shipman, Principles and conservation: H., Simenstad, C.A., Tanner, C., and Cambridge, United Kingdom, McHenry, M.L., and Pess, G.R., Woodson, D., 2006, Coastal Habitats Cambridge University Press, 632 p. 2008, An overview of monitoring in Puget Sound—A research plan in Kloehn, K.K., Beechie, T.J., Morley, options for assessing the response support of the Puget Sound Nearshore S.A., Coe, H.J., and Duda, J.J., 2008, of salmonids and their aquatic Partnership: Puget Sound Nearshore Influence of dams on river-floodplain ecosystems in the Elwha River Partnership Report No. 2006-1, dynamics in the Elwha River, following dam removal: Northwest published by the U.S. Geological Washington: Northwest Science, v. 82 Science, v. 82 (special issue), Survey, Seattle, Wash., 51 p., accessed (special issue), p. 224-235. p. 28-47. April 10, 2010 at http://www. pugetsoudnearshore.org/technical_ Konrad, C.P., 2009, Simulating the Moore, S.K., Mantua, N.J., Kellog, J.P., papers/coastal_habitats.pdf. recovery of suspended sediment and Newton, J.A., 2008, Local and transport and river-bed stability in large-scale climate forcing of Puget response to dam removal on the Sound oceanographic properties on Elwha River, Washington: Ecological seasonal to interdecadal timescales: Engineering, v. 35, p. 1104-1115. Limnology and Oceanography, v. 53, p. 1746-1758.

Chapter 1 24 Coastal Habitats of the Elwha River, Washington—Biological and Physical Patterns and Processes Prior to Dam Removal

Morley, S.A., Duda, J.J., Coe, H.J., Puget Sound Partnership, 2009, Puget Shaffer, J. A., Beirne, M., Ritchie, Kloehn, K.K., and McHenry, M.L., Sound action agenda—Protecting and T., Paradis, R., Barry, D., and 2008, Benthic invertebrates and restoring the Puget Sound ecosystem Crain, P., 2009, Fish habitat use periphyton in the Elwha River by 2020: Olympia, Wash., Puget response to anthropogenic induced basin—Current conditions and Sound Partnership, 213 p., accessed changes of physical processes in the predicted response to dam removal: April 10, 2010, at http://www.psp. Elwha estuary, Washington, USA: Northwest Science, v. 82 (special wa.gov. Hydrobiologia, v. 636, p.179-190. issue), p. 179-196. Randle, T.J., and Bountry, J.A., 2008, Shaffer, J.A., Crain, P., Winter, B., Mumford, T.F., 2007, Kelp and eelgrass Elwha River sediment management McHenry, M.L., Lear, C., and Randle, in Puget Sound: Seattle, Wash., in International Conference on T.J., 2008, Nearshore restoration of Seattle District, U.S. Army Corps of Hydro-Science and Engineering, 8th, the Elwha River through removal Engineers, Puget Sound Nearshore September 8–12, 2008, Proceedings: of the Elwha and Glines Canyon Partnership Report No. 2007-05, 34 Nagoya, Japan, International Dams—An overview: Northwest p., accessed April 10, 2010, at http:// Conference on Hydro-Science and Science, v. 82 (special issue), p. www.pugetsoundnearshore.org/ Engineering-2008, 10 p. 48-58. technical_papers/kelp.pdf. Randle, T.J., Bountry, J.A., Jackson, B., Shafroth, P.B., Fuentes, T.L., Pritekel, Penttila, D., 2007, Marine forage fishes and Smillie, G., 2006, Elwha River C., Beirne, M.M., and Beauchamp, in Puget Sound: Seattle, Wash., restoration project draft sediment V.B., 2011, Vegetation of the Elwha Seattle District, U.S. Army Corps of management and monitoring plan, River estuary, chap. 8 of Duda, J.J., Engineers, Puget Sound Nearshore based on recommendations of the Warrick, J.A., and Magirl, C.S., eds., Partnership Report No. 2007-03, Elwha River Physical Processes Coastal habitats of the Elwha River, 30 p., accessed April 10, 2010, at Monitoring Workshop, August 13–17, Washington—Biological and physical http://www.pugetsoundnearshore.org/ 2001: Denver, Colo., U.S. Department patterns and processes prior to dam technical_papers/marine_fish.pdf. of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, removal: U.S. Geological Survey and Fort Collins, Colo., National Park Scientific Investigations Report Pess, G.R., McHenry, M.L., Beechie, Service. 2011‑5120, p. 225-248. T.J., and Davies, J., 2008, Biological impacts of the Elwha River dams and Roni, P., Liermann, M.C., Jordan, C., Shipman, H., 2008, A geomorphic potential salmonid response to dam and Steel, E.A., 2005, Steps for classification of Puget Sound removal: Northwest Science, v. 82 creating a monitoring and evaluation nearshore landforms: Seattle, Wash., (special issue), p. 72-90. program for aquatic restoration in Seattle District, U.S. Army Corps of Roni, P., ed., Monitoring stream and Engineers, Puget Sound Nearshore Petts, G.E., 1984, Impounded watershed restoration: Bethesda, Md., Partnership Report No. 2008-01: 42 rivers—Perspectives for ecological American Fisheries Society, p. 13-24. p., accessed April 10, 2010, at http:// management: New York, John Wiley www.pugetsoundnearshore.org. and Sons, 344 p. Rubin, S.P., Miller, I.M., Elder, N., Reisenbichler, R.R., and Duda, Simenstad, C.A., Fresh, K.L., and Salo, Pohl, M., 2004, Channel bed mobility J.J., 2011, Nearshore biological E.O., 1982, The role of Puget Sound downstream from the Elwha dams, communities prior to removal of the and Washington coastal estuaries in Washington: The Professional Elwha River dams, chap. 6 of Duda, the life history of Pacific salmon—An Geographer, v. 56, p. 422-431. J.J., Warrick, J.A., and Magirl, C.S., unappreciated function, in Kennedy, PRISM Climate Group, 2010, Climate eds., Coastal habitats of the Elwha V.S., ed., Estuarine comparisons: New data: Oregon State University data River, Washington—Biological and York, New York, Academic Press, base, accessed May 25, 2010, at physical patterns and processes prior p. 343-364. http://www.prismclimate.org. to dam removal: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2011‑5120, p. 131-174. Coastal and Lower Elwha River, Washington, Prior to Dam Removal—History, Status, and Defining Characteristics 25

Stolnack, S., and Naiman, R.J., U.S. Department of the Interior, 1995b, Warrick, J.A., and Stevens, A.W., 2005, Summary of research and Alluvium distribution in Lake Mills, 2011, A buoyant plume adjacent to education activities in the Elwha Glines Canyon Project and Lake a headland—Observations of the River watershed and adjacent coastal Aldwell, Elwha Project, Washington: Elwha River plume: Continental Shelf zone: Seattle, Wash., University of Bureau of Reclamation, Pacific Research, v. 31, p. 85-97. Washington, 56 p. Northwest Region, Elwha Technical Series PN-95-4, 60 p. Warrick, J.A., Stevens, A.W., Miller, Stolnack, S.A., Naiman, R.J., and I.M., and Gelfenbaum, G., 2011b, Harrington, S.A., 2005, Elwha U.S. Department of the Interior, 1996, Coastal processes of the Elwha research planning workshop, February Sediment analysis and modeling of River delta, chap. 5 of Duda, J.J., 14–15, 2005: Seattle, Washington, the river erosion alternative: Bureau Warrick, J.A., and Magirl, C.S., eds., University of Washington, 95 p. of Reclamation, Elwha Technical Coastal habitats of the Elwha River, Series PN-95-9, 136 p. Washington—Biological and physical Strickland, R.M., 1983, The fertile patterns and processes prior to dam fjord—Plankton in Puget Sound: U.S. Department of the Interior, removal: U.S. Geological Survey Seattle, Wash., University of Department of Commerce, and Lower Scientific Investigations Report Washington Press, 160 p. Elwha S’Klallam Tribe, 1994, The 2011‑5120, p.111-130. Elwha report—Restoration of the Sumioka, S.S., Kresch, D.L., and Elwha River ecosystem and native Western Regional Climate Center, Kasnick, K.D., 1998, Magnitude and anadromous fisheries—A Report 2007, Historical climate information: frequency of floods in Washington: Submitted Pursuant to Public Law Western Regional Climate Center U.S. Geological Survey Water- 102-495: Olympic National Park, database, accessed April 15, 2010, at Resources Investigations Report National Park Service, 174 p. http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/. 97-4277, 91 p. U.S. Geological Survey, 2006, USGS Woodward, A., Schreiner, E.G., Crain, Todd, S., Fitzpatrick, N., Carter- Science for Puget Sound Restoration P., Brenkman, S.J., Happe, P.J., Acker, Mortimer, A., and Weller C., 2006, and Preservation: U.S. Geological S.A., and Hawkins-Hoffman, C., Historical changes to estuaries, spits, Survey Fact Sheet 2006-3081, 2 p. 2008, Conceptual models for research and associated tidal wetland habitats and monitoring of Elwha Dam in the Hood Canal and Strait of Juan Warrick, J.A., Cochrane, G.R., Sagy, Y., removal—Management perspective: de Fuca regions of Washington State: and Gelfenbaum, G., 2008, Nearshore Northwest Science, v. 82 (special Kingston, Wash., Point No Point substrate and morphology offshore of issue), p. 59-71. Treaty Council, PNPTC Technical the Elwha River: Northwest Science, Report 06-1, 91 p. v. 82 (special issue), p. 153-163. Wunderlich, R.C., Winter, B.D., and Meyer, J.H., 1994, Restoration of the United Nations Educational, Scientific Warrick, J.A., Draut, A.E., McHenry, Elwha River ecosystem: Fisheries, and Cultural Organization M.L., Miller, I.M., Magirl, C.S., v. 19, p. 11-19. (UNESCO), 2010, Biosphere Beirne, M.M., Stevens, A.W., and reserves—World Network: Paris, Logan, J.B., 2011a, Geomorphology France, UNESCO Man in the of the Elwha River and its delta, chap. Biosphere Secretariat, Division of 3 of Duda, J.J., Warrick, J.A., and Ecological and Earth Sciences, 22 p. Magirl, C.S., eds., Coastal habitats of the Elwha River, Washington— U.S. Department of the Interior, 1995a, Biological and physical patterns Elwha River ecosystem restoration— and processes prior to dam removal: Final environmental impact statement: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Olympic National Park, National Park Investigations Report 2011‑5120, p. Service, 215 p. 47-74.

Chapter 1 26 Coastal Habitats of the Elwha River, Washington—Biological and Physical Patterns and Processes Prior to Dam Removal

This page intentionally left blank