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1996
International networking: education, training and change
Nerida F. Ellerton (Ed.)
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Ellerton, N. (Ed.) (1996). International networking: education, training and change. Churchlands, Australia: Edith Cowan University. This Conference Proceeding is posted at Research Online. https://ro.ecu.edu.au/ecuworks/6796 Edith Cowan University Copyright Warning
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INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE
Edited by Nerida F. Ellerton
Conference Proceedings International Networking: Education Training and Change Conference 20-23 September 1994, Perth, Western Australia Sponsored By
Ansett Australia Department of Commerce and Trade Department of Employment, Education and Training Edith Cowan University Education Department of Western Australia Higher Education International UNESCO Western Australian Department of Training Published by Edith Cowan University Pearson Street Churchlands WA 6018 AUSTRALIA
© Copyright 1996
All rights reserved. Except as provided for by Australian copyright law, no part of this book may be reproduced without written permission from the publisher.
Printed by Lamb Printers Pty Ltd
ISBN 0-7298-0215-9
National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data:
Internation networking: education, training and change/edited by Nerida F. Ellerton. Churchlands, W.A. : Edith Cowan University, 1996.
1. Information networks. 2. Intellectual cooperation. 3. University cooperation. I. Ellerton, Nerida F., 1942-
378.104 20
WCX abn95-160106
The opinions expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the position, policy or endorsement of the Editor or of Edith Cowan University.
Acknowledgements Layout and Cover Design: Andrew Ellerton Technical Assistance: Amanda Kendle Proof Reading: Andrew Broomhall INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE Table of Contents
Keynote Addresses
Opening Address ... 1 Dumitru Chitoran tl . Official Opening ... 4 ll~ Delivered on behalf of Richard Court MLA ! j J l The Impact of International Networking on Education and Training ... 6 J j Charuni Sutabutr ;:1 l j Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World ... 9 j l WangGungwu Confronting the Challenges of Globalisation ... 15 Bienvenido F. Nebres, S.J.
Models of Universities in the 21st Century ... 23 David Phillips
New Communications Technologies and Global Learning: Challenges for Education and Training ... 30 / John Daniel
Cultural Sensitivities in the Context of Educational Change ... 38 Nerida F. Ellerton
UNESCO Symposium: Globalisation and the Role of UNESCO ... 47 Dumitru Chitoran
Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World
Higher Education and Strategic Institutional Networking in Europe ... 55 Maurits van Rooijen
Multi-culture Education: Imperative for Educating Citizens of the World ... 59 Lee C. Lee ii INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE
The Rapidly Changing Economic Frame of Mauritius and its Education ... 63 Sheila Bunwaree
The Administrative Implications of International Education ... 70 DickAudley
The Future of Knowledge and Subjectivity in Higher Education ... 85 Matthew Allen
Partnerships in Training Through National and International Networking ... 90 Jeff Cunningham
Exporting Tertiary Education From Australia ... 96 Gus Hooke
Education, Training and Change ... 100 Simanhadi Widyaprakosa
AARNet and ERNEY: An Era for Fostering International Academic Research ... 104 AmitRudra
Structuring a Delta MBA Program-Meeting Changes, Challenges and Training Needs in South Ozina ... 110 Peter P.F. Chan
University Networks in International Cooperation ... 116 Jim Shute
Simulation of Classroom Teaching for Distance Education Students ... 121 Mehryar Nooriafshar
Distant Learning PhD Through E-mail ... 123 Hanizah Abd. Hamid and Sahol Hamid Abu Bakar
Stopping the Ears While Trying to Steal the Bell: Instructional Design Practices in Distance Education and the Post Modern Debate. ... 126 Jane Widdess
World Wide Web Based Distance Learning ... 132 Joanne Ng and Andrew Marriott INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE iii
The Challenges of Globalisation
Asian Business Culture and Practice: A Portrait of Diversity for Cross Disciplinary Teaching ... 139 Chris Groom, Fran Siemensma and Peter Demediuk
To See Ourselves As Others See Us ... 143 Bridget Swearse and Jane Raybould
We Went to Teach, Now They Come to Study ... 148 Bob Finlay
Sinking or Swimming in the Multicultural Sea ... 154 Patricia Kelly and Tania Aspland
Internationalisation of Australian Education: The Regional Mission ... 159 Roger Peacock
Changing Perspectives in the Twinning Concept: A Look at Future Needs and Directions ... 164 Jayakaran Mukundan and Inderbir Nanra
International Human Service. Education in South and East Asia ... 167 Rod Underwood and Mike Lee
The Asia-Pacific Higher Education Network-A UNESCO UNITWIN Network for the Region ... 174 John Scutt
Networking with the Recipients of Educational Programs ... 179 Leslie Williams
Self Employment and Entrepreneurship Development Program in Indonesian Universities: Experience of Merdeka University, Malang, Indonesia ... 183 Fatima Abdullah
Prospects of Developing International Student Networking in Brunei Darussalam ... 186 Serudin Tinggal and Sim Wong Kooi iv INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE
Educating for Cross-Cultural Understanding ... 193 Heather Bigelow, Murray Ainsworth and Quentin Willis
Technology Transfer and Professional Training Through Masters Program in Malaysia ... 197 Hanizah Abd. Hamid and Sahol Hamid Abu Bakar
COMMNET: A Prototype Communications Data Network in Papua New Guinea ... 200 Noel Colin Mobiha
Using AARNet to Broaden the Scope of Nursing Education ... 204 Amy E Zelmer, Leonie Williams, Jillian Brammer and Bruce Young Jan Schmitzer, Kathryn Roberts and Adrian Jackson
Hyperlogic and the University Classroom: Pedagogy in the Electronic Age ... 207 Darren Tofts, Kitty Vigo and Josie Arnold
Models of Universities in the 21st Century
The Role of Scientific Research in Vietnamese Universities in the Challenge of Education Change ... 215 DangungVan
Serving the Educational and Research Needs of a Rapidly Developing Vietnam: An Important New Market ... 219 Arthur Kavooris
Models of Universities in the 21st Century: The Philippines' Challenge ... 223 Lily Rosqueta-Ro.sales
Challenges and Choices: A Skills Enhancement Program for Indonesian Nurses ... 228 Bronwyn Jones
Lighting the Fire: The Role and Function of Universities and Other Higher Learning Institutions into the 21st Century ... 232 Zena Burgess and Jan Hastings
Gender and Educational Change in the University: A Model for the 21st Century ... 236 Jennifer Lindley and Jeanette Learmont INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE v
Strategies to Overcome the Tensions Between Information Technologies and the Individual ... 240 Mohini Singh, Dawn Watson, Stephen Burgess, Andrew Stein and Helen Bull
From Tension to Creative Application: Technology and the Naive User ... 246 Anne Russell
Academic Industrial Collaboration: Partnership for the Future ... 250 Shashikant D. Karnik
Multimedia for the Coal Mining Industry: Enterprise Partnerships for Sustained Academic/Industry Collaboration ... 254 Michael Crock
The Role of Telecommunications in Meeting the Demand for Education in ASEAN Countries ... 259 Zainal-Abidin MC}hani
Responding to the Challenges of Change: Restructuring Educational Organisations- A C1lse Study ... 267 Paul McCarthy and Patrick Merrick
New Technologies and Global Learning: The Challenges
Developing Appropriate Computing Systems for Developing Nations: Communicative Action, Soft Systems and Guiding Metaphors ... 275 Craig Standing and Mark Campbell Williams
Technologies for Networking: From Packet Switching to ISDN ... 281 Khairuddin Ab-Hamid
The Effectiveness of Multimedia: CAL at a Primary School in Malaysia ... 286 Ismail B. Abdullah, M.H.B. Selamat and N.B.M. Pahri
Networks, Empires and Open Learning ... 292 David R. Jones & Anthony L. Pritchard
Shifting Priorities in Open Learning? ... 295 Robert de Young vi INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE
Networking Self-Access Language Learning: An Evaluation of an Emerging International Scene ... 302 Terence T. T. Pang
Innovation in the Use of Electronic Mail for Open Learning ... 306 Hilary Capper
Open for Business ... Using Commercial Television to Deliver Vocational Education and Training to Small Business Operators in Australia ... 310 John Kirk
Putting the Jigsaw Together: Delivery and Effective Use ofinfonnation at the Desktop to Improve Teaching, Learning and Research ... 313 Brian Cook
Multi-skilling the Information Worker ... 320 Helen Bull, Stephen Burgess, Mohini Singh, Andrew Stein and Dawn Watson
International Networking for Language Teaching Research: The Ultra Project ... 325 Ian G. Malcolm and Alastair L. McGregor
Convergent Electronic Networking: An Interactive Delivery System for Distance Education Students in Australia ... 331 John M. Renner • • • Foreword
The decision to inaugurate the International Western Australia and the contribution of Networking Conference to focus on education, Professor Bienvenido F Nebres from Ateneo de training and change was a direct result of the Manila University in the Philippines did much to Higher Education/UNESCO Conference which add to the significance of the four-day was held in Cyprus in 1992. I was given the Conference. Over 250 delegates attended. opportunity of delivering a paper on some of the I would like to express my gratitude to the problems associated with managing an various sponsors, in particular the Department internationally respected performing arts of Employment, Education and Training and the institution in the most remote capital city in the Department of Commerce and Trade through world-Perth, Western Australia. whose generosity it was possible to include in the Conference a number of significant educators Upon my return to Perth I broached the who would not otherwise have been able to notion of conducting an international conference participate. Through Australian sponsorship it in Western Australia which would highlight was possible to bring the Vice-Rector of Hanoi issues and problems relative to higher education University to Australia and a number of other programs in Australia, Asia and the Indian distinguished educators from India and Asia. Ocean rim. With the support of UNESCO, the Because the Conference was under the University's Vice-Chancellor, Professor Roy chairmanship of the Director of the Western Lourens, and the Deputy Vice-Chancellor, Australian Academy of Performing Arts, the Professor Brian Lawrence, agreed that the project comprehensive educational program was was one that would be a significant one for Edith underpinned by an ambitious performance and Cowan University. They provided substantial entertainment schedule. Delegates were able to financial and moral support. see the outstanding work of the Academy in A remarkably committed and enthusiastic operatic productions, Australian theatre and committee was established to develop the cabaret performances. For this I wish to record conference and over the next two years my thanks to the staff and students of the outstanding educators in the field of networking Academy who very successfully ensured that the agreed to participate. Dumitru Chitoran, from Conference participants had a clear UNESCO in Paris, agreed to take part in the understanding of the school's performance official opening, as did Wang Gunwu, Vice excellence. My thanks also go to the organising Chancellor of the University of Hong Kong. committee who were able to make the Charuni Sutabutr, from the Institute of Science aspirations we had for the Conference a reality. and Technology in Thailand, agreed to deliver I trust that the proceedings of this the keynote address and John Daniel, Vice Conference will rekindle the spirit that was Chancellor of the Open University in the United established during the four days in Perth from Kingdom, also participated. 20-23 September 1994 and sincerely hope that the As new communication technologies and outcomes of the Conference will have a lasting global learning were part of the thrust of the effect upon the capacity for participants to Conference, some of the keynote addresses were network with each other in the future. delivered via current telecommunication technology. Others made the long journey to Dr Geoffrey Gibbs Chairman • • •
vii Keynote Addresses Opening Address
Dumitru Chitoran
Higher Education Section, UNESCO
Paris
It is indeed a great pleasure and an honour for century. Like all the other inter-governmental me to address this distinguished audience. My organisations it is faced today with new first duty is to convey to you the warm greetings challenges and new tasks. and best wishes of Mr Federico Mayor, the In keeping with the mandate entrusted to it Director-General of UNESCO and of Mr Colin ' within the UN system as the specialised agency Power, the Assistant Director-General for for education, science and culture, UNESCO has Education. I wish to thank the organisers for the adopted specific forms of action which it carries invitation extended to UNESCO to sponsor this out in close co-operation with the intellectual meeting and to address it. Sincere thanks, on community. UNESCO's founding fathers had a behalf of UNESCO, are also due to the Australian vision of laying the foundations, first and government and to the academic community of foremost, for a more peaceful, democratic and Australia for their continuous support in the equitable world through education and by planning and execution of the Organisation's working together. As part of that vision, the program in the field of higher education as well development of higher learning and the as in all other fields of endeavour of UNESCO. promotion of research through international co operation have always been major fields of The relevance of your debates for the work of action of UNESCO. UNESCO is obvious. We hope that the UNESCO is engaged at present in the international experience acquired by UNESCO elaboration of a comprehensive policy for higher will also be found useful by the participants, and education, as requested by the General I am looking forward to the UNESCO Conference as its session in November 1993. The symposium on Globalisation and the Role of analysis of the situation of higher education UNESCO which is scheduled for Friday morning today is both a source of satisfaction and of when I would like to share with you a few of the serious concern. On the positive side, mention preoccupations and concerns of the Organisation must be made of its considerable growth. Indeed, with regard to higher education in the world for the world of education, the second half of this today. More importantly, I am looking forward to century will go down in history as the period of listening to your advice and suggestions as to the largest and fastest expansion of higher how UNESCO should better perform its role in education. Tertiary education has been growing this field. continuously from 28.2 million students in 1970, UNESCO will soon celebrate its 50th to 47.5 million in 1980, to 65 million in 1993. anniversary. Together with the other agencies of Moreover, it is in the developing countries that the UN system and the other inter-governmental the increase has been higher. Between 1970 and organisations create 1 2 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE has doubled in Southern Asia. Today, almost half most impressive during the last few decades and of the students enrolled in higher education are in which, according to certain estimates, the in the developing countries. numbers of students pursuing studies abroad However, inequality of access to higher will exceed the half million mark by the year education is and will continue to be the major 2000. In this part of the world, too, the use of difference between the rich and the poor new information and communication countries with regard to education. Higher technologies is very advanced, as evidenced in education enrolment per 100,000 inhabitants the first place by the impressive number of ranges from over 5,000 in the United States and students (proportionately by far the largest Canada to only 21 in Tanzania and 16 in number, compared with other regions of the Mozambique. The chances for young people in world) who are offered access to higher the industrialised countries to pursue higher education through various forms of distance education studies are four times greater than in a education. developing country and 17 times higher than in The fact that this conference is taking place at sub-Sahara Africa! a young, highly distinct and very dynamic Analyses converge unanimously in Australian university has also specific emphasising the correlation between higher significance. I would like, in this respect, to select education and economic development; three major commitments of Edith Cowan enrolment ratios in higher education average 51 University which are particularly pertinent for percent in the OECD countries, compared with UNESCO's work in the field of higher education. 21 percent in middle income countries and only 6 First, its commitment to the advancement of percent in low-income countries. It should the teaching profession and the awareness of its therefore not be difficult to make a strong case in responsibility for education at all levels. It has favour of higher education, and UNESCO is been pointed out repeatedly in various analyses trying hard to do this. The foremost challenge and studies as well as at large international facing higher education everywhere-namely gatherings-the last one being the United how to reconcile constantly rising demands on Nations Conference on Population held in Cairo and for higher education with diminishing in June 1993-that empowerment through education resources, particularly from public funding-is is the major tool with which humanity can especially severe for developing countries. achieve sustainable development. Teachers at all Beset as they are with serious socio-economic levels in the education system play a key role in and political problems, and bearing the burden this effort. Yet, the condition of the teaching of foreign debts, these countries will not find it profession has known a marked process of easy to direct the necessary resources towards deterioration in many countries, particularly the higher education. Accordingly, international developing ones. The prestige of the profession cooperation and assistance have a vital role to must be regained. UNESCO, reflecting the will of play in overcoming the glaring educational gaps its Member States and of the organisations of the between the North and the South. Universities, teaching profession, is committed to action to by virtue of their vocation, should be ready to achieve that goal. It finds valuable assistance in assume a leading role in ensuring the universal the work of pursuing the same goal by dissemination of knowledge and in promoting universities such as yours. the development of their fellow institutions The second commitment of Edith Cowan worldwide. Through inter-university co University, which is very much in consonance operation, it should be possible to offset the with the present concerns of UNESCO resides in trend towards excessive concentration of your conception of the all-round education of expertise and to achieve a wider international students in which multicultural and inter distribution of academic excellence through a cultural studies are intrinsic components. This is "division of tasks" transcending national very important both for the preservation and frontiers. enhancement of cultural identities, and for better This is precisely what your Conference is understanding, tolerance and the respect of promoting, using networking as a powerful others, so much needed in the troubled world of mechanism facilitated by the fantastic today. development of new information and Thirdly, UNESCO is highly appreciative of communication technologies. the broad international perspective of Edith It is significant that the Conference takes Cowan University. This is testified by the place in this part of the world where proportionately large number of foreign students developments in higher education have been on its campus, by its numerous links with higher Keynote Addresses 3 education institutions abroad and by the and East-West axes with the aim of promoting prevailing feeling of solidarity and its readiness institutional development and facilitating the to assist higher education needs in developing exchange of expertise and experience as well as countries. What better testimony of that spirit staff and students. The UNESCO Chairs Scheme than the fact that your Vice-Chancellor, Professor involves the creation, in partnership with Roy Lourens, will lead, in a few days' time, a universities and other appropriate bodies, of delegation of Australian Vice-Chancellors to professorships enabling visiting scholars to South Africa? provide core expertise for the development of In the last edition of the World Education locally based centres of excellence in key Report (1993), UNESCO has expressed its disciplines and fields related to sustainable concern about certain trends in international co development. An interlocking system of operation in the field of higher education which international chairs can provide an important are based on the harsh mechanisms of market boost to higher education within a given region, competition. Its concern stems from the reality and can, in particular, help to promote South that in this fierce competition, higher education South co-operation. The response to the institutions in the developing world are doomed UNESCO Chairs Scheme has been very to be forever on the losing side. Admittedly, in its favourable and over 70 such chairs and some 25 pursuit and advancement of knowledge, higher inter-university networks have been created education involves a highly competitive spirit. throughout the world, testifying to the readiness Institutions everywhere, including those in of the academic community to contribute to the developing countries, should be aware of this global development of higher education. reality. However, in this as in other spheres it We rely very much on you for the future would be wrong, in the long run, to let affairs be development of the UNITWIN project in this governed solely by the competitive laws of the ' part of the world. A recent meeting organised by market. DEET and the AVCC had exactly that purpose in The recently launched UNITWIN/UNESCO mind. I hope your Conference will also examine Chairs Program is :;;pecifically designed to ways and means to promote this UNESCO mobilise international co-operation among initiative. universities. UNITWIN is intended to develop Wishing you all full success in your university networking and other linking deliberations, I invite you therefore to co-operate arrangements along North-South, South-South closely with UNESCO. • • • ~ :1;)! l :l'~ :l 'l l i l I I I l j Official Opening Delivered on behalf of Richard Court MLA Premier of Western Australia Australia I am delighted to have the opportunity to be international competitiveness. The emphasis has with you today at the UNESCO Conference on naturally tended to be on developing links with International Networking. Apologies for the Asia, given our geographic location and the Premier, who has parliamentary duties. rapidly developing Asian economies. Congratulations on the performance of the Jazz In Western Australia, the need to think Band. internationally has always been essential, given our distance from the eastern seaboard, our I congratulate Edith Cowan University for outlook on the Indian Ocean and our significant hosting this conference and thank UNESCO for links with international markets. In recent years, the patronage and support provided to enable as well as increasing overseas investment and this important international conference to take tourism, a considerable strengthening of our place. I am appreciative of the efforts required to cultural and education links internationally has develop an international conference, particularly occurred. In the education system, growing the difficulties of attracting the range and calibre emphasis has been put on international dimen of the delegates who are here today. I would like sions. This can be seen in the increasing numbers to add my welcome to you all and emphasise of international students wishing to enter our how pleased I am that the conference is being universities, colleges and schools; the promotion held in Western Australia. of two-way exchanges of students; and the Of the many themes of the late 20th Century, developing links between Australian institutions increasing intemationalisation and a heightened and overseas universities and colleges. In terms global outlook are certainly among the most of formal links, Western Australian universities significant. We live in an increasingly integrated have more than 75 formal international world. The past concepts of isolation, whether agreements with overseas institutions, including geographic, cultural, political or economic, are many represented at this conference. simply untenable. This increased international emphasis in A global market place for goods, services and education is an important development for ideas is developing rapidly. What is at issue is Western Australia. All students undertaking not simply the change in perspective, but rather tertiary education will benefit from the it is the speed at which this perspective is intemationalisation of the campuses in terms of changing. I am sure we can all remember a time an enhanced understanding of different cultures, when it was amusing to quote the aphorism "the new contacts and a heightened awareness of only constant of modem life is incessant international work opportunities. change." It is perhaps less amusing than it once The view Australia has of its place in the was, though no less true. world is changing and the education system is The revolution in outlook is very apparent to reflecting this change. The outlook of the student us all in Australia. In Australia, the need to think population, the nature of the curriculum, the internationally is of course particularly linked increasing international links and the methods of with opening our economy and promoting delivery of education are all changing. 4 Keynote Addresses 5 It is therefore an appropriate time for Edith the opportunities are taken up by people-those Cowan University and Australia more generally in rural communities, in isolated areas, in towns, to be considering international networking for on farms, alone, in groups, in classrooms and in education, training and change. This conference the workplace. will examine the role and function of the Western Australia is the largest state in universities and other institutes of higher Australia and Perth is the most geographically learning into the 21st Century and at the same isolated city in the world. Given this time reflect on the purpose and nature of higher background, we well understand the challenges education. associated with the need to provide Global networks are a fact. Australian appropriately for the different education needs institutions are a part of these networks and wish of people in all walks of life and locations. to develop their links more fully. To do that The mention of international networking requires a review of Australia's role in education conjures up a view of world computer webs and against an understanding of developing the Internet with its current 30 million users. international education and training systems, However, networks are fundamentally linkages particularly in our region. This conference covers between people. They are mechanisms for the a wide scope and is an ambitious undertaking. exchange of information and ideas. This No doubt a considerable amount of time will be conference represents an element of a network, taken discussing the latest technologies and their and it is interesting that although at least one key relevance for the delivery of education. The speaker will be with you by satellite, most of you major issues of rapid change, globalisation and have taken the trouble to be here in person. I am technological development must not obscure the delighted that you are. fact that education is about learners rather than I now have great pleasure in officially teachers. I am sure that your conference will be a opening the UNESCO Conference on success if the discussion never loses sight of the International Networking: Education, Training and fact that, no matter how sophisticated the Change. technology, learning will only be improved when • • • The Impact of International Networking on Education and Training Charuni Sutabutr Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology Thailand It is my pleasure to be invited to this conference Many more small networks followed, until on International Networking. It is my honour to the Ministry of Science and Technology be here to deliver the keynote address on a founded NECTEC or the National challenging theme: what effects international Electronics and Computer Technology networking will have on education, training and Centre in 1992. It was to take a tripartite change, once it is completely established. May I approach, bringing together the first express my sincere thanks to Dr Geoffrey government, private sector, and universities. Gibbs, the Chairman of the Organising By installation of the ThaiSarn Network, Committee for his invitation and to Professor academic exchange of electronic mail, on Ken Clements for his kind words of introduction. line information retrieval and sharing of computer facilities were achieved. NECTEC As a representative of Thailand, it seems is now connected to the International appropriate for me to use the situation in Network. Nevertheless, we still need certain Thailand as an example for our discussion. We local networks, particularly the library are currently setting up our network at the service to compensate for costly books and national level. It is a difficult and challenging journals, which are difficult to obtain. task because Thailand must also bring her Hence, the Thalinet is being proposed. It national network in line with the international will connect the Thai Library Networking, one. Thailand is a country with strong traditions consisting of state universities in the and culture. And although our education system Bangkok Metropolitan area, with those in is centralised, with schools and universities the provinces. under strict government control, academics and the private sector enjoy the utmost freedom in • At present, Thailand has two networks regulating their computer supplies. To elucidate connected with the international one. These this freedom, let me show you how many small are the ThaiSarn and NECTEC networks networks have been set up, independent of the which, as I have already mentioned, internet. As shown chronologically: comprise the Academic Network. • In 1984: Provincial universities, each with their own network, united to set up an • I would now like to touch briefly on the information network, in order to partially National Communication network, also compensate for the library service that they known as the THAICOM Project. needed. Hence, PULINET was established. Although the Thai government has spent • In 1988: The International Development 19% of the total Science & Technology Program Electronic mail was set up at Prince Development budget on funding research on of Songkla University in Southern Thailand, electronics, computer and networking facilities, with the help of the Australian government. the NECTEC has not made its presence felt as 6 Keynote Addresses 7 much as THAICOM. This is perhaps because the important role in health education. It is also latter can achieve much more influence on the practical, for example, when we travel public, through television and radio programs, extensively. Inhabitants of the cold climate which are aired directly to all households. The region may plan to spend their vacation in the world seems to shrink into just a small unit. tropics. Without knowledge of drug resistant Simply pressing a button on your television set malaria, they may arrive happily with outdated will enable you to witness a live event, such as medicine prescribed by their family physician, this past summer's World Cup Soccer, the World only to discover that the medicine offers no Cup Concert, and of course, the O.J. Simpson protection. Intemetworking in preventive and Case. tropical medicine could save one's life when the In addition, rare and private matters can be physician or patient can check the World Health made available through the Internet, such as Organisation's network about an appropriate pornography and erotic literature. As a prophylaxis. A successful health education consequence, we will need more discipline in program will lead to prevention of infectious choosing the programs for our young ones, who diseases. in their childhood are not ready for such In Thailand, the campaign against liver fluke programs. And here is where education starts to infection was achieved through personnel play its role. networking by the Ministry of Public Health. Now, we are coming to this big word: This parasitic infection is acquired by eating raw Education. How can international networking fish contaminated with the infective stage of the benefit education? I trust we all agree that fluke. Although this dish is a popular gourmet "education" should mean an infinite growth and delight of the north-east region of Thailand, the gain, in intelligence, wisdom, insight, and vision. Ministry has achieved a reduction of prevalence This can be achieved through ingenious ways of from 90% to 65% through health education. thinking, acquiring new knowledge and new Treatment with antihelmintics alone would not understanding. By generating information reduce the prevalence because of the re-infection, appropriately, certain objectives can be achieved. which would occur if the locals did not refrain The Internet itself is a new form of education. from eating raw fish. This task was achieved by When you tum on your computer, you might be numerous tactics and extensive campaigning to greeted with something like this: educate the public. Imagine how much faster and easier it would be to dispatch the important Welcome to the Internet. information with the help of the Internet. Enter your account number. Enter your password. In an era of globalisation we all have to be responsible for the planet we live on. This is understandable to those who know International Networking will give us basic English. But for those who do not, educating information that we can use to shape our mode oneself in this language is a must to become of living. If one chooses to be environmentally liberated on the Internet. Here anglicisation conscious, one will not need to take to the street comes before globalisation! And only then could and campaign. On the other hand, one can obtain we go on to understand the language of information on key issues directly from international networking. I have to accept this. environmental scientists. There are so many do's Looking at my mailing address in Thai, we all and don'ts that we could join in on. For example, realise that the time has already come for more avoiding the negatives such as exploiting the training and change. Amazon and disposal of toxic wastes, and What message do the Thai characters convey following the positives such as the green peace to you? Some might say: There are many movement and the earth summit declaration. different languages in the world. This is because A challenging process, that needs to be there are many countries, many cultures and worked on, is the setting up of an international many traditions. Do the Thai characters have network in education and training. At the anything in common with the English alphabets? present, there are several training programs This question only marks the beginning. jointly organised by a couple of countries. Despite all of the new adjustments that have Ronpaku, for example, is a program for training to be made, we are happy with the change, graduates at the PhD level in Japan and other because of its enormous impact in relaying countries. The Mahidol University-University of useful information for a better life. London "sandwich" program to train young I should like to use health education as an scientists in both Thailand and Great Britain is example. The Internet has an extremely another example. In the programs, candidates 8 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE make at least two trips between these countries increased. Successful implementation of such in order to fulfil the Program's requirement. international strategies depends on the An example of the time spent for a principles and policies which govern the dissertation is that of Dr Pilai Poonswad, on activities and operations of the network. A key Ecology of Hornbills in Khao Yai National Park institution must be available, to closely monitor in Thailand, under the Ronpaku Program. Dr the development of the programs, and to support Poonswad carried out her field work in them financially. By having curricula, courses Thailand, collected field data for several months, and teaching materials available on the network, then travelled to Osaka, Japan, where she larger target groups would gain benefit from this analysed her data using the facilities of the information, generating a wider range of University of Osaka. Information from the participants. Universities and institutions of database in Osaka was also used. After two higher education can also interact directly with months, the candidate came back to Thailand to high schools or other secondary levels of do more fieldwork. Her Japanese adviser has education, in order to link their academic also visited Thailand in order to help her with standards and methods of teaching. Especially in the database analysis. Six trips were made Thailand, where a student's high school career altogether before this candidate had completed culminates with university entrance her degree. examinations, this will result in good An international network in education and preparation, and a smooth transition to students training, or a model of . an Internet-based for entrance to the universities. university in the 21st century, seems to be the Within the next few days, we will be sharing right situation arising from such joint training. our thoughts, ideas, areas of expertise, and We could go as far as awarding degrees through viewpoints, in setting up a functional system on Internet correspondence! international networking in education and To initiate an international network in training. Taking into account the existing culture education and training, we must set up mutual and traditions of each country, our task will be a or complementary curricula. A conceptual difficult one, yet I am sure we all share the framework and guideline on global networks confidence that the prize will be worth the effort. should be developed along with these activities. Exchanging of curricula, resource materials, and resource personnel between universities must be • • • Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World Wang Gunwu The University of Hong Kong Hong Kong Let me begin by saying how pleased I am to be too much on their plates to take on, in any part of this exciting exploration of the many new systematic way, the work of providing bridges aspects of international networking. You have between different cultures. But bridging cultures, heard in the keynote address by Professor , I believe, is a vital part of education, and that Charuni Sutabutr, I understand, a broad survey task has become increasingly important in a of how important these are to education and world which is rapidly changing. In particular, I training, and you will be examining the manifold would like to approach my topic today through possibilities of the new technologies that have three related and directly relevant phenomena: been introduced into institutions of higher the fact that our world is smaller now; and learning. I shall confine myself to a subject very therefore, more accessible; and that we now live close to my heart, that of building bridges in a much more self-conscious world. between cultures as a key feature in educational Let me begin with the fact that our world networking. I have long been interested in the now appears smaller. Where culture is problems of cultural change in the context of concerned, this has meant that certain powerful university education, especially the kinds of cultures have come closer together, because each challenges facing universities which are expected of them had expanded at the expense of others. to provide cultural bridges for their For example, the modem Western or West communities. European group of cultures (in some contexts, I should refer to its earlier form of Judaeo Having spent the past eight years in Hong Christian culture), and in more specific Kong, I have become sensitive to the many kinds circumstances, Anglo-American culture, have of what might still be called East-West expanded to many comers of the globe. Others, interchanges which take place here every day. In like Indian or Hindu-Buddhist or Sanskritic particular, I have become conscious of the role cultures, flourished for centuries, but are now that The University of Hong Kong itself has contained in more limited areas. Similarly East played during the past eighty years, and will Asian, or more specifically Chinese, cultures continue to play, in helping to bring about have had considerable impact over large areas. cultural exchanges. This has led me to think Last, but not least, it is readily acknowledged much more about the vital role universities can that Islam in its many linguistic manifestations play in bridge-building between cultures. (whether Arabic, Turkic or Persian; Urdu or I realise that bridging cultures is not a Bengali, Malaysian or Indonesian; also Swahili university's primary task. That task is to teach, to and other African Languages), or Islamic transmit knowledge both old and new, to cultures, have not stopped spreading for more support scholars at the frontiers of science and than 1,300 years. As each of these major and technology, and to produce educated men and dominant cultures expands towards one another, women. Most universities already have a great the cultures in between, whether local or tribal, deal to do with these areas. It is understandable may be regarded as either less developed or when universities plead that they already have insufficiently aggressive to defend themselves. 9 10 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE They may have retained key features of their concede and accept that superiority. If there are original heritage, but those which were not enough of them living as a community, many distinctive or strong enough tended to be such communities could try to resist the power absorbed, transformed or made to disappear. of the dominant culture and seek to defend their The result is that each of the now relatively own weaker or smaller cultures. In a university few dominant cultures mentioned has become environment that tolerates diversity and more populous, and the bearers of each of them supports the principle of minority rights, much crowd closer together in larger and larger can be done to compare these cultures within metropolises. The pressures of modem living and outside national borders. In this way, we can have induced large numbers of peoples to improve our understanding of how such cultures migrate long distances and this migration is survive and grow. producing complex, and often multicultural, There has been a fascinating development in societies. Some of the new "national" cultures, the evolution of the modem secular university. such as those in modem migrant nations like There are some examples of historic universities Australia, United States, and Canada, and in in Western Europe where different Christian and different ways, Brazil and Mexico, encourage the national cultures have long been subjected to search for identity among the various minority critical inquiry, and where one or more of such groups in the community. Older national entities, cultures might be found to be inferior or superior however, may demand much greater conformity to each university's own national culture. Others, and restrict the variety of cultural choices in modem times, extended such studies to the available to their citizens. world the Europeans conquered or colonised, The minority cultures in any national and included the investigation of cultures which building environment are often under severe lost out to the superior military power of the threat and can survive only in urban ghettos, or West. Still others proudly transmitted their ideals reservations in the wilderness. In many cases, of the university to the countries their rulers had such cultures are better represented in museums subdued. than in real life. Some of the great museums of For a while, their studies of alien cultures the world, especially the museums of ethnology, had been largely taxonomic. The few scholars in educate us about the vast numbers of artefacts universities who developed admiration for and documents once belonging to vibrant and cultures generally regarded by their compatriots beautiful cultures. A tour of such museums may as inferior to their own were regarded as give everyone the impression of great cultural eccentric. Their efforts did little to enlighten their wealth in the world, but it could be argued that, countrymen about the richness of the multiple now that many cultures are no longer cultures their empires encountered. This was independently viable, our smaller world has true even of the colonies of Europeans who become significantly impoverished by the loss of settled the Americas, Australasia and parts of these cultures of the past. Asia and Africa. Their universities had begun as What can universities do here? They could, extensions, or imitations, of those in Europe. for example, examine and analyse the powerful Only during this century have they sought to cultures carefully to see what they consist of, find their own distinctive identities in their much their pluralistic ongms, the conscious more multicultural environments. borrowings from other cultures, the factors that However, in time, major changes occurred, led to their strengths or weaknesses, and their especially in the English-speaking migrant major achievements and failures. Any one of the nations like the United States and more recently powerful cultures mentioned earlier, whether Australia. War, trade, migrations, the growth of they be rooted in Christianity, Islam, Hindu scientific knowledge plus the fact that Buddhist ideas and practices, or Confucian technological advances have made the world ethics, could be profitably subjected to close smaller, all contributed to a new era of scrutiny. This work is being done in the faculties enlightenment about the wealth of cultures of arts and social sciences in many modem which many universities helped to promote. This secular universities, mostly by scholars from was, of course, still a light refrain to the amongst the original bearers of each dominant dominant theme of the wealth of nations. But it culture. But the contributions by scholars from transformed many universities from largely minority groups, who may be expected to nation-building institutions to ones capable of acknowledge the superiority of that culture, bridging cultures across national borders. should not be neglected. The contrast between the two kinds of Not all minority groups, however, would institutions is not that great, but the differences Keynote Addresses 11 are important. For example, most scholars, each accessibility, not only in terms of transport and in the name of scientific objectivity, could communications, but also through the cultural provide better reasons than mere tradition, or and educational networking, which might be loyalty, to make their people feel great pride in termed "networking in one country." the achievements of their cultures. Some may The contrast with Singapore is particularly also have to contend with accusations that their strong. As a new nation of migrants, largely from national policies towards minority cultures are China, but also from Malaysia, Indonesia and actually shameful and are asked to construct South Asia, it can be seen as a microcosm of defences against such accusations. In addition, cultural bridge-building. But it is more than that. those who are bearers of the superior culture Singapore is also the hub of one of the finest may be expected to help develop strategies for economic networking systems in the world, and the further expansion of their dominant culture this shows in the role of the universities there. In and prepare for what may be seen as inevitable their universities, modem scientific culture is conflicts with other powerful cultures. They easily accessible and has become dominant-so could certainly assist in selecting what is best for much so that the leaders now have to seek local transmission to their students and their and regional cultural frameworks to provide communities. variety and challenge. In some ways, Malaysia But it is the universities which act as bridges shares the same challenge, with its many cultures between the different and even competitive confronting the power of modem economics and cultures which could, with their detached technology. It, too, has to find a counter-balance scholarship, do what other institutions are not to rapid modernisation by paying attention to able to do. They could increase the capacity of the great cultural heritages of the region. Its the powerful cultures to learn selectively from many different communities are themselves one another. This could be achieved by ' skilled in cultural networking and this is consciously studying the cultures of other reflected in the varieties of tertiary education the peoples through the education system, especially country provides. in the universities where more sympathetic No less interesting are the historic nations of attitudes and sophisticated methods could be Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia and Vietnam to employed. Even better, the scholars could teach the north. Their intense rivalries had carved humility to the bearers of the dominant cultures, national identities for them earlier than the to make them understand how some of the islands of Southeast Asia. Their continental cultures that have lost out actually had relations with India and China are matched by refinements which their own powerful ones have centuries of maritime trading connections in lost or never had, How this is presented requires both the Indian and Pacific Oceans. But until sensitivity and considerable networking by modem times, their only cultural networking representatives of the various cultures. The more was through religion, especially the varieties of contact they have, the better chance there is for Hindu-Buddhism which made Thailand, the virtues and strengths of each culture to gain Cambodia and Myanmar look westwards, and appreciation, and even respect, among those the Confucianised Buddhism which linked who had started out being alien to its traditions. Vietnam northwards with China. It has taken The second point, that the world is now more their modem universities, through the accessible, is simpler. For example, in our region introduction of increasingly international in my lifetime, I have seen the many local outlooks, many decades to extend the cultures change from isolated and mysterious networking to other cultures in any significant pockets of historical artefacts to rivers flowing way. into the sea of new national cultures. Indonesia is I have concentrated here on Southeast Asian the most dramatic example. Into the world of examples because they have been transformed Javanese syncretism have come the richness of by both their own multicultural environments the Malay language, the vigour of the cultures of and those of the dominant modem West. Further the Minangkabau and the Batak peoples, the north, China (including . Taiwan and Hong quality of faith and pride of the Achenese, and Kong), the two Koreas and Japan have been more the multiple cultures of the Eastern islands. self-contained. They have approached cultural Through a great imaginative leap, they have all networking beyond national borders with come under the mitional ideal of "unity in caution and even suspicion. But over time, their diversity" and act now as the building blocks of a universities, too, have opened out and now lead multicultural nation. The role of the universities the way towards the kind of cultural and in emphasising that ideal is made easier by educational networking common elsewhere. 12 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE All cultures in the world are now within possible to build bridges between dominant reach in one form or another, notably through cultures. But they have gone further and books and the print media, but increasingly extended bridges to the whole range of all the preserved on film, videotape and telemedia, and cultures that can show that they still have thus made widely available. In this way, the something valuable to offer the total human dominant cultures have had even greater experience. The world of cultural knowledge is exposure and have tended to expand themselves. now much larger. It is available for intensive Some have become ubiquitous and their study in universities. The critical and analytical influence is almost irresistible because of the skills of the scholars can now bring about a much power and wealth they control. Each of these is greater appreciation of the variety and richness now in a position to impose its values on of what human beings have been able to produce everyone who is open to the media and other over the centuries. channels of information. The third point, that our world is very much In fact, even the less prominent cultures are more self-conscious, is the most challenging. more accessible, as long as they have not actually Cultural contacts were once limited to a few died out. Many of these have had their more members of the elite, some long-distance traders striking features recorded for display or future and, from time to time, the soldiers who were reference. Those which are still surviving today sent out to conquer other peoples. For the rest, might succeed in this way to fight off cultures were more or less self-contained and fragmentation and decay, and see their peoples taken for granted. The modem world, however, regain pride in their cultural roots. But often they has made people aware of similarities and could only do so on sufferance as a special kind differences among themselves to an extent never of protected lumpenculture or relic, the subject of dreamed of in the past. Being thus more aware, anything from contempt and ridicule to pity and people can never be the same again. They could helpless anger. In any case, modem admire themselves more and better understand communications and educational facilities can why they do so; ot: they could become more make all cultures, whether weak or strong, much critical of their own values and now know why. more accessible than ever before to all those who They are continually, through the print and are interested. electronic media and through magazines and The challenge for universities here is to give books, or through travel or tourism, being context and meaning to what is accessible. introduced to other people's values. And if they Cultural networking is not merely for the sake of do not switch off altogether because of transmission and communication. It is also to knowledge saturation or indigestion, they could provide opportunities to compare and contrast, become truly stimulated by the full range of to explain and even justify, and ultimately to what their own cultures can offer. They could offer accurate and verified samples of cultural also be much enlightened by the great variety of artefacts for judgment. For example, dominant other people's cultural artefacts now made cultures could have their glories, beauties and available to them. claims to superiority set out for everyone's On the other hand, the present high degree of admiration. But that is not enough in cultural self-consciousness about cultural matters also networking across national borders. A balanced has its dangers. It could also heighten presentation would require that faults and sensitivities to such an extent that it emphasises deficiencies are also brought out, such as ethnic differences and allows extremists and historical examples of aggression, cruelty and fanatics to politicise the differences to the point destructiveness. The sophistication that each of open conflict. Unfortunately, understanding dominant culture has achieved may be admired, each other's culture does not necessarily mean but it could also be exposed for its that deep-seated hatreds are eliminated. pretentiousness, and its arrogance could be Here is where the universities have the most contrasted to the simple values that can be found difficult responsibility. As people learn more in the wide range of other cultures available for about their cultural values and as they affirm study. their faith and loyalty in what they believe, how Being accessible means that cultures may, in can university academics preserve their scholarly fact, now never be lost. Scholars of the detachment in pursuit of understanding and humanities, the sciences and the social sciences enlightenment? How can they do that in areas of (for example, archaeologists, anthropologists, knowledge where truth is not something historians, linguists and sociologists, just to everyone can agree on? I believe that conscious name a few) have all helped to ensure it is efforts at bridging cultures are something Keynote Addresses 13 universities can do. However, there needs to be use of distance learning methods world-wide. careful study of how the bridges themselves can But I would suggest that we have gone withstand the great pressures put on them. This somewhat beyond that. We have become more is particularly true when cultural and ethnic conscious of what we are doing, and can see differences surface as more and more knowledge better how much more we can do. We are ready is made available. to ask what new ways our networking The reality is that modern scientific progress experiences can be used to fulfil our role as has not replaced the deep attachments most modern cultural bridge builders. people have towards their own cultural artefacts I have merely used The University of Hong and values. There are no easy formulas here Kong as an example of an early effort to do this which can be used to brush aside the tribal, consciously. The scope for closer international ethnic, religious or even national tensions that academic interchange between universities have emerged in modern forms. I believe that through cultural networking is now so much universities must face this reality. Bridging greater. A few obvious areas come to mind. In the cultures intelligently, with wisdom and courage, fields of language and linguistics, in fine arts and is probably the best that we can do to help avoid the whole range of creative expression, in legal the possible threat of major cultural conflicts. It is and political systems, in health and medical care a responsibility that calls for the greatest and in agriculture, there are immense integrity of scholarship and is one of the opportunities for mutual exchange of ideas and strongest challenges to the future role of experience. Even in business practice, there is universities I know. increasing sensitivity about cultural values. For I believe it is true to say that one has no idea example, sensitivity about Confucian ethical of the representative nature of one's own values is needed now that some East Asian experience if one has only one's own perspective developing countries have succeeded better than to go by. The only way to make that perspective others in adapting to modern economic meaningful is to see it from a different demands. perspective. The more you understand another Already, there are many "internationalists" culture, the more you understand your own. among university communities and staff, who appreciate interchange with colleagues in The somewhat sober thoughts outlined different countries because it widens their above have been inspired by what I have seen perspectives and at the same time produces for some universities achieve in my own lifetime. them new ideas and ways of approaching Certainly, if I may take my present university as problems. University lecturers in leading an example, The University of Hong Kong has in research fields have long co-operated and its own short history of eighty years done its fair continue to do so in different countries. They are share in this task of bridging cultures, notably in already creating pools of information where the bridging the differences between two of the sum total becomes greater than the individual dominant cultures I mentioned earlier, that is parts and where the knowledge is shared to the between Chinese and Western cultures. This had greater benefit of all. been clearly stated as one of the goals of the We must offer our teachers and their university when it was first founded in 1911. It students the opportunity to place their work in a was inspired by the challenge to mesh two global context and make the learning process a cultures in one institution and build modern two-way one across a wide variety of disciplines. education for Hong Kong around the two. This This is where educational and cultural has become even more strikingly important networking on a larger scale is a major step because Hong Kong has become of the great forward in make such educational processes cultural crossroads of the modern world during natural and normal to everyone concerned. To the past three decades of rapid development. further this process and involve different But there is now an even greater difference. cultures to a greater extent than at present, it is We now have the capacity to reach out to more essential that universities continue to become than the two dominant cultures of China and the more international in their outlook, and provide West. Educational networking technology has essential linkages between communities. been matched by the recognition that bridging The role of building cultural bridges has, of cultures is not only possible but also desirable. course, been one which our Asia-Pacific region You are probably aware that the university has has been concerned with for many years. It is a brought to Hong Kong those practical skills and region of many indigenous cultures. It is one in knowledge that are in great demand through the which dominant cultures from India, China, and 14 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE the Middle East had begun to penetrate for can each be expected to emphasise its own core centuries. More recently, some of these dominant culture, the value system which preserves and cultures, especially those from the West, have adds to their own culture and heritage. been strengthened by modem science and Otherwise, our universities would simply technology and great economiC power. In one encourage a sort of cultural rootlessness through sense, this is progress in acquiring modem which each distinct cultural identity would be in civilisation. In other ways, however, the success danger of being eroded away. of modernisation is a major challenge to the In this era we are seeking a worldwide survival of distinct local traditions in many transformation of society which is as great as the cultures. one which marked the change from an The last few years have taken us closer agricultural to an industrial society. It is now a towards what has been called the Pacific 21st society where gains through conquest have been Century, when Pacific Rim countries truly get replaced by what has been described as into their economic strides. In this dynamic enlightened global self-interest. This global self environment, the universities in the region can interest has immeasurably deepened the certainly do a great deal across national connections between countries and their peoples, boundaries to help bring the different peoples but would still need to be based on secure core closer together through a greater understanding identities of the countries so engaged. of their respective cultures. I have earlier given On both sides of the Pacific, in both Australia examples of changes in a number of East Asian and the United States, the universities are countries where universities have begun to open wrestling with this problem. As they are both up to global influences. Two other examples from countries made up of people from so many the Pacific region provide both a contrast and a different cultures, their universities would seem comparison. They are Australia and the United to have greatly more difficult tasks when States. Both are countries with populations compared with those operating in the surviving formed of peoples from all over the world. We traditional cultures of individual Asian have recently seen how their universities have countries. But in the global village the world has expanded their curricula to include non-Western now become, the gap between both groups of subjects and courses which will give them universities is no longer large. The compelling greater insight into Asia and the Asian mind. The need is for all universities to foster a more growing availability of such courses on different international and less introspective outlook, in cultures is an indication of their importance. order to lessen the impact when the world's At the same time, it is also a fact that there is myriad cultures move more closely together. The a section of opinion in the universities of both kind of bridges universities have to build are not countries which stresses the importance of mechanical achievements. The processes require retaining a core of subjects pertaining to Western care and sensitivity. If successful, however, they cultures which are regarded to be at the very will extend the imagination, and help us all heart of their teaching and research. I have appreciate the value, dignity and creativity of the sympathy for this point of view. Plainly, no cultures humankind has formed. matter how adventurous we are in introducing And if all of this could be made easier by the new subjects which bridge the cultural divides, new networking technologies-making contacts there must be an academic core which relate· that are more direct and personal-so much the primarily to the culture and nation in which it is better. I hope that my talking to you in this way taught. Only in having an understanding of, and has enhanced the points I have been making faith in, one's own culture can one confidently about cultural bridge-building. study the cultures of others. Asian universities, too, would have to face the same problem, and • • • Confronting the Challenges of Globalisation Bienvenido F. Nebres, S.J. Ateneo de Manila University The Philippines I would like to begin by thanking the • Enrolments in electrical and electronic Conference organisers for their kind invitation engineering are up. In mechanical and for me to address this important and seminal chemical engineering they are down. gathering. Many of us have been involved in • In certain areas like information technology regional cooperation and networking over the and human resource development, the past decades. We are also aware of the gathering structures of the more established momentum of globalisation in the business and universities do not allow for rapid response economic world. But for me this is the first time to changing demands. Thus specialised that I am involved in a conference addressing institutes have arisen, challenging the usual these trends in the context of our academic structures of universities and colleges. world. The topic given to me is Confronting the Challenges of Globalisation and I would like to Globalisation is challenging universities to begin by looking at the challenges as our respond effectively to the changes and mobility universities are experiencing them. What are the in the world job market. In certain fields, the symptoms of this phenomenon in our academic challenge is whether the university is the lives? appropriate structure for the education and training needed. Universityfelt Symptoms of Globalisation In the Philippines which, like the United States, has a large private college and university system, 1.2 We are experiencing great changes in the whose finances are tuition-derived, the first area culture and life of our youth. A study done on of impact that comes to mind is the rise and fall Filipino youth by a marketing research firm, of student enrolment in courses depending on McCann-Erickson, notes the following: the world job market: • Only two-thirds of 12 to 21 year olds are • Ten years ago there was great demand for living with both parents. In addition to single nurses, doctors and other health workers and parents and marital break-ups, a major so enrolment in these fields increased greatly. reason is the global workforce: the number of Then the U.S. recession cut down job Filipinos working abroad. opportunities and enrolment declined. • Whether temporary or permanent, parental • Overseas job opportunities have increased in absenteeism is a reality that has led the youth the maritime industry and both local and to tum to their peers not just for friendship overseas jobs in computer-related fields. and companionship, but for nurturing, New institutes and courses have opened up intimacy, security and guidance. in these fields. 15 16 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE • The other surrogate "parent" is media. To Globalwork: Faultlines in the quote one adolescent "Sometimes I feel that music is my only friend. For example, if I Global Workspace have a problem, it is music that answers me." We can see this more clearly when we scan • Recently in assessing lower student the literature in the business world. More than performance on standardised tests, we Academe, business and industry has been wondered whether part of the problem is confronting these trends as components of the that we are testing students who now have phenomenon of globalisation. I would like to different ways of accessing and processing draw from one book which I have found knowledge. particularly helpful: Globalwork: Bridging Distance, Culture & Time, by Mary O'Hara • We have to make more provisions for Devereaux & Robert Johansen (1984) of the Filipino students who have spent part of Institute for the Future. their schooling in different parts of the world They use the imagery of shifting continents and we are getting a larger number of and fault lines to describe what we are students from overseas. experiencing and they situate global trends in the business world as coming from four emerging fault lines (See Figure 1). Universities are facing the challenge of new cultural and cross-cultural situations, brought The Global Consumer about by changes in technology, family, community and society, and by a growing The force here is due to an emerging middle workforce of regional and global nomads. class consumer group in the so-called third world. It is projected that these regions, which "today claim around 18 percent of the global consumer class (will) increase their share to one 1.3 Our universities are at different stages of the third or 110 million households by the year 2010" information technology revolution. Some are just (O'Hara-Devereaux & Johansen, p. 7). "This beginning to computerise. Others are moving dramatic expansion has served as the engine of into electronic networking. A few are looking to global economic growth, setting off a full utilisation of information technology. competitive scramble throughout the developed But we realise that the technology is turning world that has forced hungry corporations to out to be the easier part. The cultural and human reinvent themselves as networks, alliances and interface is much more difficult. partnerships with a global reach." (O'Hara Devereaux & Johansen, p. 5). The book makes • For example, we have not yet integrated the special mention of ASEAN, which has become calculator into the teaching of mathematics at the United States' fifth largest export market, elementary and secondary levels. Not following Canada, Japan, the EC and Mexico. In because of the cost of calculators, but because my part of the world, one of the most visible the changes demanded in books, exercises signs of globalisation, much like the flags of and classroom delivery are more difficult conquering nations, are the shopping malls than we thought they would be. emerging even in relatively remote parts of the • There are countless pilot projects on how to nation. They carry the same brands and have teach calculus with modem software. But it created a whole new activity called "malling." is not yet clear where we are on the matter. Is the rising middle class also presenting new Universities are challenged to transform the markets and new challenges for universities? world of teaching, learning and research in the context of the information technology revolution. The most difficult challenges lie in To some degree, yes. Australia has been the interface between technology and culture. promoting Australian education in different parts of Southeast Asia. Universities in the Southern Philippines are discussing how they But how do these add up to the challenge of can serve as educational centres for the newly globalisation? emerging East Asian Growth Area (Mindanao, Sulawesi, Sabah, Brunei). Offshore MBA Keynote Addresses 17 GLOBAL JOBS THE GLoBAL CON5UHER kNOWLEDGE AS G-LOBAL PRODUCT GLOBAL CORPOR./1TION Figure 1. Four Fault Lines in the Global Workspace programs abound in Southeast Asia. Some signs of this challenge may be the A rising middle-class is also seeking better special schools I mentioned above. They have educational opportunities for themselves and well-defined niches: computer science and their children. And they are willing to pay for it. information technology; business and Special schools and educational institutes, pre economics; special grade schools and high school, grade school and high school, as well as schools. They offer competition to universities business and computer schools, are emerging to for students and for faculty. meet this demand. Some of them actually set Less visible, but no less important, are the themselves up in the shopping malls. changes happening within universities. Some faculties and disciplines are declining (such as The Global Corporation the basic sciences and traditional engineering) "The second major fault line is in the and new ones are booming (such as business, electronics and communications, and organisation of work: the structure of the corporation. For two hundred years, ever-larger biotechnology). Universities are being asked to consider whether the traditional division of corporations have dominated business activity. faculties by discipline continues to be the most Now, as the old technologies that served them appropriate, or whether division according to the and the old markets that they served change market may be more effective. For example, almost overnight," (O'Hara-Devereaux & Johansen, p. 12) they find that they are too some engineering colleges are experimenting unwieldy and they cannot move fast enough and with divisions not along discipline lines (civil, mechanical, electrical, chemical), but a division change fast enough to compete with newly to address the construction industry, another to emerging, smaller and faster challengers. address the electronics industry and a third to address manufacturing. The relationships with industry are also changing. We have more Are the traditional structures of our faculty who have one foot in Academe and the universities being similarly challenged? other in industry; research and development jointly between Academe and industry and 18 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE students spending more time both in work and • Some of these technologies/packages may be in school. developed elsewhere and one of our faculty members or departments may obtain the Global Jobs: The Fragmented Workforce franchise for local adaptation and use. • As these technologies I packages are The flip side of organisational restructuring is developed by universities or university workforce fragmentation, a phenomenon that industry consortia, "they need to be includes shorter rates of job tenure, a variety of new types of employment relationships, and packaged and translated for multiple increasing cultural diversity in the workforce. cultures" (O'Hara-Devereaux & Johansen, (O'Hara-Devereaux & Johansen, p. 20) p. 30). • We see the rise of University-based science and industrial parks. We know that all these Will the same forces that have brought about developments are creating great changes in workforce fragmentation in industry also affect the organisation and financing of many universities? universities. Faultlines in the Academic World According to Globalwork, the fastest growing sector of Temporary Employment Beyond these globalisation faultlines noted Agencies (so-called "just-in-time employment") most strongly in the business world, I would like is in the area of highly skilled professional to note "faultlines" whose impact are more workers. Are we moving towards a day where immediately felt in the academic world. The first faculty will divide between a core that remains two have to do with impact on the youth we "tenured" within the university and a large teach. The third has to do with the specific group of freelancers or organised professional impact of the information technology revolution groups (engineering associations, business on teaching, learning, and research in the professor associations, language professor university. The fourth is the impact of the associations), who come in to fulfil specific, "just growing need for continuing education because in-time" needs? of the mobility and change demanded of the workforce. Knowledge as a Global Product Ideas, processes and information "are taking Changing Family and Community Situations a growing share of total trade in the information One of the major themes of discussion which economy's global marketplace from the I have initiated in my university, which also has a tradition, tangible goods of the manufacturing grade school and high school attached to it, are the challenges to us because of changing family economy" (O'Hara-Devereaux & Johansen, p. 29). and community situations. All over the world, countries and communities are experiencing fragmentation and atomisation. There is a search for "community" everywhere. O'Hara This area of challenge is well known to us. Devereaux and Johansen (1984) note that "even the workaholic, fourteen-hour-day executives of Silicon Valley are whispering the new buzz-word Many universities are now playing a larger 'community' and puzzling how information role in this information economy. systems can help create and sustain it" (p. 419). For many of our students, it is the difference • We are becoming familiar with licenses or between success and failure, even between life royalties "as the purchase price of an and death. advanced technology or idea" (O'Hara We are asking ourselves what it means for a Devereaux & Johansen, p. 29). This may be university to be alma mater, "nourishing anti-virus software as developed by one of mother," to today's youth. We have no easy our students several years ago. Or it may be answers, but we are making a commitment to HRD packages prepared for Executive devote resources to fulfilling this role better. Development Programs by our Department of Psychology. Keynote Addresses 19 Changes in the Teaching and Learning of fragmentation of the job market is that people Children of the Electronic Media have to keep going back to school. Adult We know we are different from our children. education used to be a small area of concern for We do not understand their music. We find we universities. But it is growing and will continue can study and work most efficiently in an to grow. atmosphere of quiet. Research has shown that Jerold W. Apps in his book, Higher Education they often study and work best with music (and in a Learning Society, (1988) poses some of the not quite Mozart either). Their reading challenges brought to us by this change in deficiencies bother us. Their facility in the world society (pp. 3-5): of computers and images amazes us. But does this mean there is a growing gap between the 1. What adjustments must higher education way we teach and the way they learn? Academe make to accommodate older students seeking changes slowly. One writer I read long ago noted degrees? that five centuries after the Gutenberg Bible and 2. How can higher education best provide the invention of printing, we still read our lecture non-credit opportunities for adults who do not notes in front of the class. Or as another put it, wish to study for a degree? our basic teaching methods still derive from the monastic age. The lecture is but a new form of 3. How can colleges and universities meet the homily and the tutorial a new form of the service requests from community, government confessional. Given the stability of these forms of and industry? teaching and learning (stability in the mathematical sense that perturbations coming 4. How can research institutions best respond from new technologies or new philosophies to requests from the community for applied change them only a little), how are we to' research to solve specific problems? confront the new learning abilities and All of our universities and colleges have had disabilities of today's youth? to respond in some way to these challenges. The We are finding that one impact of the trend of globalisation says that their effects may changes in family and community situations and be profound. Apps (1988) cites some trends to in technology is that the training of teachers at indicate this: elementary and secondary levels needs serious review. Many of them feel a greater need to • the appearance of alternative educational understand the world where their students are providers; coming from and the traditional teacher-training • the blurring of boundaries between what is programs do not meet these needs adequately. academic and what is business; • the blurring of traditional distinctions The Challenge of Information Technology and between teaching, research, and outreach/ the Information Revolution extension; How do we teach calculus and other areas of • the use of creative financing; and mathematics in a world of new software such as • the development of special programs for mathematica? specific populations. How do we approach research in areas such as Ancient Greek Philosophers or Scriptures How Do We Begin to when the texts and all their variants (and perhaps all major commentaries with complete Respond to These Challenges? concordances) are available in CD-ROM? We are invited to develop new skills in the Chess Genius II, after defeating Kasarov, may areas of culture and technology and in the be making Chess Grandmasters obsolete. May leadership needed to enter the new world certain fields of scholarship also become presented to us. Two keynote addresses later in obsolete? this conference will focus on the challenges of How are we to wade through the sea of technology. I have noted that the papers information coming at us through Internet? following my address are in the area of culture and the challenge of change. Thus I will focus my Continuing Education and New Career remarks on culture and leadership. Demands O'Hara-Devereaux and Johansen (1984) has a One of the effects of the mobility and section on The Computer as Cultural Metaphor, 20 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE ~Computer Cu\tur-e. • Opero.tor • s ph'i tuo.l intenr cultures • Applic.a.tiorl,5 • Fur.ctiona.\ worK c.ulb.we • Opero.hflq sys\:ems • Socia..\ cui \:ure (beha..vio..-) • l·hfdwa.Ye • Phtjsica_\ culture (the bod0 Figure 2. Computers as a mirror of culture Figure 3. The five cultural variables in holographic relationship Keynote Addresses 21 High Context High Context Japanese Human Resources Chinese Marketing/Sales Arab Management Greek Manufacturing Products Mexican R&D Spanish Technical Italian Information Systems - Engineers J French French Canadian Finance English Low Context English Canadian American Figure 4. High/low context by profession Scandinavian German low context cultures, the message itself means German-Swiss everything" (pp. 55-55). Low Context The authors show a chart of high/low context by cultures (see Figure 2.3) and high/low context by ___ _j profession (see Figure 2.4). In our computer Figure 3. High/low context by culture metaphor we are in a mix of operating systems, some in DOS, some in UNIX, others in system 7. which may help us visualise the first steps How do we work and communicate effectively needed in facing the challenges of culture and with one another? leadership brought about by globalisation. There is a culture gap between us and our The comparison is as follows (see Figure 2.1): children ... in our music, in our interaction with books and with electronic media and in our Computer Culture language. Using our computer metaphor, we would like to ask whether these differences are *hardware *physical culture (the body) on the level of applications software (relatively easy to bridge) or on the level of operating *operating systems *social culture (behaviour) systems (difficult to bridge)? *applications *functional work culture How are we to navigate through these multicultural situations? Probably in much the *operator intent *spiritual cultures same way as we navigate through different computer operating systems and different applications software. A running theme through the challenges enumerated above is that we are living in Just as a DOS system has trouble multicultural situations. A workforce of "global communicating with the Unix machine, so nomads" means that we have people of different does the member of one primary culture have nationalities and cultures working together, trouble getting through to another. either in the same physical space or Relationships are possible . . . but mainly interconnected in the same cyberspace. Our through applications (behaviour) rather than universities have many different professional through the underlying assumptions. Even then, misinterpretation of the behaviour and cultures: for example, Psychology, Business, practices of people from other cultures ... Natural Sciences, Medicine and Law. glitches . . . is a common phenomenon. One measure of cultural divergence is what (O'Hara-Devereaux & Johansen, p. 42) O'Hara-Devereaux and Johansen (1984) calls context. "High context cultures assign meaning What do we do when we need to have different to many of the stimuli surrounding an explicit operating systems to communicate? We bring in message. Low context cultures exclude many of an expert. This need in the global business world those stimuli and focus more intensely on the has created new categories of global workers. objective communication event, whether it be a The team from the Institute for the Future that word, a sentence, or a physical gesture. Thus in wrote Globalwork is dedicated to helping high context cultures, verbal messages have little companies and groups navigate through the new meaning without the surrounding context. In world of globalwork. 22 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE As we look at the interfacing challenges that quality in our Japanese colleagues, notably face our schools, we need experts who can help Professor Yukiyosi Kawada, who initiated the us interface with the children of the electronic linkages. media; with the world of fragmented families If I may philosophise a bit, I believe that one and longing for "community"; with the promise reason why this is true is because our common and perils of the new technology. humanity is not found in least common We need experts who will help us face the denominators. We find it only when we are able challenge of cultural literacy. to penetrate deep into our own culture and find The meaning of this challenge will be our individual centres. discussed more thoroughly in subsequent papers The other reason is that we can best test in this conference and so allow me just to stress reality in local, concrete situations. I find that what I consider to be two axioms in this work. professional internationalists, who stay away too long from local, concrete challenges, risk • AXIOM 1. The more global and multicultural eventually losing touch with local reality and we seek to become, the deeper must be our then (perhaps surprisingly) from international local and personal cultural roots. reality as well. That is, the multicultural cannot supplant the On the second axiom, we might note that the local. It is founded on the local. The new image · dominant themes in most Executive magazines of the multicultural group is not that of a melting focus on technology and human resource pot, where individual differences disappear into management and development. The message is a national mould, but might be that of a mosaic, that, as organisations (including universities) where individual characteristics remain integral seek to network and interconnect, MIS and HRD to the reality and success of the group. The focus have to go together. is then on how the pieces of the mosaic Where there are good human links and interconnect. If I may use the image of a (smooth) communication in an organisation, technologies manifold in mathematics, the challenge is to find like email can enhance and facilitate the ways in the appropriate structure or "atlas" that will which we work together. In a situation where connect the local parts into a smooth global there is a lack of communication or, indeed, whole. miscommunication, email is also likely to enhance the miscommunication. It is like an • AXIOM 2. The more we interconnect in the amplifier, which will enhance quality voice world of technology and cyberspace, the where it exists; or deliver static and noise if that more profound must be the quality of our is what is there in the first place. human interconnections and interactions. OHara-Devereaux and Johansen (1984) put it well by centring its attention on technology While technology is the key enabler of all types and culture and insisting on their profound of global teams, it remains just that ... links interdependence. As the authors emphasise, in between human beings, not between machines, the end, the object is human connectivity. "While is the real challenge of globalisation. (OHara technology is the key enabler of all types of Devereaux & Johansen, p.141) global teams, it remains just that. It cannot In practice, what are the consequences of these substitute for the human interactions that two axioms? First, in developing and searching constitute the real substance of global teamwork. for leaders/pioneers to help us navigate through Links between human beings, not between new multicultural situations, we must look for machines, is the real challenge of globalisation" and form individuals with strong roots in their (p. 141). own culture. This may not seem obvious at first. But as we look at the 24 year experience of the References Southeast Asian Mathematical Society, which is a vibrant multicultural organisation with strong Apps, J. W. (1988). Higher education in a learning society: links through East Asia and Australasia, I find Meeting new demands for education. San Francisco: that much of its strength is in this quality of its Jossey-Bass Publishers. founders. The founding "fathers," Professor O'Hara-Devereaux, M., & Johansen, R. (1994). Wong Yung Chow of Hong Kong, Teh Hoon Globalwork: Bridging distance, culture and time. San Heng and Lee Peng Yee of Singapore and others Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. were pioneers with a regional vision, but with deep roots in their own culture. The strong ties • • • we have forged with Japan owe to the same Models of Universities in the 21st Century David Phillips Department of Employment, Education and Training Australia Universities like all major institutions in our and probably more than other social and society are increasingly being required to economic institutions, because their core respond to social and economic changes, which business is the creation and communication of have two important defining characteristics: knowledge. I have been asked to speculate about models • firstly, these changes are taking place at a for universities in the 21st Century. I have no faster rate than ever before; and crystal ball that gives me any magical insights. • the nature of these changes is growing more But fortunately the beginning of the 21st Century and more complex. is now not so far away, and most of the key influences on higher education are already apparent. Discussion So rather than try to attempt a definitive The advanced economies of the world are description of the university of the future, let me moving into a post-industrial era characterised start by trying to identify some of the key by the move to advanced technologies and internal and external forces which will drive the service industries. As Alvin Toffler has argued, evolution of universities over the next thirty to we need to add a fourth factor of production fifty years. the manipulation of information-to the land, While these forces are operating on a global labour and capital triad which economists scale, I will try to illustrate my comments with previously regarded as the building blocks of reference to the Australian context. national economies. The forces which I would identify as likely to When I was an undergraduate the "global have the most enduring impact on higher village" was a topic of speculative conversation education systems are as follows: in the student union bar. Not so many years later I find that I am increasingly living in such a • an increasing demand for information and village. Evidence of that reality arises each day in knowledge and for individuals who make my electronic mail. I read about it in my productive use of that knowledge; newspaper every morning. I observe it on my • increasing pressure on public investments in television. It permeates every aspect of my higher education, as in all other areas of working and personal life. public expenditure; The rapid convergence of information and • the internationalisation of education as part communications technologies provides the of the globalisation process I referred to means by which the post-industrial global earlier; village continues to develop and go about its business. • the application of the converging Higher education systems around the world information and communications technolo will be caught up in these developments no less gies to the education process; 23 24 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE • quality as a competitive factor in higher • the distinction between universities and the education; and with heavy qualification; and more specifically vocational colleges of • demographic change. advanced education-the so-called "binary divide"-was removed, establishing a single, I will explain later why I add that caveat. Before I highly diverse system of higher education analyse the impact that these forces will have on institutions; universities it might be useful if I quickly provide some background on the Australian • the total number of institutions was reduced higher education system, which will be the from 87 to 39; and source of my examples. • a number of changes were made to funding arrangements-most notably to secure a Background to the Australian Higher Education financial contribution from students who System had been exempt from fees since the mid 1970s. The University of Sydney was founded as Australia's first institution of higher education in But perhaps the most dramatic change of all 1851. was the rapid shift from an elite to a mass system The impetus to found universities in of higher education. Retention rates to the end of Australia was not so much in response to secondary schools more than doubled in a community demand or economic imperatives, decade. Higher education student numbers grew but rather to recreate the social order and the from 394,000 to 576,000 in only 6 years between traditional institutions of Great Britain. 1987 and 1993. Government funding rose from The coat of arms of the University of Sydney A$3.3 billion to A$4.4 billion over the same features the Lion of Cambridge University and period and will reach almost A$5 billion in the the Open Book of Oxford. current triennium. The early curriculum was a steady diet of the These fundamental changes were driven by classics to which was added the professional the same imperatives which were driving change disciplines of the law and medicine. However, on throughout the Australian economy. the eve of World War I, Australian universities In essence, Australia was making the were beginning to enrol more students in transformation from a commodity and resource utilitarian, vocationally oriented degree based economy to a post-industrial economy programs which trained students to enter the with a more diverse range of industries and professions. exports, operating in open competition in the Following World War II, the rate of growth of markets of the world. Education and training higher education began to accelerate. Between reform was-and still is-a critical element in 1957 and 1966, for example, University this transformation. enrolments trebled and eight new universities In short, the expansion and development of were created. This growth in both student higher education has become central to our numbers and institutions continued into the national strategies to secure Australia's economic early 1970s. and social well-being. The rate of growth levelled off in the early These factors and strategies are not unique to part of the 1980s, but took off again in the late this country. 1980s and early 1990s. This growth followed the Clearly what universities do, and how they implementation of the policy initiatives do it, now and into the next century, will be of contained in the white paper on higher vital interest to national governments. education released by the then Minister for Let me move on then to examine the forces Employment, Education and Training, John which will be determining what it is that Dawkins. universities do, and how they do it. It is significant to note that the marriage of The first of these is the increasing demand for the employment and education portfolios, with information and knowledge-the currencies of the abolition of the previously freestanding the post~industrial age. Commonwealth Tertiary Education Commission, had taken place a little earlier, in 1987. These reforms not only provided the Increasing Demand for Information and financial wherewithal to allow a further dramatic Knowledge expansion of the higher education system, but As nations set about the task of creating the also brought about a substantial restructuring. information and knowledge society, universities For example: are uniquely placed to play a central role in: Keynote Addresses 25 • driving the transformation; and update knowledge and skills as a matter of • educating the information and knowledge course at various times during their working workers of the future. lives. This will have significant implications in The transformation is well under way in terms of the variety of settings in which people Australia as evidenced by the growth of its will undertake higher education. Higher services industries. Currently, the service sector education will inevitably move out of the formal accounts for 20% of Australia's exports, 70% of classroom into the homes, offices and workplaces GDP and employs 80% of the labour force. For of the country. the seven years to 1990-91, annual export growth Given the increasing sophistication of in services was 16.6% per annum. products and services which will characterise The importance of the knowledge and economic growth and social development into information industries to national wealth will the next century, I also see an inevitable increase increase with the rise of the so called "intelligent in demand for the research and development services." These are embedded in and add capacities of our universities. We can anticipate a intelligence (and, therefore, value) to services strengthening demand from industry for access and products. to the research and development services which These arguments will be familiar to you all. universities can provide-including, critically, They recur in different forms in the economic the provision of graduates trained in research and social strategies of nations around the globe. techniques. Just as high volume manufacturing Forward-looking business and enlightened technology provided the driving force for governments will become increasingly aware of growth and competitiveness in the post-war the potential to achieve competitive advantage industrial economies, it is the technology of' through research and research training. knowledge and information that will be the I must say that some other OECD countries driving force in the post-industrial world. and other countries in our own region are ahead For these reasons I can see nothing but of Australia in this respect. Here the increasing demand-from industry and from Commonwealth is still by far the biggest individuals-for higher education and provider of research funds with an estimated associated services. expenditure of approximately $2.9 billion in The transformation of the Australian 1994/95. Private sector funding for research and economy is creating an increasing demand for a development is increasing, but from a low base highly skilled, flexible labour force of and no more rapidly than many of our information and knowledge workers. competitor nations. This brings with it quite a change from the In the early 1980s, business contributions to old model of workforce preparation in which one R&D amounted to approximately 24% of total achieved a qualification then entered a specific research expenditure. By the early 1990s, this had field of employment, never to return to risen to approximately 37%. education or training. This trend will continue and hopefully In future higher education will need to equip accelerate with the growing sophistication of our a person to become a lifelong learner; someone industry base. who can respond to change; who accepts the Again, these trends are not unique to need to learn new skills progressively Australia. Universities in all countries can expect throughout their working life; and who may to play a greater role in the provision of both return to higher education several times. basic and applied research, especially m In particular, our higher education collaboration with industry. institutions will need to equip their students The increased importance of service with flexible, transferable skills to cope with and industries-especially information-based indust manipulate information effectively in a wide ries-will also be reflected in higher education range of settings, and to make the most of the course offerings. opportunities presented by the information People will need new skills for handling new revolution. kinds of information in innovative ways. New Concentration on knowledge acquisition in opportunities are already emerging in the fields specific fields is no longer a sufficient outcome of of information technology, telecommunications, higher education, if this ever was the case. financial and management services as well as Institutions will have to make provision for aspects of international law. people to return to a learning environment to And the need for information and 26 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE knowledge will not be confined to purely But such tight fiscal policy presents us with a commercial outcomes. Australians, and citizens dilemma in relation to higher education. of all other countries, will become increasingly International competitiveness will in part be sophisticated in their demands for access to determined by the effectiveness of the higher information services: for banking, shopping, education system in producing a well-educated entertainment, recreation and personal and flexible work force and a powerful national development. research base. Yet these demands must be met in Universities stand at the forefront of the an environment of overall constraint on, and technology and training needed to satisfy these legitimate, competing priorities for public demands. In Australia, the first genuine, expenditure. functioning information super-highway is the The only possible resolution of the dilemma academic research network, AARNet. The that I can foresee is a greater emphasis on other university of the 21st Century may well exist as sources of university funding outside of much in virtual reality as in bricks and mortar. government. Governments may well choose to This is a topic which I will return to shortly. increase their support for higher education, but it But there is an important point of tension is difficult to see such increases keeping pace and paradox to be tackled first. with the growth in demand. If anything it is Despite what I see as the inevitable growth in likely that governments will target support more demand for university services and their tightly on activities which contribute to the increasing sophistication, there will be achievement of certain core objectives and will constraints on the extent to which additional expect universities to pursue resources resources will be provided from governments. elsewhere for other activities. This brings me to my second "force" acting on In Australia, the Commonwealth universities: the constraints on public government has encouraged institutions to expenditure. diversify their sources of funding and reduce their reliance on financing by government. Constraints on Public Expenditure Universities are being supported and There has been an expectation in this country encouraged to become more entrepreneurial and that growth in demand for post-compulsory outward looking, with a view to: education should be provided largely from the public purse. The Australian government, like • increasing their provision of services both many others has responded by directing within Australia and overseas for fee-paying significant additional resources to higher students; and education. • entering into profitable partnerships with Within Australia, around 3-3.5% of total industry, both to assist with the funding of Commonwealth outlays are now directed into research and to market courses, services and higher education. the products of research. That is a substantial commitment at a time when there is a wide array of competing But this has not implied any reduction in demands from sectors such as health, government support. The current Minister has transportation, the environment and many other reaffirmed that significant Commonwealth areas, not least of which are the other sectors of funding of higher education will continue well education and training. into the foreseeable future. As is the case elsewhere, these calls for Our government has taken the view that increased resources are being made at a time of higher education forms an integral part of our tight fiscal policy. social and economic infrastructure and that the The present Australian government's overall optimal level of investment will not take place in economic strategy is aimed at improving the absence of substantial and ongoing international competitiveness through fostering government investment. an economic environment, characterised by low Nonetheless, I think it is inevitable that, over inflation and relatively low taxation and interest the coming decades, governments will play a rates. diminishing role in proportional terms in the Significant increases in Commonwealth funding of universities. government expenditure would be contrary to The net effect, I believe, will be that the this policy which is seen as essential to the higher education system here and elsewhere will fundamental goal of stable and sustainable increasingly pursue non-government sources of economic growth. funding and therefore will be exposed Keynote Addresses 27 increasingly to competition. Like other players in The impact on higher education will be any marketplace, universities will need to have dramatic. Strategic alliances between consortia of regard to both the price and the quality of their universities from around the world and even services and be able to demonstrate these to trans-national universities will develop quickly paying customers. within this global context. As almost a footnote to these observations, I Just as universities are positioned at the would note the potential conflict between an forefront of the knowledge and information increased reliance of private sources of income, revolution, they are at the forefront of especially student fees, and the desirable intemationalisation. objective of providing equitable access to There is already a well established university study for all able students regardless international dimension to research in many of their income. disciplines. This is daily extending further into Australia has developed a unique new countries, new universities and new mechanism to resolve this conflict which I research areas. Australia has intense and rapidly believe provides a model which other countries growing research links with every major country should examine. in the Asia-Pacific region as well as in Europe Under our Higher Education Contribution and America. Scheme (HECS for short) which I mentioned Again it seems to me inevitable that these earlier, undergraduate students pay on average international links will grow in teaching as well about 23% of the cost of their courses. But as in research. As higher education courses critically this contribution is not collected as an increasingly move out of the traditional up-front fee-which would be a barrier to classroom they will increasingly move over access-but rather through the taxation system national boundaries. The citizens of any one after the student has graduated and after their, country will increasingly have access to higher income exceeds average weekly earnings. education courses sourced from many others, in Let me move on now to the third of the the same way as they increasingly have access to "forces" I have identified as significant in shap television programs from around the world. ing the future of our universities: the inexorable movement toward intemationalisation. Quality as a Competitive Factor in Higher Education Internationalisation Such a range of choice will expand consumer A trend of great significance over recent choice in higher education, in the same way as years, and one which I believe will grow still intemationalisation of other industries has more significantly over the next few decades, is expanded consumer choice for other services and the blurring of the boundaries of national products. This in tum will sharpen the focus on economies and their constituent industries. the quality of higher education provision against This is a long-term trend. It is being driven international benchmarks. fundamentally by improvements in transport Already during the 1990s, higher education and communications. What these do, in essence, systems around the world have begun to is to increase the speed and geographic range emphasise the importance of adopting strategies over which social, political and economic and processes which assure quality. transactions can occur. The concern with quality will, I believe, In doing that, the boundaries of our intensify as the international information and economic, political and social lives are constantly knowledge society develops. being extended. This means that there is a Australia's current experience of quality continuing trend to expose geographically assessment in higher education grew out of the localised political, economic and social entities expansionary policies of the 1987 White Paper on whether these are comer stores, local community Higher Education. organisations or nation states-to interaction In a Ministerial statement in October 1991, with and competition from other areas. the Australian Government's position was We need only think of the role that expressed in terms of a "concern about the televisions, telephones, fax machines-and impact of expansion and other White Paper earlier, railroads and printing expresses-have reforms. on quality." The concern with quality in had on our economic social and political life. higher education has now moved on to the more With the marriage of communications and sophisticated issue of quality control in an information technology, the imperatives which increasingly competitive and international drive intemationalisation will intensify further. industry. 28 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE While there is still considerable debate in this and the Ford Motor Company to deliver and country about whether our current processes for receive educational information from the pursuit of quality in higher education are the workstations located at the Ford plants. right ones, there is an emerging consensus that Personnel supervising students at Ford can also the concern about improving quality of processes gain access to course materials from their homes, and educational outcomes, is essential in both using laptop computers and modems. the domestic and international context. Southern Cross University in New South This brings me to the fourth "force"-the Wales has established open learning access convergence of information and communication centres in regional centres along the coast to technologies. Nowhere is it more evident than in better serve its regional clientele. universities. Some people see the march of technology as For example, there are now an estimated a vaguely sinister, Orwellian development, with 350,000 users of AARNet. The number of users is isolated students talking to computer screens, growing at around 10-15% each month. Similarly, cut off from what is most essential to the higher world wide there are an estimated 20-30 million education experience. users of the Internet, to which AARNet provides Lying behind this image is a hypothesis that a gateway in Australia. Global use of the Internet personal contact, and perhaps the ambience of is growing at a similar rate. campus life in general, are essential or at least highly desirable elements of the educational Converging Information and Communications experience. Technologies Regardless of one's personal sympathies in relation to this hypothesis, it is inevitable that These technologies are often described as such traditional images of university life will be being part of the promise of the so-called put to a searching test over the coming decades. "information super-highway." In fact they already are, given recent evidence What these technologies do, above all, is that students studying by open learning achieve allow an unprecedented degree of flexibility in at higher levels than comparable on-campus the way in which higher education is pursued by students. academics and delivered to students. At the very least there will be great The challenge for higher education providers diversification in the forms of access to will be to re-engineer their organisational university. Many students will continue to attend processes so as to take advantage of this. full time, on-campus courses taught with There are already signs all around us that this traditional methods. But increasing numbers will is happening. experience variations on that theme, right Through the open learning initiative in this through the spectrum to students of the "virtual country, individuals can pick and choose units campus" who will complete their courses from different institutions and assemble these without once setting foot in a lecture theatre. into award qualifications without ever leaving With improved flows of information, and home. That builds on the flexibility already with the progressive elimination of geography as available through mainstream distance a factor constraining the choices of would-be education, which allows people to choose their higher education students, I foresee a system of courses from individual institutions located all international higher education which is both around Australia. large-scale and sensitive to individual needs. We are in the process of building a system of In short, we will be able to meet the need for comprehensive support for open learning higher education on a mass scale, while still students which will range from electronic mail to providing options for individuals to choose "off international library access to interactive tutorial the shelf" as they wish. assistance. All of these will be delivered through With improved information flows, we can a network of easily accessible community sites greatly increase the number of shelves within like schools and local libraries. reach, and we can increase students' freedom to A number of universities are locating the pick and choose from what is on them. delivery of educational courses in work places, It will be possible for higher education to be or at other places, such as community access both large-scale and diverse because these centres, which are convenient to students. technologies are so cost effective. Deakin University in Victoria, for example, is working jointly with Box Hill College of TAFE Keynote Addresses 29 Demographic Change That is not to say, of course, that The final"force" affecting universities which demographic changes are not significant I identified at the outset is demographic change. influences on national higher education policies You will recall that I did so with a major from year to year. But I think the more qualification. fundamental influences shaping universities in Demographic patterns vary markedly from the 21st Century lie elsewhere. country to country and, as we know in Australia, from region to region. They will influence the Conclusion overall quantum and distribution of funding which governments make available for higher So where does this take us? education from time to time. What might I see if I did have a crystal ball In Australia, the 17-35 age group, and that gave a vision of the future? especially 17-24 year olds, are of greatest interest First, the increasing demand for higher in this regard as they are by far the main client education in the 21st Century, as a response to: group for higher education. Changes in the size of this age cohort have • structural change in the economy; and had a marked effect on higher education policy • a concomitant rise in social expectations. in this country over the last decade. We saw a pronounced growth in the 17-19 population. At These demands are unlikely, however, to be the same time, we saw a very sharp increase in accompanied by a commensurate increase in the proportion of school students continuing funding from government. In combination this their education to year 12. growth in demand but limitation on public In combination these demographic factors funding will put pressure on the universities of increased the imperative that led to the the future to: substantial growth in our higher education system that I mentioned earlier. However, over • diversify their range of offerings; the next twenty years or so the Australian • diversify their funding base; population is set to age markedly. The projections indicate that there will be a rise in the • become more competitive; median age of the population from 33 years in • diversify their modes of delivery and the 1993 to about 37 in 2011. settings in which learning takes place; Similarly, the number of people in the 17-35 • adopt lifelong learning strategies in the year age bracket is projected to fall in absolute design of their curricula; and terms from 1993 and is not projected to return to 1993 levels until2011. • continue to expand their activities in research The demographic pressures on higher and development. education in this country are therefore likely to decline until 1998, and will not return to 1993 Limits on growth in public investment in levels until2011. higher education, within an environment of This has some potential short-term increasing demand, must lead to a consideration implications for higher education policy. Viewed of approaches which boost private sources of in the longer term however, such demographic income, including that from individuals. fluctuations seem to me of minor significance compared with the other enormous influences I • • • have outlined. New Communications Technologies and Global Learning: Challenges for Education and Training John Daniel The Open University United Kingdom It is a great privilege to be invited to address "rubbish" at points in my presentation that I did this important conference. I am sorry that I not expect. Then, when you have watched the cannot be with you in person, but the annual video we shall be able to discuss, over the phone, residential meeting of the Governing Council of what I have said. the Open University takes place this week. I This all seems very straightforward. But, decided that, on balance, it would be better to some of you may be asking, why did I not opt to use communication technologies to interact with carry out the whole thing by satellite? you and be physically present with my Technically, it would have been quite possible for Governing Council-rather than the other way me to go to a studio in our BBC Production around. In fact, given the title of my address, Centre a hundred metres from my office. They New Technologies and Global Learning: Challenges have a satellite uplink and with a satellite for Education and Training, it is rather appropriate downlink at the conference we could have used that I should work with you in this way. As we two or three satellites to go round the world from go through the session you might like to reflect Europe to Australia and communicated live-or on how it would have been different-for better almost live, for with all those satellites involved or for worse-if I had been with you in Perth there would have been a delay for a second or so. today. There are three main reasons why I did not Today's Technologies do it this way: Let me start with a word about the way I am 1. It would have been much more expensive taking part in the conference, because my choice than what I am actually doing. Couriering a of technologies for this event is a practical video cassette is a lot cheaper than buying application of some of my conclusions about satellite time or flying me to Perth. new technologies and global learning. I am using 2. This method is more reliable. I am always two technologies in sequence. At this moment nervous about saying in advance that anything you are watching a video that was recorded by technological is reliable, but this should be. the BBC two weeks ago in my office and sent to Consider the various elements: you by air courier. While you are viewing this I First, the BBC was not recording me live, so it am linked to your conference room on an was easier for them to make sure everything was ordinary telephone line so that I can hear the in order. Second, we could courier a couple of chairman's comments and the noises in the copies by different routes to make absolutely room. This is quite useful, because, like any sure it got to you. Third, VCR technology is audience, you may gasp, laugh or shout widespread and reliable, and I imagine the 30 Keynote Addresses 31 conference organisers checked the cassette All sorts of things are indeed possible in through beforehand to make sure the BBC had principle. But if we are talking about global not sent you a pornographic video by mistake. learning-learning for people all over the Fourth, the international "POTS," the plain old world-we still have to ask a lot of boring telephone system, which we shall use in a questions: who has the technology; what does it minute, goes everywhere and is very reliable. I cost; is it reliable; and what does it do for you am sitting by my home phone at five in the anyway? morning and you are having the phone line fed Lest you begin to wonder whether the into the room's audio system. It may be a bit conference organisers have invited some Luddite tiresome for you to have to go to a microphone to to address you by mistake, let me assure you that talk to me, but that often happens for in-person I am an enthusiast for the application of presentations anyway when the acoustics are technology to education. Indeed, it is because I bad or the discussion is being recorded for am an enthusiast that I am hostile to introducing posterity. technologies in a half-baked manner which gives In my experience ad hoc satellite links just do the whole enterprise a bad name. not have this level of reliability. The reliability is Think of me as a wandering scholar who has there when a more or less permanent satellite spent most of his career working to increase link-up exists, such as the link-up used by the access to higher education, especially through Australian Broadcasting Corporation and the the application of the methods and British Broadcasting Corporation to exchange communications technologies which we call news stories. But one-offs are much less reliable. distance education. I have worked in five I have rarely taken part in an international political jurisdictions: France; the Canadian satellite video-conference where there were not provinces of Quebec, Alberta and Ontario; and difficulties with the sound or the vision at some now the United Kingdom. I have moved at least stage during the session. I am sure it will every five years. This is not-I think-because I improve with time, just as audio-conferencing cannot hold down a job, but because a new and has, but right now doing this by satellite link even more exciting challenge has always seemed would be unreliable. This leads to the final to come up. reason. At the moment I cannot think of a more 3. By using a reliable system which is partly exciting challenge in training and education than asynchronous I can put more effort into thinking my present job as Vice-Chancellor of the Open about the topic I am discussing with you, instead University in the UK. It has been my special of worrying whether the signal is getting privilege this year to preside over the through. Likewise the organisers at your end, celebrations of 25th birthday of the Open and you can give more attention to the subject of University, which everyone calls "the OU." It has the session if you are not preoccupied about the made me reflect on what distance education has possibility of the communication link going achieved in applying technologies to education down. and training over those twenty-five years. And it A related point is that unless a fully has made me think hard about what the future interactive system is highly reliable you lose the holds, because there is no question that advantage of interactivity. That is because, in an technologies are becoming available which have attempt to increase reliability, people tend to the potential to remove the remaining organise the satellite session in a highly formal weaknesses of distance education. manner with detailed timings, constraints on movement and so on. By the time you have Outline of Paper finished, the result is about as spontaneous as Here is how I want to explore these issues reading a paper from the lectern. with you this afternoon: After all that it will be very embarrassing if First, I am going to comment on the idea of today's arrangements go "kaput" on us. We shall global learning, because there is an important hope that they do not. But I have discussed our moral imperative for us all in those two words. use of technology openly because the same Second, I shall talk about trends in higher considerations are absolutely relevant to the education and training. I note that one of the challenge for education and training of new objectives of the conferences is to re-evaluate the communications technologies. So often purpose and nature of higher education and to nowadays we see "gee-whiz" stories full of hype explore the philosophies that relate to it. about how this or that technology makes this or Although I am talking about higher education I that possible. shall say a few words about the academic ideal 32 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE and its international implications. The expanding people's lives into the space of the conference aims to increase interaction and intellect, which is in infinite supply, will grow in interchange between the scholarly and business importance. communities in the Asia-Pacific region. What This is not the place to analyse the relative does the academic mode of thinking have to merits of different types of investment in contribute? education and training in the developing world. Third, I intend to focus on teaching and That is another talk and, thanks to the World learning. What are the elements of good practice Bank and others, we are now beginning to know in this regard? How can new communications what forms of investment are more beneficial technologies help? What do we need to do in from an economic point of view. My points are order that they do help? For my comments on more simple than this. that topic I am indebted to a very perceptive First, we insult the majority of our fellow analysis recently conducted by William Renwick, human beings if we appropriate the term global former Permanent Secretary of Education in learning to mean our own communications on New Zealand, for the CERI program of the the Internet or our first steps in educational OECD. I worked with William for some years to broadcasting across borders. The challenge is to launch the Commonwealth of Learning and he is educate and train the people of the world, the an extremely wise observer of the global majority of whom have, at present, only the most education and training scene. rudimentary access to communications Finally, I shall lift the veil on some of the technologies-new or old. ways we are starting to use new communications That means, second, that it is imperative to technology at the Open University. reduce massively the unit cost of education and Usually, we at the OU like to lull the training and to increase its effectiveness. It is competition into complacency by presenting sadly ironic that colonial powers, with Britain in ourselves as a very traditional organisation the lead, bequeathed to their colonies in places doing distance education with quill pens, like Africa a model of higher education that is parchment and carrier pigeons. It is not true, of very expensive and difficult to expand. course, and since you have been kind enough to invite me to speak to you I will let you in on Higher Education some of our plans for the future. What I hope, of I will now discuss the link between global course, is that you will find our own plans for learning and my comments on trends in higher using new technologies, consistent with what I education. Even in the richest countries there is shall say about effective practice and teaching pressure to reduce the cost of higher education and learning. most importantly the costs to the public purse, but also the absolute costs. This has come about Global Learning because of the trend towards mass higher "New Technologies and Global Learning." education. The generous taxpayer support of What do we mean by global learning? I know universities which was seen as appropriate when what I mean. Educating and training a rapidly only an elite had access to them cannot be increasing world population is, after seeing that substantiated as countries aim for 50% they have food and shelter, the great moral participation of school leavers in higher imperative of our time. education and more and more adults return to I do not need to give you lots of statistics. study part-time. The world's rich are getting richer and the As a result more of the cost of higher world's poor are getting poorer. There are, education is rightly being transferred to the unfortunately, some increasingly encouraging beneficiaries, for education is a sound private signs that the large countries in the north of your investment which gives, on average, a 15% salary region-China and India-are developing well advantage for each extra year of study after economically and combating poverty effectively. compulsory schooling. Not surprisingly, Nevertheless, as numbers continue to increase countries with high participation rates in higher the challenge of creating the conditions for education such as the USA, Japan, and South people to lead fulfilling lives will remain acute. It Korea often have a high proportion of has been shown that the basic education of enrolments in private higher education or a women has a very powerful positive effect on a significant contribution of tuition fees to higher country's wellbeing. More generally, as pressure education expenditure-or both. on physical space increases and paid Australia has led the way, with its graduate employment cannot be taken for granted, tax scheme, in finding ways for state-run systems Keynote Addresses 33 to transfer costs to the beneficiary without the taxpayer, per full-time-equivalent student, disrupting enrolment patterns in the process. that is about half the average for the university When costs are transferred from the taxpayer system as a whole. to the beneficiary we should expect the Furthermore, the issue is not just the fact that beneficiary to take a greater interest in value for technology-based distance education can be money. Even in the United States of America, cheaper. It is also that it has a cost structure students and parents are beginning to revolt which results in low marginal costs per against university tuition fees which have been additional student. If those marginal costs can be increasing faster than inflation for as long as made low enough then the student can pay them anyone can remember. In the United States, of without taxpayer help. You then reach the holy course, universities have historically had grail of educational policy makers, a system that something of the monumental function that can continue to expand indefinitely without medieval cathedrals supply in Europe. Therefore additional taxpayer money. cost-effectiveness has not, until recently, been a Finally, whereas people in the late sixties serious issue. were amused at the idea of studying via Downward pressure on higher education television, you would think, to ·hear some costs all over the world explains part of the commentators today, that the only valid way to current interest in distance education and the use learn anything in the early nineties is through a of new technologies. computer screen. In his analysis William Renwick states that: But to focus on any one teaching medium misses the point. I agree with William Renwick Where, a generation ago, it was the policies that the real contribution of distance learning has and practice of conventional institutions that set the agenda for distance education, the been to shift the focus in higher education from reverse is now beginning to be the case. teaching to learning. It is not the concept of distance but the idea of guided self-study which The UK Open University is a good example of is important. All education is going to have to what he means. When it was launched 25 years give more responsibility to the learner as the ago, it was derided by the educational number and diversity of those seeking education establishment as a silly idea. One politician and training continues to increase. called it "blithering nonsense." The idea that The focus on learning, which means adults would undertake university study part concentration on student outcomes rather than time was regarded as rather quaint. The idea that instructor inputs, has placed distance education you could get a degree by watching television advantageously with respect to an important was ridiculed. new trend in training. This is the idea of defining As the OU celebrates its silver jubilee things vocational qualifications solely in terms of the could not be more different. competencies that a candidate can demonstrate-taking no interest in the course or Impact of the Open University process by which those competencies are First, according to the Time Higher acquired. Call it, if you like, the driving test Educational Supplement, the Open University approach. has now enjoyed "several years of unremitting This is the basis for the system of National political and public favour." Since the great and Scottish Vocational Qualifications that is reform of 1992 the OU occupies a central place in central to Britain's current education and the British higher education system as the largest training revolution. The Open University finds university, the only truly national university, and itself more involved than other universities in the official successor to the Council for National this new system-for two reasons. The first is Awards as a validating authority for degrees in that distance education routinely separates other institutions. teaching and assessment and so is not as shocked Second, the UK government has recently by the driving-test approach as those who are slammed on the brakes and temporarily stopped used to combining teaching and examining. The the expansion of full-time university study while second is that the OU is in the business of continuing to encourage growth of the part-time running a large, reliable nationwide and student body. worldwide assessment system, which is what the Third, the OU has benefited from a cunning vocational qualifications systems also requires. new public funding mechanism which Let me end these remarks about higher concentrates part-time growth in the most education with some brief comments about the efficient universities. The OU operates at a cost to academic ideal, because it is very relevant to the 34 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE issue of global learning as I have defined it. Communications Technologies?" We should not The oldest university in continuous existence be tempted to put the cart before the horse. A is the University of Bologna in Italy which is 906 new technology will not find a long-term years old. The University of Bologna and the application in education and training unless it other early universities developed, for the world, adds value. What values represent good practice the academic mode of thinking. The academic in teaching and learning? William Renwick mode of thinking is a combination of processes identified eight: and principles: a willingness to question received ideas; a healthy scepticism; the scientific method; 1. Well devised courses; and emphasis on evidence and reason. You can 2. Encouraging student-teacher contact; contrast it with the ideological mode of thinking which confines itself within certain dogmatic 3. Prompt feedback; boundaries. Alongside the academic mode of 4. Encouraging active learning; thinking grew the traditions of academic freedom and university autonomy which, 5. Encouraging co-operation among however much we have abused them, remain students; important core values. 6. Emphasising time on task; Those early universities had in their times, because they served the whole of Christendom, a 7. Communicating high expectations; and universalism that we have since lost. They also had the ultimate autonomy of being entirely 8. Respecting diverse talents and ways of learning. dependent on student fees, and that autonomy also has been lost as universities became too Let me comment on each of these in tum expensive for students alone and other patrons from the perspective of what new technologies most recently the state-had to step in. can contribute. The simple point I want to stress is that the Firstly, I will discuss the issue of well devised academic mode of thinking is not only courses. Unfortunately no amount of hardware something very precious but also that it has an and software can make up for deficient important role in promoting global harmony in brainware: "garbage in, garbage out." It just may an era of global learning. be that intellectual garbage presented in a hi-tech It stands for the principle that people have fashion is more readily identifiable as garbage the responsibility to think for themselves. The than garbage mumbled in a lecture-but that is academic mode of thinking should present a firm an arguable point. and consistent challenge to arguments from Our courses at the Open University have the authority, be that authority national, religious or reputation of being well-devised. A lot of the ideological. credit for that goes to our course-team approach I see no conflict between renewing our in which individual academics get pulled up on commitment to the academic mode of thinking shoddy thinking or teaching by the rest of the and reforming higher education in some very team. However, it is also very clear that the practical ways. An aim of your conference is to steadily decreasing cost and increasing increase networking amongst universities in the sophistication of electronic publishing and Asia-Pacific region. One of the most valuable video/ audio technologies make it easier for well things you could do would be to develop a devised courses to be attractively presented. collective view, between the ancient and diverse Second on the list is encouraging student cultural, philosophical and religious traditions of teacher contacts. I will combine this with the your region, on what the academic mode of third point, prompt feedback. thinking implies in Asia today. This is an area where there has been a dramatic reversal over the 25 years of the OU's Teaching and Learning existence. In 1970 other universities assumed the I'll leave you with that challenge and tum, as OU could not match them for authentic contact I promised, to issues of teaching and learning. and feedback between students and teachers. My title is New Communications Technologies and Today some of those universities admit they can Global Learning: Challenges for Education and no longer match the OU, and students who Training. I'm going to switch that around and transfer say the same. This is an area where new ask: technology can help everyone. "Good Practice in Teaching and Learning: The OU encourages contact by giving each What are the Challenges for New student a tutor. The core of the job is providing Keynote Addresses 35 comprehensive written feedback on assignments. convenient, reliable and user-friendly than Being available on the phone and holding some current arrangements. group sessions are other tutorial tasks. Next in the list is the communication of high There is a widespread expectation that expectations. Here, in my experience, it is not the conducting the tutorial process by electronic mail technology itself but the way in which the rather than paper mail will have many technology is used that sets the tone. William advantages. Not just speed, but greater ease of Renwick writes about "institutions that hold moving materials around and readier access to high expectations for themselves." I think that is guidance and pre-programmed help. part of the reason that our OU students perform Furthermore, e-mail may be a more congenial so well. The University tries to do everything, medium for shy students. But I should log here whether it is television production, assignment the key issues of organisation and reliability. To marking, or organising degree-awarding give an example: at our main examination ceremonies, at the highest professional session last October the OU administered and standards. It seems that students take their cue marked over 100,000 exams written by students from that. in 93 countries. It is a complex logistic operation Finally, good practice respects diverse talents involving thousands of markers and the and ways of learning. The main implication of movement of a lot of paper. In the course of that that is to avoid being seduced by the idea that whole operation last year we lost just four some new technology will provide a total answer scripts. Admittedly, that was a particularly good to effective learning. Institutions like mine call year. themselves a multi-media compact disk. We are, Nevertheless, students have a right to expect of course, producing such disks, but we know that new technologies will be as reliable as the that students tastes vary. Some like residential old-as well as giving additional advantages. summer schools, some try to avoid them. Some That will require hard work and the design of find our broadcast television valuable but others robust systems. do not. Some never miss a tutorial, others never The fourth element of good practice is go near one. Therefore we look to technology to encouraging active learning. Belief in the increase variety, not reduce it. importance of active learning is what makes some discussions between career educators and New Communications Technologies at the OU the promoters of technology a dialogue of the That was a good lead in to my concluding deaf. Promoters too often give the impression section. I said I would say a word about the that they equate teaching, or even learning, with Open University's projects and plans for using the display of information, which technology new technologies. For years we have had does well. Educators, in return, too often over dynamic little groups of staff-what they call mystify the learning process. skunk-works in North America-experimenting Technology, in the form of simulations and with all sorts of technologies. What I am going to interactive exercises, can help to make learning talk about are the moves towards application. active. But this software has, of course, to be Our ambition is not to be the first into the field created. The capacity to deliver it to the student with a new technology, but to be the first to apply is only the first step. promising new technologies reliably on a large Element five is encouraging co-operation scale. We owe it to our 100,000 students to be amongst students. Here e-mail and computer second and right rather than first and wrong. conferencing clearly have a great deal to offer. I will talk about new technologies in Most distance education institutions encourage increasing order of glamour. Bear in mind the formation of student self-help groups. These though, that this may not represent the same technologies will enhance the impact and order as their practical importance. effectiveness of those groups. The sixth element is time on task. Here we should not look to technology to shoot 1. CIRCE knowledge and skills directly into the neurones The least glamorous project is called CIRCE like an educational nicotine patch. What you can and is the complete redevelopment of our do is to eliminate a lot of the down time that student record systems. Before you ask what that learners spend making contact with learning has to · do with new communications resources and getting feedback from tutors and technologies let me simply point out that today fellow students. The challenge is to design the profitability of an airline probably has more systems which make the technology more to do with the quality of its computerised Cultural Sensitivities in the Context of Educational Change Nerida F. Ellerton Edith Cowan University Australia This paper discusses the notions of cultural Culture and Change sensitivity and networking, especially as they A generation ago, the world seemed to be a impact upon working towards achieving much larger place. My grandfather, for example, desirable change in education contexts. After made several visits back from Australia to where distinguishing between macro and micro he was born in Europe-by ship. He would stay cultures, five challenges to educators are away for up to six months at a time. After all, the presented: sea voyage itself took 6 weeks. Certainly, there 1. Do educators, as individuals, too easily was the appearance that one had time to adjust dismiss experiences they have in other micro to different cultures and to make friends in cultures as irrelevant or inappropriate, and fail to different contexts. Networking was a word use these to help them to reflect on the strengths which was not in most dictionaries. and weaknesses of the micro cultures in which Because change is something we all cope with every day-whether this is a major, they normally operate? imposed change or whether the change is so 2. How sensitive are educators to the needs, subtle that we are almost unaware of its interests, and feelings of others? occurrence-we tend to make light of the cumulative impact which a generation of change 3. How closely do the networks in which has made on our lives. educators are personally involved resemble the metaphor of a working net? The Nature of Change 4. Do educators communicate in ways which Four images of educational change have will help to establish links which will become the been described by William Higginson, of Queens fabric of a net and lay the foundation for effective University in Canada: networking? Or are they destroying part of 1. Change as a random process--educators existing nets by the ways in which they are seen in supporting roles, trying to help communicate? children learn against a backdrop of political, 5. Are educators reflective practitioners, social and economic. struggle. who are trying to take control of the change 2. The rugby-league image of change-"life process, or are changes being imposed on them proceeds according to reasonably well-defined without consultation or other involvement? In rules, and what happens is to be understood in other words, are educators sufficiently proactive terms of these rules. But the interpretation of, and when it comes to achieving desirable changes in feelings about, what is going on depend on who their own particular education settings? you are barracking for" (p. 5). 38 Keynote Addresses 39 3. The pendulum image-educational "I respect the heritage and traditions of others." change is likened to a pendulum swinging We do not, however, live in a world backwards and forwards between innovation composed simply of macro cultures interacting and inertia. with each other-of separate nations existing as independent cultural entities. We live in a world 4. The cocoon image-This has its origin in composed of countless micro cultures-of people Kuhn's notion of a paradigm shift which he used creating new contexts, new networks, new to account for the growth of scientific knowledge. With this metaphor, new and significant theories cultures bounded by new assumptions and traditions. I contend that most of us have had in a particular field of study are put forward (the very little preparation for living and working in cocoon), but initially these are incomplete and untested, yet "embody the promise of radical yet, these micro cultures, and that most of us go happily from day to day almost oblivious of their somewhat paradoxically, inevitable change" existence. (Higginson, 1989, p. 5). I believe that many of us do not recognise, consciously, that we are living in a world in Socia-Historical Contexts of Change which we need to be much more sensitive to Change and its interpretation must always be micro cultures than ever before. We tend to think intimately linked to particular social and historical contexts. Let me illustrate this with a quotation: WE RUB In modern times there are opposing views SHOULDERS about the practice of education. There is no general agreement about what the young should learn either in relation to virtue or in relation to the best in life; nor is it clear Figure 1. Two cultures but superficial contact. whether their education ought to be directed more towards the intellect than towards the character of the soul. The problem has been complicated by what we see happening before we are still living in a world where the most our eyes, and it is not certain whether training important aspect is the more transparent macro should be directed at things useful in life, or at culture-a world in which all we do is rub those conducive to virtue, or at nonessentials ... And there is no agreement as to what in fact shoulders with other cultures (see Figure 1). does constitute virtue. Men do not all prize most highly the same virtue, so naturally they differ about the proper training for it. Before I tell you the source of this comment, think about what it means for education and SOME training. Do we agree, for example, on what INTERACTION should be education priorities for our young people, or on appropriate training? The source was in the writings of the ancient Greek philosopher, Aristotle (1962 tr, p. 300). Now that you know the comment was Figure 2. Some interaction between two cultures. written about 3000 years ago, do you still think that the ideas have relevance today? Or would you now feel more comfortable in pushing the ideas aside, saying that although they might Let me illustrate diagrammatically other have had relevance for the ancient Greeks, the models which operate. For example, Figure 2 comment has little relevance for the world as we represents the situation . in which a group of know it today? students from one culture mix with a group of students in the country of study. Such exchanges Macro and Micro Cultures or short stays (even when "short" might mean We tend to associate the word culture with a two or three years) usually result in some in particular nation or with a particular group of depth understanding between individuals, some people who have certain traditions. "Of course I networking, but, on the whole, only superficial am culturally sensitive," each of us would claim! understanding between others in either of the 40 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE different workplaces, the cultures of our classrooms, the cultures of the homes, of the Different shopping malls, and so on. These micro cultures interact and impact on each other constantly. I Cultures believe we pay insufficient attention to ENRICHMENT addressing the question of match and mismatch and a THROUGH Co-EXISTENCE between an individual's experiences in different Range of micro cultures, and do not realise that this Networks impedes our progress in establishing networks. Five Challenges Figure 3. Two cultures co-existing. In this paper, I will raise five challenges which I hope you will take up on a personal level. Each one will attempt to address some of the hidden dimensions of cultural sensitivities two cultures. Perhaps what I am trying to say seen in the context of educational change. here is that there is no substitute for direct personal experience between people of different The first challenge, then, is this: cultures. Just as I believe that each learner needs to construct their own understanding in a 1. Do we, as individuals, too easily dismiss cognitive sense, so I believe that all individuals experiences we have in other micro cultures as need to construct their own interpretation of irrelevant or inappropriate, and fail to use these their particular cultures in the light of their to help us to reflect on the strengths and reflections about their experiences in other weaknesses of the micro cultures in which we cultural contexts. normally operate? Figure 3 suggests a mix of two cultures attempting to co-exist-where there is little if any (Think again about your reaction to the quote networking across the cultures. Although there from Aristotle. It is easy to say we should learn may be some formal cultural understanding from our experiences or from what we have read, between the two cultures, there is also significant but do we?) cultural tension. Cultural sensitivity cannot be formally Sensitivity taught. I cannot teach you what it is like to live It is, of course, difficult to see ourselves as and work in a particular culture-! can tell you others see us. That is how I interpret the word about it, I can show you photographs-but I sensitivity. cannot teach you what it is like to be in a Think, for a moment, of the last conversation particular culture. All I can do is to hope that I you had before this session began, or of some of can sensitise you to some of the issues, and that I the other conversations you have had during this can provide some signposts along the way which conference. Think of the person or people to might help you to construct your own culturally whom you were talking. How did they feel? Did sensitive interpretations. In tum, these should they feel, for example, that you were genuinely lead to culturally sensitive actions by culturally interested in what they were talking about? Were sensitive individuals who live in a global macro you genuinely interested in what they were culture composed of networks of countless micro talking about? cultures. Sensitivity values other people's needs and Classrooms, for example, can be regarded as interests. One can use words like unselfish, cultural microcosms in their own right, and thoughtful, respectful, and tolerant. We all need education research leaves no doubt that the to feel valued by others. In education, it is all too assumptions and patterns of interaction of easy to deal with the cognitive side of learning teachers and students in some Asian classrooms, and teaching and forget the affective side. Yet though superficially similar to classrooms in both are intimately and inexorably linked. To be most schools and tertiary institutions in Western sensitive, then, in my view means to care about nations, are actually quite different (Stevenson & both the cognitive and affective needs of the Stigler, 1992; Stigler & Baranes, 1988). person or people with whom you are interacting. Let me emphasise that I include within the You may find it interesting to ask yourself notion of micro culture the culture of our what it means to be sensitive in any one of the Keynote Addresses 41 micro cultures most relevant to you. As you have used the first-person pronoun "we" rather know, I am a mathematics educator. Recently, than the second-person "you" because I include Ken Clements and I were faced with the myself in these challenges): daunting task of preparing an 8-session 2. How sensitive are we to the needs, professional development package for teachers interests, and feelings of others? of mathematics aimed at sensitising teachers to issues associated with attitudes and appreciations towards mathematics (Ellerton & Networking Clements, 1994). Ken and I agree that we both Networking is an integral part of the theme learnt much about ourselves as we prepared the for this conference. The concept of networking is materials designed to be used by others. also clearly a fundamental theme in my paper Sensitivity means, for example, designing and provides the framework for my discussion assignments to which the students can relate of cultural sensitivity. the assignments are useful to students beyond The term itself conjures up two powerful being mere tasks which will give them a grade. metaphors which I believe are common to most if This is all part of handing over the responsibility not all cultures-the combination of two separate of learning to the learner. All of us are prepared notions: a net and working. to put much more time and energy into an The fundamental nature of a net with activity which we feel is meaningful (as well as interwoven strands which criss-cross the entire utilitarian). fabric, and link one section to another, has Let me give you an example of sensitivity (or several important features relevant to the notion lack of it) in a different micro culture. The world of cultural sensitivities. These features include of motor transport-of cars, buses and taxis. the following: I have a B-class driver's licence-which· means that I am licensed to drive large vehicles • The bonds between nodes are strong and including buses and trucks. I had to pass a cannot easily be broken even if the net special oral and practical driving test to get this undergoes distortion; licence. A professor driving a bus? Why not? It • The texture is open and the fabric makes a lot of sense in Australia. I have often unburdened; found myself with a need to transport a group of If the net is damaged in one area, the strength students, or visitors, or children from one place • of the whole net is usually sufficient to to another in the course of my work-and it has compensate and helps to hold the rest of the proved difficult and costly to provide transport. net together while repairs are made to the In many countries, a professor would simply not damaged section; be seen driving a bus. Just as I ask people from other countries to accept the fact that I am happy • Communication within the net-for to drive them from one place to another in the example, tension-is transmitted and shared University bus, so I need to respect the fact that, across the entire net very quickly; when I visit some countries, my hosts would be • One net can be joined to other nets very upset if I chose to use the local bus system rather simply, regardless of the particular pattern in than ask them find me a taxi. Sensitivity applies the nets; to each of us, and needs to be a two-way process. A net does not rely on central control; control Let me come back to my driving the • is disbursed across the entire fabric; University bus. Last Sunday evening, I was at the International airport at 11 pm meeting a group of • Nets often have unique patterns which rely 10 senior Malaysian Ministry of Education on symmetrical linkages; their strength is personnel who are present here today. I had enhanced by this symmetry and consistency driven to the Airport in the University Coaster of purpose. an 18-seater bus. Once the group had arrived, I went to the parking lot so that I could bring the Let me say a few wqrds about the metaphor bus around to the terminal to collect the group. of working. First of all, working implies activity, As I left the parking lot I handed in my ticket to or an environment which nurtures activity. It the attendant so that I could pay for my parking. could also infer a working mechanical, electrical He said "What's a little girl like you driving a big or electronic device. But all of these have, in bus like that?" Perhaps my non-reply was the common, the human element either overtly or most appropriate response. covertly. My second challenge to us all is this (and I So networking could be described as 42 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE representing activity amongst individuals who • unselfishness I selfishness have established links of various kinds. A • tolerant/ intolerant working net! • caring/ insulting In terms of our metaphor, the nodes are people, spread across the world. The thread • patient/impatient between two nodes can be described as I have chosen a few examples which I hope communication; a network is comprised of many will help you reflect on this issue of forms of communication between many communication. individuals. My third challenge is this: Example 1. Many students from other 3. How closely do the networks in which we countries, for example, facing the confusion are personally involved resemble the metaphor brought about by new teaching and learning of a working net? patterns, strange Australian accents and idiom, barely adequate accommodation, strange food, (Consider, for example, the extent to which there absence of friends and extremes of climate begin is a commonality of purpose, a notion of shared to wonder whether their decision to study in control, an open and unburdened structure, and Australia was a correct one. As academics, what so on.) interest do we show in addressing the underlying reasons for culture shock? Communication Most if not all Australian education Communication is often taken to mean the institutions would claim that they do provide spoken or the written word. But communication adequate support through specially appointed is much more than that. Why did we all so much tutors and advisers (particularly in university hope that the connection to Hong Kong to hear halls of residence), but despite the fact that some Professor Wang Gungwu would be successful? excellent materials on how institutions should Because we wanted to see and hear him deliver support international students in Australia have his address. Why didn't we opt to have someone been published (see, for example, Mezger, 1992) read a written paper he had prepared? The it is my experience that the level and quality of message would still have been the same. But support does not always meet the need, despite would it? Personal delivery embodies the the best efforts on the part of the host affective as well as the cognitive-the conviction institutions. of voice and gesture cannot be overstated. Why What is particularly important to realise is do we all (I think I can say this) hate the that many students experiencing culture shock mechanical version of voice mail on the are too shy (or feel too ashamed) to seek the help telephone? When we substitute a personal they know is available. I was giving a seminar at message, people are happy to leave a message. another university, and wanted to have a few And communication is two-way. Imagine quiet minutes to prepare myself. So I went to a how hard it was for Professor Wang Gungwu to small section of the student cafeteria and took deliver his address to an unseen audience. He my cup of coffee to the only spare seat I could could get no feedback from the audience-yet he find-opposite a small, very quietly spoken was able to deliver his address with a passion student from India. I did not really want to begin which communicated at this end. However, a conversation, but somehow I found myself recall how delighted he was to hear the applause asking about what she was studying and so on. I from those here-the acknowledgment that his soon realised she was under enormous words had indeed communicated with his emotional stress because of problems with one of unseen audience. her units and did not know where to tum. She Let me list a few features which I regard as was very touched that someone had shown any essential to communication, along with their interest in her, or her troubles, at all. Yes, she had inverses. Some of the following words have talked with the student counsellor, and yes, she overlapping ideas-and the list is not lived in a student residence and so had other comprehensive. But, next time you are students to provide some social support. But she communicating with someone else, which of had been advised to make an appointment with these features are embodied in your actions? her lecturer. Simple advice? Simple action? But cultural conflict! Her cultural background meant • interested/uninterested that it was extremely difficult for her to push • warm/cool herself forward and ask for an appointment. The • concerned/ arrogant solution in this case would have been for the Keynote Addresses 43 student counsellor to make an appointment for Mandarin, Tamil, Bahasa Malaysia, Hindi, Thai, her. But in the interest of giving the student etc.). One phrase that I know I always wanted to control, the counsellor had asked the student to "correct" when I first heard it used in Asia by do this. This might have been appropriate later, if Asian colleagues was "Can do." Two other and when she had had time to construct her own expressions are "Where do you stop?" and ways of best combining experiences from her "Where are you staying?" (both of which can new micro cultures with the traditions of her old have many meanings, but in fact often mean the culture, but not now. At this time, it only added same thing-"Where do you live?") In Papua to her tension and insecurity. New Guinea Tok Pisin, the expression would be "Mary Joe she stop where?" Example 2. Asian politicians, education To put it another way, I know how I felt when academics and administrators are not impressed it came to say goodbye to my three-year-old's by Australian university and college kindergarten teacher in 1976. My husband had representatives who, for example, under the spent 7-months' Study Leave in the United guise of presenting papers at academic States; I had been a tutor for third-year conferences overseas, unashamedly promote mathematics and engineering units. Our two their own institutions to a "captive" audience. sons were then 3 and 1. Andrew's kindergarten We have sat with Asian educators during such teacher said to me how impressed she had been exhibitions, and been embarrassed when they that we had all learned to speak English so well have turned to us and whispered "Another in such a short time, and that this had really Promo!" helped Andrew learn his English! Example 3: There is a difference between Example 4: The patterns of discourse speaking slightly more slowly, and using more· experienced by Asian students before they come simply constructed sentences when speaking to Australian institutions are different from what with anyone for whom English is not their first they will face in Australia. Thus, not only will language-and speaking to them as if they have they be confronted with the problem of learning only simple conceptual understanding. I have in a language which is not their first language, seen native English-speakers talk to groups of but also the patterns of discourse within classes non-English speaking background academics as will also be qualitatively different. There is a if they were in the first class at school! mismatch between the two micro cultures. Many consultants from Australia (or the United Kingdom, United States of America, Example 5: If an English-speaking person is Canada, New Zealand, etc.) working in Asia placed in the position of being expected to assume that their Asian colleagues who speak correct a submission written in English by English have limited fluency with English. someone with limited facility in English, then the Sometimes the consultants unwittingly insult person doing the correction needs to be them by speaking very slowly in English or particularly sensitive to the feelings of the writer. deliberately using very simple words and Sometimes, writers will request that you correct constructions. In fact, not only do many Asian their English, but if, in fact, you return the national educators speak English as their first documents to them with extensive corrections, language, but they also (not surprisingly) think then this can become demoralising. It is often in English. Furthermore, often they are fluent in a better to work interactively with individual number of languages and are therefore more writers on word-processed drafts directly on the linguistically competent than most Western computer. In this way, the extent of the academic educators and administrators. corrections is far less conspicuous, it is possible An interesting example of the importance of to explain and explore different nuances of being linguistically sensitive arises from the fact language with the writers, and the writers still that first language speakers of English who were feel a large degree of ownership over the final born in Asia of Asian parents usually have document. accents which do not resemble those of first For a person with limited fluency in written language English speakers in countries such as English, the task of preparing a thesis or Australia. Their grammar is impeccable, and extended paper in English is particularly their spoken and written English technically daunting. Supervisors are often faced with excellent. However, their idioms are different, extraordinarily delicate and time-consuming and their intonations reflect their associations roles of assisting their students to prepare theses and facility with other languages (such as in such a way that the students retain their 44 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE dignity and maintain ownership over the final both staff associated with postgraduate product. Some supervisors take the view that it is programs, and postgraduate students. One of the not their job to help with the English, and refuse students was from a non-English speaking to read drafts unless they are presented in background. A panel member asked this student "acceptable" English. Clearly, such a policy a question which went something like this: "If I places enormous pressure on students whose was a fairy godmother and told you that you facility in written English falls short of the high could have anything you liked to improve your level demanded for thesis presentation. lot as a postgraduate student, what would you Must theses submitted to Australian ask for?" The student said simply, "Could you Universities be in English? Ken Clements and I please repeat the question?" Fortunately, the raised this issue at the 1993 IDP conference in panel member realised what had happened and Canberra. We believe that, during 1994, some rephrased the question, leaving out the reference Australian universities have moved to make it to the fairy godmother, etc. But we don't always possible for students to submit theses written in have the opportunity to rephrase! their own first language (with English chapter A similar example was given to me by a summaries). It would be necessary, before a colleague. In working with a Masters student thesis proposal was approved, for the university from Thailand, he had used the phrase "Fools to be convinced that examiners with sufficient rush in where angels fear to tread" when he and expertise and fluency in the language of the the Masters student were about to give a major writer, were available to assess the thesis. joint presentation to a particularly large and potentially threatening audience. The Thai Example 6: Difficulties arising from language student looked puzzled and said "What do you are often masked by the fact that many Asian mean when you talk about 'fools' and 'angels'?" students have considerable mathematical and My colleague explained that he was nervous, scientific talent and perform well on written and was wondering about the wisdom of having examinations. Research shows that a high agreed to present the paper to such an audience. proportion of the relatively few errors that many A few months later, the student had completed of these students make are purely language her thesis and was back in Thailand. She was based (Marinas & Clements, 1990). Outstanding asked to present a paper on her thesis to her students can be reduced to apparent mediocrity professional colleagues. She wrote to my because of the unequal influences of language colleague: "This time I'll be the fairy." factors. In a similar vein, many students who The fourth challenge is therefore would have passed easily are seen to "fail," and this can even result in the ignominy of their 4. Are we communicating in ways which having to return home as "failures" (Turner, will help to establish links which will become 1980). the fabric of a net and lay the foundation for It is a common belief among many effective networking? Or are we destroying Australian university administrators and part of an existing net by the ways in which we academics that courses such as Engineering, communicate? Mathematics, Computing, Science, and other "science-related" units require less facility with Change and Loss English than courses in non-science faculties. To Change implies that something new will the contrary, the study of mathematics and replace something that exists. In the process, science demands at least as much linguistic something will be lost. It seems to be a part of competence as do other subjects (Ellerton & human nature to try to return to a state of Clements, 1991). For example, a calculus "comfort," whatever this might mean in different question such as "Find the maximum volume of contexts. It means, for example, that some a right cone that can be inscribed in a sphere of individuals avoid using the computer because it radius R" is semantically very complex (and in threatens their particular way of working, or .... addition the apparently simple word "right" has Change, therefore, is often seen as a different meaning from its normal usage). threatening, particularly when it is imposed from outside the micro culture. Example 7: Australian academics, in There are a number of ways of thinking particular, will identify with the next example. In about the implications of educational change. A the recent Quality Review Round of Australian simple way, of course, is to emphasise the gain universities, I was in one of the groups to appear rather than look back at what is lost. But that is before the Review Panel. This group included likely to be unproductive if the change has been Keynote Addresses 45 imposed. with Johnson's History of the Nations An important approach is to adopt action and Modem Physician by Dr Andrew Wilson. research practices, and become reflective But atop the 20 floors-black glass and marble practitioners who take control of the change curves- process. a mere touch away Dewey (1920) expressed it in this way: two black saucers point skywards In the degree in which the active conception of seeking messages in a thousand tongues; knowledge prevails ... the moral disposition the intersection of east and west. toward change is deeply modified. This loses its pathos, it ceases to be haunted with In all of life melancholy through suggesting only decay and loss. Change becomes significant if new it is not the outer shell or form possibilities and ends are to be attained; ~t which leaves the lasting taste. becomes prophetic of a better future. Change IS Only the inner soul can bless, associated with progress rather than with lapse linking the kernels of the minds and fall. Since changes are going on anyway, which pass in time the great thing is to learn enough about them transient, so that we be able to lay hold of them and tum them in the direction of our desires. (p. 116) wistful and mystical. My fifth challenge is: The city shell is fragile, empty 5. Are we reflective practitioners, who are hollow, trying to take control of the change process, or without the life endowed are changes being imposed on us without by human touch and mind. consultation or other involvement? In other And networks linking cities, countries words, are we sufficiently proactive when it crossing time and space comes to achieving desirable changes in our are nothing more than shallow black webs own particular education settings? of wire and symmetry- unless the voices carried In Conclusion: Without Passion the have a human face. World Will Die And so the challenge as I see it is not one of establishing the physical resources necessary for I will bring this presentation to a conclusion networking. Time has produced and will by reading a poem which I wrote in Bangkok in continue to produce miracles in technology. July. I had been taken to the Heritage Club, an Rather, the challenge is to support people exclusive restaurant, where I was to be one of the throughout the world in their bid to be able to guests at a dinner function arranged by senior put their soul into the technology-to staff from Siam University, a private university understand it, to use it, to control it-rather than in Bangkok. While I was waiting for the rest of to be dominated by technology. the party who had been at different meetings, I Technology can work against the sat at the window and watched the sun set over fundamental principles of networking. It can the building landscape of Bangkok, with all its separate those who control technology and those contrasts of old and new. who are controlled by it. The poem concludes: Bangkok lies restless at my feet Mere words? as the sun glints gold Without touch and casts antique shadows on my face. communication is cold, dead, Privileged mechanical. I see culture permeate the modem landscape Without a face, and proudly contrast curved and gentle art there is no soul- with concrete squares and boxes there can be no passion. moulded into towers. And without passion Behind me, classic English works The world will die. of Dickens, Shakespeare-side by side 46 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE References Mezger, J. (1992). Bridging the intercultural communication gap. Hobart, National TAPE Aristotle (1962, tr). The politics (Translated by T. A. Overseas Network. Sinclair). Harmondsworth: Penguin. Stevenson, H. W., & Stigler, J. W. (1992). The learning Dewey, J. (1920). Reconstruction in philosophy. New gap. New York: Summit Books. York: Henry Holt. Stigler, J. W., & Baranes, R. (1988). Culture and Ellerton, N. F., & Clements, M.A. (1991). Mathematics mathematics learning. In E. Z. Rothkopf (Ed.), in language: A review of language factors in Review of Research in Education 15, 1988-89 (pp. mathematics learning. Geelong: Deakin University. 253-306). Washington, DC: American Higginson, W. (1989). Beware the Titanic deckchair: Educational Research Association. Remarks on desirable directions for change in Turner, R. L. (1980). Language factors in mathematics mathematics education. InN. F. Ellerton & M.A. of students with English speaking backgrounds Clements (Eds.), School mathematics: The challenge compared with those with non-English speaking to change (pp. 4-17). Geelong: Deakin University. backgrounds. In B. A. Foster (Ed.), Research in Marinas, B., & Clements, M. A. (1990). Understanding Mathematics Education in Australia 1980 (Vol. 1, the problem: A prerequisite to problem solving in pp. 201-221). Hobart: Mathematics Education mathematics. Journal for Research in Science and Research Group of Australasia. Mathematics Education in Southeast Asia, 13(1), 14- 20. • • • UNESCO Symposium: Globalisation and the Role of UNESCO Change and Development in Higher Education Dumitru Chitoran , Higher Education Section, UNESCO Paris The present document is based on work in however, directed, first and foremost, to the main progress by UNESCO to elaborate a actors responsible for the setting up and comprehensive policy for the Organisation implementation of policies on higher education covering the whole field of higher education, as at the national and institutional levels, as well as requested by the General Conference at its to those having an impact on international Twenty-Seventh Session in 1993. The analysis academic cooperation. made and the proposal advanced are tentative. Three Trends Introduction Recent developments in higher education are The analysis and rationale for change and diverse and are often specific to regional, development in higher education at the system national and local contexts. Over and above and institutional levels, which are presented in these differences, however, three main trends can this policy paper, stem from a world-wide be identified which are shared by higher reflection exercise on the role, main trends and education systems and institutions worldwide: challenges facing part of a broader process. This quantitative expansion (which is nevertheless process is aimed at reinforcing UNESCO's role in accompanied by continued inter-country and its areas of competence, in the light of the inter-regional inequalities of access), political, social, economic, and cultural, as well diversification of institutional structures, as scientific and technological developments and programs and forms of studies, and financial transformations, at the end of this century and constraints. The latter tend to become a source of the beginning of the new millennium. tension between higher education and the state The complex nature of the activities and as well as within higher education and between functions discharged by UNESCO, and the various levels of education, because they have a highly diverse institutional framework of higher negative effect on the quality of teaching and education, is interpreted in a multitude of ways research and impede efforts to modernise by those to whom this document is addressed institutional infrastructures. The widening gap from individual members of the academic between the developing and developed community to stakeholders and decision countries with regard to the conditions of higher makers, and to international organisations, education and research is of particular concern. including UNESCO itself. The proposal is, 47 48 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE Challenges functioning and governance of higher education Despite progress in many areas of human resides in its good relationship with the state and endeavour, the challenges of today's world are society at large. These prerequisites should be paramount. A synthetic overview of the main based on the principles of academic freedom and global trends shows that they are characterised institutional autonomy which are essential for by a series of concurrent, sometimes the preservation of any institution of higher contradictory, processes of democratisation, education as a community of free inquiry, able to globalisation, regionalisation, polarisation, perform its creative, reflective and critical marginalisation and fragmentation. They all functions in society. While the state assumes have a bearing on the development of higher catalytic and regulatory roles, institutional self education and call for adequate responses on its governance in higher education should prevail part. Both the shifting imperatives of economic and should be given adequate and efficient and technological development and the current forms. At the same time, the entire socio trend to shift emphasis with regard to economic environment compels higher developmental strategies should be considered education institutions to build up ties and equally important. As advocated by UNESCO, partnerships with the state and other sectors of development should pursue sustainable human society, and to accept that they are accountable to development in which economic growth serves society. social development and ensures environmental sustainability. The search for responses to the Limited Public Funding problems deriving from the above-listed The problem of limited public funding is one processes passes through education, including of the main constraints for the process of change higher education. and development in higher education. This constraint is a principal source of the current Responses of Higher Education crisis in higher education and, quite often, of the strained relations between the state and higher ANew Vision education institutions and the academic The responses of higher education to a community at large. There is a need to assure changing world should be guided by three increased participation of all stakeholders watch-words which determine its local, national students and their parents, the public and and international standing and functioning: private sector alike, including local and national relevance, quality and internationalisation. It is also communities and authorities, in finding in relation to these objectives that the role of, and solutions for financing higher education and in contribution by, UNESCO to facilitate the process showing a greater capacity to introduce cost of change and development can be formulated. effective measures in order to be able to cope The relevance of higher education is being with this challenge. What is needed in the first considered foremost in terms of the role and place is for higher education institutions to place it holds in society, and the functions it improve their management and to make more carries out with regard to teaching and research efficient use of the human and material resources and, in tum, on service. In addition, the available. relevance of higher education is being Introducing "tuition fees" is a sensitive issue considered in terms of its relationship with state in higher education as it touches on many and public funding, links with the world of aspects of social justice and mobility, educational work, and interactions with other levels and equity and the educational, social and fiscal forms of education. policies of the state in general. It also has to be The imperative of relevance has acquired seen in the context of academic streaming new dimensions and greater exigency as modem affected by existing tuition fees at the preceding economies demand graduates who are able to levels of the educational system. The cope with the exigency for constantly up-dating introduction and level of tuition fees in public their knowledge, learning new skills and higher education require careful consideration nurturing qualities to be not only successful"job and should be viewed with caution in view of seekers" but also "job-creators" in continuously these broader implications. These issues suggest shifting labour markets. Higher education has to that due attention needs to be accorded to the rethink its mission and to redefine many of its possibility of introducing alternative forms of functions particularly in view of society's needs financing the cost of higher education, and the for lifelong learning and training. provision of support for students in the form of One of the prerequisites for the successful grants and loans. Keynote Addresses 49 Nevertheless, the specific conditions culture is rapidly increasing. Higher education prevailing in each country indicate that it would should be seen as an indispensable partner in be erroneous to expect that across-the-board promoting those links. introduction of alternative funding can take higher education out of the current crisis and Quality stop the deterioration process now affect~g Quality has become the major concern in many institutions, particularly those m higher education during the last quarter of the developing countries. Public support to higher century and will continue to remain so for many education remains essential. Otherwise, there is years to come. Meeting society's needs and a risk that a radically-applied policy of expectations towards higher education depends detachment of the state from higher education in ultimately on the quality of its staff, of its matters of financing could result in excessive programs, of its students, and of its pressures for cost recovery, search of alternative infrastructure and academic environment. The funding, and narrowly-understood exigency for search for "quality" has many facets and self-reliance. This could lead to an excessive involves many actors as well as modes of action. drive to commercialisation of activities carried The principal objective of quality-enhancement out by higher education institutions. If higher measures in higher education should involve education is to make a significant contribution to institutional as well as system-wide self the advancement of society, the state and society improvement approaches. at large should perceive it less as a burden on the The assessment and enhancement of quality public budget and more as a long-term national should start with and actively involve teaching investment for enhancement of economic and research staff, given their central role in the competitiveness, cultural development and activities of higher education institutions. social cohesiveness. This is also the framework' Policies of human development, especially with within which the problem of cost-sharing in regard to recruitment and promotion, should be higher education needs to be addressed. based on clear principles and well defined The renewal of teaching and learning in objectives. They should stress the need for the higher education is essential for enhancing its initial and in-service training of academic staff, relevance and quality. It calls for the introduction including pedagogical training, and on more of programs which pursue the overall rigorous mechanisms for the selection and intellectual development of students, and their training of persons for administrative and capacity for the enhancement of interdisciplinary governance positions in higher education. and multidisciplinary content. Further, it calls for The quality of students poses formidable the use of methods and ways of delivery which problems, especially in view of mass enrolment, increase effectiveness of higher learning diversification of study programs, and the experiences, particularly in view of the rapid current level of funding of higher education. progress in information and communication Under these conditions and constraints, technologies. The judicious introduction of such governments and higher education institutions solutions could be carried out in the context of have adopted varying solutions. There is general the development of units of modules of knowledge consensus that the quality of students in higher as innovative organisational frameworks for education depends primarily on the aptitudes studying. and motivation of the graduates of secondary educ:ation who seek to pursue studies at a higher Research level. Hence there is a need to re-examine such Research is not only one of the major issues at the interface between higher and functions per se of higher education but also a secondary education, student counselling and precondition for its social relevance and orientation, as well as a need to foster among academic quality. The educational benefits of students the notion of civic responsibility activities associated with research are often towards society. underestimated. A similar argument can be The quality of physical and academic advanced with regard to the importance of infrastructure of higher education is important in academic research for technology-related local order to assure the teaching, research and service development. These- issues should be take into functions as well as the institutional culture account when decisions are made with regard to which is essential in "keeping together" the the funding of academic research. We have highly diversified and often physically separated entered a stage in human development when the higher educational institutions. C~pital number of areas of common concern and joint investments in infrastructure of htgher explorations between science, technology and education-from campus access roads, research 50 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE laboratories, libraries, to "information The Role of UNESCO highways"-should be seen as "public works" which are an integral part of the overall efforts The trends and challenges facing higher towards modernisation of the socio-economic education and its possible responses to them and cultural infrastructure at the local, regional have direct implications for the work of and national levels. UNESCO. They call for: Quality assessment-through self- • reinforcement of the role of UNESCO in the evaluation, peer-evaluation, and external development of higher education and evaluation is essential in searching for solutions re~earch, in its capacity as the specialised leading to enhancement of quality in higher agency of the United Nations system which education. It is important that such evaluation covers these fields within its spheres of should not be carried out only from a financial competence; perspective nor should it be related mainly to • strong commitment of the Organisation to those aspects of the overall functioning of higher those basic principles and values which education institutions which lend themselves should guide the shaping of policies and more easily to quantitative measurement in the strategies for change and development in form of quality indicators. In particular due higher education, notably: increased access attention should be paid to the observance of the with due attention to various aspects of principles of academic freedom and institutional equity, enhanced relevance and quality; autonomy. However, those principles should not • promotion of diversity and due attention to be invoked in order to militate against necessary the observance of academic freedom and changes or as a cover for narrowly-interpreted institutional autonomy; corporatist attitudes and abuse of privileges • focusing UNESCO activities, in the field of which can, in the long, run, have a negative effect higher education, on promoting international on the functioning of higher education. co-operation, with particular emphasis on The intemationalisation of higher education support for the development of higher is first of all a reflection of the universal character education and research capabilities in the of learning and research. It is reinforced by developing countries. current processes of economic and political The development of education, including integration as well as by the growing need for higher education, through international co international understanding. The ever operation has been a major field of action of expanding number of students, teachers and UNESCO ever since its foundation. Achieving researchers who work, live and communicate in basic education for all constitutes UNESCO's an international context attest to this trend. The priority in the field of education, as reiterated by considerable expansion of various types of the World Conference on "Education for All" networking and other linking arrangements (Inter-Agency Commission, WCEFA, 1990). This among institutions, academics and students has goes hand in hand with the need for the renewal also been facilitated by the steady advance of and advancement of education at all levels, information and communication technologies. including higher education which has acquired a International co-operation should be based particularly important role in modem society as above all else on genuine partnerships and a a key element and driving force for sustainable collective search for quality and relevance in human development as well as in terms of its higher education. The deterioration of responsibility towards education as a whole. functioning conditions in higher education UNESCO will consequently urge governments institutions, particularly in some developing and other national and international bodies, countries, calls for international solidarity and institutions and organisations to consider higher support. In this context, it is important to education as social, economic and cultural promote those programs and exchanges which investment and to create adequate conditions for can contribute to reduce existing asymmetries its functioning. At the same time, aware of the with respect to higher education between difficulties encountered by national, regional and industrially-developed and developing countries local authorities, UNESCO will continue to to facilitate access to and transfer of knowledge, encourage international cooperation in areas and to alleviate the negative effects of the brain which will improve financial conditions for drain. higher education and increase quality and effectiveness in policy-making, governance and management. Keynote Addresses 51 UNESCO's agenda in the field of higher internationally accepted principles and education will continue to favour broadening of standards in this regard, UNESCO will co availability and participation in higher operate with Member States, with non education. Making higher education "accessible government organisations of higher education to all, on the basis of individual capacity" as and with the academic community at large, stipulated in the Convention against towards reinforcement of these principles and Discrimination in Education adopted by for the enhancement of the status of higher UNESCO in 1960 and reinforced by subsequent education teachers. international covenants, remains a major concern In keeping with its constitutional mission, of the Organisation in the face of continuing expansion of international co-operation will disparities, particularly between the developed continue to be both the major objective and mode and the developing countries. of action of UNESCO in the field of higher In line with the concurrent trends which education. UNESCO's agenda in this regard is, converge towards the need for rethinking and while promoting co-operation worldwide, to reform of higher education systems and search for more effective ways to contribute to institutions, UNESCO is focusing its action on the strengthening of higher education and relevance and quality as the key features of research capabilities in developing countries as a foresighted higher education policy. It is means of reducing the educational and UNESCO's position to promote diversity among knowledge gap between various regions of the higher education institutions and systems which world. it regards as an important asset of academic life The UNITWIN /UNESCO Chairs Program, and as an important prerequisite for the launched in 1991 as an international plan of advancement of knowledge and the preservation action designed to reinforce networking and of national and local cultural identities. • other linking arrangements among higher Furthermore, while stressing the need for education institutions at the inter-regional, systematic, national and international regional and sub-regional levels, pursues these development of higher education, UNESCO major goals. It encompasses a wide range of places emphasis on the need to pursue efforts activities and flexible organisational and towards further differentiation of study financing approaches. The Program attaches programs as the means to tune higher education primary importance to developing mechanisms more effectively to specific national and local for the transfer of knowledge, adjusted to the needs, while not losing sight of the universality relevant needs of the regions, countries and of knowledge and of the paramount criterion of institutions of higher education concerned, and quality. to alleviating external brain-drain. UNESCO will make further efforts to The ultimate objective of the process of respond to the essential prerequisites for change and development in higher education informed decision-making as a necessary basis pursued by UNESCO is a process which seeks for monitoring and tracking change and the overall renewal and the shaping of a new developments in higher education, and to assist vision of higher learning and research embodied Member States and their higher education by a pro-active university firmly anchored in local institutions to develop mechanisms and methods conditions, but fully committed to the universal for quality assurance and evaluation. In meeting pursuit of truth and the advancement of this responsibility, the Organisation will continue knowledge. It is a process leading to the to decentralise such activities to its regional emergence of a new "academic covenant" which offices and centres, in order to work more closely should place higher education in all Member with relevant partners in the field of higher States in a better position to respond to the education. Enhanced diversity and present and future needs of sustainable human differentiation in higher education and concern development. for the development of effective instruments for policy-making also require the Organisation to pursue its work in this field. This includes References improving the coverage, reliability, concepts and Inter-Agency Commission, WCEFA. (1990). World definitions of statistics and indicators in the field Conference on Education for All: Meeting Basic of science and higher education. Learning Needs. 5-9 March 1990, Jomtien, Particular importance will be attached to Thailand. promoting the principles of academic freedom and institutional autonomy as basic prerequisites for academic life. In view of the need to set • • • I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1. Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World Higher Education and Strategic Institutional Networking in Europe Maurits van Rooijen University of Westminster United Kingdom In this paper about higher education in Europe In all honesty, all these mobility schemes and the trends in institutional networking, I will programs like ERASMUS and LINGUA-were give a personal vision, rather than an academic very bureaucratic and made an artificial treatment. I mean it is not my intention to give distinction between teaching and research, and lengthy and boring statistics on student and staff therefore tended to be less interesting for mobility in Europe and confuse you with long academic staff. Financially, they were completely lists of programs with fancy names. Those who unattractive for the institutions. However, they are interested in this type of information, will were a major success when it came to the way find no shortage of publications on this theme. I they were embraced by higher education will limit myself to what might be called a view institutions! Why? Because universities and from the inside. I believe I am in a reasonably similar institutions were anxiously waiting for good position to present this view without a the opportunities which these mobility schemes specific bias, but I understand any "personal" gave them. view should start with a brief introduction of the person concerned. Creating Institutional Networks Personal networks have always existed, but I am Dutch, and have been working for the institutional networks offer the foundation for past year at the University of Westminster in London as Director of International Education. long-term cooperation. Institutional networks Formerly I was Director of the European Studies allow higher education institutions to escape national restrictions. To give an example, the Centre of the Erasmus University Rotterdam. Before that, I was a lecturer in Urban Studies at continental polytechnics could therefore start the University of Utrecht. In other words: I am developing postgraduate programs together with British institutions. Within the national one of those academics who has gradually seen system, however, they would not have been able their work drift towards administration and or even allowed to do so, since postgraduate more-or-less by accident end in a senior teaching is a prerogative of universities in most management position. continental European countries. As a postgraduate student and later as a Also, the Brussels' programs enabled researcher and lecturer, I have frequently spent institutions to strengthen their profiles in specific short periods at other universities in Europe and disciplines. Some networks were created nearly beyond. Since 1987, I have been actively involved in the "Europeanisation" process of higher by chance, but most institutions had explicitly or implicitly developed a clear strategy, carefully education in Europe. In the first instance, this choosing the right partners abroad. Mobility Europeanisation process seemed to be just the therefore has been not so much an end, but a introduction of a number of mobility schemes for means to establish one's international position academic staff and in particular for students of and prestige- in a particular academic field. the European Community. 55 56 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE Improving the Quality of Teaching One should not be surprised that it is the Higher education has to respond to the needs business schools in particular which have taken of modem society. The curriculum should be the lead in this process. They exchanged students more international. This is not just a matter of and staff even before the European schemes were textbooks, but greatly helped by student introduced. They immediately dominated the mobility and staff mobility. Institutions were or Brussels' programs in terms of numbers. They became aware of this. In this sense again, the were among the first to establish the consortia. programs were a means of achieving it. The reason is simple: the business schools were The reason why I stress that achieving aware of the changes in the world. It is their mobility, in some respects, was a means rather business to know what will be required of their than an aim, should be obvious. Student mobility new generations of graduates. is at this moment only 5%! For politicians this For many, the European programs were means failure, since they set a target of 10%. But ideological, to support the political European seen from a higher educational point of view, integration process, to create the new European much more important is that many courses have citizen. But: what is precisely the European become more international due to this staff ideology, what is the political agenda of the mobility and the presence of foreign students, European Union? In my view, politicians only try even if their number is relatively modest. This to control an integration process which takes facet of internationalisation of the curriculum place anyway. They want to give it direction by will be strengthened in the future, now that stimulating integration in the right areas and programs are going to include more activities slowing it down, even trying to stop it, in other like the Jean Monnet program, establishing areas. The integration process is obvious in its "European" chairs. Furthermore, the programs economic context. Political integration has did lead to the establishment of more-or-less followed the integration process in the business stable European networks of higher education world. But we should not forget that the institutions. integration process is also a cultural process, In my opinion a highly important step in this related, for example, to communication, process is that certain networks have developed entertainment, and of course education. into consortia. For example, a consortium for Focusing on higher education, I believe that, Business Schools such as CEMS, where only the based upon the experiences of the last ten years, best business school of each European country is it is possible to define a number of stages invited to join. This group can protect and virtually all higher education institutions in the control the market of business education, even European Union (up to a lesser extent in the partly the lucrative MBA market. I have attached EFTA countries) have been going through, some quotes from a brochure of the Copenhagen though not all universities have yet gone Business School to illustrate my points. A through all the stages mentioned below. consortium in a specific discipline-not just in business but in any discipline or field of 1. Creating awareness among staff about the specialisation-can do many things: importance of the internationalisation process, mainly by using mobility grants. • student mobility; 2. Establishing, maintaining, strengthening • staff mobility with data base of expertise; and expanding international networks for • define specific "European" curriculum with student and staff mobility. student mobility and relevant research project, which leads to a second degree-a 3. Closing the networks created in the earlier European degree on behalf of the consortium stage for outsiders, working with relatively on top of the national degree-very limited number of partners in specific academic important in the diversity of Europe; fields towards intensive cooperation in education and research, developing joint/ double degrees, • conferences and publication series; establishing consortia incorporating a clear • joint research projects, bids for research research dimension, making joint bids for money in Brussels; and funding of educational as well as research • negotiations about cooperation on behalf of programs, and jointly negotiating cooperation all the schools with prestigious institutions with institutions outside the EU. outside Europe. Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 57 It should be clear that those institutions visiting students. For obvious reasons, few to no which managed to gain a key position in the new continental universities have these strong consortia are setting the standards for the future, traditional links with Commonwealth and US, internationally and also nationally by using their though some universities did have-gradually international standing effectively. The consortia weakening-links with certain countries in the have joined forces to bid for money, and are more Developing World, often former colonies. successful at it because they can refer to a rich Let me now identify, in just a few words, experience with earlier projects, and have some major differences between British strength in joint marketing since they share universities, and in particular of course the expertise on more or less equal footing. In the University of Westminster, and most continental future Europe, it is therefore not just specific universities: universities which are likely to dominate the higher education market, like in the past at a • Language-English being the new Lingua national level, but rather there will be a limited Franca in many fields. number of consortia, specialised in specific • Location-central London, a leading academic fields. The position of a university is economic and transport hub in the world. related to the roles it plays in a number of these trendsetting consortia. • Selectivity before access, not after, so less a At this moment, we see that while the form of mass education than often the case process of Europeanising the curricula is still on the continent. proceeding and more and more schools in • Related to the previous theme: quality of Europe join in consortia, making a "national" teaching, tradition of looking after students university nearly an archaism, higher education (facilities, services, e.g., health). is entering slowly yet a further stage. The' • Particularly for the University of European higher education institutions are, as it Westminster, but up to a certain extent for were, rediscovering the world. Slowly the many university courses in Britain: vocational Europeanisation process is changing into a true character of its education. In other words, the internationalisation process, by expanding the nature of the education is such that Erasmus schemes firstly to Eastern Europe, then graduates should get a job. The institution to Scandinavia and other EFTA countries, then tries to achieve this by explicitly linking carefully to the United States, then to the theory and practice: sandwich courses, republics of the former Soviet Union, to Japan, to placements, involvement of industry, South America. When this goes on, Europe might enterprise schemes etc. even discover Australia again. What is the position of my own University, a • cosmopolitan classes. British higher education institution, in this • Price tag-Higher Education in Britain is process? more businesslike than elsewhere in Europe, As for every other institution, our position is thought it is not "a business!" The "value for strongly determined by our history. Founded in money" principle is generally accepted in 1838 as the Royal Polytechnic Institute, for most British higher education. It is more of its existence it was predominantly London expensive, and therefore needs to offer oriented. The so called Old Poly was a large considerably more, not only in terms of institution for primarily the people of London. quality but also in international recognition Even today half of its nearly 20,000 students are · of degrees and international standing of local part-timers, plus another 20,000 to 40,000 British higher education in general. So as a on short courses etc., making it the largest final point I should add to this brief provider of this type of education after the comparison: British Open University. • International recognition of its degree. But being a British institution also means that it always has received hundreds of international Given this contextr it is not surprising that students per year from the Commonwealth British universities, and certainly also my Countries, and many American students on University, were relatively slow to enter the Study Abroad programs. In fact for many years European programs. They felt less need for this the University of Westminster has run one of the than the continental institutions. They did not largest Study Abroad programs, with recognition play a very proactive role within the newly of credits by some 120 US universities. This year created networks, fearing competition rather we expect to receive well over 200 American than seeing opportunities. But this has changed 58 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE in the last two to five years, despite a lingering I have no plans to move again. scepticism towards anything European. Why To summarise: contrary to the politicians, I scepticism? I see two or three important causes recognise the success of the mobility schemes, for this attitude. Firstly, because the world has since they offer the long awaited opportunities always been larger than Europe for British for higher education institutions to institutions. Secondly, a certain amount of cum intemationalise themselves. The impact of these hoc ergo propter hoc. Painful changes in the British types of programs on the institutions, their economic structure created mass unemployment teachings and their international behaviour, is and other problems, and exactly at this point the clear and impressive. I also note that in particular nation joined Europe. So therefore there is a the mobility schemes have given the networking tendency to blame "Brussels" as the cause of of individual academics an institutional certain unpleasant developments, though in fact dimension. This European institutional the role of Brussels was probably only highly networking is now entering a new stage with the marginal or even absent. Plus-and this seems establishment of consortia within specific something hard to swallow for the British academic disciplines or fields of specialisation. having to adjust to European standards, instead And at the same time, the European programs of what the British had been used to: the rest of are expanding to other parts of the world, thus the world adopting British standards. But I stimulating European higher education believe that now the ratio is winning from the institutions to transfer the Europeanisation intuito. I am convinced that, especially because process to a truly intemationalisation process. I of its history, British higher education remains in predict that, especially given this new direction, a very strong position, within Europe and within British higher education will start to play a the world. This is one of the main reasons why I considerably more proactive role in this process. moved from the continent to London. And as yet • • • Multi-culture Education: Imperative for Educating Citizens of the World Lee C. Lee Hong Kong Baptist College Hong Kong In 1959, Bertrand Russell explains at the end of importance of shared perspectives in the his book: Wisdom of the West, why he left no room education of world citizens, using higher for "what is usually called the wisdom of the education in the United States as an example. East." He declared that "the two worlds have A first-class university addresses itself not grown in isolation from each other, so that a self only to what exists within the larger society, but contained account of Western thought is also to what has been and what ought to be. Its permissible. But there is another more task is to provide a range of options, compelling reason why one might do this. For in philosophies, and tools for its students; it can be some vital respects the philosophic tradition of seen as both a centre of knowledge and learning, the West differs from the speculations of the and as an enabler for its graduates, who are its Eastern mind." He intimated that Western link with the larger society and with the future. wisdom is based on Greek civilisation in which a In recent years, there have been many philosophic movement goes hand in hand with a changes in U.S. higher education which have scientific tradition. It is this dual tradition that functioned not to serve the broader purposes of has shaped the civilisation of the West (Russell, society, but to answer more specific demands. 1959). And thus, it would be difficult to include Large American universities have responded to a the "speculations" of the East in the discussion of number of outside pressures with the result that the wisdom of Western civilisation. most universities have, at the baccalaureate level, become better at producing skilled professional When this book was published in 1959, I was graduates than at producing graduates who have in graduate school in the United States and a a broad, critical understanding of the world. In great admirer of Bertrand Russell. Having had a particular, the availability of funds and the sound British education in Hong Kong and an demand for advanced research in the natural and American education in the United States, I found physical sciences have been major contributors no fault in the above statement. But now, three to a far-reaching trend toward specialisation. As and a half decades later, I, along with many of more resources, both human and financial, have my colleagues, find such thinking rather gone into technical and scientific research, fewer shocking, particularly by so famous an remain for other educational purposes. This individual. This, however, well illustrates how trend is also evident in the social sciences and the our institutions of higher learning during that professions, where it appears that universities historical period helped perpetuate one have responded less to academic considerations perspective of the world and isolated our than to the certification requirements of knowledge base within that sphere. professional societies. In addition, the university This change of my own perspective reflects reward system for faculty members has further the many changes that have taken place in higher reinforced the trend toward specialisation; education during the past few decades, decisions about tenure or substantiation are particularly in the United States. Today I want to largely based on number of publications, and share with you some of my thinking about the narrow specialisations can produce many "pot 59 60 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE boilers." On a vast scale, we now have higher There are two essential fallacies inherent in education with a narrow focus. Specialisation the melting pot theory. The first is that non-white has gained stature, while the importance of a Americans can, or should, become like white broadly-based education which was formerly Americans and the second is that non-white unquestioned has become increasingly obscure. people do not have cultural significance in the In spite of this tendency toward New World. specialisation, it is important to recognise the Since the 1960s the power of the old multifaceted nature of the university and the monolithic culture idea has begun to erode; many possibilities which it still affords. Martin clearly, white Protestants are no longer viewed as Trow (1970), in his discussion of desired changes the sole guardians and definers of American in higher education, takes care to point out that culture. Increasingly, in both formal and informal while the university may concern itself with the contexts, there is a recognition that learning of requirements of external institutions, such as the behaviours and thought patterns goes both medical profession, the military, or the business ways: the old mono-culture, or its remnants, industry, it also has other obligations. At their influences immigrant and minority groups at the best, he says, large, pluralistic institutions offer same time that those groups change and shape "a full range of academic subjects, some of which the mainstream. centre on the transmission of the high culture These changes are evident in popular and and are concerned less with public service than mass culture, in the news media, the fine arts, with the cultivation of sensibility and and even in our dietary habits. The emergence of independence of judgment, a sense of the past, of this new pluralistic society has also become the uniqueness of the individual, of the varied increasingly evident in a range of institutions forms of human experience and expression in where change and innovation have begun a slow brief, all the desired outcomes of liberal process of national transformation. education" (Trow, 1970). In various contexts, it has become clear that As the swing toward specialisation has American culture is in fact many cultures and its proceeded, one result has been that U.S. higher history, many histories; failure to incorporate this education has failed to recognise the very nature truth in our social and educational structures has of its own culture. had unproductive and negative consequences. The United States is a nation of immigrants. Although the presence of large numbers of Racial and ethnic minorities are not only here to non-white people in the United States is not a stay, but are an increasingly significant factor in new phenomenon, its expression in higher many sectors of society. It is only in the relatively education is still incomplete. Formal recognition recent past, however, that universities have of pluralism in university curricula and policies acknowledged that not all our immigrants carne began abruptly. from Europe. Prior to the 1960s, American In the late sixties, following the initial gains colleges and universities existed in an of the civil rights movement and the integration atmosphere of social isolation, which was almost of all-white southern campuses, racial and exclusively white; the concept of the ivory tower political confrontation erupted on northern was indeed suitable. The widespread belief in campuses. A broad spectrum of issues and one American culture and one version of history demands was raised during this period, but for was largely responsible for the "ivory tower our purposes here, we will concentrate on the syndrome." issues centred around race and culture which led People who had come to the United States to the creation of the first ethnic studies from all over the world, according to the melting programs. pot theory, would shed the ways of the old Minority students felt that their influence, countries and blend happily into one people. history, and culture had been excluded from However, white Protestants, who were once the university curricula and power structures. They undisputed keepers of the dominant culture, maintained that the Euro-centred perspectives in failed to view the process of cultural mixing as a academia were not relevant to their experience dynamic one. As William Greenbaum (1974) in and demanded sweeping changes. his essay on the Rise of Pluralism expressed it, the The impact of student demands was far white Protestants "assumed their own reaching. In his report to the Ford Foundation on exemption from the melting pot. The rest of us Afro-American Studies, Nathan Huggins (1986) would become acculturated, learning their notes that Afro-American Studies courses were behaviours and thought patterns" (Greenbaum, added even by schools at which there had been 1974). little or no protest. This fact suggests that there Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 61 was wide acceptance of the idea that higher productive debate." Graff also proposed that the education could no longer be Euro-centric in current debates confuse the goal of broadening content. Like all other aspects of the movement the curriculum with the goal of achieving a for peace and civil rights, the demand for consensus on the fundamentals of knowledge. university reform by black students was national "Achieving a common educational experience in its impact as well as local in particular was confused with securing agreement on the manifestations. In some sense, the urge for values informing the experience. The common change was everywhere; whether or not a ground ended up being a narrow conception of campus had militant black students making the great books that, in fact, had ceased to be demands, the urge for reform was in the air commonly shared, in either the academic world (Huggins, 1986). or the world outside" (Graff, 1992). Greenbaum (1974) addresses the importance What can be gleaned from the U.S. of recognising pluralism on an institutional level: experience? First, we must recognise that as the world becomes smaller, we must have greater The present period is the first in American understanding of "foreign" cultures and values history in which the nation's major institutions regardless of whether we agree with the are reinforcing difference as a way of fundamental values of these cultures. We must increasing similarity; it is the first time that the recognise that Higher Education, regardless of American assimilation process has been forced to strengthen diverse ethnic and cultural nation, has an obligation to provide a broad base identities in an attempt to sustain a unified understanding of the diverse cultures of the mainstream. (Greenbaum, p. 434) world. It is important to acknowledge that "foreign" cultures and traditions are of interest While many of the changes that emerged from not because they are curious or unusual, but the turmoil of the sixties are valuable and because they are useful. The fundamental value important, the confrontational atmosphere may of including "foreign" cultures in our have had some long-lasting negative effects educational offerings lies in the new perspectives within universities. One such effect has been which they afford on traditional education, that, in responding to the demands of specific indigenous cultures, and global issues. Such racial or ethnic groups, many universities did not broadly-based education is imperative as deal with the larger educational issue. There technologies progressively decrease the size of were very few schools that systematically and our world. effectively addressed the larger issue of ethnic Let us briefly consider what the graduates of studies and/or non-Western studies as a a modem university face as they take on necessity to achieve a broad-based liberal leadership roles in society. These graduates will education. share responsibility for an increasingly complex According to many commission reports, world, one in which technical knowledge and American higher education is in a disastrous traditional wisdom appear to be at odds, a world state. Much of this crisis revolves around the in which national and corporate interests thrive clash of cultures and values. Many universities alongside growing concern over global issues, have expanded their curriculum by appending and a world which is being transformed by the new courses in non-Western cultures or to demands of population, the influences of trade, include non-Western culture courses in existing and the possibilities of technology. Clearly, general education requirements (as is being done technical or professional competency alone is not in the University of California systems}. Many in sufficient preparation for responsible social, academia view this curriculum change as a political and economic participation. Neither is decline in the academy. the ethnocentric understanding of Western or Gerald Graff (1992) in a recent book, Beyond Eastern cultures adequate preparation for the Culture Wars, proposes that the current crisis responsible citizenship. in American education can be viewed as "the On a more practical level, a university could problems of success, a consequence of the vast be viewed as a microcosm in which people with superiority of today's university in intellectual differing religious beliefs and cultural and moral reach and cultural diversity to the relatively values communicate and interact on a daily restricted campus culture of a generation ago." basis. The success of such interactions depends, He sees these unprecedented conflicts as in large measure, on the extent to which the reflecting the vitality of the academy. The university fosters an atmosphere of mutual "challenge is to tum these very conflicts to understanding, respect, and tolerance. Success at positive account, by transforming a scene of this microcosmic level should have consequences hatred and anger into one of educationally for university graduates as they take on 62 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE leadership roles in the macrocosm-that is, the thereby creating a new generation of scholars. world. We hope to provide an educational context for A university should, then, recognise the need Eastern scholars, as well as the general Hong to address possibilities beyond specialisation; it Kong populace, to develop a deeper should present an array of global issues, cultures understanding of the varied cultures of the and values for study and analysis; and it should Western world and for Western scholars to acquaint its students with the process of develop a greater understanding of the varied weighing various sets of values against each cultures of the East. We intend to create forums other. Finally, it should provide the means and for dialogue concerning research and societal the environment through which its students can issues among scholars and practitioners from learn to think creatively and help them engage in relevant disciplines in order to create new the life-long process of becoming full perspectives from which to view the world. We participants in the complex process that is hope to create and maintain long-term and short civilisation. term multicultural and multifaceted To achieve this, we scholars from both East collaborative research projects among scholars and West must believe that the requisite for within the Asia Pacific region as well as around quality education requires engagement and the world-projects which will be useful for the communication among scholars from varied world family of societies. cultures, disciplines, institutions and In sum, The David C. Lam Institute for East communities. If we want our students to achieve West Studies at the Hong Kong Baptist College their full potential, we must provide an intends to be a vital catalytic force to bridge East educational context wherein both Eastern and and West. In so doing, it hopes to play a major Western thoughts are presented with equal role in the discovery of knowledge world wide. value. We invite all interested parties to participate in We, as representatives from all over the this venture. world, can forge an alliance as equal partners to provide university students with the requisite knowledge, skills and attitude to become first References class world citizens of the twenty-first century. In this context, the Hong Kong Baptist Graff, G. (1992). Beyond the culture wars. New York: W. College, soon to be a University, has established W. Norton & Co. a new Institute at this historical juncture in Hong Greenbaum, W. (1974). America in search of a new Kong to address, and hopefully to achieve, many ideal: An essay on the rise of pluralism. Harvard of the issues and ideas that I have raised. Educational Review, 44(3), 426. The David C. Lam Institute for East West Huggins, N. (1986). Afro-American studies. New York: Studies hopes to create a vibrant community of Ford Foundation (p. 19). scholars from different disciplines, from different Russell, B. (1959). Wisdom of the west. London: cultures, from different regions of the world. We MacDonald. hope to provide an environment wherein young Trow, M. (1970). Reflections on the transition from scholars, both students and professionals, are mass to universal higher education. Deadalus, nurtured by both East and West elder scholars, 99(1), 5. • • • The Rapidly Changing Economic Frame of Mauritius and its Education Sheila Bunwaree University of Mauritius Mauritius Mauritius, one of the three small islands a time but it succumbed to the dominance of collectively called the Cascarene Islands, is communal loyalties. Even though Mauritius located in the South Western Indian Ocean. offers steady economic progress, it has a fragile Lying about 880 kilometres to the east of unity, and this progress depends on a market in Madagascar, which is the closest land mass, which Mauritius has little influence, as well as an Mauritius covers an expanse of 1840 square education system which is constantly being kilometres. Nowadays, tourist advertisements geared towards the needs of the economy. The around the world often quote Mark Twain (1897) "paradise" that Mauritius never was during on Mauritius. He is recorded as saying "you either the colonial period or the immediate post gather the idea that Mauritius was made first, independence period, but that it may have been and then heaven; and that heaven was copied for some sections of Mauritian society during the after Mauritius," (Twain, p. 619). Tourist past decade or so, is now under threat as a brochures also call it an idyllic island and a consequence of its rapid and successful economic paradise. For most of its history, however, development. Mauritius has not been a paradise. Most of its This paper argues that the Mauritian settlers carne unwillingly as slaves, or were education system, based on the British model, falsely lured as indentured labourers. Lal (1980), has been relatively successful in contributing to a scholar of Indian emigration, writes: Mauritius' recent success story. Now, however, that the economic frame is changing rapidly, and The realities of a new life soon shattered any the country faces new challenges, the education idealistic picture the emigrants had of their system is under great strain. Under these promised land. (p. 69). conditions, the country has become even more Now, although Mauritius is independent, it vulnerable. Schools have always been important carries with it the marks of its formation. The institutions in the social structure of societies. As elements of its population who carne as French the mode of production of various societies has settlers, African slaves, Indian indentured altered so too have the social structures which labourers and Chinese traders, still remain depend upon it. Schools now more than ever separate. serve the interests of capital, rather than those of With independence, Mauritius now deals the individual. with many powers in the world market. Education in Mauritius has always been However, independence established neither geared towards the nation's economy. The economic independence nor a national history of education during the French colonial sentiment. The possibility of class unity, rather period shows that education was provided on a than communal disunity, once existed, but faded. very small scale. At the time, the economy had The possibility of a certain unity around the hardly been developed and the role of education common language and its culture was raised for was limited and oriented mostly towards the 63 64 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE production of a few administrators. The French In spite of the fact that the language problem is, colonial period also illustrates the extent of according to many linguists/ educationalists, discrimination against blacks, coloured and responsible for the high illiteracy rate, the Master women. That period of history depicts the Plan for Education 1991 has chosen to ignore it. reluctance of the colonial administration, which The questions we want to ask are for how long was dominated by the aristocracy and elite, to will it choose to ignore it, who is this policy expand education on the island. When the British privileging and what are the implications for gained control over the island, the demographic Mauritian development? Before answering these pattern of the island changed. It was the period questions, we'll take a quick look at human during which Indian indentured labourers and a capital theory in order to come to an small Chinese community came to the country. interpretation of the situation in Mauritius. Despite the expansion of education, discrimination on the basis of creed, colour, race Education, Human Capital and Economic and sex persisted. Growth in Developing Nations The colonial curriculum was in consonance While the "renaissance" in the economics of with colonial economic and employment education has largely been attributed to Schultz, policies. In the British colonies, all higher as a result of his pioneering work during the appointments in almost all the services were, in early 1960s, there were some valuable effect, reserved for the British. The English contributions throughout the first half of the educated natives found employment only as twentieth century. Strumilin (1925), for example, low-level civil servants. It was not colonial policy sought to investigate the role of education in to spend on education for the masses. Mass national development. Walsh (1935) has been education in Mauritius only became an issue credited with being the first economist to test, in when political power passed into the hands of cost-benefit terms, whether certain classes of the Indians in 1948. The main aim of education tertiary- trained professionals take into account was to reduce illiteracy. It was believed that an their expected future earnings, and the delays in expansion of schools and more access would earnings as a result of extending their education, help remedy the problem. Schools began to when considering the return to their investment appear all over the island. Writing about in becoming qualified. He found that, for a Mauritian education, Meade (1968) explained general college education, the increase in that the country embarked on a policy of earnings exceeded the cost of additional primary education for all, hoping that it would education but this was not true of higher produce a literate and intelligent population. He degrees. Friedman and Kuznets (1946) published went on to argue that: the results of a similar study on doctors and the greatest handicap to successful education dentists. An important milestone was reached in Mauritius is that imposed by the with the publication of Schultz's work on multiplicity of languages in use. Children investment in education (Schultz, 1961). Not only leave primary school in large numbers without did Schultz incorporate education of the labour have acquired anything worth calling literacy force into his aggregate input-output analysis in any language though they have spent an but he also included earnings foregone or the intolerable amount of dabbling in all three. value of his student time in his measurement of In the post-independence period, the costs. He found that between 1929 and 1956 in language issue remains an important one. After the United States, education accounted for more than 20 years of independence, the between 21 per cent and 40 per cent of the Mauritian system of education has failed to make increases in national income, while between 17 its entire population literate, but worse still it and 33 per cent of income growth over that refuses to deal with the language problem which period could be attributed to increases in contributes to illiteracy in the country. education per member of the employed labour force. Les statistiques montrent que malgre Schultz firmly believed that investing in !'education gratuite au primaire comme au education is very productive and he stated "by secondaire, neuf eleves mauriciens sur dix ne terminent pas leur parcours scolaire ... investing in themselves, people can enlarge the L'experience montre que la quasi totalite de range of choice available to them. It is the one ceux qui echouent le C.P.E. sont analphabetes way free man can enhance their welfare" ou le redeviennent rapidement. (Le Maauricien, (Schultz, 1961, p. 2). Schultz illuminated the 20 July 1991) importance of "human capital"-to him and Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 65 many others, the answer to the various problems to be the "hey day" of the economics of of the Third World was to instil the necessary education, reaching a peak around 1970. skills and knowledge in the labour force. However, he also points out that it did not vanish Schultz's ideas about the importance of after this time but that there developed a second "human capital" became current in development generation of economists of education. They no thinking. Schultz (1961) and Denison (1962) longer accepted the social demand approach of provided convincing evidence that education educational planning or manpower forecasting. was an important contributor to economic Neither did they show any enthusiasm for rate of growth. Their conclusions were supported by a return analysis or the income equalisation number of other studies during the period. The potential of education. Blaug also argues that: studies of Harbison and Myers (1964), Inkeles and Smith (1974) and Bowman and Anderson Education does not make a contribution to economic growth, not as an indispensable (1963) argue that a literacy rate of about 40 per input into the growth process, as first cent is necessary but insufficient for a sustained generation economists of education used to level of economic growth. They contend that argue, but simply as a framework which willy industrialisation and more rapid economic nilly accommodates the growth process (p. 22) expansion cannot occur until 70 or 80 per cent of the population is literate. Implicit in this The view that education does not make a argument is the assumption that education contribution to economic growth has also been enhances productivity and brings about expressed by other writers. Weiler is one of them. economic growth (Maglen, 1990). Maglen Weiler (1978) refers to the 1970s as "the age of examines a range of studies done in both scepticism" in the economics of education and developing and developed countries and speaks of the failure of education to fulfil its early expresses serious reservations on the , promise. Educational expansion does not relationship between education and necessarily make people or countries more productivity. Maglen concludes that: prosperous. Instead it may, and often does, leave the former without jobs and the latter with .... neither time series nor cross country studies increasing burdensome claims on public funds. lend much support to the contention that Weiler (1978) writes: increased education promotes the growth of labour productivity. (Maglen, p. 291) Not only has educational growth failed to achieve greater equity in the distribution of Crittenden (1992) in his article Learning pays income, goods and statuses, it seems in many agrees with Maglen but adds that the quality of cases to have contributed to reproducing and education in mathematics, science and further consolidating the inequalities already languages, rather than the number of years at existing in a given society. (p. 180) school, has important economic consequences. Reproduction and consolidation of inequalities is Crittenden writes: but one of the various problems that resulted Rigorous studies also show that economic from an expansion in education. Dore draws our productivity depends more on the extent and attention to other problems. thoroughness of on-the-job training than on Dore (1976) speaks of the inability of the the amount of schooling. (p. 40) labour market to absorb the "educated Crittenden's argument seems to imply that an unemployed." Developing countries were faced education system should put more emphasis on with problems such as unemployment, economic producing people capable of being trained-in instability, social unrest and increasing poverty. other words trainable rather than trained people. Dore explains that schooling had become a In addition to the above criticisms of human ritualised process of qualification earning. capital theory, there are works which indicate the Primary schools had become institutions where growing disillusionment of Third World "one competes for an exit visa from rural countries with education as an agent of society" (p. 71). The function of the school development. seemed to be the earning of more and more Mark Blaug (1978) begins his review of qualifications and this tended to stifle initiative, education in developing countries by stating that individuality and creativity. The drive towards the "golden days of -the economics of education modernisation and economic development in are over" (p. 73). In his special professorial developing countries resulted in what Dore calls lecture at the University of London Institute of a "diploma disease." Education in 1988, Blaug acknowledges the 1960s Education has also been described as "the 66 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE great training robbery," which ensured a Western It is very important that participation at a grass model of development, most of the time root level takes place if reforms are to be inappropriate to the developing countries (Berg, implemented successfully. Simmons also stresses 1971). D'Aeth (1975) stresses that a western type that very often the: of schooling emerged under colonial rule. Lack of participation by the intended Knowledge being imparted was imbued with a beneficiaries along with the political clout of foreign culture and intended to educate a those with vested interests in the status quo, minority elite to help run the colony, and in all combine to block effective educational reform. these respects divorced from the needs of Unless the beneficiaries of these changes are developing countries (D'Aeth, p. 12). Carnoy themselves enabled to help plan and (1974) speaks of an "educational and cultural implement reform, and until constituencies are imperialism" aimed at transforming the Third formed to counter the inertia of the status quo, World into a neo-colonial relationship with the the existing inefficiencies and inequities of the west. educational systems in developing countries Literature abounds on questions regarding are bound to perpetuate themselves. ( p. 1013) the equity aspects of educational expansion, The notions of inequities and inefficiencies are particularly in regard to subsidies and income also dealt with by Paulo Freire (1985) who in his redistribution. Carnoy (1974) and Jallade (1974) work The Politics of Education argues that it is indicate that educational expansion actually vital not to think of education as independent increases income inequalities. Psacharopoulous from the power that constitutes it because doing (1977), Fields (1980) and Blaug (1982) provide so would imply reducing it to a world of abstract evidence to show that the rich are benefiting values and ideals. Freire states that " .... a society more from educational subsidies. This situation that structures education to benefit those in undoubtedly heightens inequalities already power invariably has within it the fundamental existing in the system. More recently, Mingat and elements for its self-preservation" (Freire, p. 170). Tan (1985) showed that in developing countries He goes on to say: "71% of the given cohort (those with primary or no schooling) share only 22.1% of the overall ... forces that mould education so that it is self cohort resources, whereas 6.4% (those with perpetuating would not allow education to higher education) get 38.6% of these resources" work against them. This is the reason any radical and profound transformation of an (Mingat and Tan, 1985). Jimenez (1986) explores educational system can only take place when further the question of who education favours society is also radically transformed. (p. 170) the most and who profits most from the public funding of education and drew similar So if Mauritian society remains untransformed, conclusions to those of Mingat and Tan. Despite the ongoing restructuring of education will only these problems there is a continuing high provide a semblance of change. demand for education in developing countries. The notions of "self preservation" and "self This is because practically everyone is imbued perpetuating" evoked by Freire indicate that with the faith that some education is a passport there are within most peripheral countries to something better, something which would certain elite groups who often play the role of enhance their position in society. The masses of intermediary agents in the asymmetric the Third World countries are in search of an interaction processes with the dominant nations, easier and better life and they place their hopes thus ensuring their own position. Mauritius is no in an education which often does not answer different from other Third World countries, since their needs but which instead results in a large its population as well as those in power (the degree of disillusionment. elite) are convinced of the positive aspects of Poor people's inability to profit from any increasing amounts of education. This brings us education whatsoever is often due to the fact that back to the concept of "human capital" as prevalent types of education are inappropriate popularised by Schultz and Denison. and unsuitable for them. Many developing The use of the concept of human capital in countries realise the importance of bringing Mauritius takes us into complex issues. Human about educational reforms and rendering capital theory, in the form developed since the education more effective for each and every early sixties, is derived from an analysis of the citizen but, as Simmons (1979) points out: economy of advanced nations. Yet Mauritius belongs to the marginal, the underdeveloped, the ... Educational reforms of a genuinely far periphery, the "other." Human capital policies reaching nature encounter major obstacles change directions, as Pusey (1991) points out for wherever attempts are made to implement Australia. But Mauritius, as a colony, had no them. (p. 1013) Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 67 national direction. Nor, as this paper argues, the quality and content of education from its does it have a clear one now. Yet the concept of present generally academic emphasis to more human capital, of human beings as a resource, is technical and vocational orientations at all a very apt one for Mauritius. The changing levels. economic frame of Mauritius, as well as the The reality of Mauritian education, however, position it has carved itself in the new demonstrates that no fundamental changes took international division of labour, calls for a place. It it only recently, more than 20 years after diversified Mauritian manpower. Mauritian it had been mentioned, that technical and schooling is now expected to produce and train vocational education has really begun. the labour force required by the international Education in Mauritius, like in many other capitalist system into which Mauritius is parts of the world, is regarded as a wealth continually integrating. generating activity. It is seen and discussed in terms of its contribution to the national cake. The From a Sugar Bowl to a Knitting Island and Master Plan writes: Now to an Information-Based Economy A major achievement of the system has been During the early colonial period, when that it has provided the greater part of the Mauritius' economy started expanding, labour manpower required for the first stage of was needed mostly for the sugar industry. There Mauritian industrialisation. was, at that stage, no need for a highly skilled or The first stage of industrialisation, which was educated man power. Slave labour, as well as highly labour intensive, has to a large extent indentured labour, were in a sense regarded as absorbed a number of people with very little the capital. Economists such as Walras and Von education. The schooling system could afford to Thunen recognised the reluctance of some eliminate a large section of the population at an economists to categorise human beings as capital early age and the manufacturing industries but argued that in pure economic theory human absorbed many of them like a sponge. But now beings must be treated as capital and that in that the country is moving to a "second stage of doing so it was still possible to preserve the industrialisation" and adopting more capital "freedom and dignity of man" (Von Thunen, intensive techniques, it can no longer afford to 1875, p. 5). produce large numbers of illiterates or dropouts, However, the history of Mauritius indicates hence the need to restructure education. The that both freedom and dignity were rarities restructuring is evidenced by the proposals of during the early colonisation period of the Master Plan 1991. Mauritius. That episode of colonialism can be The Master Plan 1991 suggests the regarded as one in which "otherness" in a introduction of a nine year schooling system to general way was an expression of definition and replace a six year one. Previously, if students identity by a particular group of people, defining failed at the end of primary school, they were not themselves by difference with another group. given access to secondary school and were made But "otherness" gains a new significance, to drop out from the system around the age of especially when we look at how the growing eleven. With the new plan, they will be able to go colonised economy demands new skills which in on for nine years after which they will be tum lead to a certain hierarchy within the channelled to technical and vocational population. education. The changing economic frame and the emerging tight labour market in Mauritius The Restructuring of Education and "Knowledge cannot afford to let its manpower go to waste. Workers" Not only is it concerned about avoiding waste of The first National Development Plan (1971- manpower, but also concerned to produce 75) after independence in 1968 summarises the "knowledge" and multi-skilled workers. government's development strategy: The Master Plan (1991) writes: The most important resource of Mauritius is its The education system will be called on manpower. A well motivated labour force increasingly to provide the managers, the possessing the requisite mental and physical professionals, the scientists and the technicians skills for a mod~m economy is the most who . will be required for the new phase of valuable economic asset ... There is a need to industrial development. create the skills required to meet the demand generated by prospective economic Mauritius is becoming more fragile in the post development. This would require a change in GAIT era. It is running the risks of losing its 68 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE protected markets for its woollen garments and It would appear that one of the major reasons its sugar. The emergence of new blocks such as for the spectacular development of the NICS NAFTA, ASEAN and the European economic has been the high education level of the labour union, as well as the new tigers of South East force. In Hong Kong in 1981, for example, only Asia, are additional threats to Mauritius. And 10% of the labour force had no schooling, 37% had primary, which 19% of the labour force now, Mauritian politicians and policy makers were university trained or trained in talk about hard competition, quality and polytechnics. Education levels are equally high production culture. In the wake of all these in the other NICS. In comparison, the pressures, the labour market in Mauritius educational level of the Mauritian labour is becomes very complex. The labour market considerably lower (Quoted in Master Plan created is one in the conditions of the collapse of 1991, p. 2). space/time which Giddens (1990) refers to as the characteristics of high modernity and which The relatively low educational level of the other writers call post modernism. Mauritian labour force, as well as the heavy Mauritius' labour market now calls for a dependence of the country on oil, technology highly skilled, adaptive and productive work and basic foodstuffs, make it somewhat force. Mauritian politicians and policy makers premature to describe the island as being on its now put a lot of emphasis on the service sector way to an information based economy. and Information Technology. With this new What is even more serious is that the emphasis comes an increasing degree of schooling system is organised in such a way that "intellectualisation." As Mauritius moves it privileges only those who possess the cultural towards a high-tech society, it will experience a capital. Meritocracy is not erected on equality of fall in demand for people who are qualified only access. In a country in which the common for muscular and repetitive tasks. It is now to the language, kreol and the ethnic languages apart intellectual or abstract knowledge that the from kreol, particularly bhojpuri, are scarcely planners look for the means to sustain Mauritian recognised, success at school depends upon a economic growth and development. family background in which English and French It is necessary for capital in Mauritius to tum are available and their speech encouraged. But to what Sharp and White (1968) call the since the population of ethnic English and "intellectually trained" to provide new forms of French is very small in Mauritius, this language commodification. Sharp and White (1968) policy does not appear as a communal explain that this group utilise intellectual differential of any significance. Cultural capital is technique which derives from the intellectual linguistic capital in Mauritius and it is through culture rather than directly from practice and this, that a stratum or class distinctions are made they add that it is disseminated through and reinforced through schooling. university and tertiary educational institutions. The two European languages are vital Whilst "labour power" still plays an important instruments in Mauritius - they contribute to the role in the creation of value within the system of production of "knowledge workers" that are commodity production, it is more of the brain/ badly required in the country. Even if Mauritius mental power rather than manual labour which succeeds in sustaining its growth (it may be a is required. jobless one) by developing its knowledge intensive industries and an appropriate pool of labour, stability in Mauritius would be Conclusion threatened. As the presently untrained labour in As Mauritius struggles to shift from the factories is shed off and replaced by multi skilled "knitting island" to the "intelligent/network workers or machines, unemployment would island," comparable to Singapore, it has to start to rise and increasing marginalisation of rethink its education system to make the sections of Mauritian society may result. The restructuring effective. Comparing some of the hope of an improved material life and apparent newly industrialising countries (NICS) with social mobility disappears, giving way to a Mauritius, Bheenick and Hanoomanjee state: possible social explosion. 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International Band for Reconstruction and Development, World Bank Staff Occasional Paper No. 18. • • • The Administrative Implications of International Education DickAudley University of Western Sydney Australia My aim in this paper is to discuss a number certainly been significant for the number of of the administrative implications of the students who are studying off shore (and the emerging forms of international electronic number of overseas students who are studying education and to suggest ways in which some of in Australia) there seems little doubt that these these problems can be resolved through effective figures will soon be eclipsed by the far more networking. numerous body of students who will have the opportunity to study abroad, but who will be There is, of course, nothing new in the able to do so without having to spend one night concept of international education. Students away from their homes. have been travelling backwards and forwards I am, of course, referring to the growth of from one centre of learning to another since at electronic distance education, and the impact least the days of the ancient Greeks if not earlier, that this will have on international study in the and this has always been encouraged, as living future. The theory behind electronic distance and learning in a new environment invariably education is not new, and it has been the subject broadens the mind and gives the student a new of innumerable experiments over the past perspective. decade. I have myself spent a considerable time There has been an amazing change in watching the emergence of this form of teaching, international education over the past decade, from its first beginnings as a frail and rather however, as the revolution in communications temperamental child that looked as though it that has been so much a part of the late twentieth could die at any moment, through its turbulent century has started to take hold on our society. adolescence when it threatened to defy its Airfares are proportionately cheaper than they parents, until the present time when it stands on were a few years ago, and the convenience of the point of full, and one hopes responsible, access is much greater. The growth of maturity. I have been impressed, and perhaps a international media has broken down many little frightened, at the speed with which this cultural barriers, and there is no longer any revolution has emerged, and I am uncertain implication that someone is particularly daring whether we have the structures in place to or perhaps excessively wealthy if he or she handle it in our universities. The difficulty is that decides to spend a few years studying overseas. we seem to have concentrated so long on getting I have no doubt that a historian looking back the technology right that we have allowed the from a point in the future may well declare the other things that we need to run these programs 1990s to be the era in which international to lapse. I have been told by those who are education assumed a new importance in the competent in the field that the technology to thinking of Australian universities, but I do not mount international electronic programs is now think that the person making this statement will available, and that the cost is rapidly becoming necessarily be looking at the statistics for the competitive with face to face teaching. What is number of students who have moved from one now required is the development of programs country to another. While the 1990s have 70 Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 71 suitable for this medium, and the recruitment of count towards a local degree. staff who are comfortable using it. All of this is mind boggling, although I Within only one or two years, so I have been suspect that the day when it will actually happen advised, it may be quite normal to have vast is probably far closer than many of us realise. I international electronic programs with an asked a few people who were experimenting in enrolment of perhaps several million students, this field when they thought that the bugs would each of whom would be studying be eliminated from the system, and when simultaneously in different parts of the world. genuine teaching could begin. I was expecting an There is every possibility that these "mega answer on the other side of the year 2000- institutions" will absorb much of the teaching perhaps something well down the track that from conventional institutions, and will be might happen after all of us had retired. structured to enable a student who was enrolled It was brought home to me quite forcibly that in one country to join a class conducted by any electronics people think of development times of one of a number of others, and to participate in microseconds, not years. I was told that it would that class as though they were there in the room. be quite possible to have Australian programs Nor need the student be limited to one off beamed regularly to our immediate neighbours shore class or activity. There would be nothing in the Pacific by the end of this year, and for the other than a possible timetable clash that would systems who were prepared to spend money to prevent a person who was enrolled in an support a wider infrastructure to go completely Australian university from participating in international by the middle of 1995. By 1996 (or classes in say the State University of New York, earlier if suitable overseas partners could be the University of Cardiff in the United Kingdom, found) it would be possible for institutions to and at the University of Natal, in South Africa, teach in real time anywhere in the world, so that one after the other, simply by switching students could participate in lectures as they channels. It would also be quite practical to have were given, irrespective of where either the a student who physically attended, let us say, my lecturer or the student might be located. By 1998 own university in the west of Sydney, who was there would be scarcely a developed country in also taking classes in French Literature at the the world where students could not participate University of Paris, classes in Vietnamese from in international education. Indeed by the year the University of Hanoi, and perhaps a few units 2000 it would be so commonplace that no one in Law from the University of Hong Kong, and would think twice about it. It would in fact be a who transferred from continent to continent as most unusual student who was not "attending" one lecture ended and the next began. classes on an international basis at some point in The student would view the same lecture as their career. his or her peers, would be able to ask questions I do not think that there is any question of the in real time (and the whole world would hear technology being ready to make this happen-it them do it) and would complete examinations is here at the moment as anyone who watched with the papers coming through the same the recent Commonwealth Games can testify. electronic medium that gave instruction in the There are still two things that are lacking, first place. The answers would be keyed into the however. The first is an effective curriculum for system, and when the student had finished the international teaching, and the second is the lack whole file would be dispatched to the examiner of an effective administrative system to support in seconds. While the script could appear on the it. lecturers screen a few milliseconds after the I do not wish to say a great deal about the exam, the marking itself would probably take curriculum today, although this is an important time. Unfortunately there is no machine that can issue, and the fact that I am not going into it does mark anything more complicated than multiple not mean that it can be ignored. The question answer papers and so some poor soul will have that I would prefer to raise with you this to bum the midnight oil to do this manually as morning concerns the administrative systems they do with face to face teaching. It will that will be necessary' to keep this invisible, but probably also be necessary for the lecturer to still very real university system operating, and store the "manuscripts" (if one can use that term the key to this I believe will be international for electronic documents) within his or her own networking. computer until it was convenient to mark them. I am disturbed to find that even in those The results, presumably, would then be sent universities where the development of the electronically to the student's home university to technology for international electronic education be added to his or her academic transcript, and is proceeding strongly there still seem to be very 72 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE few plans for the administrative structures and The first question to be addressed is how a strategies that will be necessary to maintain it university that provides international electronic once it is launched. I can only hope that as a teaching should be structured. I believe I can practising university administrator I am not state fairly confidently that it is unlikely that being unfair to my colleagues in suggesting that international electronic education will be the general feeling still seems to be that many of provided without a major input from the existing these things are in the distant future, and that universities, although the cost of establishing a they will become issues when we are truly international teaching program may well comfortably collecting our pensions. be beyond the resources of any one institution, I would suggest that this is a very dangerous irrespective of its size. Even if it is not the case, I approach to international electronic education, doubt whether it would make good business particularly if a system can be implemented as sense for one institution to take all the risks that a quickly as the technologists claim. Indeed I fear gamble of this type will involve without the that unless universities from around the world support of partners. If there is money to be can develop an effective administrative structure gained, there is also money to be lost, and the to cater for this new form of teaching within the losses could well be significant if the institution next twelve months, or perhaps the next two gets things wrong. There would also be years at the very most, the system will be unable numerous educational disadvantages in acting as to reach its full potential irrespective of its a single provider, and this, I think will encourage technical quality. the growth of networks. No institution can be I indicated at the beginning that my task in strong in everything. If it is to provide a balanced this paper would be to examine a number of the program it must link with others who can make questions that administrators will have to face as good its deficiencies, particularly as this is likely they prepare to enter the age of the electronic to become an extremely competitive business. university, and to seek your advice on how these There is another factor that will operate problems should be addressed. against single providers as well. I have no doubt I believe that there are five key factors that that a single off shore provider would find it very will have to be resolved by university difficult to justify its position politically. It would administrators as they approach the age of the be very easy to fall foul of the government of the electronic university, although I would certainly countries to which programs were beamed, and not want anyone to think that these are the only to be accused of a form of educational issues, and that once this lot have been resolved "dumping" that no government could tolerate. It everything else will be plain sailing. I have no is also hard to imagine that local universities doubt that new problems will emerge as would keep silent while this was going on either, universities become truly international, and that particularly if they found that their best students we may well have considerable tension between were deserting them for programs from the long established culture of a traditional overseas. I think that for these reasons we would university and this new creature which be safe in assuming that, in its formative years at transcends national barriers, and which in doing least, international electronic education will be so threatens to destroy much of the old. We may shared among a consortium of universities, with also have a host of industrial issues that I will at least one of the partners based permanently in make no attempt to address here, and there each of the countries that received the programs, could be quite a few social issues as well that we and with a guaranteed minimum of local will have to leave unexplored. content. Without this I cannot see any of the The five areas that I wish to address this major providers getting inside the door, much morning are; less being able to establish themselves in niches within this new industry. • The structure of the university that may The need to establish partnerships for emerge through international electronic political purposes, with an agreed airtime and teaching; with a guaranteed proportion of local content, • Course accreditation and credit transfer suggests that the organisations that are formed within such a university; will at least commence as consortiums of equals, where each partner plays a definite role, and will • Student enrolment and evaluation; be responsible for delivering as well as receiving • The cost of providing the service; and programs. While all may not offer the same • Records management, and the transfer of number of programs, all would have an equal information from one institution to another. voice in the operation of the network. This in tum will require mutual co-operation, and I Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 73 believe that agreement on this would be essential at one's elbow, and also those courses that before anything further could be done. require "hands on" experience that our current The use of interactive video among equal electronic systems cannot provide. The mind partners (I cannot see any alternative to boggles at the concept of a student nurse interactive video as a teaching medium) would undertaking an examination of a patient by be a matter of reciprocal sharing-and this in tum interactive video, when this medium simply would involve negotiations to determine the cannot provide all of the information required. programs that each of the partners should offer. There are other courses that depend on An economic rationalist would no doubt tell group interaction for their effectiveness, and us that international sharing gives an excellent these are also unlikely to be offered opportunity for institutions to rationalise course electronically. While some degree of group offerings, and that perhaps only one member of interaction is certainly possible with modem each consortium should offer a particular type of interactive video, as for example in a program. Thus if University A is strong in Law postgraduate seminar, it is still not quite the (whatever "strong" may mean in this context) same as having a group of students in eye then it should offer all Law courses. If University contact with each other in the same room. B is strong in Science, then it should offer all There are other courses which a university Science courses, and so on. I feel that such a may simply elect not to offer on the grounds of rationalist approach could be a mistake, and may expense. This could also be certain courses where perhaps become a serious red herring when an attitude rather than a skill is being taught-an international teaching becomes fully established. attitude that requires the environment and feed Even assuming that one could ensure that back of colleagues and peers. There could also be University A was "better" in a particular field certain courses that the university does not wish than University B-and it would be a brave man, to broadcast to the world at large because of their who would make this judgment-the fact that sensitivity. There could also be courses that University A is superior does not mean that universities might perhaps be a little too University B's programs are worthless. Indeed it embarrassed to offer for fear that a bad may well be that the courses offered by performance in such an open arena would University B would be far more valuable for damage their reputation. certain students than the state of the art In the final analysis institutions will have to programs offered by University A. One would prioritise the programs that they offer by hope that ideally no member of an international electronic means, and select the most appropriate consortium would be discouraged from offering for international transmission. The point that any program that it deems appropriate for this must be remembered, of course, is that electronic medium, if it can be accommodated within the education will probably not form the core bandwidth of the system. business of the university for some time to come. Our economic rationalist friend would There will still be regular classes to be taught in almost certainly tell us that such gross the traditional face to face manner, and these will duplication would be the first step to disaster, perhaps still be in the majority during our and that firm control would be necessary to stop lifetime. The subjects will be supplemented, but members competing with each other. Firm hardly replaced, by international electronic control, on the other hand, may tend to drive the teaching. partners away from each other, rather than to The second factor that will prevent absolute bring them closer together, and a tightly run chaos is the need for smooth credit transfer from consortium, while great in theory, may never get one institution to another. Each institution that off the ground. Fortunately there are four factors offers a subject will have to mark it, and inherent in international education that will act distribute the results. This will not be without as a brake to prevent this chaos and will cost, particularly in an age in which students will probably make dictatorial control unnecessary. be able to study at a multitude of universities at The first is the fact that it will simply not be the same time. I assume that the current means of possible for each institution to offer every giving credit for units studied elsewhere will program in its catalogue by electronic means. continue in the electronic age. This would mean There are certain courses that simply do not fit that the institution that originally enrolled the this model, and wh1ch will always have to be student; and which the student is physically taught face to face. This includes those courses attending on a daily basis, would remain with a high practical component, that require responsible for the award of the degree, while close support from an instructor who is literally units studied elsewhere would be accepted for 74 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE credit at the discretion of the institution, as are same costs to run as one that receives strong units studied non electronically at the present support from an international audience. If a unit moment. fails to attract sufficient patronage I cannot see It is important to note that it is always the any institution persevering with it. I think that as institution in which the student is enrolled that the market sorts itself out most institutions will makes a decision on the acceptance of a subject find it better to offer a few subjects-and to offer for credit, not the student, and certainly not the them well-than to waste time and resources other university. If an institution is dissatisfied trying to cover everything, and then doing it today with the subject offered by a colleague poorly. institution it normally has no hesitation in saying There is another factor as well. There will no that it will not accept that subject for credit doubt be a great deal of scrutiny in the content of towards a particular degree. The student may programs, and the reputation of the institutions object as much as he or she likes (and some can as well as the course developer will depend on be very vocal) but it does them no good. If the the quality of the programs that are offered. I unit is deemed to be below the required have no doubt that peer pressure itself will standard, it is simply not accepted by the probably be a strong regulator of units. One institution. Students are normally encouraged to cannot imagine one's colleagues, let alone one's make enquiries before they commence a unit at neighbouring institutions (if not the government another institution, to ensure that it will be itself) remaining silent while substandard recognised by their home university. Failure to programs go to air, and damage their own good do this may prove very embarrassing for the name, as well as the reputation of the immediate student afterwards. provider. There can be few more public places Gaining a decision on whether a course will than the airwaves of an international electronic be recognised is often a slow process, and the university, and anyone who falls short will question that must be asked is whether these almost certainly be advised about it by his procedures would still be appropriate once an "friends." institution joined an international consortium, There is the possibility, on the other hand, and the range of possible subjects expanded that an interactive video consortium could form dramatically. I believe that this will be a key where the members are not equal, and this could point for universities in the future. There would lead to dominance by one or two partners at the be little point in permitting students to enrol in expense of the remainder. This is a real risk, and units offered elsewhere (by electronic means or the people who express concern about it have otherwise) if the results are not recognised by the good reason to be worried. There are two home institution. At the same time it will be no strategies, on the other hand, that may reduce easy task to give reciprocal credit on terms that this danger. The first is that universities may well will satisfy everyone. In the end there will choose to belong to more than one consortium probably have to be some universal standard, indeed they would be very wise to do so, and the against which all units can be compared, smaller the university the wiser the strategy. By although I fear that we are still a long way away being a member of more than one consortium from establishing that at the moment. I will have (and I suspect that consortiums will spring up something more to say about this shortly. like mushrooms as international education The third factor that will prevent chaos is the becomes the norm) universities can spread their question of cost recovery. It will be expensive to risks, and can avoid overdependence on the offer programs through an electronic medium, stronger partners in any one particular group. and there are few ways in which one can make There is a price for everything, including economies. Because both the start up costs and institutional autonomy, and universities will no the maintenance will be high it will be doubt protect themselves by retaining the right impossible to sustain courses that fall below a to withdraw from a consortium at any time minimum enrolment. It has been suggested that (perhaps with notice) and by avoiding the break even point is around 500 students associations that endanger their own paying fees that the average person can afford. independence. Any fewer than this and the fees will either have The second way in which universities can to be extravagant, and perhaps price the unit out protect their interests in what may well become a of the market, or the unit itself will have to shark pond, is to retain control over the operate at a loss. Institutions may well find that it equipment used to support the electronic does not pay to offer too many units, particularly teaching. I believe that this will be an important as a poorly supported unit will take exactly the factor, and I cannot overstress the need for Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 75 protection. As international consortiums grow that we may not see it in the case of electronic bigger there may perhaps be two strategies that teaching either. Interactive electronic teaching ambitious institutions will use to put pressure on will no doubt go far beyond the present range their partners. The first is the question of money national television systems, and perhaps the first and access to the system. I would be very careful thing that must be aimed for by international if another, and perhaps much larger, institution educators is a common standard to ensure offered to provide the equipment used for compatibility, that can be accepted by tertiary international education, and in this process institutions irrespective of where they are in the retained the right of ownership. The world. arrangement would no doubt work until the In saying this, I do not mean that we should system became established, or at least until the all go simply for the same technical standards, smaller institution had become dependent upon such as the number of lines on screens, or the use it. If the smaller institution then chose to of phase modulated signals, and so on. Each of withdraw from the consortium it could be placed these things is determined largely by the in a very difficult situation should the legitimate electronic standards of the countries concerned, owner deprive it of the equipment that had made and these matters are beyond our control. In electronic teaching possible, particularly if it had addition to this, there are adequate electronic a large number of outstanding commitments. translation facilities, so that technical diversity The second strategy that an ambitious provided you do not take it too far-is by no partner may choose to use to put pressure on its means the issue that it was a few years ago. weaker brethren is the question of equipment What I am far more interested in is a compatibility. If an institution's equipment is standard length of program, with a set number of compatible with only one system, than the sessions to complete a unit, and a uniform institution is locked into that system whether it· structure to lectures or tutorials. I feel that we likes it or not. At the moment there seems to be a should be far more interested in a large measure of compatibility between existing standardisation of purpose, and perhaps a systems, basically because most systems are standardisation of educational aims and using protocols which are in the public domain, objectives, so that a lecture in one system will or for which adequate translation software exists. achieve the same educational outcome in Thus an e-mail message generated on my another. These issues, I would suggest, may be Macintosh can be read on your IBM clone may more important than the mere technical without any difficulty, because the systems can specifications that so many people seem to worry talk to each other. about today. I can only hope that some There are a number of limitations to agreement on these issues may be one of the commercial software, however, and there are a things that will emerge from this Conference. number of ways in which they can be improved Let us leave this question to one side, at least and I suspect that they will have to be improved for the moment, and assume that we have if interactive video is to be a first rate tool in the already agreed on a common system that allows classroom. Unfortunately every step away from us to interface with each other, and to teach each the norm promotes incompatibility, and a other's students. How then should we structure consortium could end up with an extremely an international electronic university effective system that is quite useless for any particularly a university that has no walls and work outside that body. This may well be the little obvious hierarchy? My suggestion is that great danger with the next generation of the best international university will be the one electronic teaching-virtual reality using face that has a structure that least restricts its mask and gloves, which is only just around the members in their daily role. We need to comer, and will certainly be with us by the tum remember that in the midst of all this high of the century. An institution that chooses to technology the normal face to face teaching of invest in a nonstandard system to please its the university will continue, and will probably neighbours may well find it impossible to remain the major business. It would be a strange transfer to some other consortium later on. case of the tail wagging the dog if the electronic I know that it is a platitude to state that we component became so strong that it interfered should aim for world wide electronic with the "normal" teaching and research of the compatibility, particularly if we are aiming at a institution. universal system of tertiary education. I have Perhaps the best structure for an never seen this principle adopted voluntarily by international university would be a voluntary electronic suppliers, unfortunately, and I fear association to which interested parties could 76 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE "contribute" in the manner that suited them best. enrolment. There would almost certainly be a There would, of course, have to be rules, and cost involved, which in this enlightened age I almost certainly a system of subject accreditation assume that the university would immediately (and I will say something more about this in a try to recoup from the student. Once this was moment as well) but it should at least be as loose done the student would complete the unit in and as flexible as possible. electronic facilities provided by the university (I The great danger, of course, is that many of feel sure that electronic learning booths will be a these things will fall into the hands of common feature of our libraries in the future) bureaucrats. I have no objection to bureaucrats and the university would eventually be advised ! am often called one myself!-they certainly of the result. impose order and ultimately get things done The advantage of a subscription system lies but I have great objection to a bureaucratic in the fact that the institution need not be structure that meets no need. I would be terrified immediately committed to all consortiums, but if an electronic consortium required a permanent can assess its needs, can identify costs, and can Director, a team of Deputy Directors, secretaries make its arrangements accordingly. Apart from and staff, and worse still if such a faceless the fixed cost of equipment (which as I have bureaucracy ultimately gained control of the indicated should certainly be owned by the system, with the power to veto against those institution, not by the course provider) the things that they disliked, or which interfered institution would pay only for what it "buys" on with their own personal agenda. I could think of the student's behalf. If students in a particular no surer way to destroy any sense of mutual co year choose not to follow a particular program operation than something like this. there is little additional expense, although there The fact remains, of course, that there will may well be a base fee to retain the status of still have to be a degree of coordination, and this "subscriber." in tum requires administrators. How can we At the same time I do not think that prevent these people from turning themselves subscriber status is necessarily the ideal, as there into a bureaucracy, and ultimately running the could be two advantages in being a full member system in defiance of the consortium partners? I of a consortium. The first is the possibility of would suggest that one answer lies in a pool of distributing one's own courses through the short term secondments from the network system. The incentive to develop and produce members, so that a wide range of staff gain effective international programs will almost experience in working within the system, while certainly have other spin off effects within the none stay long enough to gain a sense of institution, and will be a valuable learning ownership. The other advantage of this is that experience. staff from different backgrounds will gain benefit The other advantage of being closely linked from working with each other, and will to a consortium is the sharing of knowledge and hopefully bring these benefits back with them to expertise that this makes possible. I have no their home office. doubt that we will all be gaining experience in Ideally one suggests that there could this type of education for many years to come. eventually be two levels of consortium There would be many advantages in having membership. On the one hand there are those others nearby who could give aid and support partners who share the risks, produce the when needed. programs, and jointly manage the system. On the Let us get away from these matters, however, other hand there are those groups who and draw closer to the problems of immediate "subscribe" to the system from time to time, in a management. I mentioned a few moments ago way similar to the manner in which our libraries that the second area to be considered is the subscribe to certain electronic information question of course accreditation and credit services. The first group would reciprocate with transfer. The potential for difficulty in this area is each other in offering their programs to students. already enormous, and will be made much The "subscribers" would not offer programs worse as our programs become truly themselves, but could enrol their students in international. In the past the recognition of them as and when the need arose. subjects from other institutions has been Thus if a student wished to study a particular comparatively easy because most students who subject that was only available outside a claim credit have studied programs that are well particular consortium the home university known to their home institution, and they would "subscribe" to that system on the generally have a good idea before they start of student's behalf as a part of his or her formal both the contents of a particular subject and its Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 77 academic rigor. This will not happen as easily there seem to be few processes by which this can once we go international. The range of subjects be done effectively. Indeed I suspect that many will be enormous, and it will require an institutions are largely unaware of the structure extremely close evaluation of just what is offered, of courses and the philosophy of teaching in to see whether it fits within the degree pattern of institutions beyond their national borders, and the student's award. hence are not in a position to make a valid There are two solutions to this difficulty. The assessment. I feel that this is something that first-and I cannot say that I fully support this should be addressed as quickly as possible. Once idea-is to restrict international credit to a again, I feel that a permanent network to sort out nominated list of subjects. Students can do other some of these difficulties would be a valuable subjects if they choose, but must be aware that outcome from this conference. the institution will not guarantee that they will Another area that must be addressed is the be given full credit if they complete them. My question of student enrolment and assessment in great fear in this case is that students will tend to an international university. On the surface one choose from a tiny pool of the subjects on offer faces absolute turmoil on enrolment day. In because of the safe nature of the consequences, theory there could be several thousand students while there will remain a vast ocean of subjects enrolled in one's own institution who are also that no one will touch because the consequences taking subjects offered by other institutions are so unpredictable. This would be a pity, around the world at the same time, and these particularly if the whole point of electronic may all be different institutions. It would be international education is to expand the necessary for the students' "home" institution to student's perspectives and to broaden be aware of each subject that their students are opportunities without the cost and doing at other universities (and, of course, there inconvenience of travel. may well be more than one subject or university The second solution is perhaps a bit more per student). It would also be necessary to have a draconian, but it could in the end be far more system that ensured that each of the institutions effective. Eventually I foresee the need for an providing these programs is paid, and that the international register of subjects, which will home institutions own student record system require each unit of a course to be assessed by an receives a result for each subject at the end of the external accreditation authority before it can be semester that can be converted and entered onto recognised for credit transfer. The accreditation the student's transcript. Viewed individually the authority would assess the level and rigor of the whole situation could become an administrative unit against an international standard that it nightmare, particularly when students withdraw would develop in consultation with all from courses (either with or without penalty universities who are using the scheme. Once the according to the rules of the particular level of the subject has been assessed, however, institution), when a student changes enrolment the standard determined would be recognised by from an institution in Germany to say one in everyone. This would not mean that all Tasmania or in Uganda, or when the institution institutions would have to accept that subject for is chasing up an examination result from another credit transfer-it would simply be that in university in a language completely making a decision the standard determined by unintelligible to anyone from the student's the international body would be one of the "home" office. factors that could be taken into consideration. I do not think that the situation will be as bad One hesitates to suggest the need for an as this, provided steps are taken to include these international panel of inspectors (and they factors in our thinking right from the very beginning. would be a busy group once the process got into This I feel is one of the key purposes of this its stride) and perhaps a system of voluntary conference. I would suggest that steps be taken registration of subjects, where institutions long before the first program is beamed to ensure provide sufficient detail for a clear decision to be that the administrative procedures are in place, made, would be both cheaper and less traumatic. and that the system will function as intended. If There will also be a need for subjects to be this is not the case I fear that even the greatest easily comparable from one institution to courses, using the very best technology, will be another, so that a student who undertakes a wasted. subject by electronic education is neither The first question is enrolment. I do not think advantaged nor disadvantaged when compared that students should be allowed to enrol to his peers. While I do not think that there is any themselves in the programs offered by another disagreement on this point, at least in principle, institution (by electronic means or otherwise) 78 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE without the approval of their own university, home institution that will award the final degree. and I think that this point will need to be stressed It should be the task of the home institution to right from the beginning. All contact with the collect moneys, and to forward them to the overseas university should be made through the institution providing the instruction. In reality I home institution rather than by any other means. doubt whether a great deal of cash will change If this does not happen there is certain to be hands, as the fees incurred by one institution for chaos when it comes time to prove results. I its students may well be offset by the services would suggest that it be made a firm rule that provided to others. This is another reason why anyone who wishes to enrol in an electronic finance should be an inter-institutional program offered by another university should do responsibility. so as a part of their normal enrolment with the The same situation applies to examinations. institution at which they are based. The One assumes from what one has been told that institution should then arrange for the student to most of the examining will be done be enrolled in the program offered elsewhere, not electronically, with a need for supervision of the student. By doing this the institution will put course, but without the need to transmit physical itself into a position where it will be able to papers in either direction. I would suggest that it advise the student as to whether the unit is essential that exam results should come back nominated would be recognised towards the to the home institution (where they can be added student's degree, and it would also be able to to the students record), not direct to the student negotiate the fees, and so on, that may be himself. There will be many practical difficulties payable. Overseas institutions would also no in the interpreting and recording of results, and doubt prefer to deal with other universities this makes it essential that the results come to the rather than direct with individual students as home institution first, rather than direct to the well. student. Similarly if a student withdraws from a There could be many other practical subject he or she should do so through their difficulties as well, and I will just mention a few. home institution, which would then advise the There will almost certainly be cases where the other university, and amend all records examination timetable will be out of sequence accordingly. If this does not happen, and if the with the home institution, for example, and in student is allowed to make administrative some cases the consequences may be bizarre. A transactions direct with the host institution, we student who enrols in an Australian university in are bound to have chaos. February may find he cannot commence an The point of the exercise is not to make overseas unit until perhaps as late as April, and things hard for students, but rather to make them will then do the final exam in that unit in July or realise that enrolment in an overseas institution August. This would place the unit completely is a serious business, that has just as many out of sequence with the exam results for the ramifications as enrolments at home. No home institution, and could affect prerequisite institution has the time or money to go chasing requirements for the coming semester. Students records when it comes time to dispatch the may also have to wait for a considerable period examination results, and students must be made before they receive results, or may find that their fully aware of their personal responsibilities to commitment towards one institution will be both their home institution and the institution quite out of sync with what is happening at providing the unit. The fact that one of these home. Many Australian students fail to realise institutions is a long way away can hardly that while they are enjoying themselves on the reduce the student's responsibilities. beach in January their international counterparts Enrolment in a distant institution should are usually busy with essays and assignments trigger the system of payment, which again that are due on the first of February, and which should be collected by the home institution, they will have to complete as well if they are which has the student on the ground in front of enrolled in these units. A number of sacrifices them, not directly by the other institution. The that people do not yet understand will be home institution has powers over people who necessary if students intend to take overseas are tardy in making payments that a distant study seriously. body does not have, especially when it is across There will almost certainly be a difference in the ocean. I believe that if a student fails to pay the rules governing the conduct of the exams, the fees that are due, he or she should incur the and in the rights of appeal and/ or reassessment. normal penalty of the home institution for One assumes that the only fair and consistent unpaid fees, whatever that might be, as it is the way to administer examinations is to apply the Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 79 rules and procedures of the institution offering of what their costs will be, simply because an that unit to everyone who is doing the subject appropriate and realistic costing exercise has without exception, irrespective of their location never been completed. in the world. This may result in certain people While I have no wish to comment about this doing exams at 2:00am in the morning, but this is in one way or another, there are at least two self really the least of the difficulties. A far greater evident truths. The first is that the actual cost per problem could be conflict between the unit will vary considerably from one institution established rules and practices within to another, and any set of figures produced for institutions, and a sense in which certain one university are of doubtful validity for its students may feel disadvantaged by the process. neighbour. It would be most deceptive to assume Perhaps the only way in which this can be that because the University of X has estimated overcome is to have students sign a statement at that its costs will be so much, the same will be the time of enrolment indicating that they are true at the University of Y, or worse still that the .aware of the rules of the institution offering the costs could be extrapolated if various factors course (which one hopes the home institution (such as the number of students) were changed. I would have available for them before they are think that this is a matter that each institution asked to sign) and that they have agreed to abide will have to work out for itself, and possibly by them. disregard the figures of others. Another further difficulty applies to the The second point is that there are many interpretation of results. Just what constitutes a fringe benefits that international electronic Pass or a Failure at the University of X and how teaching will bring, and each of these must be does this equate with the home institutions included in the calculation. I will not spend a lot standard of marking? It would be easy to record of time in explaining what these are, but I might nothing more than the result that the overseas suggest that a value be given to the publicity and institution has supplied, but this could be profile that a strong electronic teaching program misleading, particularly when translated into a will generate, the benefit of establishing overseas transcript in the home environment. Yet how is links that may well bring physical students from this basic issue to be addressed? One can only overseas, and the teaching and research suggest that each institution would need to be opportunities that may be developed for staff aware of matters of this type, and to negotiate an and students. Some institutions may well find it answer long before the units concerned were desirable to offer their electronic programs at taught. It may be, for example, that a particular cost, or even as a "loss leader" and recover their institution may say that it will recognise nothing expenses through the fringe benefits. short of a high distinction in a particular subject I am not convinced that the cost of as the equivalent of a pass at the home equipment is a major factor. It is expensive when institution, or again it may be that a near failure one goes out to buy it, but if the cost is balanced would be accepted as a credit in a rigorous unit out against the usage it is not the burden that is offered by someone else. Each of these will often assumed. The cost of the development of require separate negotiation, and one can only courses, on the other hand, can be substantial, repeat that it is essential that this be done before and it is necessary to include all of the hidden the unit is offered rather than after the results costs in the calculation. Let us be honest-it will come in. Once again, I feel that this is a matter be expensive to mount each session. I have been that could profitably be discussed among the told that in the United States one needs a staff of participants at this conference. five in order to mount just one lecture--the One of the basic questions that is always lecturer him or herself, the producer (an essential raised when one talks about interactive element in this type of operation), two electronic education is the question of cost. Yes, it cameramen and finally at least one lawyer to is expensive. Yes, it does cost more than regular defend you against all the strife you will get into instruction, and Yes, someone somewhere will from other people! Whether this will be the case have to pay for it. At the same time the question in our part of the world or not, and I hope it will of cost has been made a bit of a boogy man, not be, there is little doubt that it will be almost as though it makes the widespread use of expensive to run these units, and as the quality electronic teaching impossible. I do not think this improves as a result of competition, the costs will is the case, and I would suggest that the final probably go up as well. amount may be far less than many institutions There may be other ways of keeping believe. At the same time I suspect that there expenditure down, however. I was amused when must be many institutions that have no real idea one person I spoke to suggested that there 80 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE should be a commercial break every ten minutes, professional ethics. Businessmen, who have far with the announcement "This lecture is proudly greater reason to trust each other than we do, sponsored by McDonalds®" or whatever. I am would never enter into a business arrangement certain that he was not serious, but the without the full protection of the Law, and then possibility of accepting external advertising is make certain that they arm themselves with a big certainly there. It may well pay a book seller, for stick, just in case the Law proves defective. What example, to display his wares to the captive weapon do universities have to make certain that audience that has been assembled around the their partners deliver on time and to the world, or a major computer software promised quality? manufacturer, or a manufacturer of students' The answer of course is none, because in the clothing. There may also be the opportunity for past none was necessary. Universities operated the university itself to advertise, and it would largely in isolation, and where trust was certainly have a worldwide audience while it necessary it was done largely on the reputation does so. There would also be obvious of individuals, who pledged themselves to as a opportunities for the sale of video tapes, lecture surety for their institution. notes, and for access to other types of We are now entering an era where the information, all of which could bring in a profit. bounds of trust will need to be far stronger than The difficulty is, however, that until the costing is those provided by the integrity of individuals, done for each institution, no one really knows many of whom will never see each other face to what the actual cost is, and no one can plan face. One hesitates to suggest that there should appropriately. be a lawyer in every lecture, with institutions There are also a number of ethical issues that lodging huge bonds against their failure to will have to be addressed in the administration perform, with a continuous round of litigation to of international electronic education, and I ensure that justice is done, and one hopes that suspect that these may be much harder to resolve this will not be required. What is needed is an than the mere technical details. The question of element of trust between institutions that will privacy is a major issue, particularly the question make legal processes unnecessary. Trust is a of privacy across international boundaries. I strange thing, and I have no wish to define it made the statement earlier that the institution here, yet without it there can be no future for offering the course should be asked to send the international teaching. One hopes that a greater results to the home institution rather than direct sense of trust in our colleagues is something that to the student. This makes sound administrative each of us will take back from this conference. sense, and will ensure a minimum of There are a number of additional matters to inconvenience for everyone. The question that be discussed before I finish. The first is the must be asked, on the other hand, is whether this question of the accreditation of subjects. My own is legal, and whether an overseas institution institution has been developing a set of would really be prepared to take a risk in doing guidelines for the accreditation of electronic so. It may be that the laws of the country in units which I would like to share with you. I which the institution is located specifically forbid would point out, of course, that as this policy is an exchange of this type, and even if they do not, still under development it is by no means a final what would happen if the student raised a statement, and it should not be taken as the final protest? There are many similar issues that one word of my university, although it may give you could mention, although I have no time to do so, some idea of the direction in which we are although I do intend returning to a number of moving, and perhaps assist you to develop legal questions about international education similar documents of your own. before I conclude. I do feel, on the other hand, that all of these matters could form a valuable area for further discussion during our time together. The next point that must be addressed is the question of morality. How can one be certain that another institution will deliver what it has promised at the time when it is required? It is easy to talk about morality among the world wide academic community (assuming that term has any meaning greater than what each individual gives it) or about the various codes of Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 81 University of Western Sydney program prior to its deliver to students. (Nepean may or may not be this agent.) The audition will include an examination of any Draft of Principles Governing the workbooks, aids or other material that will Accreditation of Electronic be supplied to students in association with the program-it will not simply be an Distance Education Programs examination of the electronic component in 1. The accreditation of electronic courses isolation. should follow as far as practical the same Failure to achieve accreditation at each of these procedure as is used for the accreditation levels will prevent the accreditation of the course of courses that are delivered in a more as a whole. (NOTE: While these steps are described traditional manner. Any variation that sequentially it is probable that the development occurs should involve some additional of each stage will proceed concurrently, as a step or steps that cater for the unique variation in one area will almost certainly have features of this medium, without implications elsewhere. The ·order of replacing any of our normal safeguards accreditation will remain the same, however, so for the determination of academic rigour that courses will be first assessed for their academic merit, then for their technical quality, and course integrity. then for their financial viability, and lastly for 2. Electronic distance education will their standard of presentation. A decision on require a four stage accreditation whether all matters should be examined by one large multiskilled panel, or by four smaller and process: more specialised groups, would be made in the • An academic evaluation of the course: This light of experience.) will follow the normal procedure of endorsement by the course advisory 3. Where accreditation by an outside committee, FMAC, Courses Working Party, agency (such as an international Academic Committee and Academic Board. consortium) is required, the course must The Course will be examined for its academic meet all UWS Nepean requirements merit, the effective use of resources, projected need and demand, the sequence of before it is sent to that body for instruction, subject content and so on, and examination. While there is nothing to will be assessed in exactly the same manner preclude prior consultation with an as any other program offered by the external accreditation authority, institution. including the presentation of clips and • A technical evaluation of the course: Once segments, the course must not be the course content has been approved, the submitted for an official evaluation by course will be assessed for its technical merit, that body until it has been fully including the manner in which it will be prepared for use through an electronic accredited by UWS Nepean. medium, the ability of the institution to 4. To protect the University's name and provide the resources need to prepare and/ reputation, no program that has been or deliver the course, and the ability of the course promoters to make effective use of produced by UWS Nepean and carries its these resources. name or logo should be released for sale • A financial evaluation of the course: Once the by another agency (or for sale to a technical aspects of the course have been potential customer, etc.) until it has been approved the course will be assessed for its fully accredited. by the institution. This financial implications, with the promoters includes programs commissioned by an providing details of the cost, sponsorship external agency, as well as those and anticipated revenue, both to prepare the programs originating solely within course and to offer it for a stated period. Nepean. • An audition: In which selected parts of the final product are examined for their technical 5. Where Nepean provides less than a full quality by the agency transmitting the course sequence, (i.e. a single subject on 82 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE its own, a "stand alone" strand, etc.) that separate policy on Advertising in is not done in conjunction with any other Electronic Courses (basically to cover institution, the four levels of the question of sponsorship of courses), accreditation mentioned above will a policy on Technical Standards, a policy apply. Where Nepean offers a program in on Electronic Ethics, and a policy on the conjunction with another institution, the Recognition of Equivalent International Nepean component will pass through the Standards when the institution normal accreditation process, but will be commences to teach internationally given provisional accreditation only, through this medium. with the right to withdraw this recognition if the remainder of the You will see from this that UWS Nepean program is unacceptable. Unconditional envisages a four stage accreditation process, the first of which determines academic quality, while accreditation will be given only after the the remaining stages assess the technical quality, total program has been assessed. The the financial implications, and the standard of purpose of this is to prevent Nepean presentation. being linked with a sub-standard I offer this as a model o f what perhaps may program for which another institution be required in an international setting, and I may be responsible. would certainly appreciate your comments. A second matter is the choice of subjects on 6. Where programs (or parts of programs) offer. Let us assume that we have resolved all of are "imported" from an external source, the technical and administrative difficulties I the program will be examined and have mentioned, and that we are now ready to start teaching. Just what are we going to teach? Is accredited in exactly the same way as it it possible to provide a range of subjects that will would have been had it been prepared meet international needs while ensuring that the solely within Nepean. While Nepean strict requirements of local registration boards may give due weight to the fact that a are being met, or is it simply a matter of offering particular program (or parts of a what we have always offered, and allowing program) have been accredited others to take or leave these subjects as they see fit? elsewhere, this does not exempt it from I hope that no one takes the coward's way the Nepean accreditation process. out by choosing the latter through default. 7. Subjects offered through an electronic International education offers us the chance to present some completely new programs in a way medium must carry the same credit that would previously have been impossible. A value, and attract the same benefits as the basic question is whether it might not be better to subject would have had if it had been completely divorce video teaching from regular offered face to face within Nepean. Thus classroom instruction. A number of people have a student who completes some subjects noted that it may be a very difficult task to electronically, and others face to face, produce a good video within the framework of a conventional lecture. It would be easy to simply should receive equivalent credit for both, televise a lecture, but the resulting talking head irrespective of the manner in which the presentation would hardly be the most effective subject was delivered. educational instrument. A good video program, on the other hand, that used film clips, computer 8. It may be necessary to arrange for certain generated charts, specific camera angles, services to be provided by local agents background music and so on, would be equally (i.e., clinical teaching, practical work, hard to produce in a lecture theatre before a live tutoring, etc.). Where this occurs the audience of students. Perhaps if a university is service provided must be equivalent to serious about using this medium, it may be the service that would have been given better to close the lecture theatre for this particular unit, and to put the students who are had the program been taught locally. physically on campus in front of screens as well. 9. It may be necessary to produce a This would not reduce the interactive nature of Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 83 the production, as there would still be the comfortable with this (although most do much opportunity for students to ask questions if the better under the circumstances than one would program was shown live, but it could think) and I would value your suggestions on substantially increase the technical quality. possible alternatives. Another question that will need to be There may also be quite a few legal addressed is the language of instruction. There unknowns in the administration of international seems to be an idea around (and I personally teaching, (quite apart from forcing others to give it no support) that all instruction that adhere to their contracts as I mentioned earlier) emanates from an Australian university should and we should certainly consider these matters be given in English. A moment's reflection will before we become too involved. Apart from the show how inappropriate this may be in an question of state charges and taxes, there remains international context-indeed if we are to the question of how students should be reported operate on the basis of the largest number of in statistics, and whether these students should potential students most programs through this receive the benefits available to persons who are medium should perhaps be in Indonesian and in actually resident in the state. Most higher Mandarin. The language of instruction is an education systems throughout the world are important issue which I do not think we should heavily subsidised by their government, and for try to avoid. this reason charge a different fee for residents What I think we will find is a need for and non-residents. Would (or should) this simultaneous translation of lectures, particularly principle apply if students are taught at a where the lecturer is not multilingual, so that the distance rather than in the local classrooms? I do contents can be delivered in the language most not know the answer to this, although it might be appropriate to the audience, irrespective of the valuable to find out. I suggest that it would be a language in which the lecture is originally given. great pity if the new developments in If we are going to operate on a "real time" basis international education were to be frustrated (and I do not think that any other form of simply for legal reasons. electronic instruction will be acceptable) this There is also the question of copyright and raises the need for simultaneous translation. This the ability of institutions to police what others will require a new method of lecture preparation, may do with their programs. There would be however, and may cause problems to our little to stop an overseas university from academics. I have sometimes discussed the recording each session and then showing it over question of simultaneous translation quite and over again with no further payment to the unofficially with the health care translators from institution that originally developed it, perhaps our neighbouring Westmead Hospital (a major at great cost to themselves. There is also the teaching hospital in the Sydney region). I am possibility of plagiarism in the production of becoming only too well aware of just how programs, although I hope it will not be difficult it will be to translate the complex and necessary to do as I believe one educational technical terms that are used as a matter of provider in the United States may be planning to course in a lecture into a meaningful statement do, and that is to incorporate a permanent logo for non-English speaking students. I have been in the bottom comer of the screen to prevent told that if you wish to use simultaneous parts of programs being lifted and used translators to provide a multi-lingual lecture, elsewhere. and want them to do it well, it is always While I have no doubt that this matter can be advisable to provide a complete script well in resolved through mutual trust and goodwill, I advance to allow the translator time to examine can only suggest that it should be considered the technical terms that will be used in the very carefully before programs are transmitted lecture. The translator may be well skilled in the electronically. If we cannot do this, it may be language, but is probably not an expert in the necessary to look direct to governments to subject under discussion, and may need advice control the matter for us. on just what the words to be spoken really mean. This raises another question that I have If you would like an example of this consider the deliberately avoided so far, and that is the role of needs of a translator, who perhaps has a degree national governments in international electronic in Arts, but who is suddenly required to translate education. I do not think that any system to terms from Medicine~ Law and Civil Engineering administer this work will last long unless it has into another language, and to convert them the full support of its government, either directly without losing any of the original meaning. through the provision of government subsidies, There are few translators who are or indirectly by the government agreeing to look 84 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE the other way while the universities get on with I have raised a number of issues in this paper their business. At the same time I feel that a great that I believe should be addressed as a matter of deal of PR will be required. The basic question, of urgency. I can think of no better forum than this course, is how should universities sell the one for discussion to commence. concept of international electronic education to their governments-particularly if it is largely an unregulated form of education, as it would have References to be in the case of most international Anderson, J. C., & Narus, J. A. (1991). Partnering as a programs-without causing concern at a focused market strategy. California Management political level? Governments, of course, have no Review, 33(3), 95-113. doubt about the need for higher education, Bartlett, C. A., & Ghoshal, S. (1992). What is a global although they frequently view this sector from manager? Harvard Business Review Sept-Oct pp. their own perspective, and link it perhaps to 124-132. national economic, social or political objectives. Hedberg, J. (1989). Rethinking the selection of learning Would governments be prepared to accept a technologies. Australian Journal of Educational massive inflow of higher education programs Technology, 5(1), 132-160. that are produced somewhere else, which may Palmer, P. (1986). The lively audience. Sydney: Allen & Unwin. fall short of meeting national priorities, or worse Peters, T. (1992). Get innovative or get dead. California still, may divert resources away from meeting Management Review, 33(2), 9-23. these needs? This is not an easy question, and there are no simple answers. I present it as a major problem, • • • however, that will have to be resolved before this form of teaching can become effective. The Future of Knowledge and Subjectivity in Higher Education Matthew Allen Curtin University of Technology Australia Knowledge is at the heart of higher education Case's [computer] virus had bored a window institutions (for example, Scott, 1989, p. 7 and through the library's command ice. He AVCC, 1992, p. 1). Whether expressed in research punched himself through and found an infinite output (both pure and applied) or in student blue space ranged with colour-coded spheres output (at all levels), knowledge is the core strung on a tight grid of bale blue neon. In the nonspace of the matrix, the interior of a given concept around which they have been organised data construct possessed unlimited subjective in the modem era. Yet knowledge is currently dimension; a child's toy calculator would have undergoing a dramatic re-configuration presented limitless gulfs of nothingness hung (Lyotard, 1984, pp. 1-5) and thus it is this central with a few basic commands ... [Case] triggered core of higher education, as it is understood at a sub-program that effected certain alterations the moment, that is the point of greatest in the core custodial commands (p. 65) destabilisation. Moreover these changes are not None of this high-tech data robbery is taking taking place within the established field, within place in reality. Case is "jacked into a custom the epistemological assumptions of modernity, made cyberspace deck that projected his but from outside that field altogether. As Lyotard disembodied consciousness into the matrix"; the suggested in The Postmodern Condition (1984), not matrix is a "consensual hallucination" which only is knowledge changing but, at the same time, so too is what we assume knowledge gives cyberspace the illusion of physical reality exactly is and how it is valued, guaranteed and (p. 5). In Gibson's cyberspace future/present, generally legitimated as truthful or useful. there is virtual reality to spare; it is impossible to tell whether the film stars are real or images; powerful people discard corporeal form in Introduction favour of an existence as data constructs; and In this paper I will briefly explore two computers are sentient. Information is all that dominant trends, most obvious in the matters-people are, at base, conduits through overdeveloped nations but also spreading into which information flows, eddies gathers and other parts of the world which are currently moves on. And there is more information than having significant impacts on our knowledge anyone, anywhere can hope to process. about knowledge. And, as they relate to higher Information is not something that tells Gibson's education, I am particularly concerned with the characters about the world: information is the way that the postmodem epistemology they world. Moreover, when millions plug into produce affects our notions of subjectivity. The "simstim" and become, vicariously, the stars of trends are, in short, the continuing information Hollywood in today's movies and television, the explosion and the trend within late capitalism possibility and even the need for secure self towards hypercommodification. Let me start identity is seriously eroded (see, for commentary with two examples, one of each. For the first, I on Gibson, Bukatman, 1993). will quote from William Gibson's Neuromancer The other example is much closer to our (1984), a far better future of the present than I can contemporary world, though we should ponder produce: these easy distinctions between future-fiction 85 86 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE and present-reality. It is one of a series of information technology. For example, former advertisements for Murdoch University (see Japanese Prime Minister Nakasone commented Figure 1). that the "accuracy, automaticity and abundance It does not actually matter what this of information" made Japan "a dense, agitated advertisement exactly means. Advertising society" (Ivy, 1988, p. 419-21). No-one has creatives, unlike most academics, accept the thought, talked and published so much on premise that whatever the intended meaning of transmitting and storing data for hundreds of their work (and often that is not at all clear), the years. Moreover the technology only accentuates potential customer will read into the this process by allowing more and more advertisement a variety of meanings. In the case discussion of its own processes. If for no other of the Murdoch billboard, what matters is not so reason, information technology is changing the much the meaning of the advertisement but the world because it is discursively constructed as a meaning of having advertised a university in this massive force for change. manner. Whether or not these marketing There are of course more particular features exercises actually work (in some genuinely which I can isolate. They would include the loss quantifiable way) is always open to questions of of authorial control over electronic material; the interpretation of results and, of course, to the capacity for anonymity and even self-creation on capacity of marketing organisations to market computer-mediated networks; the facility via themselves. Again, what is important is playing gophers and other search tools to perform the advertising game. In the market-oriented empirical research that otherwise might have world into which Australian universities have taken months; the frustration when such been pushed, it is not a question of whether or searching is not possible; the blurring of the not marketing works, but whether or not other dividing line between reality and fiction in universities are advertising, that creates the images, films and television; the extraordinary pressure to join the game. Advertising is about overflow of available information; and the corporate image and identity, a process of growing capacity of information transmission to creating a collective subjectivity by constituting simulate, as much as possible, 'real' life by an audience, an addressee for these corporate providing sound and pictures as well as words messages. (see for extended discussions, Benedikt, 1991). But the most important overall feature is that the continuous "flow of signifiers" (Poster, 1990, The Mode of Information p. 15) across TV and computer screens-the What are the major points of interest in the words and images which constitute the rise of the mode of information? It may seem that information-is breaking down long-held information technology is simply more and assumptions about the referentiality of language. better ways of doing what humans have done Determining the meaning of texts in the before with paper and pens, but there is a much electronic world requires skills in reading the more profound change at work, as signalled by texts in concert with other texts. No longer is the continuous debate and prognostication on there a securely located external reality to act as Every: Murdoch lecturer has one. It'." h"t t"O('ourllg<'~ our •IUdtnt~ to Murdoch ha.. tht diotin~tion of e~nl. u·.... h.u mutn111~ thtm h11•ing the mud! highly quahfiN to dt..:-o><"r: u'• '"h•t •lrhe~ le.11,hing •l&ff in Auatralia. th .. m to ro:•H·h tht•r full poto:uti11.l. They ha~o: minda like: ~~~1 tnpor. The pleasure of knowing .. Figure 1. Advertisement for Murdoch University Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 87 the arbiter of truth. Reality has not disappeared ification I do not simply mean commercialisation in literal terms: rather it is losing its status and which, despite the assumptions of liberal power within discourse as a way of legitimating educational philosophy, has always been a part and guaranteeing information to be valuable. As of higher education in the modern period. Lyotard (1984) put it, where once it was asked of Indeed it is a common mistake for those who knowledge "Is it true?" Now it is asked "Is it argue that education should be for its own sake saleable?" (p. 51). Even that question (which is and not for some other utility, to think of recent addressed below) might give way to a more changes in higher education as being the result of openly subjective inquiry such as "How does it a new discourse of rational economic utility. make you feel?" (Gozzi and Haynes, 1992, Essentially, commodification refers to the p. 221), or a question, technologically oriented, increasing predominance of consumption as the about the speed of transmission such that only primary aspect of the political economy of fast things are knowledge (Ivy, 1988, p. 430). capitalism, which has now become the major Hence reality, so long the constant of Western economic system dominating the world. At one intellectualism, is now the variable which is most time, production was enshrined as the central in question. focus and while much effort is being expended Since knowledge is but a particular by governments, business and most of all expression of language or a series of statements workers to make capitalism more productive, all within language, any changes that occur that production needs to go somewhere if it is to linguistically will also affect knowledge itself. create the increased wealth without which Thus, because language has "a figurative, capitalism goes into crisis. Without excess structuring power that constitutes the subject consumption, recession is inevitable; which speaks as well as the one that is spoken" significantly, rebuilding after a recession (Poster, 1990, p. 14), it is in the creation and depends upon increases in consumption. maintenance of subjectivities that the mode of Products (both goods and services) have always information has its most dramatic possibilities. taken the commodity form within industrial Now, in rational modernity, knowledge has been capitalism in that they are constituted not in assumed to be a fixed object around which relation to the labour to produce them but the subjectivities are formed, so any change to the process of exchange in the market place. Now, process of subject formation will also affect the however, virtually no form of human activity way that knowledge is understood. The escapes from the processes of exchange in which postmodern subject is not the autonomous nothing exists in its own right, but only as a subject idealised in the discourse of rationality, commodity defined by the interests buyers and formed at a distance but in connection with an sellers have in it. Education is, perhaps, one of equally autonomous objective knowledge. The the last services to be commodified in this postmodern subject is not made whole and manner. Moreover, the commodity form itself is secure by knowing, or by using what he or she undergoing a shift in which the material basis for knows. Rather the postrnodern subject is the product is no longer as important as the uncertain, constantly seeking to stabilise itself, symbolic meanings which are invested in the even as the flows of information prevent this product through commodification. The goal from being reached (Bauman, 1991; Lacoue Situationists anticipated this development in Labarthe, 1989). Think, for example, of the use of their characterisation of Western capitalism in the Internet: if one is not connected then one's the 1960s as "the society of the spectacle" in sense of self is reduced and even constrained. which the production and consumption of the Moreover, one finds that sense of self, not in image of the commodity (as supplied, for what one is, but in the way that one is addressed example, by advertising) was more important to and addresses others. In other words, when both the consumer and the producer and the operating in the mode of information, the self economy as a whole than the product itself referentiality of images and words positions (Debord, p. 1983, 36). subjects as nodes or way-points connected to In this spectacular society, the exchange of others, rather than being autonomous and secure meanings rather than actual goods and services in themselves. As Poster (1990) put it, is central to consumption. In such circumstances, "individuals are constituted through their place goods and services become radically malleable in in the circuit of information" (p. 136). that the same physical thing can be turned into numerous different commodities by varying the The Trend to Commodification meaning of the product. At the same time, producers cannot simply produce these goods. Let us now consider the new and increasing They must market them relentlessly, creating the trend towards commodification. By commod- audiences of consumers who will purchase their 88 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE goods and services, appealing to these customers agendas are being set in terms of management not in terms of the physical exchange value of the ideas which, for example, assert that "Quality products, but their symbolic or "aesthetic" assurance really begins in marketing, where exchange value (see Haug, 1986, pp. 13-39; also customer requirements and specifications should Wernick, 1991a). be defined and related to manufacturing Baudrillard thus concluded that capitalism, capacity" (Goetz, 1978, p. 5). Central to this once organised in terms of the mode of particular understanding of quality is the idea production, is now giving way to organisation that "Everyone has a customer" (Juran, cited in under the code of signification (see Poster, 1988, Townsend, 1986, p. 4) and that quality is about p. 29-56). Wernick's analysis (1991a) of perceptions, not reality. Yet, if everyone has a advertising in late capitalist economies further customer, then everyone is themselves a suggests that, because marketing is so central customer and, under this logic, the old now to capitalism, commodities are never just distinction between buyer and seller in terms of commodities, but are always promotions, firstly the exchange of material goods collapses and for themselves and secondly for other there is no longer any distinct subjectivity commodities. The product has become its own associated with being either the purchaser or advertisement (though never without help from provider. Instead, as quality assurance other forms of promotion); in the process, at least mechanisms position everyone as a customer, in highly developed capitalist societies, subjects are formed for everyone by their "advertising has effectively been submission to the commodity process of universalised as a signifying mode" (p. 261). exchanging symbolic meanings. Advertising does not represent itself referentially And thus, like information technology, like more traditional forms of signification but by commodification rearranges the way in which an insistent pointing away from the knowledge is deployed in the process of forming advertisement to other images and words, rather subjects. Knowledge is not fixed and absolute, than to anything real. Just like information but relative to the particular set of customer technology, marketing makes explicit, depends relations at any time. For example, as Wernick on and celebrates the self-referential (1991b) demonstrates in his analysis of academic characteristic of language suppressed by the curriculum vitae, they are no longer a statement of rational discourse under the rules of which what the academic knows, but a promotional modem universities have been created and tool that allows the academic to construct a maintained (Poster, 1990). subject position in relation to those reading the Commodification gives rise to new forms of CV (p. 160ff). Knowledge is not what a subject subjectivity and a new understanding (in the knows in some direct autonomous relationship context of education) of knowledge. Take, for of subject and object, without reference to other example, the current debate on 'quality' which subjects, but a mechanism for connection figures prominently in higher education policy through which customers can identify and analysis at the moment (for more extended themselves to one another. Knowledge, which in treatment see Allen, 1992 and Cullen and Allen modernity was construed as more or less 1992). It is a mistake to see the quality debate objective, will become openly inter-subjective. purely in terms of the absolute quality of universities (as referenced to some notion of a Conclusion better, more enlightening education, as for example in Mayhew, 1990) or as concerned solely Education has functioned and continues to with providing a better quality product for function as a major mechanism for making its business and industry. To do so would be to students into particular types of subjects understand quality in modem terms, assuming (Marginson, 1993, p. 37). In modem times, that that quality is a measurable thing, external to the process (which also applies to academics), has discussions and debates about it. Instead, I depended on the assumption that knowledge is a would understand "quality" as a rearrangement stable, absolute object against which a subject of the processes of communication between might be secured. The result might be a business, universities and government so that cultivated subject, as in Newman and other education can become an exchangeable liberal humanists' ideal, or a useful subject, as in commodity. In short, quality is all about quality utilitarian ideal, or a revolutionary subject, as in assurance, that is, promoting higher education in Marxian ideal (for various expressions of these such a way as to keep its customers happy. ideals, see Ball and Eggins, 1989). But what made Although not openly expressed, the that subjectivity secure was confidence that government's and many universities' quality knowledge was legitimate. Through modem Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 89 narratives of emancipation and progress, useful, totalitarianism and postmodernity: A Thesis Eleven radical and civilising knowledge gained status reader (pp. 149-162). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. and certainty, even as they superficially claimed Beilharz, P., Robinson, G., & Rundell, J. (1992). Between a legitimacy by reference to some preexisting totalitarianism and postmodernity: A Thesis Eleven reality (Lyotard, 1992, p. 29-31). Under the reader. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. influence of the mode of information, in which Benedikt, M. (Ed.). (1991). Cyberspace: First steps. the modem suppression of the instability within Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. knowledge expressed through language can no Bukatrnan, S. (1993). Gibson's typewriter. South longer continue, the objective status of Atlantic Quarterly, 92(4), 627-646. knowledge is put in doubt in the most Crook, S., Pakulski, J., & Waters, M. (1992). Postmodernization: Change in advanced society. challenging way. Modernity has so visibly failed London: Sage. to deliver autonomous, stable subjectivity {Crook Cullen, D. (Ed.). (1992). Quality in PhD education. et al. 1992, 210 and Smart, 1993, p. 12-15), that its Canberra: CEDAM, Australian National very assumptions come into question, and University. information technology is at the core of this Cullen, D., & Allen, M. (1992). Retrospective: Quality change. However the possibility that the mode of and efficiency and effectiveness. In D.· Cullen (Ed.), information might be a completely free and Quality in PhD education (pp. 99-111). Canberra: liberating place cannot be sustained in the face of CEDAM, Australian National University. the organising force of commodification, with its Debord, G. (1983). Society of the spectacle. Detroit: Black intersubjective formation of individuals as and Red. customers of one type or another. Here the Gibson, W. (1984). Neuromancer. New York: Ace Books. subject is always thinking of and is always Goetz, V. J. (1978). Quality assurance: A program for the formed in relation to other subjects, creating a whole organisation. New York: AMACOM. complex web of power relations between· Gozzi, R., & Haynes, L. W. (1992). Electric media and customers. Knowledge is not the detem1ining electric epistemology: Empathy at a distance. agent or message, but the medium through which Critical Studies In Mass Communications, 9(3), 217- individuals interact with one another. The 228. Haug, W. F. (1986). Critique of commodity aesthetics: capacity for knowledge to be organised as if it Appearance, sexuality and advertising in capitalist existed external to the processes of society. Cambridge: Polity. intersubjective communication will no longer be Ivy, M. (1988). Critical texts, mass artifacts: The possible. Indeed the separation of the university consumption of knowledge in postrnodern from the rest of society can almost be thought as Japan. South Atlantic Quarterly, 87(3), 419-444. an institutional metaphor for the notion of Lacoue-Labarthe, P. (1989). On the sublime. In L. rational objective knowledge. Thus, perhaps, the Appignanesi & G. Bennington (Eds.) (1992), autonomous university will not actually exist in Postmodernism (ICA Documents 4) (pp. 11-18). the 21st century. London: Free Association. Lyotard, J. (1984). The postmodern condition: A report on References knowledge. Manchester: Manchester U Press. Lyotard, J. (1992). The postmodern explained to children. Allen, M. (1992). Quality assurance and the Sydney: Power. consumption of education. Australian Campus Marginson, S. (1993). Arts, science and work. Canberra: Review Weekly Jul. 23-29, p. 9. AGPS. Appignanesi, L., & Bennington, G. (Eds.). (1992). Mayhew, L., Ford, P., & Hubbard, D. (1990). The quest Postmodernism (ICA Documents 4). London: Free for quality: The challenge for undergraduate Association. education in the 1990s. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Australian Education Council Review Committee. Poster, M. (Ed.). (1988). Jean Baudrillard: Selected (1991). Young people's participation in post writings. Stanford: Stanford University Press. compulsory education and training. Canberra: Poster, M. (1990). The mode of information. Chicago: AGPS. Chicago University Press. Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee. (1992). Scott, P. (1989). The po'{lJer of ideas. In C. Ball & H. Australian universities in a changing world: Report Eggins (Eds.), Higher education in the 1990s: New for the 1993-1995 Triennium. Canberra: AVCC. dimensions (pp. 7-16). Milton Keynes: Open Ball, C., & Eggins, H. (1989). Higher education in the University Press/SRHE. 1990s: New dimensions. Milton Keynes: Open Smart, B. (1993). Postmodernity. London: Routledge. University Press/SRHE. Townsend, P. L. (1986). Commit to quality. New York: Bauman, Z. (1988). Is there a postmodern sociology? John Wiley. Theory, Culture and Society, 5(2-3), 217-238. Wernick, A. (1991a). Promotional culture. Canadian Bauman, Z. (1991). A sociological theory of Journal of Political and Social Theory, 15(1-3), 260- postmodernity. Republished in P. Beilharz, G. 281. Robinson & J. Rundell (Eds.), (1992), Between • • • Partnerships in Training Through National and International Networking Jeff Gunningham WA Department of Training Australia 0 ne of the WA Department of Training's their marketing information. key strategic themes is to create a world class I feel sure, however, that both the AMTC and vocational education and training system in CCT would agree that in order to attract Western Australia. In order to achieve this, we successful partnerships, it takes more than a few need to continuously compare ourselves with the words in a glossy brochure. best in the world through viewing best practice and via benchmarking. One of the most effective For this reason, I will be placing a lot of means of achieving this is through education/ emphasis in this paper on the means by which business partnerships. you establish the optimum environment for nurturing successful Partnerships in Training. Already, many OECD countries have recognised the strategic value of partnerships Partnerships-An and are utilising them to the full in developing Alternative Approach the potential of their education and training systems. Definition Types The significance of partnerships as a worldwide phenomenon is obvious in the Partnerships can take a variety of forms and following comment made by Tom Alexander, the can involve various parties, but the underlying OECD's Director for Education, Employment purpose of the partnership is to optimise the use and Social Affairs Gune 1992): of limited resources, avoid overlap or duplication of effort, and to provide outcomes The world "partnership" movement has come which are mutually beneficial. The relationship is of age; partnerships have become central to more than the usual commercial arrangement education systems, and their messages reverberate across the international scene. between a provider of services and a customer - it is a genuine partnership where value is added Partnerships are viewed by the WA Department to the operations of all participants. In other of Training as a key operational strategy and words, it is a win-win situation or an added ANTA certainly view Partnerships as an value synergy. important means of establishing a vocational education and training service which is more Boot and Evans (1990) states: diverse and competitive. Partnership is where both parties establish a AMTC is a good example of an organisation sense of worth and contribute in equal that has made a very definite commitment to the measure to a joint venture. concept of Partnerships as a strategic platform for its operation. The same comment applies to Another way of defining a Partnership is to the operating approach being pursued by the describe the characteristics which Partnerships College of Customised Trai!ling. Both exhibit. The following characteristics are useful organisations often refer to "Partnerships" in in assessing the effectiveness of a Partnership 90 Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 91 which fits my previous definition: through experiential learning. They provide real • Clear and common goals; and tangible benefits for the wider community. In many instances, local partnership initiatives • Willingness to share resources, expertise and are picked up in other locations within Australia experiences; and sometimes overseas. • Catalysts, facilitators and visionaries; Such partnerships respond to the challenges of operating in a de-regulated and open training • Formal agreement on project management; market, as well as stimulating innovation in • Flexibility with regard to changing training delivery. They are mechanisms which circumstances; respond to the corporate view of a growing • Clear and sustained outcomes from training; number of enlightened companies, and mechanisms which support the concept of • Recognition of training outcomes and skills; "collaborative individualism," an essential • Open communication and consultation; and survival technique in an open training market, • Having working relationships which are which speaks of: "institutionalised". • Competitors in the morning; I will use the Southern Cross University, in • Partners in the afternoon; Lismore NSW as a case study. Davies and Hase (1994) discuss recent research on a variety of • Customers in the night. partnership projects. The main factors perceived (Attributed to Jack Welch, CEO, General to be fostering successful partnerships are: Electric Company.) • basing programs on an analysis of industry I can guarantee that successful partnerships needs; breed further partnerships. Partnerships in • trust and understanding between the training are what industry needs and what partners; training providers need to be involved in. They are likely to be supported and encouraged by • development of formal contracts between the Government. In the United Kingdom and the partners; and United States, partnerships are already a • involvement of industry in all phases of the strategic platform promoted by governments. process. Australian State and Federal Governments An analysis of one particular partnership appear to be moving in the same direction. (regarded eventually as successful) revealed that A further point is that there is nothing to be major problems arose due to: scared of in establishing partnerships. For • lack of written contract; example, Colleges should not be overly concerned about losing control or risking • lack of clear boundaries affecting the people's jobs through partnerships. Indeed, if perceptions of roles and tasks; you consider the following points concerning • communication between and within the two Karratha College's performance between 1987 organisations; and 1991 after it became involved in • lack of a steering committee to provide partnerships: continuity and ownership within each • Program activity increased 43% since 1987. organisation. • Staff workloads (academic) were, on average, These issues have a clear similarity to the 40% higher than TAPE lecturers anywhere in partnership characteristics outlined earlier. Australia. • In 1991,30% of the colleges recurrent income Benefits of Partnerships in Training came from non-State Government sources. Partnerships in Training can lead to efficient This means that. the Cost-to-the-State of and/ or effective utilisation of training resources running Karratha College in 1991 was some and expertise, regardless of whether they are 26% less (real terms) than what it was in located within the public sector or private 1987. enterprises. Additiqnally, they can lead to • Over the 4 year period, partnerships brought provision of relevant training which matches the in around $2.5 million in non Government requirements of industry and can also be funding to pump prime new initiatives, recognised externally. Partnerships have the provide staff and equipment, contribute to potential to recognise all competencies in a capital works, and so on. training situation, particularly those acquired 92 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE This example suggests that there may be operating as a private provider of training something very potent in this concoction we call (incorporated), but with a formal Partnership in "Partnerships in Training." Training agreement with CMC. CMC is also involved in a collaborative effort Establishing the Optimum Environment with World Geoscience, the Australia Space Offices CSIRO and Curtin University. This is the Partnerships in Training are not single "Leeuwin Centre" facility in Floreat Park which projects on the periphery of an organisation but is involved in remote sensing research and are more a series of specific activities which form development; a natural part of everyday operations. Ensuring The design, development and delivery (in Partnerships in Training become a natural part of partnership) of the innovative Certificate in your business is an extremely important point. According to Ricardo Semla of Semco, Brazil Supervision is also being carried out by CMC. This is the first course in Australia to receive (1994), processes and procedures aimed at State accreditation and National registration on changing the organisation and making it more the basis of joint ownership between academia productive need to become a natural part of the (Karratha and Hedland Colleges) and Industry business. One must also create a level of interest (Chamber of Mines and Energy, WA). The from people around the world, including participating companies are: management gurus, company executives, and so • Argyle Diamonds on. Semla believes in a new way-not socialist, nor purely capitalist, but a third way which is • Hamersley Iron more humane, trusting, productive, exhilarating • Robe River Iron and rewarding. Telfer Gold Mine lain Vallance, the Chairman of British • Telecom Incorporated, has said: • Woodside Offshore Petroleum It is crucial for industry and for BT that we This initiative utilised the Integrated Training approach the business of building quality Model as the framework for development. partnerships with education as an integral part CMC has a very exciting delivery of our day-to-day activity. In other words, as partnership with Deakin University in part of business as usual. technology management, where the course is BT Education Services acts as a national focal work based and can be accessed 24 hours a day, point for liaison with education at all levels. 365 days a year anywhere in Australia. ALCOA If you accept the partnerships approach as a currently have 20 enrolled in the program and natural way of doing business, then it follows are planning to increase this to 50 in the near that creating the optimum environment for future. Other organisations interested in the partnerships is as much to do with the culture program include Western Mining, the Water and ethos of an organisation (private or public) Authority, Worsley Alumina. as it is to do with the process of negotiating the In the Pilbara, there exists a delivery terms of a commercial transaction. It is as much partnership in which college lecturers and to do with people ~s it has to do with process and industry training personnel join forces in the the way people perform is very much dependent presentation of modules from the National on the organisation's culture and the way they Metals curriculum for apprentices. This is carried are set up. In this sense, Partnerships in Training out in a mixture of locations including company are a useful means of shaping an organisation in training centres and utilising company training terms of strategy, structure and culture. facilities and resources, all of this occurring under the auspices of the College. This arrangement applies to: Examples in VET • Robe River Iron Associates A Skills Extension Program has been set up • Hamersley Iron in conjunction with Woodside Offshore Petroleum which utilises Computer Managed • Woodside Offshore Petroleum. Learning to deliver trade courses to workers on Again, this is an initiative based on the concept the North Rankin A Gas Platform, situated some of Integrated Training. 130km offshore in the Indian Ocean. Another exciting development involves the Additionally, the WA Retail Skills Centre Water Authority of Western Australia. CMC's adjacent to the Perth Campus of the Central Skills Development Centre has developed a Metropolitan College of TAFE (CMC) is now range of fast track management and engineering Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 93 courses which are delivered in partnership Potential For International involving Water Authority staff and lecturers from CMC. At the end of last year, the CEO's of Partnerships the WA Department of Training and the Water Current Activities in Australia Authority signed a Partnership in Training The previous section of this paper has agreement which provides a strategic framework highlighted some of the contemporary practices for the above plus a range of other activities, for in Australia. Training partnerships are currently example, joint venturing in the commercial involving universities such as Deakin, Southern provision of training. Cross, Regency and AMTC, and such corporate Another CMC project involves the Southern organisations as Ford Australia, BP, Santos, Alcoa Cross University. Under a franchising agreement and WAWA. These companies are representative with the University, CMC intends to deliver of the types of organisations using Partnerships professional education courses in clinical in a strategic way to add value to their core nursing. Southern Cross University is a leading business. BP is also a strong supporter of exponent of educational partnerships and has a Partnerships in Training, asserting that range of activities with such organisations as "Community Partners add value," "Involvement Telecom, the Australian Army, the NSW opens doors" and "Partnership protects Department of Corrective Services and the business." Department of Defence. The College of Customised Training (Int. Other CMC activities include a joint venture Partnerships), soon to become the "Curriculum with Qantas, where CMC has established a travel and Customised Training Network," uses training facility, and the establishment of major Partnerships as part of its marketing approach, campus facilities in partnership with two major although most activities are of a traditional kind mining companies-Hamersley Iron at Tom involving commercial contracts. There are Price and Paraburdoo, and Robe River Iron at similar organisations in most States representing Wickham and Pannawonica. VET sector overseas. An agreement has been made for ANTA to Some examples of semi-commercial fund $280,000 towards an international international partnerships are: partnership between CMC, Regency Institute of • Vietnam Land Management System Project; TAFE (SA) and Gwent Tertiary College (UK), for joint venture between Vietnamese the purpose of adapting the software package Government, Department of Land "Capability" for use by RPL practitioners in Administration, Curtin University and CCT. Australia. • Iranian Mining Fellowship Program; a Yet another project is the Pilbara partnership between Curtin and CCT. Videoconferencing Project (LIVENET). This involves a two-way-video/two-way-audio The Polytechnic Linkages Program (Int. satellite communications system linking Partnerships) is managed by SAGRIC Karratha, Tom Price, Paraburdoo and Perth. It is International (Adelaide) and is aimed at on a 13 month trial utilising funds provided by establishing long term strategic and operational Hamersley Iron, State Government, Telecom and relationships between TAFE colleges in Australia DEET. The project is a major catalyst in focusing and Polytechnics in Indonesia. attention on the use of video conferencing for The National Network of Partnerships in delivering education and training to remote Training is an informal network ofPartnership locations in WA and we are now moving practitioners. The main activity conferences have towards setting up a permanent statewide been in Melbourne (1992) and Sydney (1993), network. and a conference is proposed for Brisbane in A final example is the establishment of a 1995. "virtual campus" of CMC in conjunction with Foundations such as the Victorian Education the Department of Land Administration (DOLA) Foundation, the NSW Education and Training involving flexible delivery of accredited courses Foundation and the Queensland Tertiary on site and utilising local expertise and resources Education Foundation have an important role to supplement the training. within the National Network of Partnerships in Training. The Dusseldorp Skills Forum is another organisation involved with the issues of Partnerships in Training. Part of its brief is to promote the principles of Partnerships and 94 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE highlight best practice. It was the co-sponsor of Possible Areas of Collaboration the 1993 Partnerships Conference in Sydney. There are two distinct markets in training, Similarly, the Industry /Education Forum in these being Australasia and East Asia. In both WA helps to develop practical partnerships cases, the intent is to form strategic alliances or between educators and industrialists. It is very partnerships between VET practitioners overseas broad in its approach, but in particular has found (mainly the UK) and their counterparts in that lunch-time seminars are a useful networking Australia. Here I am talking about high quality, mechanism. innovative training which responds to new niche Furthermore, this week's International markets. Conference at Burswood Resort (20-23 As partnerships develop, I dare say September 1994), titled International Networking: opportunities will arise to take Australian VET Education, Training and Change, has its main focus products back the other way, that is, to Europe on the Asia-Pacific region. This conference is (particularly former eastern block countries) and likely to emphasise the importance of to the United States. networking in gaining optimum benefit from the Specific VET products with partnership region's vast human, physical and intellectual potential include the possibility of following an resources. approach similar to the one followed with the Capability initiative. That is, outline the route Partnerships-A Global Phenomenon taken-a visit to the United Kingdom, a return The International Partnership Network visit to Australia, seminars/ conferences, linking (lPN), administered by University of Warwick, up with other interested parties (Regency England, has several hundred members Institute)-and the eventual outcome spanning some 24 countries. Its main objectives agreement from ANTA to fund an international are: partnership ($280,000) aimed at customising • to establish a network of interested Capability for the Australian VET sector. organisations and individuals, and to create a Another VET product is in place at theE & L database of information and materials on Group in Wrexham, North Wales. The E & L education/ industry collaboration; Group works in the area of electronics and process engineering. They carry out joint product • to undertake research and case-study writing and curricula development, as well as trialling of within the area of education-business technical training materials. The E & L Group collaboration; acts as a shop window for technology training • to organise a program of conferences and products. seminars. A further example is the British Gas Distance The lPN publishes "Circuit," an international Learning Unit in Altrincham, Chesire. They journal. For anyone who is interested, follow a similar approach to the above, but are membership forms are available! concentrating on products for the oil and gas In 1994 an International Conference was held industries in Australia and South East Asia. in Paris, over the period 30 June-2 July. British Gas's international arm, Global, is Attending were 450 delegates from 28 countries. involved with offshore exploration and The title of the conference was Innovation production. Discussions through the AMTC have through Partnership: the International Challenge, already commenced with this organisation and the major themes involved were: because of the AMTC's intent to establish an Oil and Gas Training Centre in WA. • Technological Change A successful collaboration in Europe is • Innovation in Primary, Secondary and FORCE (Formation Continue En Europe)-many Higher Education of the products we could access have been • Economic and Social Regeneration of developed through this EEC program. Communities Training for Quality is a multimedia CBT package supporting the introduction and • Return on Investment implementation of TQM. The package has been • International Dimension funded by FORCE and involves industry and The proceedings of this conference are not colleges in the United Kingdom, France, Ireland, yet available, but are currently being prepared. Italy and Netherlands. The selling price for the However, copies of the conference program are package in Europe is £99 plus packaging and available on request. postage for colleges, and £250 plus packaging for industry. Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 95 Another FORCE initiative consists of the a great deal of effort from all parties. It does takes Implementing Quality Systems through Open time and there is nothing to be gained from fast Learning program. This has been established tracking or quick-fix solutions. jointly by the Plassey Management & Technology Importantly, all parties need to see Centre (University of Limrick, Ireland), Digital themselves as truly participative partners. You and the United Kingdom's National Centre for will need to establish a high degree of trust Quality Management. Those involved are also between potential partners and you will need to interested in franchising the program to other surround yourself with people with the same countries. values and corporate goals. Most of all, however, Another VET Partnership potential is with it is mutual respect and understanding which the Cleveland Open Learning Unit (COLU). The will ensure an ongoing and successful COLU is keen to establish a "front window" for Partnership in Training. For those interested in their products in Australia and SE Asia. They establishing such partnerships I would be more well established in the United Kingdom and than willing to assist you and act as your quite successful overseas. "marriage broker" at no cost whatsoever! Similarly, Swindon College is interested in Anyone interested in becoming involved in some establishing training partnerships in South East form of partnership, please let me know. Asia, particularly in engineering, and it also has an open learning capability. Llandrillo College in North Wales is one of References Wales' largest FE colleges with a national Davies, A., & Hase, S. (1994). The conditions for fostering reputation for curriculum innovation and cooperative education between higher education and development. It is interested in some form of industry. Canberra: Australian Government collaboration, including staff exchanges Publishing Service. particularly the Assistant Principal! Semla, R. (1994). Address at AIM Seminar, 21 October, These examples are just a small sample of the 1994. "best buy" opportunities in Partnerships in Training, but there is a lot more on offer! • • • Conclusion Partnerships in Training have a great deal to offer academia and industry. It is certainly not easy to establish partnerships and it does require Exporting Tertiary Education From Australia Gus Hooke Corporate Economics Australia Pty Ltd Australia The number of students attending universities relationship will hold for tertiary education throughout the world is projected to rise from 47 during 1991-2025. For some countries, million in 1990 to 59 million in 2000, 85 million in particularly high income countries in Western 2010 and 121 million in 2025. The increase is Europe where total domestic enrolments are expected to be modest in the countries that are projected to increase slowly, the elasticity is members of the Organisation for Economic assumed to be above the average. In countries Cooperation and Development (OECD), where a large proportion of students are funded reflecting low growth or declines in the by international and national organisations, population in the prime university age groups including many countries in Africa, the elasticity and already high participation rates in most is assumed to be less than the average. countries. However, it is projected to be large in Under this scenario, the total number of the developing countries, particularly in Asia, international students would increase to 1.6 due mainly to the effects of rising incomes on million in 2000, 3.0 million in 2010 and 6.0 their participation rates. million in 2025. In the OECD region, internationalisation would be an important In 1989, a little more than one million stimulus to growth. Because of its rapid increase university students, or two per cent of all in total enrolments, Developing Asia would students, were international students-that is, become the largest source region, with they were studying in countries other than those international students of 560,000 in 2000, 1.6 in which they held resident. Most came from million in 2010 and 3.5 million in 2025. Developing Asia, Western Europe and Africa. Australia has several important advantages Australia provided education for about in exporting tertiary education, especially to the 19,000 international university students. These large and rapidly growing Asian market. It has students represented 1.8 per cent of all the capacity to deliver a quality educational international students. More than 80 per cent product, it has English as it official language, it is were from Developing Asia. Australia was the close to Asia, it is in the same general time zone chosen destination for six per cent of as Asia, and it is regarded by both students and international students from Developing Asia and staff as an attractive place in which to live for 14 per cent of international students from South several or more years. East Asia. Only 0.5 per cent of international From a base of virtually zero in the middle students from the OECD region came to 1980s, Australia has become an important Australia. The share was even lower for exporter of tertiary education. Its share of the international students from Africa, Eastern world market is already more than twice its Europe, Latin America and the Middle East. share of all markets. It has achieved this while Over the last few decades, international trade supplying a product that, historically, has been in all services has grown at about twice the pace neither commercially nor externally orientated. of domestic trade in services. The scenario below With the establishment of institutions that assumes that, for the world as a whole, this can focus on delivering the most suitable product 96 Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 97 Table 1 Student Population 1990- 2025 (millions) 1990 200J 2010 2020 2025 OECD 20 20 23 24 24 North America 9 9 10 10 11 Western Europe 9 9 10 10 10 Western Pacific 2 2 3 3 3 Developing Asia 16 23 37 52 56 NorthEast 6 7 13 18 19 South East 6 7 10 12 13 South 5 8 14 21 25 Africa 2 4 8 13 16 Latin America 7 9 12 16 18 Eastern Europe 1 2 2 2 3 Middle East 1 2 3 4 4 World 47 59 85 110 121 Source: UNESCO data and Global Development Perspectives Table2 Origins and Destinations of International Students, 1989 United United Destination Australia France Germany Other Total States Kingdom OECD 1479 86 426 23 370 28 870 48 712 102 677 291534 North America 463 16113 6 084 4668 4639 10123 42090 Western Europe 457 41295 15 870 23166 42 716 89025 212 529 Western Pacific 559 29 018 1416 1036 1357 3529 36 915 Developing Asia 16 681 160 308 20874 6156 11475 66 011 281505 North East 3748 87742 8033 3 616 5 985 29 687 138 811 South East 12418 37 556 9 769 2052 3 703 20541 86039 South 515 35010 3072 488 1787 15 783 56655 Africa 367 22114 9117 78 835 8107 77 892 196 432 Latin America 51 41576 2052 5433 2824 28 213 80149 Eastern Europe 46 3005 200 1996 7134 17391 29 772 Middle East 334 31149 6 731 15154 19 091 92 881 165 340 World 18 958 344578 62344 136 444 97343 385 065 1044 732 Source: UNESCO data 98 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE Table 3 Scenario of International Students by Origin, 1990-2025 (Thousands) 1989 2CXX) 2010 2020 2025 OECD 292 340 530 730 860 North America 42 70 120 200 250 Western Europe 213 220 330 410 460 Western Pacific 37 50 80 120 150 Developing Asia 282 560 1590 3 070 3530 North East 139 240 650 1330 1480 South East 86 150 430 690 850 South 57 170 510 1050 1200 Africa 196 280 330 680 720 Latin America 80 110 150 210 240 Eastern Europe 30 80 120 200 260 Middle East 165 220 290 320 350 World 1045 1590 3 010 5210 5960 Source: UNESCO data and Global Development Perspectives for discerning and changing international supplying products that meet the continuing markets, Australia could probably capture five needs of students and of present and prospective per cent of those markets by 2000 and 7.5 per employers of their graduates. cent by 2010. If the projections above are correct, International students are attracted by this would imply about 80,000 international courses that focus on the world as a whole and students in 2000 and 225,000 by 2010. With each its present and prospective major regions and student spending about AUD 25,000 a year on countries. According to forecasts by Global fees and living expenses, the industry would Development Perspectives the largest economies generate AUD 2 billion of export revenue in 2000 in 2010 will be China (17 per cent of gross world and more than AUD 5 billion in 2010. product), the United States (14 per cent), Japan Australian universities have been funded (six per cent) and India (six per cent). largely by Australian taxpayers to educate Universities that pay special attention to Australian students. Their products have been Australia plus these four countries would have delivered through a basically centralised system appeal to students from virtually all countries. in a noncompetitive environment. It is not They would be attractive to students from surprising that considerable scope exists to Western Europe and North America who would modify the products in order to improve their like to learn about several Asian countries, while acceptability on the international market. These living in a reasonably familiar and very secure modifications include the introduction or environment. They would also appeal to strengthening of a market-oriented approach, an students from the developing countries whose international focus for many of the courses, futures are closely tied to performance in the acceleration of degrees, the offer of lifetime major economies. education and training, and the customisation of Most public universities in Australia, and courses and degrees. also in our major competitor countries, follow While many overseas students will continue the semester system. Courses are provided for to fund their studies from scholarships, the about 26 weeks, requiring students to take three growth of the international market will be years to complete a standard business or arts mainly in full fee paying students. Export degree. Successful export-oriented universities oriented universities will succeed only by would adopt the trimester system, with perhaps Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 99 three teaching periods of 14 weeks each per year. thorough upgrading of their degree or perhaps This would enable students to complete most to complete a degree in a new areas. Because undergraduate degrees in two years, without graduates would already have at least one any reduction in class room or study time. It degree and would have completed a number of would enhance the quality of learning by relevant short courses, the second degree might reducing the downtime between teaching often require only one trimester on campus. periods (a frequent criticism of the present Traditionally, universities have provided a Australian system is that students are always in set of standard courses and invited students to "vacation mode"). By allowing graduates to join come to the sites on which the universities are the work force a year earlier, it would also located to study these courses. The successful eliminate the financial cost to Australian universities of the future will increasingly students of studying in an independent rather supplement these with courses designed than a public university. specifically for particular groups of students and Research by Global Development will deliver them at sites that are convenient for Perspectives indicates that people entering the the students, rather than for the staff of the work force in 1994 will, on average, have to cope universities. For example, a tourism ·department with approximately 20 times the amount of in an export-oriented university might work technical change that those retiring from the with departments of tourism in Asian countries work force in 1994 generally failed to cope with to prepare certificate, diploma or degree courses during their working lives. Successful that meet precisely the immediate needs of these universities in the future can be expected to help departments. And, rather than the students their graduates remain up-to-date in their coming to the university, the university would speciality areas by offering short and interesting increasingly deliver the courses into the work refresher courses, many of which will be places of those students. delivered into the work place using inter-active video transmission supported by on-site tutors. Every decade or so, graduates will be invited to • • • return to campus for a trimester to receive a Education, Training and Change Simanhadi Widyaprakosa Universitas Jember Indonesia Education is the process of the growth and internal and external factors. development of the personality. It implies that Theoretically the educational attempt seems the processes of changes and training have taken to have succeeded but practically it is unable to place through education. help people solve their problems of self sufficiency. This might be caused by the social Basically, education is a conscious attempt at structure of the community which does not give creating the personality and in developing the adequate opportunity for the educational human potentiality to face several challenges of outputs to play a real role. life, such as failure, problems, handicap or the absence of the instruments to fulfil the life needs independently. Challenges in the We are aware of the fact that, recently, a great Educational World change of the process has taken place to disturb the settled, peaceful and harmonious human life The problems of education, especially those sudden changes might happen and shake the in developing countries, are caused by the stable system beside the unawareness of the explosion of the population growth of the human beings on the evolution taken place in community, making the educational software their life as the changes are not programmed. and hardware insufficient for educational needs. Education is expected to prepare people to Science and technological developments require face challenges in their lives and, at the same human resources of high quality. The need for time, enable them to solve individual and social education becomes greater and greater, requiring problems. The main problems in recent more educational software and hardware. education are those of the developing countries, The development of science and technology as their population growth is relatively higher encourages the economy, transportation and than that of developed countries. Problems communication to develop very quickly. These become more acute in those whose economic industrial devices have developed very rapidly development is slow. It is expected that the and have produced the economic products process of education should help develop the without depending on human resources. value of human life in those countries and enable Consequently, developing countries are invaded the people to fulfil their needs, self-sufficiently, to by the developed countries' technological match those of developed countries. products of economy, preventing the people of Theoretically, many relevant and quality the developing countries from having the educational systems have been established but opportunity to work to fulfil their needs of life. many constraints are apparent in their operation. Concurrently they get into trouble in developing Many related factors influence whether their economy to support the process of education will succeed, and these are both education. 100 Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 101 The economic gap occurs in one's own Some Constraints in Developing country, resulting from the unequal opportunity to get the proper education and to obtain the Countries' Education Progress chance of having a role in the economic life. An Some developing countries which are former economic dilemma faced by developing colonised countries experience some constraints countries is the difficulty for them to compete in in their education development. Constraints are marketing their domestic products, because of different kinds and values; the most striking those of the developed countries have had an constraints are those in the economic area. earlier opportunity to grab a better market. The development of education is very costly Therefore, developing countries become and funding is difficult to obtain. Developing consumers, rather than producers. countries with a high rate of population growth Such a condition is the challenge of the need a concentration of economic growth educational system. As the field of sufficient to meet the consumer's needs. The .communication becomes more and more constraints are very difficult to overcome if the developed, the influence of culture of developed population increases too rapidly as this growth countries on the developing ones penetrates challenges the country to develop qualified more rapidly. If a national of a developing human resources which, at the same time, country has no strong value of culture as its require the living cost to increase greatly. national personality builder, it will experience The second problem is caused by the the changes of the instrumental value system as penetration of technological products used for the nation will consider the value coming from daily needs such as food and clothing, as well as the developed country is the best. Such a for entertainment. This can entice individuals to condition can spur an erosion of values and the satisfy themselves by acquiring such products. loss of national identity. A developing country which is unable to It is not impossible for a developed country master technology will become the prey of the that has obtained anything from developing technological products its people enjoy. If a countries to govern the latter in all aspects. To country is incapable of investing the capital and maintain its existing domination, it is possible for is unable to make use of the high technology a developed country to engineer the economic available, it will have problems. Even if the structure of developing countries to its country can invest the capital to develop its advantage, by ignoring the developing countries' industry, it may still encounter difficulty in economic development. marketing the products of this industry, as the It is obvious that developing countries face global market is not easy for developing several challenges in education in creating a countries to penetrate. nation of citizens with personality, The third problem arises from social gaps professionalism and a mastery of science and existing between one developing country and technology. On the other hand, developed another, or from social gaps within a country. countries will, in reality, face difficulties if the The social gaps between one country and developing countries are unable to equate another may be caused by the different colonial themselves to the developed. systems each experienced. For example, one Some problems faced recently by the country might have been suppressed by its educational world are: colonial government, while the other was given • the need for developing human resources to tlle opportunity to develop. enable them to encounter the challenges of The social gap within a country may be their life independently (especially for the caused by the fact that an individual or a group developing countries); is more capable of obtaining economic advantage • the usefulness of creating educational or prestige than other individuals or groups. conditions to support the acceleration of the Such gaps may become instruments for social quality of human resources to meet the uprising of disadvantaged people, which may requirements of the era; disturb national stability, thus preventing the development process from proceeding. • the creation of education environments of Advantage of such situations is often taken mutual benefit in the educational world, in by particular parties to achieve their political or the developing and developed countries; and economical goals, bringing about a negative • the readiness of the developed countries to impact upon education -development. The help the developing countries to carry out situation prevents students from studying education relevant to the need of the era. properly, making them unable to master the science and technology needed to develop their 102 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE own lives as well as their country. skills and professional working ability also need The fourth problem is related to the value developing to enable all individuals to fulfil the system in the framework of self developing needs of life. individual. It is necessary for an individual to An educational process will not work well identify his personality, in order to match it to a without the supporting environmental field of development in science and technology, conditions. The supporting social conditions for especially in the communication area. an educational process are economic Basically, an individual directly contributes development, a democratic political atmosphere, to his nation's survival, stored in the nation's and a secure environment, which guarantees the culture and the foreign values spread out by the freedom for individuals to engage in education, mass media. and in developing the moralistic structure of life. A nation may develop its own national The educational process of one nation can identity if it can absorb its own cultural values exert a powerful influence on another country's enriched with the foreign values it has adopted. educational processes. Therefore the notion of Apparently the opposite phenomenon is now establishing international relations for mutual often taking place, namely, a nation ignores its profit needs creating in the implementation of own cultural values and adopts the foreign any educational enterprise. In this case the values instead. In such a situation, the people are atmosphere of respecting and appreciating the not themselves any more and they are easily educational system of each country is extremely influenced by the cultural values of others. This important and can be profoundly meaningful. contradiction can give rise to internal conflict in Every nation has its own sociocultural the life of the individual or the nation, with condition inspiring the nation's life in building potentially damaging risks. Besides, education up its personality. By establishing an does not create a person with his own international harmonious relation in the personality and identity. On the contrary, educational area a good and mutually profitable education creates an individual with the international brotherhood will be established. personality and identity of others. Cooperation in the educational arena can The fifth problem is in the framework of result in a positive outcome for developed and education and its relation to the mastery of developing countries alike. Thus developing science and technology. Theoretically, there are countries, willing to learn from developed no problems in mastering technology, as the countries, can do so, but it is not impossible for essential aspects-training and experience developed countries to learn something from the bring no problem but the choice of technology developing ones, or, at least, be inspired by related to the social need to develop is implementing part of the educational process. questionable. Not all existing technology is In the framework of international suitable for students in particular communities cooperation, in nurturing future generations and to absorb. encouraging them to collaborate harmoniously, More research is needed to answer the human rights oriented education is very helpful. questions concerning whether or not the Important aspects are that single interpretation technology is needed and whether or not it is and true understanding of human rights is a suitable for certain communities. necessity, and that the implementation of these rights needs to be flexible and must be governed Alternatives of Problem Solving by the conditions in each country I state. Basically, the educational process is an The Educational Materials attempt to increase the overall quality of mankind, namely the personal, social and An educational "doer" is closely related to spiritual qualities. the objectives of education in spite of the Personal quality relates to the acceleration of differences of one country I state from another. physical and spiritual ability, and social quality Truly, however, the main materials to present in involves ethical and social ability. "Spiritual" the educational world need inventing. refers to the conscience and essence of mankind Considering the essence and characteristic of as God's creation. mankind (individual, social and spiritual) the Personal quality may be developed through essential material to assess the humane healthy physical and psychic development. educational objectives are yet to be found. Figure Spiritual ability relates to the development of 1 indicates these educational materials. intelligence, emotional control and a positive attitude towards a healthy life. Technological Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 103 The Concept of Human Rights Oriented Specialised skills will create expertise Humanity Consists of producing professionalism in particular fields of • the right for life; endeavour. This is important if the nations of the world are to develop jobs which cater for mutual • the right for freedom; and needs. • the right for justice. Conclusion Science and Technology: Basically, to answer the challenges of the era Nowadays, human beings have experienced and to fulfil the needs of their life, human beings several explosions of social events which are need to master science and technology. seemingly dangerous to the continuance of human life, because of the war resulting from conflicts and different attitudes. To save Social Conscience: humankind from such dangers, education must Naturally, human beings are moulded by the create communicative new generations among social character in the sense that they have lived nations, respecting one another. These new in the social world since they were born and generations need to have the ability to create nurtured. At the first stage of existence one was environments which meet mutual needs. greatly dependent on the generosity of the social Education will enable us to nurture world, at least of one's parents or nurse. generations whose complete, integral personality Therefore, the social conscience of individuals is animated by the philosophy of life, with the needs developing through education. stress on the spirit of giving higher esteem to others for worldwide peaceful mutual life. Environmental Awareness: The curriculum of education will contain, Mankind lives in the universe and is able to most essentially, true equality of humankind remain alive due to the generosity of nature. both physically and spiritually. The new Natural equity has benefited human beings, curriculum will operate with new generations serving them their needs. who are ready to guarantee better world security and peace for the sake of the welfare of all. Professional Skills: Skills are obtained from training and helped • • • by the mastery of science and technology. Skills enable people to make and use technological instruments to maintain the natural environment, and change it into something useful for their lives. Technology Social Environmental and Science awareness Conscience (2) (3) (4) Humanity (1) Figure 1. Education materials AARNet and ERNET: An Era for Fostering International Academic Research Amit Rudra Curtin University of Technology Australia The need for comparing notes, ideas, views dissemination has further given rise to various and problems is, possibly, nowhere greater than services like electronic mail, electronic file in the academic and research world. Proof of this transfer, voice I video I image transmission, assertion is the existence of innumerable distributed database processing and remote journals, publications, research bodies and login. As research (Turoff and Hiltz, 1988) points academic conferences. In earlier days there was out computer mediated communication rare need for immediate exchange of views represents a unique form of communication between people located in distant places. where one can be very selective. Structuring of Perhaps the need was there but was never information is one characteristic that makes this realised. As pointed out by some researchers medium unique. Of course, the immediacy of (Greenberger et al, 1974) a couple of decades ago, information goes without stating. It is, therefore, given the commonality in work performed by no surprise a number of countries in the world computer centres in the USA, one might have have embarked upon the path to academic and expected them to have engaged in a great deal of research networking (A directory of electronic sharing of data and other computing resources. mail, 1989). However, the economic, social and other However, this did not happen then. With the conditions of these countries could be quite advent of telephone, telex and facsimile diverse. Their relative importance from transmissions, researchers realised the Australia's point of view could be a factor in importance and effectiveness of a speedy determining close economic, cultural and exchange of information among persons located research co-operation between them and in any comer of the world. However, there are Australia. Judging from recent mutual visits and several limitations in these media. For example, exchanges between Australian and southeast how does one compare notes with many people Asian countries' governmental and ministerial without spending an enormous amount of time, delegations, it is evident that Australia is keen in first in finding out who they are and then striking good relationships with most of the sending messages to all of them. This could cost countries in this region. The fact that some of the one a lot of time and stationery. The scenario is countries in this region, nicknamed the five worse if one is in a developing country, where tigers of Asia, viz. Japan, Singapore, Taiwan, these media are relatively costly and academics South Korea and Hong Kong have recently may have limited access to appropriate facilities. developed a booming economy (The Economist The development of electronic computers 1994) is reason good enough for such moves for and advancements in telecommunications have Australia. Nevertheless, looking around we find given us such an excellent facility for computer another emerging tiger in the south Asian region networking that the 1990s has been dubbed "the is India, whose recent market liberalisation has global intemetworking decade" (Lai, 1994). This vastly improved its economy (The Economist new medium of information accumulation and 1994). The importance and emergence of India 104 Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 105 from its sleeping tiger role has prompted enabling access to overseas networks. It is Australia to look into further possible economic interesting to note the importance placed on and business co-operation between the two international collaboration. countries. An indication of this is the organisation of a month long cultural festival Services Supported called India Today, held recently in major cities To facilitate the objectives mentioned the of Australia (India Today 1994). The festival was education and research networks of Australia inaugurated by the Vice-president of India who and India have to provide various services to was accompanied by a delegation consisting of their users. Some of the services available over members of the Indian parliament. However, the AARNet and ERNET are (AARNet Resource main focus of the festival was to boost co Guide 1992; Project ERNET 1994): operation on the business and economic front. There was not much effort made to look into the • Electronic mail-for contacting people world possible co-operation in the academic and -wide on the Internet and other networks. research arena between the two countries. It is therefore the aim of this paper to explore some of • Remote login-connecting to a distant the potential academic and research co-operation computer to use resources like super avenues between the two countries. The author computers, searching on-line databases ... believes that an excellent way of exchanging • File transfer-for transferring special files research data and other information is by using (binary e.g. images, spreadsheet files). the existing academic and research computer • Directory services-for enquiring about networks in the two countries viz. the AARNet phone numbers and other details of (Australian Academic and Research Network) academics. and the ERNET (Education and Research' Network) of India. • Conferencing-for participating in discussions and exchange of ideas on a variety of topics. Objectives of AARNet and ERNET The primary objectives both of AARNet and • Database access-for finding some specific ERNET seem to be more or less the same, that is, information e.g. library information. provisiOn of a high performance • News services-for news and discussion communications network to members of the groups. academic and research community of their • Archie, Gopher, WAIS services-software for respective countries (AARNet Publicity finding information on the Internet. Brochure, September 1989; Mathur & Ramakrishnan, 1988). The list above is by no means exhaustive in The activities that are supported on the two the sense of what can be accomplished by a networks include: particular group (or an individual) using any of • Fostering collaborative activity through a these facilities could be quite different than the common and effective communications same facility used or accessed by another group. medium. This encompasses the ability to For example, a particular group may use exchange information, software and electronic mail very effectively to distribute news computer data between users of the network, of interest to its members, while another group enabling the support of geographically may use it for exchanging notes or comments dispersed research groups with a common pertaining to a conference. A third group may focus of activity. use both electronic mail as well as news services • Support for fast, reliable electronic mail to achieve the same object as the second group. delivery system for effective peer Thus, not only can each service be used to communication. accomplish a variety of tasks but it can also complement others. • Ability to access information sources through either direct remote interactive access or through distributed database applications. Network architecture As the terrestrial links in Australia, unlike • Ability to use local workstations to access those in. most of the developing countries, are remote high performance computing facilities more reliable and may use either microwave in a productive manner across the network. links or fibre optics cables as the medium, • Support of international collaboration, AARNet has adopted Australian Telecom 106 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE Australian Academic and Research Network Each regional state network consists of a single hub router with 48K or microwave links to each AARNet member. The.•e .•tar networks are interconnected by a national backbone. also configured as a star, centred on Melbourne. A satellite link from Melbourne to the USA connects AARNet to the Internet. Queen:;land Regional Hub University of Queensland Mountain View. California, 48K Digital Data Service (DDS) 768K Sate !life 2M Megallnk Mar199J Figure 1. The AARNet backbone W Al~ (ASTEC report on AARNet, 1994) terrestrial medium for its backbone wide area Further, a close look at the higher education network (WAN) (ASTEC Report, 1994). Figure 1 sector reveals a much better profile of the two shows the AARNet backbone WAN which countries (Table 2). connects its eight regional hubs. Incidentally, It is interesting to note that while the ERNET has eight hubs also at eight participating student/teacher ratio in the two countries is agency sites, but it has adopted a satellite more or less same, the number of higher channel as the medium for its backbone WAN. education institutions in India is significantly higher than in Australia. However, the number of institutions in India linked to ERNET is only A Brief Comparison 237 (Table 3), while this figure for Australia is Before looking at the higher education sector, 260. a brief look at the demographics of Australia and It should be mentioned here that most of the India is necessary to compare and contrast the AARNet and ERNET sites are research and other two nations (Table 1). governmental organisations. Therefore, Table 3, Table 1 is possibly a comparison of contrasts while giving us some idea about the extent of which tilts more in Australia's favour. However, networking in higher education and other per capita income could be a misleading factor in institutions in the two countries, does not such a comparison, as a dollar in India can buy provide us the exact comparison. However, the much more than it can in Australia. One factor point is clear that there is sufficient scope for which is of importance is the literacy rate. collaborative work between the two countries. Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 107 Table 1 Demographic comparison between Australia and India (Source: Britannica World Data 1993) Australia India Population 17.48 million (1992) 889.7 million (1992) GDP US $290.5 billion US $294.8 billion Per capita income us $17,000 US$350 Literary 99.5% 33% Table2 Higher/Tertiary education in Australia and India (Source: Britannica World Data 1993) Australia India Number of institutions 329 6,600 Number of students 420,640 3,820,000 Number of teachers 25,916 242,000 Student teacher ratio 16.2 15.8 Table 3 Institutions connected to AARNet or ERNET (AARNet members list, 1992; ERNET site list, 1994) Australia India Number of institutions 329 6,600 Number of institutions connected to national WAN 260 237 Percentage of institutions connected to national WAN 79% 36% Research Collaborations Social Sciences From the above discussions it is clear that The importance of data sharing in social there could be many reasons for Australia to forge sciences needs no emphasis. Sieber (1991) notes and foster research collaborations with an that electronic methods, our understanding of economically booming country like India; the development and the transformation of especially as compatible collaborative and cultures and societies is becoming far more research infrastructure exist in these two complete than ever before. These methods make countries. Both countries use English as the main new knowledge available not only to scientists media of instruction. Both follow a structure of and policy makers but also to students via education which is quite similar. From the list of classroom use of computerised data. So here we sites connected to the respective countries' have a very strong case for setting up a research data networks (RDNs) one can observe cpllaborative research forum between Australia that some of the research bodies in the two nations and India as both the countries have pockets of have almost same name, viz. CSIRO (Australia) aboriginal people. While Australian aboriginal and CSIR (India). It is therefore important to look have a unique culture preserved and untouched at some possible collaborations between the two by centuries of isolation, India, on the other countries involving the academic and research hand, presents a number of tribal groups. It will communities. This can benefit not only Australia therefore be useful to set up a collaborative but also India, which can gain much from newsgroup in such a· discipline. This newsgroup Australian expertise on the technical aspects of could include all researchers and experts in the research networks, such as in the field of distance two countries interested in collaborating their education. The following sections discuss some of research and findings on the unique cultures of the possible areas of collaboration. By no means native people of the two countries. Later on this are these exhaustive. In fact, some of the newsgroup could be extended to use computer suggestions made can be applied to other supported collaborative work (CSCW) and disciplines as well. 108 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE group conferencing for more effective which are on their respective national research discussions. It may be noted that while group networks. This discipline in both countries could conferencing is supported on the AARNet certainly gain a lot by exchanging data and doing (ASTEC report on AARNet, 1994), it is still to be collaborative research projects. provided on the ERNET (Project ERNET, 1994). Further possibilities in the distant future could Other Areas be interactive tutorials, video conferencing and Some of the other disciplines where so on, when such facilities are available and the collaborative work could be done are mining and network supports them comfortably (ASTEC metallurgy, medical sciences, biomedical report on AARNet, 1994). sciences and geophysics. Of course, some of these disciplines will need the provision of Distance Education substantial bandwidth on the computer The growth of computer telecommunications networks in the future for such collaborations to is making on-line collaboration and networking succeed. an important part of education. The key factor to their effective use lies in the design of the on-line educational environment (Harasim, 1992). Conclusion Australia figures very prominently amongst the Academic and research networks hold select few nations in the world which use tremendous potential for co-operative research. computer-mediated communications in This paper highlights some of the similarities in delivering distance education (Paulsen, 1992). So the higher education and research sector in far there has been limited use of the academic Australia and India as both the countries have and research networks to do this, as most of moved towards computer networking in the these countries use public telecommunication academic and research arena. It points out that services like the AUSTPAC in Australia (Paulsen, some of the possible research collaborations 1992). However, in future one could see the use using these research networks viz. the AARNet of the AARNet, for example, in such a venture and ERNET could be to join researchers of (ASTEC report on AARNet, 1994). Since India Australia and India in such areas as social has a geographically dispersed population sciences, distance education, agricultural studies comparable to that of Australia, it will pay to and mining to name a few. investigate into such a venture. Critics may argue whether there will be any takers of such a service as it is likely to be very expensive References (telecommunication services in India are AARNet Publicity Brochure. (1989). relatively very costly as compared to those of AARNet Resource Guide. (1992). (Gopher Information Australia). Nevertheless, recent figures released on the Internet). by the Indian government indicate there are over AARNet Members List. (1992). (Gopher Information 150 million middle class which is growing by 20 on the Internet). million annually (A New India, 1994). If one ASTEC Report on AARNet. (1994). Assessment of high could tap even 1% of this huge middle class it bandwidth applications on research data networks. will mean more than a million people. However, Consultant's Report by: Cutler & Co. Australian the Indian government and the education sector Science and Technology Council. there need to set up the infrastructure for such a A Directory of Electronic Mail Addressing and project. Again the method suggested for the Networking. (1989). O'Reilly & Associates. social sciences, namely setting up newsgroups A New India. (1994). A Government of India on the Internet and then using group Publication (brochure). conferencing, could be employed here as well. Britannica World Data. (1993). Encyclopaedia Initially, this group could look into the Britannica 1993 Book of the Year (pp. 554-555, 627-628). possibilities of how Australian experiences could ERNET Members List (1994). (Gopher Information on effectively be applied to the Indian scene. the Internet). Greenberger, M., et al (Eds.). (1974). Introduction in Agricultural Sciences networks for research and education: Sharing Both Australia and India have a growing computer and information resources (pp. 2-7). agriculture and food production system Gupta, P. P. (1986). The development of communication (Britannica World Data, 1993). There are several services in India. Eighth ICCC 1986: Munich, West. agricultural research institutes in both countries Germany, pp. 375-380. Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 109 Harasim, L. (1992). Foreword. From Bulletin Boards to Electronic Universities. No.7, pp. 31-37. Paulsen, M. F. (1992). Computer-mediated commu India Today. (1994, May). India Today Programme. nications and distance education around the world. From Bulletin Boards to Electronic Lai V. S. (1994). Migration to open global networks: Universities, 7, 31-37. ' issues and solutions. International Business School Project ERNET April (1994). (Gopher Information on Computing, Spring 1994, 10-15. . the Internet). Mathur, M. N., & Ramakrishnan, S. (1988). Project ERNET-Perspectives, plan and approach of an Sieber, J. E. (1991). Introduction: Sharing social science academic and research network program in India. (pp. data. Sharing Social Science Data-Advantages and 147-166). Computer Communication for Challenges (pp. 1-18). Sage Publications. Developing Countries-ICCC, 1988. Elsevier Turoff, M., & Hiltz, S. R. 1988. Computer mediated Science Publishers B. V. (North Holland). communications and developing countries. Telematics and Information, 5(4) 357-376 . • • • Structuring a Delta MBA Program Meeting Changes, Challenges and Training Needs in South China Peter P.F. Chan Hong Kong Shue Van College Hong Kong Since August 1993, there have been five major population and accounts for 43% of its industrial industrial accidents1 in the Delta Area, especially output (Duckworth, 1992). The area exports 20% in or near Shenzhen, and the latest one in of China's manufactures (Lingle, 1994). A major Zhuhai. Although factory disasters renewed part of Hong Kong's industrial sector is concern about safety rules, and anger was dependent on this area, according to a survey by expressed at the lack of industrial safety, the Federation of Hong Kong Industries in 1991. investments pouring into the Delta did not stop It has been the most favourable base for Hong during last year though there is a noticeable Kong manufacturers, who have relied on its reduction recently due to the deflating measures cheap land and labour. The survey covered ordered by Vice Premier Zhu Rongi. Industrial companies in Hong Kong accounting for about disasters are the price of rapid economic growth 60% of the total production by Hong Kong's when infrastructures and regulating procedures 50,000 manufacturing enterprises. Of the 1256 cannot catch up. companies that responded to the survey, 41% have made direct investments in the Delta area, The concept of special economic zones was totalling HK $4.7 billion (US $602.6 million). developed by Deng Xiaoping who, after rising to Hong Kong's electronics and toy industries had power in 1977/78, considered that economic the highest degree of commitment. Factory growth must have priority over class struggle management in the electronic and toy industries politics. Clear-cut instructions were given to should be emphasised in the Delta MBA "map out a special zone in Guangzhou, and program-especially on the subjects of make it special." "Central government may not patentability of these industrial products, the law have the resources, you go ahead to do it, cutting of infringement of patent rights, method of out a lifeline with blood" (Xiaoping, 1979). Deng innovation management and tooling technique Xiaoping also pointed out after the June 1986 management. These will be designed to be part incident that the top priority in reforming China of the subjects taught. was education. The Delta area is enriched by two Special Economic Zones devised by China to assist its Profile Of The Delta Area opening up to the world. The first one, nearest to The Delta area, being just north of Hong Hong Kong, is Shenzhen, and the other is Kong, consists of 44,300 square kilometres of Zhuhai. The proximity to Hong Kong is the main land, (relatively flat in the region and mostly factor for the area's prosperity and for its future fertile amid a network of rivers and waterways), potential. There is a natural cultural mix, with contains 26% of Guangdong Province's most people speaking the same language and having similar social and cultural traditions. The Shenzhen Special Economic Zone, which 1. In August 1993, a chemical depot exploded killing is the most important zone2 in the 15 and levelling several city blocks. In October 1993, a factory fire killed 14. In November 1993, a toy factory fire killed 84. (Reference: Asian Wall Street Journal, 2. The zone has an area of 327.5 square kilometres, in June 6, 1994). the south part of Shenzhen Municipality. 110 Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 111 emerging3market4 of China, was founded in The program, conferring the degree of 1980. Within 6 years, an urban area of 50 square Master of Business Administration, will be kilometres (Zone 327.5 sq. km) has been devel designed to provide an avenue for regional oped with an infrastructure costing 13.906 billion managers to obtain a management qualification Yuan RMB. The Delta area offers a new world of of high quality without an interruption to their opportunities to foreign investors, by way of jobs (London Business School, 1994). Some basic either direct or indirect investments.. The thinking would be along the following lines: specially structured program will offer self 1. certificate program (certain selected improvement opportunities to regional subjects6) managers by cultivating and polishing their management skills, academic excellence and 2. diploma program (with additional 7 entrepreneurial spirit (Dellsperger, 1994). subjects ) 3. any first degree + some selected subjects8 The Program To Have Flexible Structures + a dissertation and project. Business education is now the core of higher education and nearly every university offers 4. work experience (assessable according to some program on business. When the author was sales, assets, number of employees and in St. Petersburg-5 in September 1992, a professor responsibilities) plus certain updates (for example, Finance, Strategic Management, told him that Russia (now CIS) had no business 9 schools and asked for detailed brochures on and Marketing) and choices of these business education. majors. United States educators are currently Because of employment opportunities, "agonising over what exactly it is that an MBA young people in China are interested in and keen graduate-or anybody else-will need to know on studying for certificates, diplomas and or do to be effective in business a decade from degrees covering a wide variety of vocations and now." And is it teachable?" (O'Reilly, 1994). It is skills (Chiang, 1993; Chow, 1993; Lee, 1993). clear that any program must be flexible to meet These programs will meet current needs and are changes: likely to be popular. They will be structured to: Every business school dean knows what to 1. provide up-to-date coverage of essential confidently promise: The ideal executive of the management disciplines; future--and every one of his school's graduates-will be a leader, not a mere 2. prepare students to be involved in an manager. Global in outlook. Facile with information systems and technology. international business environment; (O'Reilly, 1994). 3. link theory with practice; and 4. develop the foundation for senior 3. China has an annual real GDP growth 12.8% in 1993 management. and probably 8.3% in 1994 (Source: Asian Economic Survey 1993, Asia Wall Street Journal October 18, 1993). The Program, The Philosophy Of Doing 4. The term "an emerging market" first appeared in Business In China & Its Laws middle 1980 when debt ridden developing countries Doing business in China involves many deregulated their economics. Foreign investment has challenges, and the programs will be structured triggered an export boom for many of them and produced rapid stock price profits. They include those developing countries which allow foreigners to buy 6. Such as Financial Accounting, Quantitative domestic equities or debt, whether directly or via Methods, Organisational Behaviour and Market mutual funds. Japan in the 1960's and Singapore in the Analysis. Reference drawn from Warwick MBA. 1970's were both emerging markets. Argentina and 7. Management Accounting, Marketing Management, Brazil have been "emerging" for the past 70 years. Management of Operation, Information Management. (Source: Emerging Markets Analyst, special report Reference drawn by Warwick MBA. May 1994.) 8. Business Policy plus courses on Manufacturing 5. As a professional delegate in the Marine strategy, Human Resources Management, Operation Technology Mission organised by the Citizen Research, Small Enterprise Management, Financial Ambassador Program, which was chaired by the US Management, Global Business Strategies, Reference president, and was founded by Eisenhower in 1956 to drawn from Warwick MBA. promote scientific and technology exchange among 9. General reference to University of California the world's people. Berkeley extension programs. 112 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE to teach students the philosophy involved, the taught to improve their capacity to lead in the risks, the rewards, the doctrine of caveat emptor, context of increasing global competitiveness. traps, pitfalls and a basic understanding of Deng did two things. One was to create a market Chinese law. The students will be trained to economy in food, initially by freeing prices for develop first-class thinking skills and therefore most food, except grain, and finally by be expected to be able to take their place with the abolishing the agricultural communes as the unit present and the next generation of high calibre of production and replacing them with family managers. farms. The element of competition, introduced On 1 October 1949 the People's Republic of probably for the first time, produced a new China was founded and Chairman Mao Zedong incentive for doing business and created a said that "the 475 million people in China have relationship between demand and supply in the now stood up." However, the real standing up market place. The program therefore will be a carne 30 years later. In January 1957, while good vehicle for students to increase their talking to secretaries of provincial municipal and understanding of the driving forces which are autonomous region party committees, he said changing the ways in which China's business that "the law must be observed and the operates and the ways by which successful revolutionary legal system must not be businesses respond to these changes. Small undermined." business management is a valuable skill-all In 1979, modernisation of China began, with entrepreneurs start small. Many mammoth long-range planning, aimed at achieving full corporations start with a village-type operation. modernisation in industry, agriculture, science The economy of the Delta area and Hong and technology and national defence. The Kong is just like lips and teeth-the lips protect development and prosperity of the Delta area is the teeth and the teeth back the lips. China the result of these modernisation efforts. supplies Hong Kong, at reasonable and This more open policy was further fortified competitive prices, with primary food products, by the revised constitution in 1982 (China's daily necessities, fresh water and other industrial fourth). Article 8 specified that foreign materials to ensure that Hong Kong operates at enterprises, other foreign economic economic and environmental stability. China has organisations and individual foreigners were 10,000,000 technologically trained workers. In allowed to invest in China and to enter into addition, "every year, millions of young rural various forms of economic cooperation with migrants from its landlocked provinces flood Chinese enterprises and other economic into Delta area for employment opportunities. organisations, in accordance with the law. Fifty to sixty million of these workers have left Managers anywhere in China are expected to their ancestral villages in search of better-paying work under and to familiarise themselves with jobs in the cities-and more are on the way" such a system. As managers, it is important to (Window, 1994). Managing these available know how to attract investors and to work with human resources (with different kinds of them under the existing legal framework. In the aspiration and ambition) requires attention. meantime, there is not yet a predictable legal Managers in the Delta area will rely on the environment where business knows exactly what Hong Kong infrastructures (before the area has will make up its predictable profits. It is its own) for professional services in every phase important to be taught its limitation and perils. of commercial activity, efficient communication In Hong Kong as in all English jurisdictions, law channels and market experience, not only in is supreme. However, in China, law is governed finding, tapping, maintaining them but also in under constitution by four cardinal principles exploiting them. They will also rely on Hong socialism, people's democratic dictatorship, Kong to tap world financial investments through leadership of the communist party and the its stock exchange. Since most Hong Kong thoughts of Marx, Lenin and Chairman Mao people are natives of the Delta Area, the borders Zedong. Law is therefore designed to be a part of rapidly disappear, merging the two into one subjects taught. the Greater Hong Kong or the Greater Delta. Now 15,000 trucks cross the border daily. Challenges Created By Disappearing Borders Deng Xiaoping saw the potential of Hong China, with a land area of 9.6 million square Kong when he carne down to South China in kilometres, and inhabited by 1.2 billion people, is 1991. He decided to imitate Hong Kong on the a huge market in all counts. Deng Xiaoping mainland. In fact, the ready made "copy" is now introduced the element of competition with in Shenzhen. His inscription near lunar new year, remarkable success. Students therefore will be January 26, 1984 said "the development and Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 113 experience of Shenzhen have proved that our manufactured products to China's domestic policy of establishing special economic zones is market. correct." Jiang Zeroing's inscription in July 1990 reads: "Continue to do better job running Marketing The Students' Cooperation And Shenzhen SEZ and make efforts to explore a Projects In The Delta Area socialist road with Chinese characteristics." Pioneer investors are interested to know that Deng Xiaoping revisited Shenzhen and the Delta Hong Kong serves as an excellent beachhead for area on 22 January 1992 to prove his point. setting up a business (industrial or otherwise) in the Delta area. "The People's Republic of China, Stock Exchange, Investment & Financial in Beijing, has caused many people to recognise Management that if you want to do business in China, you've Although the capital market in the Delta area got to start in Hong Kong" (Aldcroft, 1994). And (the Shenzhen Stock Exchange) is developing the Delta area is simply next door. "When your rapidly since its establishment, and although the roots are deep in local markets, you can see capital market in Hong Kong, just south of the opportunities others may miss" (Morgan, 1994). border, is well established, students are expected This is where the Program comes in-teaching to acquire academic and professional knowledge students to see the opportunities and to exploit in investment management. By design they will them. be taught about corporate finance and The student should gain a knowledge in investment management, company law (which is marketing projects available in the Delta area. new in China), listing requirement and The economic zones in the Delta area regularly procedure. publish lists of projects which the area deems Other than buying shares in Shenzhen Stock , desirable and in which the area invites the Exchange (with fully automatic trading system) interest of international parties. For investors (Vine, 1993) as a form of indirect investment and who have a specific project in mind, they should other than placing deposits with a bank for make inquiries, provide a business profile, interest, there are other forms of investments, specifying what project they have in mind, what open to foreign counterparts. These include (a) form the project will take and provide details of Sino-foreign equity joint venture; (b) Sino the amount of the investment available for the foreign contractual joint venture; (c) foreigners' project and their proposed commitment. As part wholly owned enterprises; (d) compensation of the program students, with their active trade; (e) processing and assembling with presence in the Delta area, will be trained on the materials and parts supplied by foreign presentation of logistic details, land required for suppliers; and (f) international leasing. industrial undertakings and administrative Special laws apply to the first three forms of offices, the number of staff and labour investments. The equity joint venture and the requirements, and the annual consumption of foreigners' wholly owned enterprises are electricity and water. Proposed measures to corporations with limited liability. For the prevent pollution must also be specified. Of contractual joint venture, the contracts course, all should be properly documented on themselves define the rights and liabilities of the specific forms provided by the students who will parties. Compensation trade is a contract under be trained as general salesmen for the Delta area. which Chinese enterprises undertake to deliver The students will be trained to be able to advise end products to foreign suppliers of foreign investors (especially those who are technologies, plant and equipment and interested in their own enterprises or their materials. Subcontracting processing and products) to expect to be registered for taxation, assembly and international leasing generally for customs, for recruitment of employees, for involves simple agreements. examination of financial accounts, and on Foreign funded enterprises may enjoy a procedures for proper keeping of books and number of preferential treatments on (a) bank accounts. enterprise income tax; (b) consumption tax, value added tax and business tax; (c) urban Subjects On Energy And Environmental construction maintenance tax; (d) house property Management tax; (e) vehicle and vessel tax; (f) individual Chiria supplies Hong Kong with fresh water income tax; (g) preferential use of land; (h) and the Delta area has adequate reservoirs permission for profit expatriation; (i) certain supplying enough water to industries in the area. treatment of import and export tariff; and G) On energy, Daya Bay nuclear station has a special treatment of advanced technology designed capacity of 1,800 MW, providing, on enterprises such as permission to sell their 114 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE full production, enough energy for use in the recognises that students are "part of a new area in addition to Hong Kong. Environment generation that grew up in the fast-paced world protection with pollution control is practised by of television and personal computers, they are international professionals in every discipline re-inventing how we design organisation, and is, appropriately, included in the Stanford motivate employees and tap new markets" Engineering Executive Program. (Dumaine, 1994). The Program will seek close links with the The "Program University" Itself-Research European Communities, DG XIII Information And Teaching Technologies and Industries, and Telecommunications in its "DELTA"12 Universities have at least two functions, (Developing European Learning through research and teaching. They dispense knowledge Technology Advance)13. In particular, it will seek through teaching, and produce knowledge to develop links through the following programs through research (American National Council, in Delta: 1992). The Delta MBA program, the author suggests, will be conducted by his Hong Kong D2001: TRIBUNE-Awareness Creation and Shue Yan College in a joint venture with a Information Dissemination university in the Delta area. D2002: SMILE-Small and Medium-sized This joint venture (the "Program University" Infrastructure for distance Learning Experiments for the purpose of this paper) will seek a link to D2009: MATHESI5-Stand alone workbench for the Research-and-Technology-Development learners & teachers Partner database in Europe through the D2011: COSY5-Design and implementation of a CORDIS10 for its research work. Since the computer-based course Production and Delivery Cambridge phenomenon, the importance and Systems effectiveness of regional and local innovation D2012: ILDIC-Integrating Learning Design In systems (Innovation and Technology Transfer, Computers 1994) is recognised through the science parks. D2013: MALIBU-Multimedia and Distance The Program University will research on this Learning in Banking and Business Environments project. D2014: DEDICATED-Development of a new The mission of the Program University is to Dimension in European Computer-Aided train managers to sustain the economic growth Teaching Education and social development of the Delta area where D2015: JITOL-Just in Time Open Learning Hong Kong has a huge stake in its development D2016: EAST-Educational Access and Support and prosperity, to provide the highest possible Tools standard of business education in a cost-effective D2017: ARTICULATE-The Assessment and manner, and to provide entrepreneurs and Evaluation of Learning Technologies leaders for the benefit of the Delta area and its D2020: ACT-Advanced Communications for business. Training The Program University will seek linkages D2023: CTA-Common Training Architecture with the Association of MBAs, the ISGs D2105: Pedagogy and Learning Research for International MBA (French Government Flexible and Distance Learning Accredited) and the American MBA (AACSB accredited) to assure its quality in research and teaching. 12. Strategic Objectives of DELTA: Education and The Electronic University And "Delta" training are regarded as key pre-conditions for a The Program University (at least a part of it) competitive and prosperous Europe, both in the will be an "electronic university" drawing on the context of the Framework Program and the objectives experiences of higher education institutions in for a social Europe. The European Parliament Europe and also the on-line courses offered by conference A strong Europe--a competitive industry 11 the University of Paisley • The Program explicitly singled out education and training as an area to which the electronics industry must react to the external competition threat in a strategic, collaborative 10. Community Research and Development and unified manner. The possibilities offered by a new Information Service, Communautes Europeennes, L- technology to the solution of the "training problem" 2985 Luxembourg have been well documented and recognised. 11. Recently available in Hong Kong through On Line 13. Note that it is purely coincidental that "Delta" has Education, Fax 852- 827- 1718. been used in two separate contexts in this paper. Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 115 Funding The Program University does have problems, some caused by the rising The Hong Kong Shue Yan College was aspiration of young and a growing consumer established 22 years ago and was not subsidised society, and some by its double-digit growth. The by the Hong Kong Government in any form, rising aspiration of youth can be witnessed by other than the land on which the College was the enthusiasm of young people who join built, and rate concessions. training, vocational and university places. The Open Learning Institute of Hong Kong "Today, 16 years after Deng's ascent, it is clear was established in 1989 as a result of a that even Mr Deng himself saw how far his recommendation made by the Planning program of economic reform would eventually Committee for the Open Learning Institute of lead. Half of China's industrial output, and Hong Kong. It offered degree courses using perhaps 75% of its total output, its now distance learning approaches, by adopting an accounted for by private or "collective" firms; open access policy to working adults without something drastic will have to be done with the requiring any formal academic qualification for half of industry that remains in state hands" enrolment, but it is now recognised that "the (Economist, 1994). Streamlining both requires a original intent to make the Opening Learning large quantity of management talent It is hoped Institute a self-financing institution ... has been that the Program can meet these needs. proven to be impractical and infeasible" (Tang, 1994). References The Program University will draw on the experience of the Hong Kong Shue College in its Aldcroft, S. (1994). A base for investing in China. financing through course fees and public and Offshore Investment. private donations. It will also expect industry in American National Council. (1992). Education standard the Delta area to provide student funding in ' and testing. some appropriate form. The United Kingdom Chiang Chi Man. (1993). Vocational training schools looks to its industry to finance higher education flourish in Guangzhou. Outlook, pp. 14-19. by allowing higher education institutions to fund Chow Tai Ping. (1993). China's degree education goes themselves by selling their product of to market. Outlook, pp.ll, 19. knowledge (Hannemann, date unknown). As Dellsperger, P. (1994). Editor of Credit Suisse Bulletin. well as training opportunities offered by the Duckworth, M. (1992). Hong Kong's ties to Delta Program, industry is also expected to "introduce region grow. Asian Wall Street Journal. more flexible pay arrangements, working hours Dumaine, B. (1994). America's smart young entrepreneurs. Fortune. and forms of employment in the Delta area to make the area more attractive. Greater mobility Hannemann, D. (n.d.). The college company. must be encouraged and incentives have to be Innovation & Technology Transfer. (1994). June, p. 16. created to allow entrepreneurial skill to flourish" Lingle, C. (1994). Is China ready for GATT? Asian Wall Street Journal, 12 May 1994. (Dellsperger, 1994). "The industry will also Lee King Wah. (1993}. Non-academic training in benefit because the Program offers the employers Beijing warmly welcome. Outlook, July, p. 12. a uniquely effective way to develop managers' London Business School. (1994). Slogan in marketing capability without losing the contribution they its MBA program. A world MBA Program are currently making" (London Business School, requires sacrifices. Fortunately, your job needn't 1994). be one of them. Economist, 14 May 1994. The principles of the Open Learning Institute Mqrgan, J. P. (1994). An international bond dealer. of Hong Kong are particularly applicable to this Marketing slogan. Economist, 16 July 1994. Delta MBA Program. For example, the Program O'Reilly, B. (1994). Re-engineering the MBA. Fortune, will consider accep,ting examination in an open 24 January 1994. book environment 4. Tang Shu Hung (1994). Financing open education: The Hong Kong experience. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Baptist College. The Program And China's Demand For Vine, S. (1993). Path to economy is paved with foreign Management Talent funds. In Asian Wall Street Journal, 13 September China, like any country with rapid growth, 1993. Window. (1994). The call of the cities. 10 June 1994.Xiaoping, D. (1979). In Chinese Outlook 14. Reference, brochure of International Distance Magazine,28 September 1992. Learning MBA in Finance by Euromoney Training 1994 administered by the Institute for Financial Management, a joint venture between Manchester • • • Business School, United Kingdom and the University of Wales, Bangor, United Kingdom. University Networks in International Cooperation Jim Shute University of Guelph I Canada You have to change direction if you don't want environment in the late fifties. Perhaps those to end up where you are going (Lao Tze). metropolitan nations like Britain, Spain, Human behaviour is a series of lunges, of Portugal, France, The Netherlands and the which it is sometimes sensed, the direction is U.S.A. that were forced by their colonial or post inevitable (White, 1975). colonial positions in the world to be somewhat outward-looking had an advantage, in that international and comparative scholarship could take root rather easily in their universities. For some of these metropolises, university networks Universities, in my view, are major were a natural outcome of decolonisation. My contributors to the values and behaviours that I own country, Canada, by contrast (and doubtless assume are expressed by most people attending a number of other such countries) was not this conference. Indeed, one can scarcely discuss guided after World War II by metropolitan the themes of internationalism, globalisation, ambitions or anti-Communist sentiments. It was cultural sensitivity, evaluation, training and not even particularly cosmopolitan. Most of change without reference to one of the what has happened in the direction of institutions most relevant to the analysis of these internationalising Canada and its universities phenomena-the university. In this paper I occurred after 1950, and especially since 1970. would like to begin by outlining some elements As Canada matured into a so-called middle of Canadian experience in internationalising power following World War II, its universities higher education, continue by describing four began, albeit in an unplanned fashion, to reflect a networking approaches, offer a warning and new set of emerging global realities. It was 1950 conclude with a few suggestions for pushing that marked the initiation of the Colombo Plan of international university networking further in technical assistance which brought substantial anticipation of the dramatic arrival of the year numbers of Asian students to Canadian 2001. campuses for the first time. The Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship Plan was set up in Internationalising Higher Education: The 1959 and together with the beginnings of Canadian Experience organised official development assistance and rapidly growing Canadian participation in UN Though universities have for some time been agencies, Canadian universities were drawn into a locus of global thinking and scholarship, it international affairs on a much larger scale than must be acknowledged how provincial and previously, welcoming and providing academic insular many of them have really been. programs for hundreds (later thousands) of Scholarship itself has been more global and international students. Walmsley (1970), author supra-national than the universities that housed of a major analysis of international development it, though my own undergraduate years are a activity in Canadian Academe, suggested that testimony to the narrowness of the total learning 116 Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 117 Canadian "academics found themselves emergence of exchange and study abroad involved internationally more or less in spite of opportunities. As of 1994 the Association of themselves" (Walmsley, 1970 p 3). This accidental Universities and Colleges of Canada (AUCC) unplanned and coincidental development databases identify over 1,500 formal linkage characterised the international activity of most agreements between Canadian and overseas Canadian universities in the period up to 1970 universities and over 2,000 development and even beyond. cooperation projects linking Canadian Nevertheless, individual scholars and universities and universities in the South. Of 71 institutions had earlier begun to take a wider Canadian universities responding to a 1991 view. Hamlin (1964), in his review of AUCC survey, 68 percent offered study abroad international studies in Canadian universities, programs (Doiron, 1992). pointed out that in 1947 it was possible for a BA student at the University of British Columbia to Organising for International Cooperation do a degree in international relations (probably Several authors have described the portfolio the first major disciplinary manifestation of of activities characteristic of universities international study in Canadian universities). attempting to "internationalise" (Knight, 1993; This was not a mean achievement, given the fact Harari, 1989; Klasek et al., 1992). My list, at least that in 1942 only six Canadian universities for Canadian universities, includes study abroad, offered political science as a discipline. Even student and faculty (staff) exchange, more noteworthy is the fact that in the 1920s international content in curricula, area and Dalhousie offered a course in international international studies programs, development relations and several universities, as early as the cooperation (formerly "development assist aftermath of World War 1, offered courses in ance"), inter-university linkage agreements, international law (Hamlin, 1964). But academic collaborative research and university exchange and other forms of international partnerships within Canada for international university cooperation were still a long way in collaboration. My list continues with the the future. inclusion of development education (both on the The forces of rapid decolonisation, Canada's campus and with local communities), library and evolving middle-level international roles resource base development, reception of visiting (especially following the Suez Crisis of 1957), the scholars, language study, private sector rapid growth in visa student numbers and the partnerships in development cooperation growth of Official Development Assistance projects, student work placements (cooperative influenced universities most directly in the education) abroad and the presence of visa sixties and seventies. This influence provoked at students. Finally, to support this array of least token recognition that, in teaching activities, a reception protocol and coordinating especially (if not until later in research), and administrative apparatus must also be universities needed to acknowledge the included. sweeping changes in world realities. The Of course, not all universities can or should watershed was the creation of the Colombo Plan duplicate this list; institutional cultures vary and in January 1950 by seven diplomats from so will approaches to internationalisation. Australia, Britain, Canada, Ceylon, India, New Nonetheless, any university in the North-and Zealand and Pakistan. This event marked the many in the South-intent on cultivating beginning of Canadian bilateral international international university networks will need to assistance as a formal and organised expression consider seriously which of these activities they of Canadian foreign policy. will pursue. Whatever the options for any From that decision evolved two main themes particular university, some elements of that have characterised the international international networking are likely to have some dimension of Canadian universities ever since priority. Such networks frequently originate with the visa student presence and development individual academics whose interests prompt the cooperation. More recently, the repertoire of establishment of · university-to-university international activity has grown rapidly, with the agreements (or agreements between current explosive growth of study abroad and departments or faculties). It therefore becomes exchange programs probably being the most important for universities to establish formal significant growth area. I suggest that, at least in mechanisms for scrutinising and approving such Canada, these two major forces-the visa agreements to ensure both their academic and student presence and development logistical integrity and that the interest base in cooperation-have strongly influenced the rapid the university extends beyond the individual 118 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE who may have initiated the agreement. We use thin indeed and is usually generated on a case for this purpose a committee that reports to our by-case basis. One exception is The Ontario Board of Undergraduate Studies. Perhaps an Four-Motors program which links Ontario important first step, however, is to establish a universities with universities in individual states philosophical rationale for participating in or provinces of Italy, France, Germany, Spain international networks, probably through a and, more recently, Wales, as one part of a larger mission statement that spells out the university's cultural agreement. Ontario students studying in objectives and the extent to which the those universities receive some provincial international dimension serves those broader government support. (Canadian students do not university goals. typically receive grants for university study and Several examples of international need to find most of their own funds). Extending networking may be worthy of mention at this this model to exchanges with other jurisdictions point: in the world would hold some appeal, I suspect, for Canadian universities. 1. South-North Networks. A number of exchange and study abroad opportunities have 3. The Commonwealth Network (CUSAC). In emerged from 25 years of development 1992 the Commonwealth Secretariat proposed a cooperation linking universities in developed student mobility scheme designed primarily to and developing countries. Admittedly, these increase the flow of undergraduate students programs tend to benefit, for financial reasons, within the Commonwealth from North to South. the more affluent students from the North and In 1993, 11 universities in Australia, Britain and less so the more economically disadvantaged Canada formally linked with 17 in the tropical students from universities in the South. Other Commonwealth to implement this plan, called problems, in addition to cost, make these the Commonwealth Universities Study Abroad networks difficult to maintain, like uncertain Consortium (CUSAC). In all, 11 countries and communication, the difficulty of ensuring two regions (the Caribbean and the South academic quality and the risk of paternalism. In Pacific) have agreed to promote student Canada, most South-North university exchanges. Shared academic culture, a common networking builds directly on earlier language (Malaysia excepted) and a formal development cooperation. This is true, as well, framework were the advantages to the scheme for some other university partnerships. For cited by Elizabeth Dines (Dines, 1992). example, in 1982, the University of Guelph and Subsequent meetings in Delhi, Swansea and Wageningen Agricultural University in The Swaziland have fleshed out the concept, Netherlands initiated triangular links among the formalised it in a signed multilateral agreement two universities in the North and several and begun to make it operational. In the 1994-95 universities in the South with which both have academic year it is expected that, despite the worked over some years (see van den Bor, Shute standard difficulties of the lack of financial and Moore, 1989; Shute and van den Bor, 1993). support (even from the Commonwealth itself) The tie to development cooperation continues, and communication difficulties among and frequently, with the great advantage of access to between continents, a number of students will be funds associated with Official Development on the move within CUSAC. An unanticipated Assistance. A new mechanism in Canada benefit of the scheme is that Australian, British supports two tiers of North-South university and Canadian partners within CUSAC are now cooperation within the Official Development exchanging students and strengthening Assistance funding envelope. university relationships North-North within the Commonwealth. 2. North-North Networks. Most university networks linking Canada with other countries 4. In-Country Networks. Finally, we in Canada are Eurocentric in that the long-standing are developing in-country networks in support historical and cultural links with Western of various kinds of international activity. Europe, Australia and New Zealand have led to Somewhat analogous to Europe's ERASMUS, we all kinds of university connections with those have links with other Canadian universities to areas of the world. More recently, it has become support student mobility among our provinces, easier to extend those connections to Eastern for example, CUSEC (Canadian University Europe and the former Soviet bloc, usually, in Student Exchange Consortium). Intra-Canadian Canada's case, for the same cultural and consortia have also been established to historical reasons. For these networks, funding is collaborate in development cooperation with f. Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 119 partner universities in the South under Canada's streamline, to collapse and eliminate programs, ODA program. In the past two years we have to slash budgets and to reduce numbers of both also developed partnerships with private sector staff and students. Being "lean and mean" and firms in order to bid on development projects "doing more with less," as in the corporate related to human resource development in the world, are seen as desirable attributes in this South. One such arrangement, the Canadian approach. One usually unspoken assumption Higher Education Group, links five Ontario accompanying this perception is that some universities (Guelph, Western Ontario, disciplines are more important than others Waterloo, Carleton and McMaster) with a private fields like natural science, engineering, health, firm. business and commerce, management and administration, and perhaps some applied social A Warning science. Broad-spectrum, comprehensive university programs are thus threatened. One of Universities, it could be argued, have long (if not always) been committed to and participants the many potentially negative consequences of in global knowledge networks. The generation, this conception of universities, at least in explanation, storage, dissemination and even countries like Canada that support a strong and costly higher education superstructure and that application of knowledge, from ancient times to the present, has been the mission of universities. enrol high proportions of post-secondary students, is that some university administrators The image of the itinerant medieval European scholar has evolved into the academic connected may be tempted to cut back on international to colleagues around the world by fax, e-mail, links as they cut back in general, to reduce resource allocations to their international consulting assignment, external examining, commitments as financial resources are pinched journal subscriptions and conferences, not to even tighter. Unless we guard against it, this mention shared degree training and the "old thinking could mean pulling back from global boys/ girls networks." Intersecting circles, university linkages and networks, at least from groups and disciplines link Academe globally those that do not serve· "competitiveness," and academics move about more easily now "globalisation" and economic advantage. The within the global university system, across university as the locus of teaching and learning cultural and linguistic divides, than their about the "universe" would then take on a shape medieval forebears ever could. The languages of and a mission that many would find both computers, science, mathematics, social science and the humanities communicate more alarming and retrogressive. powerfully than any lingua franca in history. This evolution, though now apparently characteristic To Conclude of our time (at least for those within the world This paper is predicated on the assumption academic community who have access to such that effective university networks of various networks), has occurred both rapidly in pace and kinds are necessary for the increase in globally in scope. As the 21st Century looms, international understanding and cooperation for there may be those who conclude that, on the which most of us wish. Several severe obstacles whole, universities have achieved all the success prevent rapid realisation of these networks, in global networking and cross-cultural linkages among them financial shortages, language and understanding that is required-and further, barriers, disciplinary hierarchies, communication that given worldwide resource constraints, difficulties and wavering institutional universities should now concentrate on commitments. Eurocentrism, too, hinders the maintaining their level of success rather than achievement of balance in global university scrambling to intensify and expand their relationships. The overwhelming majority of international networks. exchange students and degree students from In industrialised countries, the view has industrialised countries study in other surfaced that economic globalisation, regional industrialised countries. Global realities require a trading blocks and related forces require better balance; the CUSAC scheme is an universities, as institutions reflecting national admirable attempt to redress persistent values, to foster competitiveness and imbalances in international university "excellence" and to contribute in directly connections. Eurocentrism, deliberate or measurable outputs to positioning their societies unconscious, violates the principle of balance more advantageously in the global economy. and a more equitable and realistic notion of what This view is buttressed by those economic is genuinely international for universities. pressures that force universities to contract and Neither retrenchment nor continued 120 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE Eurocentrism will advance the cause of Doiron, J. K. (1992). The internationalisation of universities themselves or of the values of Canadian universities. In Proceedings of the Second internationalism. Thus the warning of Lao Tze Canada-Taiwan Higher Education Conference (pp. with which I began is very apt. 127-133). Taipei: National Taiwan University. What antidotes are available and practical? Hamlin, D. L. B. (1964). International studies in Canadian One is clear institutional policy and commitment universities. Ottawa: Canadian Universities to balanced international partnerships, Foundation. Harari, M. (1989). Internationalisation of higher preferably embedded in mission statements. education: Effecting institutional change in the Another is the quality of direction and support curriculum and campus ethos. California: offered by senior university administrators. Still California State University. (Occasional Report another is a university mechanism to promote, Series on the Internationalisation of Higher coordinate and service international networks. Education, Report# 1.) Perhaps most important is the presence of Klasek, C. B. (Ed.) (1992). Bridges to the future. Illinois: motivated students and seasoned academic staff, Association of International Education the front-line participants (and principal Administrators. beneficiaries) of all international university Knight, J. (1993). Internationalisation: Management networks. Without their enthusiasm and energy, strategies and issues. International Education international university cooperation will not Magazine, 9(16), 20-21 flourish. Beyond these institutional measures, Shute, J. C. M. (1993). Internationalising Canadian over which we have some control, lie of course universities: The case of the University of Guelph. the political structures and financial supports Paper presented at the Biennial Conference of the required from our governments (and private Association for Canadian Studies in the United States. sector interests) over which we typically exert Shute, J. C. M., & van den Bor, W. (1993). South-north little influence. A blend of serious government university cooperation: A Netherlands-Canada support and university encouragement would example. Paper presented at the Fifth Annual advance immeasurably the impact of university Conference of the European Association for networks in international cooperation. International Education. van den Bor, W., Shute, J. C. M., & Moore, G. A. B. (Eds.). (1989). South-north partnerships in References strengthening higher agricultural education. Dines, E. (1992). Student mobility networks: The case for a Wageningen: PUDOC. Commonwealth scheme. Paper presented at the Walmsley, N. (1970). Canadian universities and National Conference on International Education, international development. Ottawa: AUCC. Canberra. White, P. (1975). Voss. New York: Avon Books. • • • Simulation of Classroom Teaching for Distance Education Students Mehryar Nooriafshar University of Southern Queensland Australia As suggested by Gwinnett (1986), the benefits of Computer Assisted Learning (CAL) as a learning tool are indisputable. It provides a means of self-regulated study which, unlike ' reading, provides positive feedback and gives direction to students' progress. Simulation of classroom teaching was PROVIDE HINTS, NO developed as a Computer Assisted Learning DIRECTIONS AND1~---t (CAL) tool for one of the quantitative subjects of REFERENCES the Logistics and Operations Management discipline. · This prototype system was tested by providing students with a copy of the software. According to the participating students, particularly external and overseas, this form of simulation of teacher and student interaction is an effective method of learning and revising the PROVIDE HINTS, subject. Hence, it is envisaged that further DIRECTIONS ANDIE---I research will be undertaken to explore this area REFERENCES and produce similar systems for other subjects. An Overview of the System After loading and running the software, students are asked to provide answers to a set of Figure 1. Diagrammatic Representation of problems. If the solution provided by the student Communication is correct, the student receives an encouraging comment from the system. Further questions may also be asked to ascertain that the student has a thorough understanding of the concept. will direct the student towards the correct The feedback from the teacher (system), which is solution in a multi-level style. For example, hints intended to simulate a "pat on the back," will may be given or part of the solution may be motivate the student to participate and answer displayed on the screen. Hence, students are further questions. guided and directed towards finding the correct If, on the other hand, the student does not solution. See Figure 1 for a diagrammatic provide the right solution, the teacher (system) representation of communication. 121 122 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE Example ofa Typical Session fora Calculus If option 1 (Elastic) is selected, the system Application will produce the following further message on The following is an example of a typical the screen: session with the system for Question 3, which is intended to reinforce the topic of elasticity of Incorrect ... Why elastic? Refer to the section titled 'Applications of Calculus demand as an application of calculus: 2-elasticity of demand' in your study book. QUESTION 3 Press Hanizah Abd. Hamid and Sahol Hamid Abu Bakar MARA Institute of Technology Malaysia Malaysia needs to support and expand its of higher learning have been asked to expand research and development (R & D) capabilities to research activities to improve R&D. Corporate support the transfer and development of , and industrial sectors have been encouraged to technology. A comprehensive policy on science support research activities to improve and and technology must be established to create the expand R&D, and to indulge in research necessary conditions under which technology activities themselves. More and more people may be built up efficiently to support industrial have been asked to train as scientists and growth. Using the R & Din institutions of higher technologists. Twinning programs and joint learning together with the cooperation of research activities have been encouraged industries, Malaysia will be able to adopt and between foreign universities. Education can be a improve technology as well as promote the medium to bring foreign industries and development of indigenous technology (Hanizah Malaysian industries together to promote & Sahol Hamid, 1993). technological transfer. Investing in human resources development, The emerging new patterns of high especially at the doctorate level, is very costly. technology industrial production must be Industries and corporations find difficulty in supported by R&D efforts. For R&D there must sending their staff for training courses. It takes a be a sufficient number and quality of scientific long time and costs a great deal. As part of and technological researchers. The number of human resources development to train scientists full-time research scientists and technologists and technologists, between 50 to 100 people are who are available in Malaysia is low. Currently, sent overseas for their doctorate programs every the number of full time scientists and year. For a 3 year program it costs almost technologists number around 7000 (Abd, 1993). RM$300,000 per person. Some even take five In comparison with industrialised countries this years to complete the programs. gives a ratio of 400 per million as compared to From 1994, MARA Institute of Technology 6000 per million. By the year 2000, Malaysia is (ITM) is pioneering a new concept in staff required to increase the rate by 1000 per million training for their lecturers. In collaboration with (Hanizah & Sahol Hamid, 1994). universities in the United Kingdom they encourage their lectur~rs to pursue their doctoral Discussion programs through distant learning. Being a distant learning student, they only spent a few months of their program overseas. During the Malaysia's Strategy. remainder of the time research is carried out in To achieve the above the Malaysian ITM with the help of local supervisors. The government is investing huge amounts of money research is carried out based on Malaysian R&D in education. The encouragement and support requirements. With the advent of super for education are overwhelming. The institutions computers, electronic mail and video 123 124 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE conferencing facilities, the student is constantly especially useful for distant learning students in touch with the overseas University where he who are located in different time zones. or she is registered as a distant learning student. Video conferencing is related to E-mail. Unlike E-mail it is not a store and forward E-mail, Computer Teleconferencing and Video scheme. Instead it shows both or many communications an immediate video and audio Conferencing (Robinson, 1992; Cross & Raizman, 1986) signal from the other communicators. It isn't cheap but the trend is catching on in Malaysia. It E-mail is a communication system using requires a fast network, a powerful PC with electronics that is used to send information from graphics hardware additions, a video camera at one person to another or from one person to each end of the line and the right software. PhD. many people at the same time. Depending on the Viva can be conducted through video type of system used, electronic message can conferencing. The time and expense of travel to comprise data, text, audio or graphic attend the PhD Viva can be far more expensive information. However, unlike regular letters that than the cost of usage for a video conferencing are written on paper and posted, E-mail session, especially if it is for educational messages are entered into a computer terminal purposes. and then transmitted electronically, beaming across skies and oceans, arriving almost instantaneously instead of taking 5 or 6 days to Advantages of a Distant Learning Doctorate reach their destinations. Program E-mail enables communication to take place The advantages of the Distant Learning PhD regardless of the geographical locations/time program initiated by ITM are as follows: zones of the sender/recipient, weather, holidays and postal delays. Students can easily 1. It is in line with Vision 2020 to produce communicate effectively with their universities more scientists and technologists. With the and supervisors. They can even log on to the flexible distant learning program more library and computer facilities of the universities people can be encouraged to pursue concerned. They can also request for research doctorate research locally. papers to be sent to them through the library hence using the universities' facilities as if they 2. It provides opportunities for prospective are there. students with working spouses and large A computer teleconference is a meeting in families to pursue the research locally. which remotely located participants access their 3. It reduces the cost of manpower training. computer terminals and communicate. They do More people can pursue their doctorates this in much the same way as they use electronic for the price of one sent overseas. mail. However, it differs from E-mail such that a large group of people can communicate 4. Such program encourages participation simultaneously. Educational coursework and from industries and corporations. Costs projects that involve many people at many are minimised. Scientists and technolog different locations can be carried easily be means ists can pursue their doctorate research of computer teleconference. Computer while still in full employment. teleconference is actually the meeting of minds. Alternatively, the audio teleconferencing allows 5. Such programs encourage and stimulate meetings or discussions, held by using a research and development in the private telephone system. Computers and sectors. communicating word processors are also used to transmit text and graphics during an audio 6. Research carried out will be Malaysia conference. based and will benefit R&D directly. Like electronic messages, voice can also be transmitted and stored. Voice mail is an easy, 7. More research facilities and laboratories economical way of communicating through can be built through the local research computers. Voice mail is entered through effort. personal computers that have voice telephone capabilities. Voice mail messages reach the 8. With better collaboration with foreign recipients by alerting them periodically until . universities, the transfer of technology can they request the messages. Voice mail is be further enhanced. Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 125 Conclusion knowledge on science and technology will be transferred into Malaysia, and ultimately play a The support given by the Malaysian role in strengthening domestic technological Government for education is very encouraging. capabilities. To enable Malaysia to achieve Vision 2020, that is, industrialisation of Malaysia, it needs to develop and expand its R&D capacities to References support the transfer and development of Abd. Shukor, A. (1993, October). Vision 2020: technology. Post graduate research is encouraged Implications for man power requirements and by the government for all sectors to stimulate training in Malaysia. IDP National Conferences on R&D. However post graduate studies are International Education, Canberra, Australia. currently costing the country a fortune. To Cross, T. B., & Raizman, M. B. (1986). An electronic mail encourage R&D, distant learning doctorate handbook. USA: Scot, Foresmen & Co. programs are appealing to many people from the Hanizah, A. H., & Sahol Hamid, A. B. (1993, various sectors. ITM is pioneering the effort to December). Vision 2020: Continuing postgraduate encourage distant learning PhD programs to its engineering education: ITM's role. National staff and allows people from the industries to Engineering Education Conference, Bangi, enrol in their programs. With the advent of super Malaysia. computers, electronic mail and video Hanizah, A. H., & Sahol Hamid, A. B. (1994). Modular conferencing distant learning education has postgraduate programs in an effort to promote industrial research and development (R&D). become more appealing not only for academics AEESEAP Conference, Papua New Guinea. but for scientists in the corporate and industrial Robinson, P. (1992). Delivering electronic mail. sectors. With the encouraging acceptance of California: M & T Publishing. distant learning, it is hoped that new improved • • • Stopping the Ears While Trying to Steal the Bell: Instructional Design Practices in Distance Education and the Post Modern Debate Jane Widdess Edith Cowan University Australia I was fortunate enough to study externally at where voice mail seemed to be replacing real Murdoch University at the end of the 1980s, and time conversations and e-mail was more and armed with this direct experience of distance more providing intellectual stimulation and education I was happy to take up an focused debate. The virtual campus and appointment nearly four years ago at Edith computer networking were making it easier to Cowan University's Distance Education issue an instructional memo of the "do this, then Division. This paper started out as a response to do this, then do that," variety than to enter into a presentation at last year's Distance Education face to face dialogue, with its potential for the Conference in Adelaide, where, for the first time, unexpected, for badinage and even for the I made contact with other students and seriously joking response, difficult to replicate in colleagues who shared my interests in linguistic written form. philosophy, epistemology, the constructed nature Patrick Palmer (1993) pin-points linguistics of "reality" and the way that language mediates as the starting point in improving performance between ourselves and the world. I had long felt in course teams because what most teams mostly a sense of unease at the structured and packaged did, in fact, was talk. But in this "talk" (which is approach to distance education, the more and more likely to be mediated through commodification of education and the emphasis some of the technologies I have just mentioned) on form over content and superficial rote several different fields of discourse are being learning over the more dialogesic, discursive simultaneously employed, some knowingly, approach prompted by the postmodern debate in some not. Herein lies the problem; ironically education. enough since course teams are all in some way specialists in language and education. By introducing meta-narrative into the discourse of Discussion instructional design I think Palmer has done To educate means, after all, to lead out, and distance education a great favour. However, as is not simply to instruct. I had sensed that the nature of the postmodernist debate he has, by conformity was being valued over creativity and ra1smg these questions prompted further that a too narrow definition of instruction was questions, which I, as a worker in Distance stifling creativity, growth and learning. I was also Education feel able to address. First, the becoming very conscious of the dwindling of question of categories is raised: as Trinh T. Minh face to face communication at my work place ha (1989) has written: 126 Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 127 Despite our desperate, eternal attempt to Metanarrative #3: separate, contain and mend, categories always I /i am a pleasant and accommodating male/female leak. Of all the layers that form the open (never and have no issues about power and control. finite) totality of "1", which is to be filtered out Metanarrative #4: as superfluous, fake, corrupt, and which is to I/i as a gendered subject can work with you, also a be called pure, true, real, genuine, original, gendered subject so let's concentrate on the students Authenticity authentic? as a need to rely on an (mostly female in distance education) and produce the "undisputed origin," is prey to an obsessive best learning materials for them. fear: that of losing a connection. The real, nothing else than a code of representation, does not Immediately it becomes apparent that our (cannot) coincide with the lived or the use of the subjective forces us to opt for gender, performed. A realistic identification with such and this choice has buried in it a whole series of a code has, therefore, no reality whatsoever: it hidden hierarchies which at first appear to be is like "stopping the ear while trying to steal simple binary oppositions. It also raises the bell" {Chinese saying). (p. 95). questions of power and control outside and I perceive a real attempt within some beyond those suggested in M#3, and it is these instructional design practices to make just this issues that need to be considered now. false connection to a code of reality which is claimed as authentic and assumed to be The Gender-Neutral Definition of Sexism as universal. By failing to acknowledge that all Embodied in Instructional Design knowledge is mediated and that language itself Historically most class room teachers have is not and cannot be an exact and accurate been women but most instructors in industry description of reality, instructional designers of and the military have been men. Most of our the behaviourist and positivist school are child care and child rearing has historically been stopping their ears while trying to steal the bell. undertaken by women, leaving men free to become captains of industry or at least cogs, and Instructional Design Discourse and Gender military leaders, or at least cannon fodder. It As Palmer (1993) rightly asserts it is language comes as no surprise to find that as education that has the power either to hold a door open for becomes subject to the demands of late capitalist the transmission of knowledge or to close it. production (high tech, not low tech, market Systems of human thought depend upon it and driven not needs driven, subject to the tendency issues of power and control both reside in of the rate of profit to fall and to economic language and are transmitted through it. It is determinism) that distance education as a easy to miss the distinction between sexism in product (not as a project) is being led by language and sexism projected on to language by principles of educational and economic systems of linguistic analysis (Cameron, 1992). It determinism. Many distance educators would is through the metalinguistic practice of talking agree that the battle between the positivist about language that issues of class, race and behaviourists such as Skinner, and the gender can most easily be lost, subsumed into a structuralists, such as Chomsky, is all over. universalist discourse that is blind to these issues Nerida Ellerton and Ken Clement's (1994) recent of difference and inequality. Feminist linguistics book offers several illuminating narratives-! offers sharp criticism both of our everyday recommend the parable of the bricks (p. 184). To discourses and of linguistic analysis itself. Two quote from the introduction: theoretical questions are raised: What makes sexist language problematic? What can be done As the story unfolds (of contemporary Australian education) the minefields about it? Let me begin by inserting gender into associated with behaviourist approaches, the Palmer's list of meta-narratives that he identifies lack of research support for policies deemed by as being among the many stories those of us on bureaucrats to be non-negotiable and the course teams tell ourselves: crumbling pathways carved out by poor Metanarrative #1: consultative processes are revealed (p xiv). I /i am a mature and responsible adult male/female, I want to look at the new challenge of the able to relate to and co-operate with a range of other professionals (mostly male) in a meaningful and continental theorists such as Barthes, Foucault productive way. and Derrida, still to be taken up in our thinking about Distance Education, and most particularly Metanarrative #2: at the issues of power and control that are laid IIi have professional educational (gendered?) knowledge and expertise, which academics (mostly bare when and where gender neutral language is male) don't have and am able to inform course teams employed. In these models men and women no through this knowledge and expertise. longer exist, only persons appear. This usage is at 128 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE first sight a more accurate usage than the old Ford/ Chevrolet generic masculine pronoun which was held to Salt/pepper include women automatically. It also Vanilla I chocolate acknowledges the liberal western ideal that "we are all individuals" and as such are all equally The results were surprisingly uniform in oppressed by restrictive sex role definitions. their agreement that knife, Ford, pepper and Narrow role definitions are restrictive, but they chocolate were masculine (m) and fork, are not equally oppressive. Sexism is a system in Chevrolet, salt and vanilla were not. Therefore which women and men are not simply defined they must be feminine if). Cameron makes the by their difference: like racism, sexism works to following three observations: the disadvantage of most women and to the advantage of men, there is difference but more to • Since all the words refer to ungendered the point, there is unequal treatment. objects or substances, concepts of "masculine The adoption of gender neutral terminology and feminine" are infinitely detachable from may, at times, mask this social fact. Students rely anything having to do with "real" sexual on their teachers' presentations of factual difference. information and distance educators have a • The classification does not seem to obey any responsibility to ensure learning material is as single, logical principle. Rosenthal speculates accurate as research and the conscientious use of that pepper and chocolate may be classed as language can make it. Students also know that masculine because they are stronger flavours for the most part there are still two genders and than their contrastive pair; that Chevrolet these are now known as men and persons. I sounds "French" because of its open vowel would not disagree that in following the ending and knife has connotations of linguistic prescriptions of instructional design aggression and is therefore more masculine even the most unimaginative writer is now able than fork. But simply by adding more pairs, to "eliminate gross bias without gross more and more different dimensions are inelegance" (Cameron, 1992) simply by reference called in to offer explanations, suggesting to lists of alternatives such as "persons" for that the concepts of m and f operate "men" and "staffing" for "manpower," and for conceptually at a highly abstract level, that alone we should be grateful, but there is a subsuming a number of lower-level more tendency for instructional designers to believe obvious contrasts like strong: weak and that by simply retouching the surface make-up of active: passive. the text, by linguistic reform, so to speak, the • The attribution of gender is relational: it problem of sexism in language is thereby depends on the contrast between the two addressed. By focusing on the word and not on terms and not on the terms themselves. If the its meaning (the more easily if the belief persists question is posed as: Is salt m or f there is no that the word holds an unproblematic mirror up clear answer, the question only makes sense to reality), it becomes possible to imagine that if we are asked to compare salt with pepper. real change has occurred. The limitations of this Further, if one part of the pair is changed, the application of instructional design principles in gender may also change. If people are asked practice have been discussed by many linguistic to evaluate spoon and fork, then many will theorists (Spender, Cameron) so I will not opt for fork as masculine, in relationship to elaborate the point further. Suffice it to say that spoon. If fork is feminine in relation to knife more current views see language as fluid, yet masculine in relation to spoon, clearly polysemic and context dependent and this view there is nothing inherently masculine or may be coupled with the understanding that feminine, even at an abstract or nonliteral language, when isolated and distanced from its level in the words themselves. Saussure social constructions becomes a bloodless, (1974) has long established that signs are computer screen gray, mere words on a screen defined not by their essence but by their devoid of significance of social force or meaning. difference, a point taken up by continental theorists to good effect. In looking at binary Binary Oppositions and Metaphorical Gender oppositions we are in fact looking at hidden Jack Rosenthal (1990) conducted a "thought hierarchies; in every case one side of the experiment" in which people were presented binary is privileged over the other. with the following pairs of words and asked to give them gender (Cameron, 1992): Instructional Design & Materiality of Language Knife/fork Kristeva (1989) identifies two stages in the Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 129 relation between the speaking subject and These two errors, first that language is language, the first being the early stage of myth independent of thought, and second and and legend, when language was used but not opposing, that language expresses reality analysed. Secondly is the current assertion that perfectly, leaving no room for arguments about language can be grasped as an object of meaning, are both equally naive. de Beauvoir knowledge in itself through the study of subsequently learnt that language is both more linguistics, which enables us to understand not and less flexible than these theories imply: its only the laws of languages' own functioning but meaning can be guaranteed neither by reference also all that concerns the social realm; how to the speaking subject's own private experience, language works in social discourse. This latter like the search for authenticity outlined by Minh conception of language as the "key" not only to ha (1989) in my introduction, nor by invoking humankind but also to social history marks some fixed, authoritative reality or essence Kristeva's second epistemological stage: outside the discourse. When words fail us, as Linguistics teaches not only about languages but they so often do, we have only other words to fall also about the vast realm of human actions that back on to clarify our position as speaking make up social practice. subjects, in short the representation of experience Considering man as language and putting through language is partial in every sense of that term language in the place of man constitutes the (Cameron, 1992, p. 190). demystifying gesture par excellence. It If meaning is complex, plural and ultimately introduces science into the complex and open-ended we cannot simply assume that our imprecise zone of human activities where meaning, the meaning we intend to convey, is the ideologies and religions are (usually) established. one that is ultimately received. Communication Linguistics turns out to be the lever of this is by definition not individual but social. The demystification; it posits language as an object of, social norms which regulate and control public science, and teaches us the laws of its behaviour form the context for the linguistic or functioning.(Kristeva, 1989, p. 4). communicative act and it is the normative social According to Kristeva when we say language practices regulating what will be accepted as we say at the same time demarcation, signification good writing for distance education that allow for and communication and in this sense all human the possibility of elite power and control over practices are a kind of language, or encoded language in that discourse. This normative vision meaning system, including the practices of of the signifying operation cannot study the instructional design and distance education. multiplicity of signifying practices without Some models of instructional design have fallen relegating some of them to a pathology to be headlong into the trap of affirming that language suppressed. Edward Sapir (1949), the linguist, is merely the instrument of thought. From this it has noted that it would be inaccurate to confuse follows that by clarifying the language of a language with conceptual thought, as now learning package (take the push for Plain English sometimes happens in models of instructional as an example) the true meaning is somehow design. Language, he claims, is above all an expressed more efficiently and effectively, much "extra-rational" function, falling outside the as one might squeeze the juice from a grape, to subject's reason through its materiality and the use Simone de Beauvoir's (1963) metaphor. In practices of difference and system to which it is fact it might illustrate my point concerning the subject. Some ways of talking or writing can error in some instructional design thinking to acquire prestige while others are disparaged; quote directly from de Beauvoir as she writes some definitions of the world are favoured over about her childhood experiences with language: others, some ideas are met with blank incomprehension or made to look ridiculous, As I had failed in my efforts to think without while others can be made to look "natural" language I assumed that this was an exact equivalent of reality; I was encouraged in this "commonsense" and "true" (Cameron, 1992). misconception by the grown-ups, whom I took While language, then, is a practice realised in to be the sole depositaries of absolute truth: social communication and by means of it, when they defined a thing, they expressed its language constitutes a material reality that while substance in the sense in which one expresses at the same time being part of the material world the juice from a fruit. So that I could conceive (ontology) acts as our link with what is not of no gap into which error might fall between language, that is with the outside be it nature, the word and its object; that is why I submitted society or even the distance education student uncritically to the Word, without examining its that exists without language even if it cannot be meaning, even when circumstances inclined named without it. This (often female) student, me to doubt its truth. (p. 17) isolated, often not communicating in real time, is 130 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE the ideal candidate for experiences of alienation selection of the course, not cool consumers and lack of communication and it is our selecting from the supermarket freezer. A challenging task to surmount these barriers with fundamental principle is at stake here as what the best possible communicative materials for we collect data for at the same time determines study. what data we collect. If we collect in the belief that a different reality is possible we will focus The Materiality of Language on the marginal, changeable aspects of the data, all those facts that do not fit the dominant model. If we refuse to allow ourselves to think of (Gebhardt, cited in Lather, 1988, p. 576). language as an ideal system, closed in upon itself Feminist deconstructivist work in distance (as the formalists would have it) with an education is immediately, then at odds with the existence somehow outside ourselves and our "too good to be true" narratives constructed by societies (the liberal idealist view) and if we also refuse to allow ourselves to think of language as instructional design, a discourse that is inextricably entwined with the debate over the a mere copy (mimesis) of a regulated world that somehow exists without it (the realistic attitude) new technologies and their place in distance education in the future. From Foucault we learn then we are in a position to speak of a that knowledge is best understood as forms of "materiality" of language. Words have not discourse and a system of interpretive analysis simply fallen from the sky, sprinkled down by god, nor have they merely evolved in direct which privileges history and power in the production of the present. Narratives in distance imitation of the object they set out to signify. The education and instructional design can only be relationship of language to the material is both basic and yet still strongly contested in the properly understood through a knowledge of their histories and the manifestations of teachings of the liberal idealists since it raises institutional and governmental power that have questions of power and authority that are often shaped them. Feminist deconstruction is most better avoided in the interests of growth and commonly found in a variety of disciplines, from stability in the status quo. Palmer's (1993) article selects some of the literary theory to cultural studies and from art to totalising fictions that can be currently identified architecture. The feminist and post-colonial project is a familiar one within these fields of in the discourse of instructional design teams. Totalising fictions, that is, complete stories with academic discourse. These projects are less beginnings, middles and ends, with no loose familiar in education and its offshoot ends to the plot, function by ironing out and instructional design, however, which still ignoring or denying awkward discontinuities maintains a rational and ideal structure of and differences. Cracks that become too large to knowledge to be possible, truth to exist as a be ignored or papered over can, if left single unity, universals and founding principles unanswered, become yawning chasms between to rest unchallenged and dominant notions of team members (most instructional designers rationality to be the norm. That this results in a operate in teams of some kind). Far from "going predominantly white, male, ruling-class world away if we ignore it" these differences can grow view being imposed on all comers is seen as a to unmanageable proportions if these differences reflection of reality unmediated by language; are located in our understandings of language "it's simply the way things are." The fact that in and cognition and not aired. global terms it is evidently not the way things are at all is ignored or brushed aside as irrelevant or irrational. Questions of Power Lee offers these reasons for valuing a The educator Alison Lee (1992) notes that deconstructivist approach in education research: pos.tstructuralism offers a theorisation of power whtle at the same time avoiding the trap of a too • Because it takes social complexity seriously neat analysis of it, the notion that "the story is and attempts to work with it rather than too pretty to be true" (Foucault, 1972, p. 209). It reduce and marginalise it; that is, it addresses acknowledges uncertainty and a shifting or practice; disappearing centre as strongly as the older • Because it refuses the opposition between the education paradigms assert their methodological individual and the social and has ways of truths and certainties. The practice of discourse investigating the relation between them; and analysis, and the critical reading practice known • Because it theorises power and allows an ~s "deconstruction" are central to a theoretically explicitly politically informed research mformed approach to distance education. When practice. setting up a course to be offered in the distance mode we are interested participants in the Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 131 Patti Lather (1991) puts it like this: Derrida, J. (1978). Writing and difference. Trans. by A. Bass. Chicago: Chicago University Press I envisage an altogether different approach to doing empirical inquiry which advocates the Ellerton, N., & Clements, K. (1994). The National creation of a more hesitant and partial scholarship Curriculum debacle Meridian Press: WA capable of helping us to tell a better story [italics Eschholz, P., Rosa, A., & Clark, V. (Eds.) (1990). added] in a world marked by the elusiveness Language and awareness. London: St Martin's with which it greets our efforts to know it. Press. (p. 15) Foucault, M. (1972). The archaeology of knowledge. Trans. by A. Sheridan-Smith. London: Tavistock. Such an approach was outlined by Lekkie Harding, S. (1990). Feminism, science and the Hopkins in her paper presented to the enlightenment critiques. In L. Nicholson (Ed.) International Feminisms Conference, held in Feminism/postmodernism. London: Routledge. August 1994. The paper discusses the provision Harraway, D. (1990). A manifesto for cyborgs. In L. of global information technology linkages and Nicholson (Ed.). Feminism/postmodernism. the sale of Australian educational packages to London: Routledge. Asia. Hopkins offers a plan of action that rests on Hopkins, L. (1994). Paper presented to the a communicative, collegial and co-operative International Feminisms Conference hosted by approach that is at odds with present the Australian Women's Research Centre, Deakin bureaucratic structures and notions of University. hierarchies and "top down" instruction. Claire Irigaray, L. (1985). This sex which is not one. Trans. by C. 0. Porter with C. Burke Cornell University Press Matthewson's (1992) research into Barriers to Kristeva, J. (1989). Language: the unknown. NY: Educational Access focuses on gender Colombia University Press discrepancy in educational opportunities and Lather, P. (1988). Feminist perspectives on enrolment patterns in distance education and empowering research methodologies. Women's again lays considerable emphasis on the · Studies International Forum, 11(6), 569-581. constructivist, linguistically informed approach Lather, P. (1991). Getting smart: Feminist research and necessary for successful research. pedagogy within the postmodern. New York and London: Routledge Lee, A. (1992). Poststructuralism and educational Conclusion research. Issues in Educational Research, 2(1). There is still a struggle being waged in Matthewson, C. (1992). Barriers to educational access. Australia as to which direction distance A study of the enrolment and attrition patterns of education is to travel. Factors of distance, Pacific Islands Women. Research in Distance isolation and scarcity of resources have allowed Education, 4 (2). an attitude of pioneer spirit and "going it alone" Minh-ha T. T. (1989). Woman, native, other. University of California Press often in competition with other institutions to Nicholson, L. (Ed.). (1990). Feminism/postmodernism. infuse our practice, sometimes at cost to London: Routledge ourselves. Failure to enter into the current Palmer, P. (1993). Instructional design and course theoretical debates and to inform our teams: A twisted narrative. In T. Nunan (Ed.), instructional design practice not only with the Distance Education Futures, Selected papers from latest technology but also with current the 11th Biennial Forum of ASPESA. theoretical developments in epistemology and Penman, R. (1992). Plain English: wrong solution to an linguistics, in education and learning could cost important problem. Australian journal of us dearly as the new technology can do no more Communication, 19(3), 1-18. than the operators can make it, and the operators Rosenthal, J. (1990). Gender benders. In P. Eschholz, A. are ourselves. Rosa & V. Clark. (Eds.), Language and awareness. London: StMartin's Press. Sapir, E. (1949). In David Mandelbaum (Ed.), Selected References writings of Edward Sapir on language, culture and personality. University of California Press Barthes, R. (1988). Mythologies. London: Paladin de Saussure, F. (1974). ·Course in general linguistics. de Beauvoir, S. (1963). Memoirs of a dutiful daughter. Trans. by W. Baskin. London: Fontana. Trans. J. Kirkup Harmondsworth: Penguin Spender, D. (1980). Man made language. London: de Beauvoir, S. (1974). The second sex. Trans. H.M. Routledge and Kegan Paul. Parshley. London: Vintage Cameron, D. (1992). Feminism & linguistic theory. (2nd ed). London: Macmillan Press • • • Derrida, J. (1976). Of grammatology. Trans. by G. Spivak. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press. World Wide Web Based Distance Learning Joanne Ng and Andrew Marriott Curtin University of Technology Australia The learning mode used in distance education very accessible. The last few years have seen the programs has evolved together with the opening of many other non-traditional sources of advancement in computer and communication information such as anonymous ftp sites and technologies. While advances in technologies Wide Area Information Services (WAIS) sites. have brought about new avenues to pursue Through the use of such programs as Archie, distance education, it has not made it conducive Gopher and Veronica, these sources of to a distance learner. A wide variety of medium information have become available to the is often used to deliver lectures and course notes, researcher's desktop. The World Wide Web is not and information sources exist in a variety of just another program but a mechanism to access formats. all these former (and future) sources of information with one interface (browser) on Therefore, there is a need to integrate the many platforms. various sources of information within a single Mosaic is a WWW browser developed at the channel such that a distance learner sitting in National Centre for Supercomputing front of his computer can now gain access to the Applications to provide a hypertext interface to lecture notes as well as other electronic the global Internet. It is a networked information information available on the network. As the discovery, retrieval and collaboration tool that World Wide Web (WWW) is able to support understands about anonymous ftp sites, gopher more sources of networked information (whilst sites and WAIS databases as well as news sites. maintaining a uniform interface) than any other Hypertext is text which contains highlighted networked information retrieval tool, we felt that links, called hyperlinks or anchors, to other text, it is timely to exploit this new technology with documents or information resources somewhere applications to distance learning where cost has on the Net-Mosaic can retrieve these via a been an impeding factor on the choice of button click. technology used. The hypertext documents viewed with In this paper, we offer a brief account of our Mosaic are written in HTML (HyperText Markup experiences and impressions in attempting to set Language), which is a subset of SGML (Standard up a fully referred electronic journal system and Generalised Markup Language). Among the a distance education WWW page for teaching. many formatting features, HTML allows Mosaic to display inlined images. (In fact, an inlined Discussion images can serve as a hyperlink just like a word or phrase can.). Mosaic also features unlimited multimedia capabilities. File types that Mosaic Research Support Environments cannot handle internally, such as mpeg movies, Typical past sources of information for a sound files, Postscript documents, and JPEG researcher have been journals and books, then images, are automatically sent to external databases, and more recently CD-ROMs. The viewers (or players). network has made the databases and CD-ROMs 132 Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 133 Electronic Journal Project other researchers can test algorithms for validity. New Challenges. Most journals today present This raises the quality of the articles in the text and images. The text is linear in nature journal. (except for a footnote or a citation-primitive In a similar manner, the contact point for an forms of hyperlinks) and the images are usually author is now no longer just an address nor even of poor quality compared to what the author an e-mail address. Most authors will have a wants to show to the reader. The delivery of the WWW entry on their home machine which will journal is very resource intensive and is limited let people get access to more information about in distribution. The articles are often very out of that person-past publications, current projects, date (a tum around time of 18 months is interests, and so on. It is assumed that the list of common) and hence the articles are of historic past publications may also be hyperlink use rather than showing what is happening now! documents which will let an interested reader An electronic journal can show text in a non browse and obtain other information of linear fashion with links to other sources of relevance. information as well as present images at any Because the journal will be available at your desired quality (the author can provide any level workstation, it will be a part of your work. It will of quality limited only by the time and space not be necessary to go to a library or to have it available to himself or herself). But also, the circulated (and be weeks overdue)-it will be author can provide an audio narrative, provide part of your information environment. This will the software that is being detailed, the lead to the journal being seen as an information algorithms that are being explained, and the data source rather than as just late night catch-up that is being used. This can foster research in a reading! It will take its place alongside other collaborative manner rather than contribute to information sources such as Archie, Veronica the "re-invent the wheel" syndrome. The author and, of course, a WWW browser such as Mosaic. can also provide PostScript hardcopy (or the original document in proprietary format) as well Learning via World Wide Web as movies of results if appropriate. Hypertext Learning. A Hypertext learning system has been argued to be both dynamic and Conceptual Framework. Due to the Multi interactive as compared to linear text, as it allows media nature of an electronic journal, articles can the user to explore the knowledge base in ways be: not previously determined by the system. Users • Traditional Papers available in HTML, create their own links between subjects and PostScript or original format, in English and follow pathways of particular interest. Some see also in the original language if appropriate. this new technology as the solution to the • Technical Notes with any code described problem of the educational system whose main being available either through anonymous goals are the acquisition of a pluralistic, non-linear ftp or through a link in the title page. cognitive style, but whose main methods of • Seminar- text, hyper-links, sound, images communication are entirely linear (Beeman, and movies. Anderson, Bader, Larkin, McClard, McQuillan & Shields, 1987). • Images-full colour, high resolution Unfortunately, the integration of multimedia annotated with links. instruction into the standard education • Software made available through hyperlinks curriculum has been slower than expected even or anonymous ftp. though a growing number of studies show • E-mail to Editor will encourage the multimedia instruction to be superior to discussion of issues, particularly those traditional instruction. The reasons often cited arising from articles published in the journal. include high startup and development costs but The feedback to the author can be overnight most importantly, it depends on how the and serious discussion can be introduced knowledge is being structured and presented to into the current issue about the article! the learners. It can be ineffective if learners ramble through the knowledge base in an Since the article author can be contacted via unmotivated way and use the system as an e-mail and the distribution of the journal is "electronic page turner" which requires no world-wide, the article is reviewed or refereed by thought processing. the entire world rather than just by an Editorial Those who are experienced with using a Board! Similarly, if the software is available, hypertext system for learning are well aware of some of its inherent problems, for example 134 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE getting lost or finding it difficult to gain an high quality graphics or animation. The system overview of materials presented. Before we can also provides the facility for learners to give effectively use the web as a learning support feedback to the instructor via electronic mail and tool, we need to address the following issues: a reply can be received within minutes. • How to avoid getting lost in hyperspace? As there is a spectrum of interaction in the • How can we present texts with full "electronic" course notes, learners are more hypermedia capabilities without likely to enjoy the following benefits of overwhelming the readers with too much multimedia learning: information? • enhanced information retention due to impact of high quality graphics, animation • Do the course notes provide enough and sound; interaction to sustain the learner's interest? • ability to tailor their own learning path; • Is the learning framework actually involving the learner with the course notes or is it just • learning is now free from time and space automatic page turning which requires no constraints! deep processing? While research suggests that many short • Is the proposed mode of delivery cost documents are preferred to a smaller number of effective? large documents, our experiences show that too • Is the information presented clear and many smaller articles increase the amount of sufficient? navigation the learner must perform and this can quickly lead to disorientation and distraction. Designing the Course Notes. The mapping of a We also find that electronic course notes tend linear text into a hypertext structure is not an to be better designed than traditional courseware easy task. First, we have to ensure that readers because more attention is given to the can form a mental image of the overall structure structuring and presentation of ideas and of the electronic course notes. This is important concepts in the new medium. The on-line to facilitate traversal and reduces disorientation feedback system from the students means that in the hyperspace. Second, information has to be the course notes can be easily amended and new presented in such a way that novices can pursue concepts can be introduced with ease. the details while the knowledgeable reader can WWW based learning can give learners more easily move on to more advanced topics with control over the amount of information to minimal distraction. explore and to sequence their learning activities In our model, there already exists a large according to individual needs. The associations amount of extremely useful text in linear form, provided by links in the hypertext databases hence it is more cost effective to convert it to help students to structure knowledge and this hypertext than to rewrite the same information should facilitate remembering, understanding in hypertext language. The linear text is first and concept formation. segmented into nodes based on section numbering. Each node deals with a single topic or theme and contains an introductory note to Conclusions convey the main concepts as well as pointers to The benefits derived from computer-based the key concepts. Links are then created-we instruction are well recorded, especially when it have only considered reference links (i.e., links to is presented in a hypertext and multimedia footnote or figures or source codes) and format. Most of the works done in this area had associative links (i.e., links between similar used proprietary systems to create the course related concepts). A parser is used to identify the notes and this poses serious portability problem. logical structure of the hypertext and hand In addition, these studies have also revealed crafting of links is performed at a later stage for that the significant barriers to the widespread more subtle relationships. use and adoption of network multimedia Our Experiences. "Electronic" hypertext technologies are the increased cost associated course notes which contain pointers to other with upgrading networks, buying media piece of information allow text to be presented in equipped workstations, and the uncertainty over a non-linear manner. Through this system, the the benefits of multimedia learning. instructor can choose to provide narration to As the web is accessible from any Internet explain difficult concepts or highlight key issues. site, portability of notes is no longer an issue. In Alternatively, concepts can be illustrated using addition, no additional cost need be incurred to . j Cultural and Educational Networking in a Changing World 135 set up the network or buy new hardware to Pea, R. D. (1993). The collaborative visualization access the service. The only requirement is a project. Communications of the ACM, 36, 60-63. browser to access the web and this is available in Petruk, M. W. (1992). Adjusting to the paradigm shift a number of anonymous ftp sites. These in teaching and learning or what do I do now? arguments also hold true for information offered Computer Assisted Learning: 4th International via an electronic journal. Conference, ICCAL 92 (pp. 34-38). Canada: Springer-Verlag. It is hoped that the ease of access and Schank, R. C. (1993). Learning via multimedia availability of the current resources will see more computers. Communications of the ACM, 36, 54-56. widespread use of this technology in learning Stanton, N., & Stammers, R. B. (1990). Learning styles and teaching. in a non-linear environment. In Hypertext: State of the Art Green. Oxford: Intellect Limited. References World Wide Web Information Andrew, J., & Strain, J. (1985). Computer-assisted distance education: Off-line and on-line american Please consult the World Wide Web Page: experiences. Distance Education, 6, 143-157. http:/ /www.cs.curtin.edu.au/ -ngsej Baker, P. (1990). Authoring electronic books. Computer Education, 66, 2-5. for further information and references, a Barnard, J. (1992). Multimedia and the future of literature review and definitions of terms. distance learning technology. Educational Media International, 29, 139-144. World Wide Web Software Beeman, W. 0., Anderson, K. T., Bader, G., Larkin, J., The following WWW viewers are available McClard, A. P., McQuillan, P., & Shields, M. (1987). Hypertext and pluralism: From linear to you may obtain them via anonymous ftp or use non-linear thinking. ACM Hypertext '87 an archie server to find the closest and most up Conference (pp. 67-68). to date versions. Carr, W. A., & Reisman, S. (1991). Perspectives on multimedia systems in education. IBM Systems UNIX/Xll systems Journal, 30, 280-295. • Xmosaic ftp.ncsa.uiuc.edu Cookson, P. S. (1989). Research on lessons and learning • tkWWW export.lcs.mit.edu- includes in distance education. The American Journal of WYSIWYG HTML editor Distance Education, 3, 22-34. Gale, S. (1990). Human aspects of interactive • Viola info.cern.ch multimedia communication. Interacting with DOS Windows Computers, 2, 175-189. • Cello fatty.law.cornell.edu Knight, E., Cifuentes, C., & Willie, S. (1991). Takeaway courseware. In Proceedings of the Information • WinMosaic ftp.ncsa.uiuc.edu. Technology for Training and Education Conference, 4- Macintosh 8 February 1991 (pp. 72-77). • MacMosaic ftp.ncsa.uiuc.edu. Layman, J., & Hall, W. (1991). Applications of Hyper media in Education. Computers in Education, 16, • MacWWW (info.cem.ch) 113-119. McKnight, C., Dillon, A., & Richardson, J. (1990). A • • comparison of linear and hypertext formats in • information retrieval. In Hypertext: State of the Art Green. Oxford: Intellect Limited. The Challenges of · Globalisation Asian Business Culture and Practice: A Portrait ofDiversity for CrossDisciplinaryTeaching Chris Groom, Fran Siemensma and Peter Demediuk Victoria University of Technology Australia For Australians the imperatives of focusing on companies and the major markets were in Asia have been made clear by key figures in Europe and America. politics and the business sector. In 1993 the Prime Today, niche and broader foreign markets are Minister Mr Keating indicated that the key to , being explored and developed by companies of future prosperity for Australia was in regional all sizes, and the expanding Asian markets are trade and unveiled plans for the gradual seen by many as the logical choice for integration of Australia and other Asia-Pacific opportunities in selling services and value economies into what he called "the world's most added goods. An indication of this phenomena is dynamic zone of production." Mr Keating has that eighty percent of enquiries to Austrade by said "I am utterly convinced that our prosperity, Australian Business relates to Asia. However the our national well-being, our ability to maintain failure of many Australian businesses to and build a good society, depend on our courage "complete adequate planning for export into the in moving boldly to integrate our economy with Asia Pacific Rim and China is evidenced by the the economies of South-East Asia" (Barker, 1993, number of Australian Businesses that have tried, p. 8). but have thus far failed to establish export operations in the region-often endangering their domestic operations in the process" (Bailey, p. 1). Discussion Many organisations, however, have rushed Given our location, natural resources, skill into Asian markets with a minimal base and technology, it makes sense that understanding of Asian business culture and Australia should better position itself to tap into "Australian companies venturing into Asia still a region that continues to display sustained need to face a strong learning curve to succeed in economic growth whilst the rest of the world is business despite the rhetoric of Australia's facing substantial challenges. The importance of expanding role in the region" (Corben, 1993, Asia and exporting are embodied in the oft p.17). voiced notion of "export or perish" (Bailey, 1993, What experience is available in the p. 1). Australian business community of Asian Asia is not a new frontier for many business culture and practice is often bound in organisations. Asian markets account for 60% of generalities, or relates to more traditional goods exports with eight of Australia's top markets such as J~pan and Malaysia. The twelve markets being in Asia, and 30% of our expansion into new Asian markets requires service exports via education, different perspectives on local business culture telecommunications, information technology, and practice as Asia is truly a portrait of banking, engineering services and so on. (Gas tin, diversity, and protocols, procedures and tactics 1993, p. 36). In contrast, less than a generation suitable for Japanese business for example, may ago, exporting was viewed as an activity be inappropriate in Vietnam, Cambodia, reserved for only the biggest Australian Thailand or China. 139 140 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE Even closer to home for many of us involved departments. in education, some pointed remarks have been The focus of the unit was on Asia but it was made about the forays by some of our obviously impossible to deal with all the cultures institutions into selling education to Asia. The that are encompassed in Asia in any meaningful Director-General of the Asia-Australia Institute, way. However, it was considered necessary to Professor Stephen FitzGerald (1993) claims that study a number of countries to allow students to Australian universities have a reputation in Asia appreciate differences and similarities and to as "the carpetbaggers, the gold-diggers and the develop general principles that might be applied mercenaries of education" led by people with in preparing to do business with any cultural "no knowledge of our intellectual interest" in group. In selecting countries for study it was Asian societies (FitzGerald, 1993). necessary to consider the university's resources In the context of these strengthening ties with and strengths as well as countries which were of Asia and the challenges such relationships bring, strategic importance to Australia. It was decided there is an unprecedented opportunity for to study Japan-Australia's major trading people across many disciplines in higher partner, China-Australia's likely future major education to become actively involved in trading partner and Vietnam-an emerging developing socio-cultural teaching and learning market where Australia has been in the forefront programs. Such programs may provide of development. graduates from many disciplines (the arts, food technology, management, accounting, comput Aims ing, education, etc.) with the knowledge and Aims of the course were to develop an skills to facilitate their participation in enterprise understanding of: in the global economy. • the styles of business communication Unit Development practised in Japan, China, Vietnam and The initial development of the unit took Australia; place within the Accountancy and Law • the cultural, political, social and economic Department. The Department has developed a contexts of Japan, China and Vietnam; Master of Business (Accounting) with an international focus. The Masters program aims to • the appropriate behaviour in social and provide accountants and managers with business interactions with the target knowledge and skills to facilitate their countries; and participation in enterprise in the global economy. • appropriate interpersonal skills in speech A key feature of the course is to integrate and etiquette. technical skills, cultural literacy and an understanding of international enterprise and Objectives global business strategies. On completion of the subject, it was hoped The unit operates within the program to that students would be able to: assist students to understand that the technical and legislative frameworks of a country develop • appreciate the importance of cultural norms within a cultural context. An understanding of and styles of behaviour; this context is essential for effective business interactions. • choose the most appropriate communication A multi-disciplinary team developed the style for inter-cultural business interactions; curriculum. This team comprised staff from the • go beyond cultural stereotypes in business Department of Accountancy and Law who were and social interactions with people from interested in culture and had experience in Asia, Asian backgrounds; combined with staff from the Department of • understand how to assist Australian business Asian and Language Studies with broader to interact more effectively in the region; and expertise in language and culture. The development of a management framework • demonstrate an understanding of the required the input of a Department of similarities and differences between Management staff member with an interest in Australia, Japan, China and Vietnam. cross cultural communication. As a result the subject was also offered to that Department's Teaching and Learning Strategies Masters students. The subject was jointly A multi-disciplinary team was assembled coordinated by staff from both business The Challenges of Globalisation 141 that could adequately cover the mix of cross western region and the ethnic backgrounds of cultural communication skills and country the students reflected the general multi-ethnic specific information that the curriculum mix of the region. The student group also encompassed. In order to heighten the impact of reflected differences in maturity, age, world the country studies a saturation approach was experiences and contact through business with used where students were given an intensive full Asia. The students who had dealt with or visited day (Saturday) seminar on each country. The the particular countries were able to participate seminars were held at the university's city positively and ensured lively discussion. campus to enable a lunch in a restaurant of the country being studied to be incorporated into the Student Feedback day's activities. The venue, which is normally The students generally responded very reserved for special functions, created a sense of positively to the unit with 53% giving the unit occasion which was underlined by the charts, the highest possible general rating and everyone .maps and cultural artefacts provided by each rating the unit as at least somewhat rewarding. teaching team. When asked, at the completion of the unit, to The teaching team for each country consisted comment on major issues in doing business cross of at least three people who were experts in culturally, comments included: language, socio, political and economic aspects, and business culture and negotiation. Australian It is important to become aware of the other expatriates who had worked or were doing nation's culture when doing business cross business in the country provided case study culturally. Although you should be natural and exhibit your own culture, you should be style insights. The joint subject coordinators from sympathetic towards the other's culture. the Accounting and Management Departments A major issue in doing business cross provided the continuity by attending each of the culturally is the understanding of values and sessions and contributing in their areas of cultural difference in business relationships. interest and expertise. As country nationals Without an understanding of a country prior to conducted the major part of each seminar their visiting, a lot of harm can be done accidentally teaching styles demonstrated the unique aspects to future relations. each country in an immediate and observable Thirty-one per cent of students considered the way. unit should be an essential part of their In addition to the country seminars two particular post graduate study program and a additional sessions were conducted. The first day further 38% considered the unit as at least highly long session was used to introduce the unit, desirable. emphasise the importance of Asia to Australian The innovative organisational and business, consider generally some of the issues in administrative arrangements were generally well doing business in Asia and to increase awareness supported with 67% preferring the all day of culture and communication cross culturally. Saturday seminars over the traditional one night The fifth and final session provided the per week for a semester. Most students, 68%, opportunity for students to reflect on differences considered the lunches (which were paid for and similarities between the countries studied. individually by students and staff) as a useful They were also asked to apply general principles part of the day's activities. The off-campus in dealing with particular business problems and location was favoured by 86% of students and in communicating across cultures. 93% of students were more than satisfied with The student assessment tasks consisted of the administrative arrangements (which were three country reports and a major management complex given the number of presenters report in which students considered the involved). comparative attributes of the three countries and The main area of discontent expressed by prepared a detailed analysis of issues a company students was the availability of resources, with would need to consider prior to entering the 61% of students considering resource availability chosen market. unsatisfactory. This, mpart, reflects the lack of up to date authoritative materials readily Student Profile available but may is also a reflection of the stage Twenty-seven students elected to take the of development of the institution concerned and unit. Fourteen of the students were completing the willingness of students to use their initiative post graduate management programs and to seek out information from' likely sources, thirteen were from the post graduate accounting which were mentioned by presenters, but require program. The university is in Melbourne's effort to access. 142 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE A second area of concern, mentioned by a The touch-screen displays characters, gives number of students, was the superficiality that correct pronunciation of words and phrases, and was inevitable from trying to deal with a country gives feedback on the context of their use. in only one seminar. It is impossible to deal A third more cost-effective system is the CDI adequately with all issues and perhaps a lesson (CD Interactive) system where a special CD learnt from the unit was the need for the player can be hooked up to a television and used presenters, who as experts felt the need to impart in an interactive manner for language training. so much "essential information," to further (Neil Shaw at Computer Aided Learning Centre prune their content. The best that can be hoped can be contacted on 03-268 1090 regarding all of for is to achieve a level of understanding as these systems). expressed by this student: I now have a basic understanding of the Conclusion business and cultural aspects of these countries. Although the course, because of This paper reports on an innovative unit in time, is unable to give me a full indication of cross cultural communication. The unit was what is required, it has given me an insight of developed to introduce students to issues some areas which I can look into more deeply pertinent for business operating in Asia and to at a later date. prepare students for their further studies. The unit can be judged to be successful in Some students would have liked to see the terms of substantially meeting its objectives. The course include more case studies. The course information conveyed by students in their deliberately focused on principles of cross written reports, combined with the level of cultural communication that were relevant to animated discussion at the final seminar and business. By further refining the content to look supported by individual subjective appraisals, primarily at the experiences of one or two firms all indicate increased awareness in dealing with in dealing with a particular country, the business people from various cultural impression may be given that there is a "correct" backgrounds. The myth of Asian homogeneity way to do business with that country. This is was explored and the similarities between certainly not the case and by developing people were recognised. The following quote principles for cross cultural communication, it is from one student expresses what the course set hoped that students can learn basic attitudes and out to accomplish: sensitivities that can be adapted to a variety of I found myself having a very biased attitude business situations and countries. towards Asian people just because they were All country studies incorporated a small different. But now all I want to do is find out component of language studies, which in the about them and their culture. It goes to show time available could give students no more than that just a little bit of education can change a brief introduction to the characteristics and your whole attitude towards Asian people. complexities of each language. Future They are just like us, but even more friendly participants will be able to avail themselves of and caring. new technology to complete a more comprehensive self-study language component References using the interactive book and touch screen systems now available. Bailey, S. (1993). Getting it right back home. Doing The interactive book comprises an IBM Business in China Conference, World Congress compatible computer without a screen, and Centre, Melbourne. equipped with a barcode wand and Barker. (1993). New Asian focus. The Melbourne Age, 9 sophisticated sound-card, microphone and February 1993. speakers. Japanese materials have been Butterworth, L. (1993). Regional Review, Asian converted into an interactive program where the Business Review. July. computer records the participants voice, then Corben, R. (1993). Australian business faces learning makes a comparison with appropriate curve in Asia. The Australian Business Asia, 25 August 1993. pronunciation. The barcode activates certain FitzGerald, S. (1993). Annual Lecture, StJames Ethics words, procedures and exercises in the hard Centre. Sydney. November. copy, and a random testing program is built in. Gastin, D. (1993). Asia not a new frontier. The The touch-screen programs offer one-to-one Australian Business Asia, October 20. training in Chinese and Japanese that enables students to accelerate learning at their own pace. • • • To See Ourselves As Others See Us Bridget Swearse and Jane Raybould I Open Learning Institute of Hong Kong and Monash University Hong Kong/Australia This paper will address a collaborative project that of the "trained" hospital nurse to that of the between the Hong Kong Polytechnic and the tertiary educated nurse. It has been our privilege School of Health Sciences, Monash University, to share this change in focus with the nurses of Australia. Hong Kong. Initially, we believe it was seen and publicised as "us" taking our course to "them." Rarely a day passes when we are not However as the years have passed it has become confronted by the reality of our shrinking world. apparent that the learning process is reciprocal, There would be few, if any of us who have not as we have learnt and are continually learning read of the Northern Ireland Peace Initiative, the from our colleagues in Hong Kong. Rwandan Conflict, and the latest Bosnian It is a time to pause and reflect, to share with stalemate. We can barely conceive of a others how we have learnt (and are learning) to civilisation which is yet to be exposed to modify and adapt our Bachelor of Health Science television, the aeroplane and other technological (Nursing), to be seen to take into account the "advances." values of another culture. We, in the "west," are constantly reminded that our civilisation is leading the way, breaking Background down technological barriers and "forging ahead." However, as we watch in horror as Nursing at Monash University, Gippsland countless hectares of trees are cleared to make began in 1986. way for cattle which in tum become In August 1978, in a report of the Committee cheeseburgers, we realise that the west has much of Inquiry into Nurse Education and Training to to learn. It is time to pause and reflect, not only the Tertiary Education Commission (The Sax on our past but on our future; to stop being Report), recommendations supported a move of egocentric and to learn from others. .rmrsing education from the hospital sector to the A common assumption is that inherent in the colleges of advanced education. profession are universal commonalities that the The committee concluded that the problems norms and value should transcend geographical which were of greatest concern arose from the boundaries, that is to "nurse" is not unique to fact that service needs often subordinated those any one culture and, indeed, it is not. of education. These needs led to an inconsistency In the given instance of Hong Kong and in levels of training for students and a variation Australia, the Florence Nightingale tradition has in the quality and ·standards of learning (Sax, been the adopted basis for nurse training in both 1978, p. 114). Also of concern was that the countries. We all eagerly embrace the mantle of funding systems which were then in place, the "Nightingale Nurse" and have rigidly, often would be jeopardised by too radical a move from unquestioningly, "trained" our nurses. Societal hospital based training to a college-based changes in Australia have lead to the liberalising education. However, the committee suggested of the societal position of women and, in tum, (Sax, 1978) a change from the arrangements nursing; we have slowly changed our focus from which were then in place: 143 144 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE ... changes should be cautious, evaluated step When, in 1987, the Minister for Education, by step, and taken forward only after John Dawkins, published his discussion paper validation justifies each change. (p. 115) promoting growth in higher education "in a The other suggestions and recommendation manner consistent with our economic, social and covered expansion of college courses and the cultural needs" (Dawkins, 1987), there was a gradual reduction of hospital programs. The general expansion of Australian trade in South rationale for this slow change was so that the two East Asia. Higher education institutions became courses could be both evaluated and compared. aware of an expanding market for both attracting At the time of the Sax Report (1978) the students to Australia and exporting education to salary scales for nurses were such that it was South East Asia. believed that hospital budgets would not be Monash University became interested in adversely effected by replacing students with exporting some of its distance education courses enrolled nurses and registered nurses. offshore. In 1990 the Head of the School of The 1994 situation, however, is greatly Health Sciences completed negotiations with the changed and hospital budgets are unable to Hong Kong Polytechnic through its business cover the cost of qualified nurses, be they arm, the Centre for Professional and Continuing registered or enrolled nurses, and as a Education (PACE) and in November of that year, consequence nurse patient ratios are at, or even 170 students began their studies in the Bachelor below, their minimal levels. of Applied Science (Nursing) by distance Victorian nurses had already a college based education mode. course established at the College of Nursing. It The opportunity for nurses to convert their had been experimental in nature and had hospital-acquired certificates to a degree is followed the recommendations of some senior limited in Hong Kong because only a very few and motivated nurses who wished to see nurses places are available to them. The lack of places in educated at the same level as other members of Hong Kong was seen as an ideal opportunity to the health care team, physiotherapists being the offer to nurses a course of the same standing as members with whom nurses were most that offered to their Australian colleagues. frequently compared and contrasted (Slater, Nurses in Australia are offered the 1977, pp. 7-10). opportunity to study for a degree by distance Despite the opposition of some groups of education while being able to remain at work professionals-and even within the nursing and avoid disrupting family life. According to profession itself-the momentum of the plans for Ngak and Lam (1993), nurses in Hong Kong also instituting college education for nurses was need to remain at work and therefore distance maintained. By 1987, many colleges throughout education has been able to meet their needs: Australia had schools of nursing both within Hong Kong workers are motivated towards schools of science and in their own right (Russell, higher education because of the great value 1990, p. 118). placed on educational qualifications, especially It was with this historical background and overseas ones. The desire to emigrate is also the impetus of the change towards college the likely background motivations of some education for nurses that the School of Health students to study overseas programs ... Sciences was developed within the then The recent recruitment exercises of overseas Gippsland Institute of Advanced Education. The institutions in Hong Kong have also been Gippsland region faces specific disadvantages in attractive because some will offer distance distance and isolation and the nurses who work education or offshore programs which do not in the region are also held hostage by their require the Hong Kong students to leave Hong isolation from access to advanced education. It Kong and hence their jobs or families. was with this fact in mind, that the development of a degree course for nurses by distance Mistakes And Misdemeanours education mode was considered essential. At this point we became hesitant and asked In 1986, the Victorian Post Secondary ourselves: is it better to bare all or to lie (and Education Commission recommended to the allow others to believe it has been all sweetness Federal Government that the Gippsland Institute and light) and lose our integrity? We decided to be a centre for the state-wide provision of nurse bare all! This section is obviously written with education by external studies, particularly for the wisdom of hindsight and it is also written so registered nurses wishing to upgrade their that others may learn from our mistakes. qualifications from either a diploma (gained in College), or a certificate (gained in a hospital Course Structure school of nursing). In the beginning, the course structure was The Challenges of Globalisation 145 based on an assumption that the students in Nursing Health Assessment Hong Kong wished to complete their degree in To provide nurses with a comprehensive the shortest possible time. The course was foundation for assessing clients' needs for arranged to accommodate this, with two units nursing care. Nursing Health Assessment is per term and three terms per year. viewed within the context of the nursing process In July 1992, when it became evident that and acknowledges the need for nurses to be many students were experiencing great difficulty systematic in obtaining client data in order to with the heavy workload, it was decided to bring give competent care based upon the goal of Hong Kong in line with the Australian health promotion. University timetable, that is, two semesters per year (commencing February and July) and two Nursing Research units per semester. To demonstrate that nursing practice is Changes were also made to the number of shaped by research findings rather than by habit. units undertaken by students when at the Emphasis is placed on the belief that direction of the Victorian Post Secondary investigative skills of all nurses is an integral part Education Commission the course was reduced of their professional repertoire. It is from 14 to 8 units. Thus a transition of 11 units acknowledged that theoretical and clinical was then considered sufficient for students to be sensitivity starts with the ability to raise eligible for the degree. Subsequent groups of important and meaningful questions in the students have been offered an 8-unit course course of giving nursing care. comprising of seven nursing and one non nursing unit. The non-nursing unit is a choice of Management of Nursing Care three-Microbiology, Psychology of Health Care, To provide students with an understanding or Sociology of Health Care-and students have of the management process as it applies to the to achieve a pass in all eight units to be eligible delivery of direct nursing care to patients and for the degree. clients in a variety of settings. The student will be Prerequisites were not required and this encouraged to assess, plan and evaluate aspects allowed for flexible sequencing of units. of nursing administration in a small health care unit of agency. Description of Units (1994) Clinical Teaching Legal and Ethical Studies in Nursing To explore, in depth, the educative process as To provide students with an understanding an integral part of nursing professional of the major legal parameters related to nursing development. Students will be encouraged to practice and to provide a framework for gain an understanding of the teaching-learning exploring ethical issues in health care. process in the context of their work situations in relation to clients and junior colleges. Professional Issues I To introduce and encourage students to Content analyse critically and reflect upon selected The content of the course was a source of contemporary issues and trends in nursing. The considerable distress for the students. Because students will be provided with the opportunity the course was "sold" as a package, nothing was to evaluate their own practice in context of the changed. This foolish state of affairs saw changes taking place in nursing. students studying a unit of Politics and Health in the Australian context. The fact that so many of Professional Issues II the students did the unit, and did quite well, was To introduce the student to innovative and a credit to them and not to the unyielding creative perspectives of nursing based on the attitude of the School of Health Sciences. Upon rapidly developing knowledge of nursing the appointment of an Associate Professor in theoretical concepts. It is acknowledged that Health Sciences this 'situation was changed, with pluralism in nursing theories is desirable, and future students having a choice of an elective that an explanation of existing theories is unit from the three disciplines of Science, essential for enhancing the utility of theory and Psychology or Sociology. Even after this situation for continuing the development and progress of was satisfactorily negotiated, the content of the the discipline of nursing. courses continued to reflect Australian and American values. Following a general discussion with those involved in the writing of materials it 146 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE was decided that the units would be written to student's fees) led to students not being given reflect global nursing issues more effectively any feedback on their progress prior to the next rather than Australian issues only. The Unit term. Guides were written with separate editions for Once all these problems had been sorted out, Australian students and the Hong Kong many of the misunderstandings and issues were students. It was hoped that this would better resolved. In Hong Kong new lecturers were address the cultural diversity of not only our appointed, a better system of assignment traffic multicultural society in Australia, but also our control was put in place and the Centre students in Hong Kong. appointed a staff member assigned only to look after the Monash programs. Assessment Assessment Methods 1994 Assessment of the papers of the Hong Kong Assessment of student progress is the same students was first to be done by the Hong Kong as for Australian students. Papers are marked by appointed lecturer and 10% of the marked the lecturers in Hong Kong. All final papers are papers were to be monitored in Australia. After a marked in Australia. Ten percent of all marked short time it was decided that all final papers papers are monitored by lecturers responsible for were to be marked in Australia and only the first the subject, and all failed papers are also two assignments in Hong Kong. It was here that monitored. Assessment of work may be through the problems of administration became most the writing of academic papers or by noticeable. examination. The reasons for the delays and problems Detailed marking criteria are supplied to were many. Because the program was set up so lecturers and markers. Originally when there hurriedly, mechanisms were not in place to was only one lecturer in Hong Kong the handle the assignment "traffic." Delays were "turnaround" time for papers was far too long. caused by the fact that the lecturer in Hong Kong However now that there are more lecturers in had given students extensions of time to Hong Kong the turnaround time aimed for is no complete assignments well beyond the dates set more than four weeks. The Australian markers down for Monash colleagues. His reasons for this are required to adhere to this time so that were poor access to the prescribed texts, caused students have papers returned promptly. by broken promises by publishers to have books All marks are collated in Australia and a in Hong Kong in time for the start of the course meeting of the Board of Examiners is held, where thus compromising the students' work; his own results are confirmed and passed to the Board of excessive workload which arose because he was Studies for ratification. All monitoring is trying to support all the courses and his own reported to the Head of School. misunderstandings of the role he was supposed Papers from students whose performance is to fill; and a lack of understanding by the staff less than satisfactory or borderline are marked responsible for the course in Australia who by another lecturer who has expertise in the area. should have kept closer control of the situation. In this case, students may be offered the The promise of publishers to have texts in opportunity to present a supplementary paper. Hong Kong is, in fact, an ongoing problem. Often the texts arrive in Hong Kong bookshop as the Student Support unit is drawing to a close (the students have prepaid for their purchases so are obliged to Student support was provided in the buy). It is hoped that this will be resolved in 1995 beginning by the Hong Kong Polytechnic with the introduction of direct purchase of texts Department of Health Sciences. There the from the Monash University Bookshop. support of the Principal Lecturer was invaluable Assignments were marked in Australia by a to the point where, because of the late number of markers, all of whom had to have appointment of the "official" lecturer, he took the completed a degree in either Nursing or a related first class himself. field. The first markers were recruited from old When a lecturer was finally appointed he Monash students or people known to have an was expected to take on all of the units, tutoring, interest in education. Many of the final papers counselling and marking of all the papers. were marked by the unit advisers. Here again, Understandably this was an unreasonable the lack of understanding by the servicing workload and not surprisingly trouble loomed schools about their role (despite the large on the horizon when the papers for monitoring allocation of money paid to them from the by Monash staff did not arrive at the expected time. The Challenges of Globalisation 147 Following some harrowing months when could be placed in situ. Clearly, we have learnt little more was done to address the continuing from our mistakes with the Bachelor of Health problems of lack of student support, it was Science (Nursing)). finally decided that the money the course 3. A collaborative research project is currently generated could be used for more staff to help being undertaken with a target population of the students. With this decision taken, Cynthia students in both Hong Kong and Australia-"A Wu was appointed, to be followed soon after by comparative Study of the Study Skills and the appointment of Weety Luk. Consequently the Coping Strategies of RN's Studying by Distance student support improved, the students were in Hong Kong and Australia." It is proposed in better able to cope with a reduced workload and the very near future to instigate further longer semesters and there was a more rapid collaborative research projects which will be of return of papers before the next assignment was interest and benefit to both parties. due. 4. In July 1994 there were approximately 250 Student Support Hong Kong graduates awarded the Bachelor of In 1994 the student support available in Health Science (Nursing). This number is added Hong Kong has improved: to the previous graduation in 1992 of 112. • Administrative support is given to students by the In conclusion~ we would like to thank you for Administrative staff in the Centre for Professional this opportunity to share our experience. We and Continuing Education. especially wish to acknowledge our colleagues in • Academic support is provided by the lecturers in Hong Kong who have shown patience and the Department of Health Sciences whose fortitude whilst we grappled with a "foreign" responsibility is the Monash course. culture. • Australian lecturers visit the Hong Kong Polytechnic at the beginning of each semester. The course co-ordinator counsels students who have References problems with either the course in general or with Accreditation Document, Diploma of Applied Science their studies. (Nursing). (1985). Gippsland Institute. • Workshops, orientation programs and subject Dawkins, J. S. (1987). Higher education: A policy introduction sessions are offered by the Australian discussion paper. Canberra: Australian lecturers. Government Publishing Service. '( • Library support is provided by the Hong Kong Garrison, D. R. (1989). Understanding distance education: Polytechnic where students have had borrowing A framework for the future. London: Routledge. rights since November 1991. Garrison, D. R., & Shale, D. G. (1987). Mapping the • Materials supplied for study are prepared by the boundaries of distance education: Problems in School of Health Sciences, master copies being defining the field. American Journal of Distance sent to Hong Kong where they are printed and Education, 1, 7-13. distributed. Keegan, D. (1986). The foundation of distance education. London: Croom Helm. The Situation in 1994 Krampitz, D. S. (1987). Nursing power: Nursing politics. In C. Maggs (Ed.), Nursing history: The state of the So long as there is ongoing effective liaison/ art. London: Croom Helm. communication, the units and the program will Ngak, L., & Lam. A. (1993). Overseas educational constantly be revised, rewritten and re programs in Hong Kong: Competition or presented; this is essential if we are to address the consortia. Open Learning, 8(2), 12-17. current trends in both Hong Kong and Australia. Russell, R. L. (1990). Nightingale to now. Sydney: W.B. Some of the innovations for 1994 have been: Saunders Bailliere Tundall. Sax, S. (1978). Nurse education and training: Report of the 1. Monash is no long recruiting for the committee of inquiry into nurse education and Bachelor of Nursing (formerly the Bachelor of training to the Tertiary Education Commission. Health Science (Nursing) in February but in July, Canberra: Government Printing Office. thus coming into line with the Hong Kong Slater, P. V. (1977). Diploma in Nursing, College of academic year. Nursing, Australia. The beginning of a new era 2. In July 1994 Monash enrolled 12 students in Nursing Education in Australia. Australian Nurses Journal, 6, December/January. for the Master in Nursing program. This program Stevens, B. (1979). Nursing theory: Analysis, application, is also available by distance education, facilitated evaluation. Boston: Little Brown and Company. and supported by Hong Kong Polytechnic. The initial enrolment was purposefully small so that effective teaching and infrastructure support • • • We Went to Teach, Now They Come to Study Bob Finlay Australian Catholic University Australia During the past five years since the competition to enter teacher education programs proclamation and subsequent implementation in Ontario, Canada has forced prospective of the Unified National System of Higher students to explore programs in other Canadian Education, Australian universities have provinces, the United States and more recently experienced a confluence of forces heralding new Australia (Daly, 1993). Ironically, almost thirty models of universities for the 21st Century. These years ago during a teacher shortage, Canadian forces include significant changes in educational authorities wooed numerous communication technology, quality assurance Australian teachers to teach in Canada. Many and entrepreneurial education of which the latter found the experience to be a turning point for an has increasingly become involved in increased awareness and commitment to international education networking in a international educational networking. changing world. This paper focuses on an Interestingly, a similar opportunity has currently entrepreneurial endeavour of a fledgling appeared for global networking. However, university which is currently endeavouring to whereas we went to teach, now they come to meet the challenges of global educational study. This paper examines the experiences of a networking as it attempts to come to terms with cohort of fee-paying students from Ontario, its own unification. Entrepreneurial education Canada enrolled in a Diploma in Education refers to initiatives undertaken by Higher (Primary) at the Australian Catholic University. Education administrators to engage in market driven educational ventures for financial gain. These ventures create new challenges for Background academics and students alike. Advertisements to study teacher education in Australia were placed in the local Canadian Overseas study programs in Australia for press by education consultants who had students from "developing" countries date back established contact with the New South Wales to the Colombo Plan of the 1950s. More recently division of the ACU. The advertisement attracted however, programs have attracted growing widespread interest amongst the numerous numbers of full fee-paying students from university graduates and others already "developed" countries. In a past educational era employed who, each year, scramble to get into students in small numbers were readily absorbed Ontario teachers' colleges. Seventeen offers were into existing courses in traditional universities. accepted, the majority of whom had graduated Currently, however, a new wave of students has with at least a B grade average (an Australian entered an ever widening higher education net. Credit grade), and many had considerable work In 1993-94, the Australian Catholic experience with children and adolescents. The University (ACU) offered seventeen fee-paying "Canadians," as they were later referred to students from Ontario, Canada the opportunity around campus, arrived almost without notice to to study for a Diploma in Education in either the University community a week prior to the Primary or Secondary Education. Fierce commencement of the second semester in 1993. 148 The Challenges of Globalisation 149 The seventeen students-eleven females and six Findings And Discussion males-had graduated from five universities and had majored in eight different disciplines. The The following responses were prioritised thirteen students who enrolled in the Diploma in according to their relative importance on a Education (Primary) are the focus of this paper. weight and frequency of response index. Student ages ranged from early to mid twenties and most had never met each other before. As The expectations of the Canadian students this was the first cohort of students for ACU were that: from another English speaking country, a • courses would be established; systematic process of analysis and evaluation of • the university would provide adequate student experiences was undertaken. accommodation preferably with Australian students; Method • university administrators would be aware of Canadian professional requirements; The group of students met with the author • a university coordinator acting as a on two occasions to engage in a review of their "resource" person would be appointed; experiences using a nominal group technique (Delbecq, Van de Ven & Gustafson, 1975; • the university and Canadian Educational Lonsdale, 1975). This decision-making strategy Consultants would have a close working involved the exposure of individual and group relationship; perceptions. The procedure involved the • adequate and worthwhile unit choice and generation and recording of student thoughts, description would be provided; feelings and ideas, their discussion for clarity • hands-on practical experience would take and the taking of a vote to establish a priority precedence over theory; rating. The sessions were carried out in the final two weeks of a year-long program in a convivial • there would be the opportunity for extensive and non-threatening manner. The Nominal integration possibilities with Australian Group Technique was chosen as people find the students; procedure interesting because each step in the • all student concessions would be available; process is different. Each group member joins in • a wide range of facilities including provision at all stages and no individual can dominate the for academic, sporting and social life would work of others in the group. As a strategy the be accessible. questions were posed to gain the students' perceptions of their experience: It may be reasonable to assume that the expectations the students held of their 1. What expectations did you have when forthcoming experience in Australia would be planning to undertake your studies? coloured by their own undergraduate experience in Canada. Likewise for the ACU it was difficult 2. What do you consider to have been the to anticipate expectations overseas students benefits of undertaking studies in an Australian might have, especially when the host institution university? was offering a course for the first time. When both parties are separated by an overseas agent, 3. What have been your concerns during your confusion and insecurities may develop. studies? Many of the expectations held by the Canadian students were not fully met. Students 4. What recommendations would you make to had expected to be better received and the University for the continuation of such a accommodated, and more fully integrated with program? Australian students. There was little lead-up 5. What significance and/ or future potential time prior to the acceptance and arrival of the does an overseas study program hold for Canadian students. They arrived during the international networking relations in education and school practicum period when most education training? staff were operating mainly at schools. Attempts were made to integrate overseas In order to gain additional information about students with local stude1Hs but at times this was student experiences related to their program, not always possible beca~se,of the nature of the other questions were posed to the group and program. The author created cooperative their responses were video recorded. learning groups involving local and overseas 150 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE students resulting in significant learning $13,000 to $18,000 (Canadian) for a twelve-month experiences for all concerned. teacher education program in the United States If the ACU were to be considering future or alternatively fly to Australian and pay programs, the administrators would need to be A$10,000 and in a year graduate with a dual aware of the above student expectations. qualification that is valid in Canada or Australia. Universities must, however, consider the Other benefits acknowledged highlighted potential duality of interests they represent in both professional and personal gains as well as becoming education providers. In terms of featuring some broader educational networking equity, universities would not want to be seen to opportunities. Professionally, students gained a be putting the interests of one group of students, teaching qualification while learning about who happen to be overseas fee paying students, different educational systems from first-hand before those of local students paying the Higher experience. They gained valuable practicum Education Contribution. experience in a Catholic system of education Perceived benefits of undertaking studies which was thought would improve their have been: employment prospects in Catholic schools in • graduating with a qualification accepted by Canada. On the personal level, students became the Ontario Ministry of Education; more independent, learned to survive and • learning about different educational systems; became self-sufficient while broadening their multicultural awareness and enjoying the social • individual help received from specific aspects associated with meeting Australian and academic and general staff; fellow Canadians in a new country. Furthermore, • teaching experience gained on practicum in students voiced similar sentiments to the schools; findings of Tucker and Cistone (1991), when • the Primary Mathematics and Language claiming that their international experience had components of studies undertaken; given them a better understanding of themselves and of their relationship to the wider world • developing independence, survival skills community. This global perspective for teachers and becoming self-sufficient; is seen to be an urgent priority for teachers of the • living in a different country for a year; 21st Century. • exposure to a Catholic system of education; The following examples of international educational networking at work since the • establishment of Australian contacts and beginning of the program, illustrate some related friendships; outcomes. Several students were visited by their • the broadening of multicultural awareness; relations, partners and friends during their • small class sizes; and period of stay. One student remained in Australia to take up a local teaching position while another • social aspects associated with meeting plans to return in the new year to teach in Australians and fellow Canadians. Sydney. Upon return to Canada two of the graduating students have become educational Since most students had tried unsuccessfully agents and are currently recruiting future to gain entry to Ontario teacher education students for Australian-overseas programs. faculties there is obviously a need to ensure an Recently one member of the ACU staff has Australian qualification continues to be visited returning students in Toronto and recognised by the Canadian educational another plans to use the contacts made to authorities. The fact that someone as eminent as facilitate an educational exchange program. Michael Pullan (1994), Dean of Toronto's Faculty Within the period of a year the above networks of Education, where 4,600 applicants were have been set up thereby demonstrating in a turned away in 1993, is calling for a full review of small, yet significant, way how international teacher education, should act as a cautionary networks can occur through overseas study note. If Pullan's faculty proposal, requiring programs. people trained outside the province to take additional courses to qualify to teach in Canada, is adopted, ACU's education entrepreneurial Concerns activities would need to be reviewed before Perceived concerns associated with overseas further educational investment in such study related to assessment, integration, programs. At the moment, however, instead of university facilities, certification, "group" paying tuition fees of about $2,300 (Canadian) a treatment, and international communication. year students are prepared to pay between The level of concern varied considerably in The Challenges of Globalisation 151 degree and ranged over the student body but from the issue relating to the students' there was some general dissatisfaction. Clearly ineligibility for student concession cards, all university life in Canada is quite different from other recommendations appear to relate to the that of the ACU in terms of assessment, necessity for improved communication links administration, facilities, curriculum and student involving all parties concerned. welfare. Particular student concerns regarding their integration with Australian students, and Significance of the Program the issuing of certificates on course completion Perceived significance of the overseas study are important matters which still need to be program for international networking relations addressed. The best advocates for the success in education and training included: and continuation of any program are its satisfied • gaining a new perspective for looking at the graduates. Australian systems, however, cannot Canadian education system; always be modified to meet overseas student . needs. Any future programs would need to • creating the opportunity to experience a new consider such issues as matters of prime culture and lifestyle; importance. • facilitating possible employment oppor tunities in Australia; Recommendations • providing mutual benefits for Australian and The recommendations students made to the Canadian students; university were: • encouraging future teacher exchange • more experiential workshops and activities; programs; • ensuring students on departure from • returning to Canada with new strategies and Australia have evidence of a qualification; initiatives; • the establishment of direct communication • establishing possible contacts for both future and negotiation between university and social and educational purposes; overseas students; • marketing opportunities for overseas study • establish effective liaison among students, programs; and lecturers and administration; • possibly hiring one of the program's • provision for direct contact between the graduating Canadian students to promote university and the Ontario Ministry of networking between Canada and Australia. Education; • the creation of a brochure about the The overseas study program gave students university with explicit information related the opportunity to become educational pioneers. to course and unit descriptions; They set out on a voyage of discovery to gain a marketable qualification and in the process • provision of student concession cards; received some additional and unexpected • opportunity for integration with Australian bonuses which transformed the experience students studying at the same level; beyond initial expectations. In doing so, students • the establishment of a system of converting have established international educational marks to Canadian university equivalents networks through their formal studies. Informal printed on transcripts of results; experiences on the other hand, created unique opportunities to become aware of, and • special consideration be given to staffing of participate in, a new culture and lifestyle which units; had profound implications for their teaching • a review of assessment procedures; and careers upon return to Canada. Cross-cultural • conduct student evaluations of the program experience has -:ontributed to the development in each semester. of a global perspective in students. Many students expect to return to Australia but next In summary, all students recommended that time, not as pioneers but advocates for the course be more practical in nature. Also, international educational networking. having invested so heavily in the overseas study More information about the students' program, students wanted tangible evidence of experiences came from responses to the having qualified and graduated before returning following four structured questions which were to Canada to apply for teaching positions. Apart video recorded. 152 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE What were the driving factors in your coming to Know the qualification requirements needed Australia? for acceptance back home in Canada and set the program up around that. Peter who had unsuccessfully applied for Identify the enormous opportunity for big three consecutive years to a variety of Ontario business. education faculties with a B grade average (75%) Kristy indicated that "a number of people was surprised to find that "To study in Australia may be referred by us. " I was accepted on the basis of a phone call." Ellie mentioned that her parents in Canada Trish was accepted to study in Ontario but had been contacted by a student in Kuwait who the idea of study in Australia appealed to her. had heard of the overseas study program from For her the opportunity to study and travel was Ellie's relations living there. In the latter instance, an attractive option. In her words, "I decided international educational networking had links pretty much on the spur of the moment to come on three continents. to Australia." Considerable evidence exists to suggest that Terry and Catherine saw the advertisement, the future role and function of universities in the became involved and were accepted. 21st Century may have to be re-defined in terms Tracey felt, "It was one thing I wanted to do of the market economy. and once the decision was made there was no turning back." For Kristy Australian and American options What significant personal and professional gains had to be compared. She reasoned, "For the same arose from the experience? amount of money I thought I might as well Most students spoke of being able to take experience a different culture and country." complete responsibility for arranging an When asked to cost the experience, students overseas study program as a significant personal had the following to say. gain. Students learned the skills necessary to Cameron was initially frightened to total the survive while being able to empathise with other costs but reported, "It was probably about overseas students. Above all, students identified A$20,000 but I looked at it as a form of self-confidence as a major significant gain during investment for the future, since I could qualify their experience. this way and get on with teaching rather than waiting around for the Canadian university To what extent has the experience been a turning entrance lottery." point for increased awareness of and commit Trish reasoned, "It's better to spend the money now and have a qualification. Anyway, ment to international networking? Australia is a lot more exciting than the States." Students mentioned the following: Colin expressed his reaction to the cost in We have all met at least one person who will this way: "It's affordable now but may not be in remain a contact probably for the rest of our three years." lives. We know we are at least qualified to teach in Australia which is another option for networking. We have shared an experience What expected role and function could with other Canadians who could become universities be expected to adopt to establish resource persons in the future back home, global educational networks? which stems from our association in Australia. The following comments were made by We have not only had the benefit of our own different students in the light of their experience: education in Canada but a bonus of a Diploma in Education from Australia which means new Administrators should do some market ideas and alternative methods will accompany research and be able to empathise with us on our way home. overseas students living in a totally different country. The sheer weight of all the new syllabuses and documentation may weigh us down but will While there appears to be a good program for be potentially useful back in Canada. non-English speaking background overseas students just because we know English, it It is so easy to adapt here. It's home to us now. doesn't mean we know Australia. Studying abroad is better than travelling from There is an overwhelming need to be place to place since you become a part of the organised and have things in place when culture, not just experience things on the students come. surface. The Challenges of Globalisation 153 I felt as though I was an Aussie when harness new communication technology to keep celebrating the announcement that Sydney, my the information and communication links open. adopted city, would host the Olympic Garnes Furthermore, we need to ensure effectiveness in the year 2000. and efficiency through deliberately implemented The above findings speak for themselves methods of quality assurance along the way. regarding the potential for international Finally, we have to consider the various strengths networking. The challenge for the host and weaknesses of our existing programs before institution is to build a solid foundation upon becoming involved in entrepreneurial which the experiences can grow and develop for educational networking. both the staff and students in the program. Universities in the future need to continue to establish networks through graduating students. References I went to teach, now they come to study and Balint, M., Finlay, R., Groundwater-Smith, S., Long, J., together we can build future international & Tinker, R. (1991). The Australian Catholic educational networks. University: A case study of an evolving institution in Although a variety of experience descriptors, the context of changing policies and practices in terms and variables have been identified in this higher education. A symposium conducted at the study there is clear evidence to support Wilson's Annual Conference of the Australian Association (1993, p. 21) findings, namely: of Research in Education, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia. 1. An internationally experienced person Carnegie Forum on Education and the Economy. can gain a global perspective, including (1986). A nation prepared: Teachers for the 21st substantiative knowledge and perceptual century. The report of the Task Force on Teaching understanding; and as a Profession. New York: Carnegie Corporation of New York. 2. International experiences often lead to Daly, R. (1994). Why U.S. option draws student teachers. personal growth and new interpersonal The Toronto Star, 16 April 1994. Education Supplement p. 5. relationships. Delbecq, A. L.., Van de Ven, A. H., & Gustafson, D. H. (1975). Group techniques for program planning: A Reflection guide to nominal group and Delphi processes. Illinois: Scott Foreman and Co. Reflection on the experience of conducting Fullan, M. (1994). In The Toronto Star: Education this analysis and evaluation of an overseas study Supplement. 16 April1994. program for Canadian students arouses mixed Lonsdale, A. J. (1975). The Delphi technique in thoughts and feelings. On the one hand, I feel educational policy formulation. The Educational some sense of responsibility for the concerns Administrator, 3, 9-21. expressed by students throughout this inquiry. Reghenzani, D. (1991). International travel and study On the other hand, I feel privileged to have been programs: A preliminary exploration from a in a position to facilitate and share the many joys traditional vs non-traditional credit and non-credit associated with this program. I have appeased perspective. Paper presented at the Mid-South Educational Research Association. Lexington, my inquisitiveness, exposed student sentiments, Kentucky. highlighted areas of needed reform, established Tucker, J. L., & Cis tone, P. J. (1991). Global perspectives the existence of international educational for teachers: An urgent priority. journal of Teacher networks and remain challenged to seek further Education, 42,3-9 opportunities for overseas study programs in Wilson, A. H. (1993). Conversation partners: Helping teacher education. students gain a global perspective through cross The need for developments when cultural experiences. Theory into Practice, 32, 21- responding to such challenges relate back to that 26. confluence of forces heralding new models of universities for the 21st Century. We need to •••• Sinking or Swimming in the Multicultural Sea Patricia Kelly and Tania Aspland Queensland University of Technology Australia What are the implications of working at a speaking backgrounds, international students, culturally diverse campus in a multicultural women, mature age students or students with society within a framework of increasing disabilities-that "real world" that our particular intemationalisation? Any university claiming to university seeks to serve. serve an international and culturally diverse Rather than attempting to address all of the clientele has to consider the implications of that above issues, we will concentrate today, within question for institutional constructs/ an Australian university context, on three main coordination/ policy, professional development aims. These include raising awareness of for academic and general staff, curriculum and significant areas of change and modelling one pedagogy (methodologies & attitudes) and action step in a process to change attitudes. We resources and materials. In tum, these broad include practising a networking process as an areas subsume issues including: integral part of our workshop because international networking is part of the "new, • Official culture (including signs and symbols global cultural economy a complex, of power/authority), overlapping, disjunctive order" (Appadurai, • Staffing, 1990, p. 296). Most of us are from multicultural communities, all of us are dealing with rapid • Course content, change. We can learn from each other how to • Teaching Methodologies, deal creatively and constructively with these • Support systems, complexities. • Professional development, • Induction Programs, Areas of Change: (Traveller, there is no path, paths are made by walking) • Promotion assessment, and Very little has been done in any coherent way • Support Services. to identify and practise culturally responsive teaching. Action in this area is mostly taken in response to a "problem," once it arises, rather Discussion than as part of an institutional strategy to ensure It is clear that we need to work on managing quality in this area. All lecturers, of whatever change-individual, departmental and institut cultural or educational backgrounds, should ional-on a systematic rather than the current ad have access to cross-cultural awareness training, hoc basis. This old pre "quality" sink or swim rather than waiting for individuals to discover approach to education appears in the the need for themselves. Professor Ian Reid has widespread ignoring of or resistance to the need identified one extremely important aspect of to adapt campuses, courses and teaching effective teaching and learning, that of literacy methodologies to actively include the presence of and its cross cultural implications. He quoted indigenous people, students from non-English estimates from Kalantzis and Trent that between 154 The Challenges of Globalisation 155 18 to 25% of students, varying across states, are curriculum or institutional voice, Chancellors, from non-English speaking backgrounds. One Vice-Chancellors and heads of department play third of these are from Asian countries. Yet these crucial roles in modelling appropriate students are usually perceived from a deficit behaviours in this area and in incorporating perspective. Lecturers recognise the problems diversity into the signs and symbols of powerI they pose an inflexible and unresponsive system, authority. rather than analysing how we can build their Tokenism is not an answer and visibility is skills and knowledge and build on their skills essential. The once a year multicultural day I and knowledge. There is still a view that week during which we are all "allowed" to take international students are coming here to get an up space in our diversity is a minimal response. "Australian" degree and should take what they We live diversity in all its challenges and get. This attitude is not appropriate either in benefits, every day and in every context of our terms of effective pedagogy or in the context of working lives. A culturally responsive full fee paying students who need a globally development program could, for example, be relevant education. made an integral part of the process before Reid (1994) suggests that "when we have approval was given for any faculty to accept accepted the necessity of a cross-cultural overseas postgraduate students. There are also perspective, have understood how reading is important cross-cultural implications in the culturally framed, have learned to analyse the induction of staff and students. In the Australian use of written genres embedded in literacy context, it is very important to introduce all staff events, and have mapped the differences and students to the history of Aboriginal /non between native speaker and non-native speaker Aboriginal relations. There is a further aspect groups of learners ... better curricula, study involved in this area in the case of overseas materials and learning strategies will follow" students, many of whom arrive with (Reid, p. 8). preconceptions based on what returning students have said. It is important to discuss Institutional these issues before they too adopt the prejudiced There are groups and individuals in every and often ignorant views of other students. institution with an interest in, experience in and Language and learning units and Aboriginal knowledge about particular areas. As part of a and Torres Strait Islander units, as well as health coherent action plan, each institution needs to and counselling, are performing a lot of establish what is happening already, what issues counselling work. This work is essential to the have arisen, how staff have responded and what survival, let alone success of their students. This "best practice" is. This pool of informed is so because other lecturers are often unaware of responses would include: the students' difficulties with the system or are too hard pressed to respond personally. Effective • suggestions for change; human relationships and an encouraging atmosphere are crucial for these students' • models of best practice; success. Many similar issues exist for overseas • identifying issues which may arise; students and other students from non-English • avoiding pitfalls; speaking backgrounds. What research exists into who drops out and why? What kinds of • a responsive appeal system in case of, questions are being asked to determine this? problems; and Who asks the questions? How are they framed? • identifying, accessing or producing relevant How is research information integrated into resources. action for change? It would form a knowledge base for setting up a continuing professional development Departmental Change: Modelling an Action strategy, as part of an institution-wide plan for Step in the Change Process cultural diversity and how it intersects with We acknowledge that attitude change is "quality." General staff also need access to any crucial but how do we bring it about? This change process. They are often the first people section gives a history and description of one with whom students -interact. modeL I was asked by the Computer Based The success of any program for change Education (CBE) section at the Queensland depends on active support at the highest level. In University of Technology to organise a 90 minute terms of the official culture, the hidden workshop because the director realised that staff 156 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE needed to know more about cultural diversity in introduction to this section of the workshop, order to work effectively. For me, an essential explaining that I would collect their notes and planning step in this process was to send out and collate them and that they were intended to form analyse the responses to a pre-workshop the basis for guidelines for that group. They questionnaire, which was anonymous and could re-examine them and change them, but voluntary. Because the group were all course they would provide a starting point and a record writers and designers, I began with a two minute of their thinking as well as a useful induction clip from an old Australian film A Nation is Built tool for new course developers and graphic (1938), to give them an example of how cultures designers. Open-ended focusing statements were are constructed and constantly changing. I set out as follows on a page given to each group, moved on to a short group forming exercise in with space for their written comments. As which they shared one interesting or unusual collated these were: aspect about themselves and one concern they had about the issue of cultural diversity and their The Issues work. This set the scene for cooperative work. 1. Important issues include: The first activity was one I had not tried before. This was a "negative brainstorm," in • taking into account the whole range of which they were asked to take ten minutes to student backgrounds and cultures; work out strategies to ensure that the materials • not to offend any culture; and videos they helped to produce would disadvantage the target equity groups • not to disadvantage any group; Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders, women, • not to direct our courses to perceived mature age students, students from low socio "normal" i.e., white, anglo-saxon, economic backgrounds, and students with Protestant (WASP), male, middle class; disabilities. We put their answers on the • to create non-sexist, non-racist materials; whiteboard and what emerged clearly was how similar the disadvantaging strategies were for • to avoid a dominant perspective; each target group and how many of these • being aware of differences; strategies were already being used, albeit • CBE materials addressing cultural/ unwittingly. religious I gender I socio-economic diversity If we had more time we could have reversed atQUT;and their strategies into positive alternatives. However, the point had been made and as part of • staff awareness. a mini-lecture (10 minutes) I made some 2. In the past we have: assertions: • used male, white characters • We own the problem; predominantly; • We need to understand diversity; • not questioned materials from lecturers; • We need to analyse its implications for us • not set equity issues as important in our work; and priorities I criteria; • We need to respond appropriately, • not supported attempts to consider equity personally and on an institutional basis. issues; and then asked some questions: • not seen the "real world" as being • What can I do to respond appropriately in increasingly diverse; my work? • not specified research/ awareness time as • What can the organisation do to respond part of a project; appropriately? • not taken responsibility to educate subject • How do we find out what "best practice" matter experts; means for us? • ignored these areas - on an overt basis, • How do we avoid reinventing the wheel? except for gender issues; • introduced Anglo-Celts as dominant role I then handed out the three focusing open models; ended statements and a question for workshop discussion in small groups. Each group chose a • been ignorant; and spokesperson/ scribe. There was a written • let the client determine the content. The Challenges of Globalisation 157 3. In future, the following strategies may be helpful • create glossaries to meet ESL student (divided into general and specific categories): needs; • provide reading materials - resources; General: • have a visiting expert; • take responsibility for checking issues within the content that relate to cultural • meetings within CBE to discuss issues; diversities; • staff updates from relevant sources; • become aware of various cultural groups • orientation of staff to specific issues in and their needs ; CBE; • increase awareness of various cultural • procedures for ensuring that materials groups and their needs; and conform to quality standards set for • increase awareness of the impact of the genderI cultural equity with regard to above on individuals. structure, interface, guidelines and content; • procedures for reference group evaluations Specific: to be set up; and • Issue: inequitable course content. • formal training of staff in CBE material Strategy: take responsibility, take time to evaluation. question and educate subject matter experts and be firm . Summary • Issue: cultural diversity as integral part of content. On reflection, what is interesting about this Strategy: set equity issues as essential model is its potential to facilitate a "perspective criteria and allow (research) time. transformation," that is, "... a process of questioning basic psychocultural assumptions • Issue: subject matter experts do not and habitual expectations by examining how and recognise need. why they constrain the way we see ourselves Strategy: educate. and others" (Taylor 1994, p. 158). It also fits with • Issue: cultural concerns. Ortrun Zuber-Skerritt's (1994) "action learning" Strategy: Team members to support each model since it "maximises participation, other. collaboration, creativity, innovation and critical • Issue: cultural diversity I awareness. reflection" (Zuber-Skerritt, p. 373). We had a Strategy: staff awareness/ education short workshop time, which is a common consultation. constraint, but it is clear that this process enabled the group to explore a potentially threatening • Issue: religious/socio-economic awareness. area of change in a constructive and positive Strategy: staff awareness/education way. They formulated guidelines for future consultation. action which they themselves had generated and • Issue: . all. which therefore have meaning for them. Strategy: use sample student reference Ultimately, however good a plan may be, group to test/ evaluate materials. individuals have to change and have to support • There was a final focusing question: change. The CBE group is now not only aware of the issues-staff are now motivated to move into a continuous program of change with confidence 4. Where do we go from here? in their ability to manage the change process • After discussion, the groups suggested the themselves. These observations and the following specific recommendations for workshop I devised were appropriate in an ongoing change in their department: Australian context. I would be interested to • continuing education for us; know if the process was useful for or adaptable to any other cultural contexts. • set equity issues as integral part of "quality" project procedures; Conclusion: "Where Might We Go From Here?" • have concrete policy on equity issues in I suggest we begin with the third, most open "Quality" manual; and active of Alice Jardine's (1985)three possible • be vigilant with subject matter experts; responses to a postmodern world from which 158 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE power serving absolutes have disappeared, or at References least are in disarray, that is "a continued attention, historical, ideological, affective to the Appadurai, A. (1990). Disjuncture and difference in place from which we speak" (Jardine, p. 32). We the global cultural economy. Theory, Culture and need to dare to analyse our "place," to see how it Society, 7, 295-310. moulds our choice of content, our Cox, E. W. (1984). Multicultural teacher education: A model for implementation. Texas Tech Journal of methodologies, our own language, what it says Education, 11(1), 55-65. about us and what we say through it-the not so De Souza, N. G. (1994). Teaching must accept some hidden (racist? sexist? classist? etc) curriculum. blame for Asian stereotypes. Campus Review 15- All discourses hold the potential of being 21 September, p. 8. oppressive to others and need to be considered Dervin, B. (1993). Verbing communication: Mandate and confronted in this knowledge. "Every one is for disciplinary invention. Journal of someone else's other" (Gentile in Ellsworth, Communication, Summer, 35-54. 1989, p. 322). For example, we "have to Ellsworth, E. (1989). Why doesn't this feel restructure our perceptual guidelines if we, as empowering? Working through the repressive Australians, wish to understand and interact myths of pedagogy. Harvard Educational Review, with Asia" (De Souza 1994, p. 8). We should 59(3), 297-323. avoid unhelpful generalisations in which "Asia" Hansen, L. S. (1993). Partnership, inclusivity, and seems to have replaced "New Australia" as the connectedness for the 21st century. Futures imaginary, homogeneous nation somewhere Research Quarterly, Fall, 5-19. "over there" from which all "Asians" spring and Hurley, F. (1938). A nation is built. National Film and within which simplistic and erroneous context Sound Archive, Reel Australia collection. they can be "understood." Linda Jaivin used Jaivin, L. (1993). Dire (Taiwan) straits: Telling the Hou Dejian story. 24 Hours. ABC Radio Publicity and humour to discredit the overused term "Asia Promotions, p. 46. literate," suggesting that any time we hear it, Jardine, A. (1985). Gynesis: Configurations of woman and "we should all put our hands to our mouths and modernity. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. snigger impolitely". Her reasoning is that "to call Reid, I. (1994). Literacy requirements need a rethink. for "Asia-literacy" is in a sense an admission of Campus Review, June 23-29, p. 8. Asian illiteracy" (Jaivin, p. 45), in that one reveals Taylor, E. T. (1994). Intercultural competency: A lack of awareness of the complexity and transformative learning process. Adult Education diversity of cultures in the region as well as of Quarterly, 44(3), 154-174. the stresses and tensions within each country, Wiley, G. T. (1989). Reflecting on teaching to promote whether based in religion, class, wealth or academic language use in the culturally and ethnicity or any combination thereof. There is no linguistically diverse classroom.. Language and single "answer" but Brenda Dervin's (1993) Content Enrichment Project (California suggestion of turning our nouns into verbs Academic Partnership Program, CAPP). (Dervin, p. 54) would open up debate by Zuber-Skerritt, 0. (1994). Opinion: The future of providing us with more flexible answerings, ways academic staff development in Australian of addressing these issues suited to each universities. Educational Training and Technology International (ETTI),30(4), 367- 364. institution. Fundamental changes at an attitudinal level Acknowledgment would lead to an informed and flexible approach to culturally responsive teaching and learning I am grateful to my colleague Tania Aspland, which could make Australian tertiary whose comments and suggestions have been institutions educational leaders in the Asia incorporated into the paper/workshop. Pacific region because we offer the most appropriate educational opportunities, not just • • • the nearest or the cheapest. Internationalisation of Australian Education: The Regional Mission Roger Peacock Department of Employment, Education and Training Australia 0 ne of the most durable of Australian Australia's Education Links with the Region national myths has been that the voyage of It is now axiomatic that closer links with Asia Captain Cook, in his ship The Endeavour, led to are crucial to Australia's future. Education is at the discovery of Australia. the very heart of our relationship with the region. At the level of the individual, it is primarily through education links that many Discussion Australians first formed personal ties with our For many generations of Australians, the regional neighbours. myth also implied that, with that British ship and Through a very rapid growth in education others that followed, came the bulk of cultural links, these ties have broadened, diversified and apparatus and social values and systems needed deepened, enriching the quality of our to create a new society here in Australia. relationship with Asia. Generations were able to hold untroubled to For the sake of brevity and at the risk of those beliefs-reinforced as they were by our oversimplification, our educational ties with Asia education systems. From schools to the highest can be characterised by three phases. We are levels of academe, the models and mentors that moving from what some have called a donor were sought were essentially British or American phase, rapidly through a mercantile phase to a or, for the more radical, Western European. more interactive phase, or respectively, "aid, Migrant flows to Australia began to challenge trade and internationalisation." In moving to this cultural model but the framework remained each new phase, we have not abandoned the core essentially trans-atlantic. objectives of the previous one. Rather, we have Dynamic change in our region, changes in aimed at becoming more sophisticated and national vision and the flow to Australia of large sensitive in the means of realising them. numbers of overseas students overwhelmingly Before 1986, most international students in from Asia, have all made an impact on how we Australia were directly supported by Australia's see ourselves and what we now expect from our aid program. 20,000 international students in education and training institutions. 1986 were sponsored by aid programs or In this paper I will briefly track recent otherwise subsidised by the Australian developments in key elements of national government. Only 2,000 international students policies which are aimed at encouraging paid the full cost of their education in Australia. education and training institutions to take a Initially, this aid reflected the economic gap leading role in Australia's engagement with the separating Australia and our main student region. I will then examine how this is being source countries: Malaysia, Singapore and Hong facilitated by networking at the government-to Kong. This aid was primarily provided through government level. schemes such as the Colombo Plan, established 159 160 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE by Commonwealth developed countries to Unfortunately, in trying to respond quickly promote educational assistance to to this demand, some education institutions Commonwealth developing countries. faltered and there were some abuses. Some The early educational links, therefore, students were left without prospects of reflected the pattern of our broader historical and recouping prepaid fees from institutions which strategic relationship with countries in Asia. In had closed. the education relationship, however, Australians Admittedly, Government policy and became engaged, not just with commodities or administrative mechanisms also had some policies or images, but directly with real people. difficulty adjusting quickly to these signals. These students added a new international These problems damaged our education dimension to our campuses, enriching our reputation overseas. Events in the People's research and challenging our basic concepts of Republic of China (PRC) in June 1989 added knowledge. Most returned home having formed further complications, given the many PRC lifelong links, and taking with them something students in Australia and those in the PRC who of our views and approach to life. had paid fees for Australian courses. In the Last year, H.E. Sulaiman Daud, Malaysia's interests of maintaining Australia's reputation Minister of Education, referred to the long for fair dealing, the Australian Government standing and deep educational ties between refunded fees to more than 12,000 international Malaysia and Australia. He said: students, most of them from the PRC. Both government and education providers Over the years many Malaysians went to Australia on scholarships or as private learnt much from this phase. There have been students, with the cumulative total now, renewed efforts through legislation, codes of remarkably, well in excess of 100,000 practice and professional development and Malaysians who have studied in Australia. spread of "best practice" to safeguard the .. reputation of Australian education. He went on to commend the fruits of these ties as In 1993, around 63,000 international students more than a one-way flow of students to chose to study in Australia, creating export Australia. earnings of some $1.4 billion. As an earner of They are ties that endure beyond the foreign exchange, international education is now vicissitudes of the ebb and flow of diplomatic just behind wheat, one of Australia's leading relations and can act as the balm that speeds export earners. recovery. There is now a mature recognition that the He also noted that the recent rapid growth direct economic benefit to Australia and reflected the second stage of educational ties education providers must be matched and the "trade" stage, or heroic phase, when balanced with relevant and high quality universities and other education providers education and support services, together with a commenced actively pursuing full fee-paying commitment to apply some of this economic students. The growing regional demand for benefit to broaden our education interaction with education opportunities, the solid reputation of the region. Australian education and the popularity of Australia as a lifestyle destination for international students led many institutions in Internationalisation Phase Australia to "seize" this market opportunity. In parallel with, and to support, the domestic In moving into this "trade" phase, our education and training reforms aimed at educational aid programs were not diminished. producing a more skilled and competitive Indeed, educational assistance still remains at the workforce, there were renewed and vigorous core of Australia's co-operation with developing efforts to broaden the "internationalisation" of countries and these programs have become more Australian education. This meant changing the carefully targeted to the most disadvantaged content of Australian education and research and areas and individuals. opening up education opportunities for The progress of our education interaction Australians in Asia. was more rapid than most had forecast. Even An important element of these efforts was more so than was the case with our strategic, the emphasis placed on engaging regional economic and political engagement with the governments in a two-way dialogue on region. In terms of educational trade, the growth education and training policies and programs. was spectacular. From 2,000 full fee paying The aim has been to ensure and demonstrate the students in 1986, there are now over 60,000 full relevance of Australian education and training fee paying students in Australia each year. for Australian and regional students and to find The Challenges of Globalisation 161 new ways of sharing education opportunities Even where we do not have formal and resources. government agreements, there is concerted effort The Australian Government is networking to broaden education interaction. An active with governments in the Asia-Pacific region at teacher exchange program exists with Japan. two levels: Australians are serving internships with Japanese institutions that have been successful in 1. A strategic level-characterised by commercialising research and development. bilateral and multilateral government-to Japan has also been a joint advocate of government co-operation; and University Mobility in Asia and the Pacific scheme, initiated by Australia. 2. An operational level-characterised by With Government encouragement, program development and project implemen collaborative arrangements have been developed tation. between Australian and Korean institutions and industry on applied research projects. These Strategic Level bilateral agreements and collaborative Over the last three to four years, new arrangements are only a few of the many which bilateral agreements have been negotiated with a could be listed here. number of regional countries, including the Australia has also been active in multilateral People's Republic of China, Brunei, Indonesia, forums to ensure that education interaction Thailand and Vietnam. These agreements cover a remains at the centre of discussions about full range of education and training interactions. regional integration. For example, in Indonesia, our relationship At the APEC leaders summit in Seattle, has accelerated and deepened as a result of human resource development was identified as Ministerial exchanges which involved the the basis for economic growth and development Indonesian Ministers for Education and Culture of the region. Of all APEC working groups, the and Manpower and Australian Ministers for Human Resources Development Working Group Employment, Education and Training. They have is arguably the most active and farthest reaching. agreed on a policy and framework for education Australia has been an initiator and leader in the and training co-operation. In a recent speech at development of the widespread network of the Australia Today-Indonesia '94 Education institutions and enterprises now joining with Conference, the Indonesian Minister for each other in discussing the policies and Education and Culture, Professor Wardiman practices needed to support human resource Djojonegoro, highlighted the need to maintain development across the region. and further develop networks with Australia to inform the Indonesian policies of linking and Operational Level matching education with industry needs. The second level at which the Australian Minister Latief of the ministry of Manpower Government is networking with the Asia-Pacific has agreed to a program which extends to co region is through innovative programs and operation in the training of the workforce in both projects to develop interaction between countries, as well as to the enhancement of Australia's education system and those in labour market analysis and employment countries of the region. Some examples are: services. Building on the interaction fostered by the • The Targeted Institutional Links Program long university aid program in Indonesia, which provides seed funding to Australian Australia and Indonesia have developed a higher education institutions to support links dialogue on the policy and strategies for reform with key research institutions in the region of higher education. Our universities have thus fostering Australia's internationally received further government support for competitive research and development in collaborative exchange programs in research and areas of national priority. This program is curriculum development. complemented by scholarship awards to We are also developing exchanges at the scholars from Korea and Taiwan; school level and development of Indonesian texts for our primary to secondary curriculum. • The Research and Development Internships Teachers are exchanged in both systems and the in Asia. This will allow Australian research last Federal Budget allowed us to increase the scholars to serve internships with industrial number and broaden the locations of this researchers in Asia on commercialisation of exchange. R&D projects; 162 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE • The National Asian Languages Scholarship • Government-to-government liaison; and Scheme which provides opportunities for • Administer the Government-supported Australians to undertake advanced language international education programs. training in country for 6 to 12 months; • The Australia Awards for Research in Asia The Foundation will bring together the similarly provide opportunities for efforts of institutions, industry and government Australians to undertake advanced research in a coherent fashion. It will provide the in country for 6 to 12 months; mechanisms to link industry promotion and marketing with government-to-government • The Asian Language Teachers In-Country liaison, thereby maximising the benefits to Scholarships which assist teachers of Asian education and training institutions of languages to undertake short-term in government networking. country study in Asian languages and A governing Council for the Foundation was culture; and announced recently by the Minister and will • The University Mobility in Asia and the constitute a Council of the National Board of Pacific (UMAP) program which aims Employment, Education and Training. to improve the quality of higher education in The Council will provide independent policy Australia through increased mobility of advice to the Minister for the promotion and higher education students and staff. marketing of Australia's education and training Australian universities may participate in a services and systems and provide guidance on regional UMAP program, arranging the operations of the Foundation. The Council exchange programs for Australian students membership brings together a wealth of to undertake one or more semesters towards expertise in international education and training their degree in universities overseas. (Some activities. 180 Australians participated in pilot Members appointed to the Council are: programs in Thailand and Japan from 1993). • Mr Peter Laver, Chair NBEET; The Australian International Education • Professor Mal Logan, Vice-Chancellor, Foundatio~ (AIEF) Monash University; On November 30, 1993, the Commonwealth • Professor Ken McKinnon, Vice-Chancellor, Government announced the decision to establish Wollongong University; the Australian International Education • Professor Nell Arnold, Head, School of Foundation. This decision signalled the Marketing, Advertising and Public Government's recognition of the importance of Relations, Queensland University of international education and training to Australia Technology; and, in particular, its contribution to the • Ms Sue Christophers, The Office of Training Government's policies of encouraging and & Further Education, Victoria; fostering links with Asia. In announcing the decision, the Minister • Mr Brian Gray, Executive Chair, emphasised that the arrangements for the Metropolitan Business College; running of the Foundation represent a • Ms Imelda Roche, President, Nutri-Metics government/industry partnership. It provides International Holdings; us with a real opportunity to bring together the • Mr Peter Grant, Acting Deputy Secretary, expertise across the various education sectors DEET; and government in a united effort to develop links with the Asia Pacific region and to • Mr Michael Johnson, Executive General consolidate Australia's position as a regional Manager, AUSTRADE; and leader in education and training. • Mr Eric Mayer has been appointed as Chair The key functions of the Foundation will be: of the Council. • National consultation on policy development It is expected that the offshore operation of and business planning; the Foundation will commence in early 1995. • Market research and intelligence; Funding for the Foundation's marketing activities will be provided by both industry and • Student information and advice; Government. The Commonwealth will • Generic promotion and marketing of contribute two dollars for each dollar Australian education and training; contributed by industry. The Challenges of Globalisation 163 The Foundation will run a network of offices Summary overseas. This network will operate at two levels. The first will be through the Australian In conclusion then: Education Centres which provide student information and advisory services. These centres • Australian governments and education and will be the focus of promotion and marketing of training systems and institutions have Australia's international education services acknow Iedged the challenge of becoming the overseas. extension of Captain Cook's ship The The second level will operate from Endeavour and that the voyage of discovery Australian Diplomatic Missions. The focus of needs to be extended; operations at the Missions will be the functions • they have also acknowledged that the of government-to-government liaison and the extended voyage of discovery not only administration of the Government's includes a reassessment of the nation's international education programs described relationship with its indigenous culture, but earlier. has fundamentally changed the nature of the It is through these functions that the way we pursue that exploration at home and Foundation will directly contribute most to in our region. It is now characterised by networking in the region. Mutual Engagement-not conversion or Education and training counsellors have exploitation; and been posted to Bangkok, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur This is not to say that the whole crew is yet and Beijing to manage the Foundation's activities • committed to this principle or that the ship is in these countries and plans are also proceeding in perfect sailing trim, but it has clearly for placements in Tokyo, New Delhi and Hanoi. moved out from the dock of intellectual Existing counsellors are already providing a complacency. What we are learning from focal point for facilitating greater co-operation in these new regional explorations is that, education and training. through the true internationalisation of our Each Counsellor will be responsible for education and training, Australia has much developing and maintaining contacts with in to benefit from and contribute to the social country government departments, and and economic dynamism of this region. education and training institutions. They will also be responsible for the development of agreements which will foster bilateral • • • relationships and for facilitating institution-to institution linkages. Changing Perspectives in the Twinning Concept: A Look at Future Needs and Directions Jayakaran Mukundan lnderbir Nanra University Pertanian Malaysia Pengurusan Projek JS & T Malaysia Malaysia Malaysians spend RM 1 billion studying proof." In 1989, when the construction industry overseas each year (Malaysian Business, was badly hit by the recession the education May 1993). wing contributed 84% of the gross earnings for This according to the Government is an the entire group. alarming amount of cash drain. As a result, the The Sunway Group with 3,000 students government is seeking ways for Malaysians to makes between RM 15-18 million per year from spend less on overseas education. One of these, the education wing. the "twinning concept", appears to be cost saving. Why the Need for Serious Effort in Twinning for the Needs of the Engineering Field? The Twinning Concept in Malaysia There are at the moment 8 fully-fledged The thirst for higher education led to the government-assisted Universities in this country. dramatic increase in the number of colleges They are the University of Malaya, National based on the twinning concept, especially since University of Malaysia, University of people began to realise the money potential in it. Agriculture, University of Science, University of Several corporations, more of which have an Technology of Malaysia, International Islamic education background of the necessary expertise, University, Northern University and Sarawak. started moving the field. Some of the prominent The only university which has an almost total ones are Sungei Way (Sunway College), MBf focus an engineering and technology is the (Taylor's College and Garden School), University of Technology of Malaysia (UTM). Paramount Bhd (Kolej Damansara Utama), The other universities which have established Melewar Corporation (Mahkota College), engineering facilities are the University of Selangor Properties Bhd (HELP) and JSEDC Malaya, the National University of Malaysia, (IMC). The prospects are promising as seen in the University of Science and University of case of MBf Education Bhd, the education arm of Agriculture. The international Islamic University the MBf group which is expected be listed on the recently established its own engineering faculty. second board of the KLSE at year end. There are also a number of private colleges With program quality and prudent offering technical and engineering courses with management, a private education institution the major ones being Sunway College, Sepang involved in the twinning concept, with a Institute of Technology, Federal Institute of minimum of 300 students paying an average of Technology, Technical Training Institute, Sedaya RM 7,000 a year, would bring in RM 2.1 million College, Inti College and Kolej Tunku Abdul in gross earnings annually. (Figures quoted by Rahman. Dato MS Tan, Chief Executive of Metropolitan The second Outline Perspective Plan, 1991- College in Malaysian Business May 1993). 2000, in its forecast of Engineering Manpower Professor Terri Hew, Group Director and Requirements predicts a serious shortage of Chief Executive of Kolej Damansara Utama, Engineers and Engineering Assistants by the quotes "that investment in education is recession year 2000. 164 The Challenges of Globalisation 165 It is estimated that there would be a demand Electrical/Electronics (22,400), Mechanical of about 30,000 engineers during the period (14,400) and Chemical (4,830) (Malaysia Second 1990-2000. But under current circumstances the Outline Perspective Plan, 1991-2000). output of engineers by the year 2000 would only The potential pool of scientists and engineers be 21,000. The country would have a shortage of in Malaysia is far below that of countries which about 9,100 engineers (See Table 1). are already industrialised (See Table 2). The shortage of engineering assistants would Japan has a pool of 8,672,000 scientists and be even more serious. By Year 2000, Malaysia engineers and an equally strong pool of 4,955,000 would have a shortage of 38,830 engineering potential technicians. Malaysia has only about assistants. The shortage of engineers would be 26,000 potential scientists and engineers. acute in Civil (4,700), Electrical/Electronics Malaysia also lags far behind in technician (4,200) and Mechanical (1,600). The shortage of strength as there are only 72,400 potential engineering assistants would be in Civil (11,000), technicians in the market. Table 1 Estimates of Shortages in Engineering Occupations Projected Demand Output Shortage of Occupation Shortage 1990 2000 Public of Local Engineers Institutions Engineers 26500 56 600 30100 21000 Yes Civil/Electrical 11100 19500 8400 3700 Yes Electronics 6200 14600 8400 4200 Yes Mechanical 5200 10800 5600 4 000 Yes Chemical 800 2000 1200 900 Yes Others 3200 9 700 6500 8200 Yes Engineering Assistants 72400 195 300 122 900 84070 Yes Civil 27100 58500 31400 20400 Yes Electrical/Electronics 32 300 75 900 43 600 21200 Yes Mechanical 6400 32400 26000 11600 Yes Chemical 600 6000 5400 570 Yes Others 6000 22500 16500 30300 Yes Source: Malaysia Second Outline Perspective Plan, I 99 I - 2000 Table2 Potential Scientists and Engineers in Malaysia, Japan and Korea, 1990 Figures Potential Scientists Potential and Engineers Technicians Total Malaysia 26000 72400 9,8400 Japan 8 672 000 4 955 000 13 627 000 Korea 94171 1 931468 2 025 639 Source: Statistical Year Book (UNESCO) I 99 I; Malaysia Second Outline Perspective Plan, I 991 - 2000 166 INTERNATIONAL NETWORKING: EDUCATION, TRAINING AND CHANGE Emerging Problems bring about the quickest returns. Many colleges The twinning concept is very popular in offer courses in the pure sciences, economics and Malaysia at the moment with a large number of law fields as the over-heads are not high. None of American, British, Australian and New Zealand the twinning colleges offer a good engineering universities involved in education projects with package as engineering packages include costly local investors. Several problems have been laboratories and are really long term investments identified in these ventures: which do not bring about quick returns. 1. The foreign partners have an "academic" Future Needs and Directions bias. This can pose problems, especially those linked to credibility of packages offered and 1. There must be a drastic change in the standards. In some cases, packages offered are twinning concept colleges in the country if such "watered down" so as to minimise costs. arrangements are to be beneficial to both the local "Distance education packages" have been offered and foreign partners. One possibility would be to students undertaking full-time study. for the government itself to be involved in the evaluation of courses. The government can also 2. Local academics are entrenched in participate in private education by contributing government universities in Malaysia. At the funds to institutions which offer costly packages moment, since the twinning concept is still in its like engineering. This would be very positive as infancy, academics in local universities are the interests of the nation are addressed. reluctant to work in private twinning colleges for fear of instability. When twinning concept 2. Foreign universities should play a greater colleges are set up, they rely very much on role in twinning colleges. Initiatives must be inexperienced staff. taken by foreign partners to start Research and Development. If foreign twinning partners show 3. The attitude of some students who enrol in an interest in Research and Development, the twinning colleges has worsened the situation, government would, in tum, provide generous especially with regard to standards. Students support as this would be in the interest of the who are finally given a chance to acquire a nation. "foreign" degree with minimal costs are not particularly concerned with obtaining a good education. They seem to be more concerned with References efforts to obtain a fast foreign degree in the cheapest possible way. This attitude plays into the Malaysia Second Outline Perspective Plan, 1991-2000. Statistical Year Book (1991). UNESCO. hands of unscrupulous businessmen who have an education package to sell. • 4. Since private education is all about • • business, most investors favour courses which