Journal of Agricultural Education Volume 48, Number 2, pp. 13 – 22 DOI: 10.5032/jae.2007.02013 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AT THE TUSKEGEE NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL

D. Barry Croom, Associate Professor North Carolina State University

Abstract

This study identified events during the life of Booker Taliaferro Washington and during the early years of the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial School that may have contributed to the development of agricultural and industrial education for . Washington’s experiences as a former slave and his observations of life for African Americans in the South in the late 1800’s may have shaped his philosophy of agricultural and industrial education. Washington believed that agricultural and industrial education contributed to the mental development of students, helped students secure the skills necessary to earn a living, and taught students the dignity of work. African American students wanted an education, but they often could not afford to attend school because they lacked the funds to pay tuition. The labor system and agricultural and industrial education provided the means by which they could labor for their education. It is concluded that Washington saw that the need for farmers, skilled artisans, and machinists was equally important to the academic preparation of lawyers, physicians, and professors. Agricultural and industrial education met this need. Under Washington’s leadership, Tuskegee Institute offered 37 industrial occupations on the campus and school farms.

Introduction slavery and into citizenship, a task that proved extraordinarily difficult given the On July 4, 1881, a normal school for state of African American schools and African Americans opened its doors for the schooling during the late 1800’s. first time in the village of Tuskegee, Washington’s students possessed the barest Alabama. Its principal, Booker Taliaferro of social and literary skills. They had to Washington, was an African American and a learn how to dress, eat nutritious foods in a former slave. Washington believed in the graceful manner, maintain their personal importance of a practical industrial hygiene, and learn how to interact socially education. Tuskegee Normal and Industrial with each other and with members of other School was established and administered for ethnic backgrounds (Washington, 1995). that purpose. Tuskegee students were unique The problem of educating African in that they were former slaves or the Americans in the years after their children and grandchildren of former slaves. emancipation was not the result of an This influenced how Washington viewed inferior intellect, but rather the result of agricultural and industrial education, and inferior opportunities for education, how he administered the educational industry, and livelihood. Before Washington programs of the Tuskegee School (Harlan, could prepare his students for a professional 1975). In order to be relevant to an entire career, he believed he had to teach them to race of people who had only recently been have an appreciation for professional service afforded the right to a formal education, (Harlan, 1975). agricultural and industrial education had to Washington believed that for education concern itself with more than academic to be of any use, it had to have practical skills. It was essential that students learn the significance. Education must strive to importance of and an appreciation for educate the young men and women in their personal improvement and professional present environment, though he did not work habits. Washington committed himself doubt the value of an education that exposed to transitioning a race of people out of students to a wide variety of subjects

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including the arts, foreign languages, and the internal criticism for accuracy and external sciences. Given the lack of time and criticism for authenticity. The most recent resources to provide a holistic educational editions of publications authored by experience, Washington believed it is in the Washington, W.E.B. Dubois, and others best interests of students to offer them an were used in the literature review. This education that provided useful work in their accounts for the modern dates on some present environment, so as to provide the publications in the reference list. Readers best service to mankind (Washington, 1882). should not assume that the findings and This theory served as the foundation upon conclusions of this study are causal elements which the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial for modern theories associated with School was built, and established agricultural and industrial education, nor Washington as an eminent educator at the should the reader generalize the findings turn of the 20th century. beyond the specific historical events described in this paper. Purpose Findings The first objective of this study was to describe historical events during the life of One of the first lines in Washington’s Booker T. Washington that may have (1995) biography, was, "I contributed to the development of was born a slave on a plantation in Franklin agricultural and industrial education for County, Virginia. My life had its beginnings African Americans at the Tuskegee Normal in the midst of the most miserable, desolate, and Industrial School. The second objective and discouraging surroundings" (p. 29). was to describe the historical events Washington was born to a slave mother and associated with the operation of the an unknown father on the James Burroughs Tuskegee Normal and Industrial school plantation in Franklin County, Virginia during selected years of Washington’s around 1859. Like most slave births, his was tenure as principal, specifically 1881 to probably on a bed of rags spread on the dirt 1907. floor of his mother’s slave cabin with her sister serving as midwife (Harlan, 1975). An Method inventory of the estate of James Burroughs in December, 1861 listed several slaves Historical research procedures outlined including one named “Bowker” valued at by Gall, Borg, and Gall (1996) were used in $400 (Scott, 1863). As a slave on the this study. A preliminary bibliographical Burroughs farm, Washington’s early life source was created consisting of primary was similar to most African American slave and secondary sources. Primary sources boys – deplorable living conditions and no included but were not limited to the personal opportunity for formal education. correspondence, published manuscripts, and In early 1863, the Emancipation speeches of Washington, and photographs Proclamation was read to the slaves on the and demographic data from Tuskegee Burroughs farm. In the crowd that day was a University. Secondary sources included but young Booker Washington and his family were not limited to data from refereed (Washington, 1995). In addition to the tears journal articles and historical information of joy in his mother’s eyes, Washington available from established institutions. remembered that these newly freed slaves Secondary sources were compared to were suddenly moved from a life where selected primary sources to ascertain their everything had been controlled by someone accuracy. else to a new life wherein they were required This study conforms to the guidelines of to think and fend for themselves. The great the American Psychological Association responsibility of having to think and act (APA) regarding the terms used to describe freely and provide for themselves and their ethnic groups (APA, 2001). Using the families was a sudden and awesome thing methods prescribed by Gall et al. (1996), (Washington, 1995). “It was very much like sources of information were subjected to turning a youth of ten or twelve years out

Journal of Agricultural Education 14 Volume 48, Number 2, 2007 Croom Agricultural Education at… into the world to provide for himself.” (p. Virginia and attended seminary for a brief 40). After emancipation, Washington’s time in Washington, D.C. As a young family moved to Malden in the Kanawha teacher, Washington aspired to provide his Valley of . grade school pupils with as good an As a young man, Washington worked in education as he could muster. In a letter to a the salt furnaces and coal mines of the Hampton teacher circa 1877, he thanked his Kanawha Valley (Washington, 1995). colleague for the textbooks he had sent to Eventually, he was able to secure his little West Virginia school, and asked for employment as a servant in the home of more teaching materials as could be sent to General Lewis Ruffner, the owner of the him. His first year of teaching had found coal mine. In the Ruffner household, him not only learning algebra for the first Washington learned that improvement in time but also teaching it to his eager students one’s social condition was strongly (Washington, 1878). In My Larger dependent on intelligent energy (Harlan, Education (Washington, 1911), Washington 1975). He learned to be attentive to details recounted how he discovered that his and how to maintain a clean and neat students tended to learn best when provided appearance personally and in his with concrete examples and situations professional work. Under the guidance of pertinent to the lesson. In a lesson on the Ruffners, Washington developed an geography, students had listlessly followed interest in a higher (secondary) education. In his instruction in the classroom. At recess, the fall of 1872, he left West Virginia to the children assembled at a stream near the seek an education at Hampton Normal and schoolhouse and began to discover: Agricultural Institute in Hampton, Virginia (Washington, 1995). …as we waded along the stream, dozens Hampton Institute was an industrial of islands, capes, and peninsulas, with school for African Americans and Native here and there a little lake or bay, which, Americans. It was established and as some of the pupils pointed out, would administered under the leadership of Samuel furnish a safe harbour [sic] for ships if Chapman Armstrong, a former the stream were only large enough. Army officer and Freedmen’s Bureau agent. (Washington, 1911, p. 132) After traveling almost 500 miles to reach Hampton, and being virtually penniless, As the students began to distinguish the Washington’s appearance did not create a similarities and differences between the favorable image to the head instructor. stream bed and the geography lesson, it Washington recounted in his autobiography became apparent to Washington that he had that his entrance exam into Hampton was to discovered a powerful new teaching tool clean a lecture hall (Washington, 1995). recognized today as experiential learning. Washington assumed that his performance Writing about it years afterward, he recalled, on this task was used to determine if he was indeed a potential student or merely a “I have lost no opportunity to impress vagrant looking for a handout. The head upon our teachers the importance of instructor was impressed with his diligence training their students to study, analyze, and work ethic, and enrolled him as a and compare actual things, and to use Hampton student. He excelled in most what they have learned in the school things and like other students, worked for room and in the text-book, to enable his room and board (Washington, 1995). them to observe, think about, and deal The Hampton Normal and Agricultural with the objects and situations of actual Institute (1875) identified Washington as a life.” (Washington, 1911, p. 134) senior student during the 1874-75 term. On June 10, 1875, Hampton Institute awarded The energy by which young him a license to teach a graded school Washington approached his teaching duties (Whipple & Armstrong, 1875). attracted the attention of his former Upon graduation from Hampton, principal. In 1879, Washington was invited Washington taught school in Malden, by Armstrong, principal of Hampton

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Institute, to give the post-graduate lecture at libraries of friends of the Tuskegee school Hampton to share his experiences as a (Washington, 1881a). Fourth, many of the young teacher and graduate of Hampton students in the first class were destitute and with the rest of the Hampton students could not afford the tuition. Washington was (Armstrong, 1879). Armstrong believed that keenly aware of this last problem. In the Washington was a model of the benefits of very early days of his work at Tuskegee, the Hampton system. Eventually Washington had surveyed the rural Black Washington found his way onto the faculty communities of Alabama. He ate and slept of Hampton (Harlan, 1975). One of his in the homes of sharecroppers and former responsibilities was providing instruction slaves, learning from this experience the and leadership to Native American students. particular needs of African Americans in the Washington excelled as a teacher, and late nineteenth century (Washington, 1995). garnered the favor of Armstrong who was to The rural South, Washington observed, was become a valuable mentor and supporter. one of extreme poverty among African In 1881, the Alabama State Legislature Americans. appropriated funds for the purpose of Washington turned his attention first establishing a normal school for African toward establishing a permanent footing in Americans in Tuskegee, Alabama. The the Tuskegee community by securing a commissioners appointed to establish the permanent site for the school. By school wrote to General Armstrong seeking establishing a cooperative, energetic, and a White teacher for the new school. On May permanent presence in the community, 31, 1881, General Armstrong responded, Washington hoped to simultaneously abate “The only man I can suggest is one Mr. these and many other problems, Booker T. Washington.” (Armstrong, 1881, especially the race problem. Washington p. 110). Washington accepted the job, and located an abandoned plantation on the headed south to Tuskegee in the summer of outskirts of Tuskegee and decided that it 1881. would be an excellent site for the new school. The main house had burned some The Tuskegee Normal and time previously, and the only buildings on Industrial School the old plantation reserved for the school were two cabins, a stable, an On July 4, 1881, the Tuskegee Normal outhouse, and a henhouse (Washington, and Industrial School opened for students. 1995). The first classes that met on the old Washington saw four major problems at the plantation used the henhouse as the outset of the work of Tuskegee. First, the classroom. The first desks were school had to provide a system of education homemade affairs with boards serving as for a race of people that was essentially rough desks. The blackboards supplied by illiterate. Second, the efforts of the new the carpentry department were very school had to convince the White rudimentary in design and construction community that an education of value could (Gregory, 1915). be provided for the African Americans (Washington, 1995). Third, the school The Labor System at the Tuskegee School initially met in a local church, and it was apparent that permanent school buildings In the long run, Washington realized that were needed. The $2000 from the Alabama significant measures had to be taken to build Legislature would not be enough to the school and make it a permanent construct buildings and provide the material institution. After careful thought, he for instruction. There were virtually no adopted the Hampton Institute method that supplies or materials with which to begin placed students on a labor system for school, and yet Washington expected to their room and board (Washington, 1881c). open the school approximately one week In this manner, Washington hoped to build after arriving in Tuskegee. There were no the school, feed the students, and maps, or teaching aids readily available, provide practical experience in the and books had to be borrowed from the industrial arts.

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Washington introduced manual labor by Washington had developed positive having students clear woodlands for the relationships among the wealthy Northern planting of crops. The students reluctantly philanthropists because of the work at performed this and subsequent other Tuskegee. He found himself in a position to laborious tasks. Their reluctance stemmed abate some of the hostilities between Black primarily from the fact that many of them and white citizens. In 1895, Washington was had been professional teachers prior to invited to give a speech at the opening of the attending Tuskegee. The early days of African American Farm Exhibit at the elementary and secondary education did not Cotton States and International Exposition see many college graduates as teachers. in Atlanta, Georgia. Washington exhorted Many of the teachers in early African African Americans to “cast down your American schools were not even high school bucket where you are” and make peace with graduates. Their license to teach was issued the Southern whites without demanding the by the county in which they taught after rights of suffrage and enfranchisement: passing what was often a rudimentary exam. Many of Tuskegee’s early students were We [African Americans] shall constitute these teachers whose opinion of their one-third and more of the ignorance and academic status often exceeded their actual crime of the South, or one-third or more academic performance, and the result was a of its intelligence and progress; we shall corps of students who felt that manual labor contribute one-third to the business and was beneath them (Harlan, 1975). To get the industrial prosperity of the South, or we labor system moving at Tuskegee, shall prove a veritable body of death, Washington would lead the students out to stagnating, depressing, retarding every the forest and chop timber alongside them to effort to advance the body politic. set the example of the importance and (Washington, 1895, p. 5) dignity of hard work (Gregory, 1915). In spite of early student resistance, the system Washington explained to the audience took hold quickly and by the middle of the that African Americans, in slavery, first month on the new school property, had demonstrated a willingness to students had cleared 25 acres of farmland by work with whites. Now that slavery was no manual labor (Washington, 1881b). longer the issue, African Americans In July, 1881 Tuskegee School trustees would perhaps be more inclined to cooperate had secured a note to purchase the 100-acre with whites to assure mutual progress, and plantation upon which the school resided. that said progress would not Within four months of opening its doors, hinge on socially divisive issues. Washington’s Tuskegee Institute paid the Washington stated, “In all things that are debt on the land and owned a free and clear purely social we can be as separate as the title to the property. Now Washington fingers, yet one as the hand in all things focused his efforts on recruiting high quality essential to mutual progress” (Washington, teachers and constructing suitable buildings. 1895, p. 4). During that first year of operation, Tuskegee grew to 112 students and three teachers The Curriculum at Tuskegee (Tuskegee State Normal School, 1882). New buildings were needed in order to Washington believed that the strength of accommodate an increasing student Tuskegee rested in the agricultural and enrollment (Washington, Davidson, & industrial education program instead of the Cardwell, 1882). Students built a first academic program, and in 1905 the focus of building, and many of the earlier buildings the curriculum shifted towards agricultural on the campus were constructed by student and industrial education as the primary labor and from bricks made on the Tuskegee function of the school (Washington, 1904). campus. This first new building was three Teachers of academic programs were stories tall and contained classrooms, a required to reduce the students’ workload in chapel, a library, and lodging for students English, mathematics, history, and related (Tuskegee Normal School, 1882). subjects (Harlan, 1983).

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During this period, Washington land grant universities authorized under the introduced the concept of dovetailing. 1890 Morrill Act were predominantly Washington derived the term from the type primary and secondary schools, and of wood joints commonly used in carpentry, remained so until the late 1920’s when and was a combination of academic and college-level enrollments finally exceeded industrial subjects. Washington required primary and secondary enrollments (Harris academic teachers to use industrial and & Worthen, 2004). Washington believed in agricultural subject matter as the basis for higher education for Blacks, but not as a assignments. Math teachers found substitute for agricultural and industrial themselves teaching students to calculate education. He believed that a professional feed rations and English teachers were soon class of African Americans could only assigning home economics students to write survive if supported by a foundation of papers on the methods of cooking African Americans working in the industrial vegetables. Washington’s goal was to class who could afford to pay for the service eliminate the differences between academic of the professional class (Washington, and industrial subjects. Academic teachers 1899). complained that dovetailing eliminated “learning for the sake of learning”. Conclusions and Discussion Academic teachers were also quick to point out that the agricultural and industrial In reflecting on the beginnings of program utilized the time-consuming agricultural education for African apprenticeship method that lessened the Americans, did the profession inadvertently amount of time available for academic install a “glass ceiling” that perpetuated the instruction (Bruce, 1906). Regardless of idea that the best African Americans could resistance by the teaching staff, Washington hope for were service occupations in believed in the dovetailing method and agriculture and industry? In his zeal to arranged an elaborate system to insure its establish a useful school for Blacks in rural application in the classroom. In a letter to Alabama, did Washington create a system the principal of the Chicago Normal School, that prevented his students from reaching Washington wrote: beyond manual and service labor? During the latter part of the 19th century, When a student of one of the shops is as white industrial schools formed into required to write a composition for his engineering and the professional sciences, industrial instructor, this instructor industrial schools for African Americans examines the paper and marks it as to its tended to focus on less ambitious goals. technical correctness; the paper is then These schools tended to focus on traditional sent to the English division of the agricultural subjects and manual trades. academic department where it is Washington believed that the status of examined and marked upon the African Americans was deteriorating in the grammar. (Washington, 1907, p. 150) years following reconstruction. African Americans were without marketable skills, Under Washington’s leadership, the and had seemingly lost their incentive for dovetailing method was strictly enforced. self-improvement (Harlan, 1975). Teachers who could not or would not use it Washington believed that agricultural in their lesson plans were reprimanded or and industrial education served a distinct dismissed (Washington, 1906). To ensure and necessary purpose in the mental that agricultural and industrial education development of students. A second purpose would continue to thrive, Washington of agricultural and industrial education was effectively held off attempts to convert the to help students secure the skills necessary institution into a college or university. This to earn a living. A third purpose was to teach was not entirely unusual because of the poor students the dignity of work. Washington condition and limited availability of public saw all of these purposes as interconnected. schools for African Americans in the late Thousands of African American students in 1800’s and early 1900’s. The majority of Alabama wanted an education, but because

Journal of Agricultural Education 18 Volume 48, Number 2, 2007 Croom Agricultural Education at… they lacked the funds to pay tuition and the enormous task of educating an entire race of means to secure these funds, they often people, Tuskegee, Hampton and other could not attend school. Washington deemed industrial schools had to survive the White agricultural and industrial education as a supremacist sentiment that often surrounded means for allowing students to attend school their work, and also defend against attacks by providing the means by which they could by the African American intellectual elite. labor for their education. Further, Agricultural and industrial education strove Washington deemed agricultural and to develop African Americans into skilled industrial skill development as the useful workers and business persons and perfect byproduct of this type of education. their self-esteem. Dubois (2004) disagreed Furthermore, Washington believed that with this in by 200 years of slavery had effectively stripped asserting that Washington’s efforts to create African Americans of their dignity. skilled artisans were useless without the Washington believed that as long as slavery right of suffrage. Washington’s existed the plantation masters were accommodation to White superiority worked compelled to keep the African American in against the efforts of agricultural and a state of ignorance to assure contentment industrial schools to improve the self-esteem with the condition of servitude. With the of African Americans. Dubois and others abolition of slavery, he contended that to contended that Washington’s disdain for elevate the African American race required higher education for African Americans was an educational system equal in value to that disingenuous because he needed college- of the Caucasian race (Washington, 1995). educated African Americans to operate the After emancipation, African Americans had Tuskegee Institute (Dubois). Black to learn that there was indeed a certain intellectuals viewed Washington’s speech at amount of dignity in labor (Washington, the Atlanta Cotton States and International 1882). Washington did not see mental and Exposition in 1895 as an accommodation of manual training as a new idea, but he White superiority. believed that it was the first best hope for Dubois failed to acknowledge that freed men. The Emancipation Proclamation Washington was indeed working behind the had freed the slaves, but had also left them scenes for suffrage for African Americans with virtually no resources beyond the and more equitable relationships between ability to perform manual labor. Agricultural African Americans and their White and industrial education taught freed slaves counterparts in business, industry, and how to read and write, and provided them government (Washington, 1904). with manual skills necessary to find suitable Washington’s successful career as a employment. Contrary to the way some of southern Black man was built on his ability his contemporaries viewed him; Washington to compromise, and yet he provided funding believed that a need existed for academic and leadership to efforts to repeal laws education in the preparation of lawyers, discriminating against Blacks. Even though physicians and professors. However, he saw Dubois and Washington disagreed on the that the need for skilled artisans and education of Blacks, they worked together to machinists was just as significant abolish Jim Crow laws in Georgia and (Washington, 1882). Agricultural and Tennessee, and they both shared the same industrial education provided this through its goal of elevating the Black race out of labor system and Washington’s dovetailing poverty (Forth, 1987; Harlan, 1971; method of instruction. As a normal and Washington & Dubois, 1907). Furthermore, industrial school, the Tuskegee Institute correspondence between Washington and under Washington’s leadership offered 37 Tuskegee donors does not indicate a industrial occupations on the campus and systematic attempt to relegate African 1,000 acres of land (Washington, 1995). Americans to lower income service The development of agricultural and professions (Harlan, 1983). Tuskegee’s industrial schools for African Americans in mission was to prepare teachers, business the years following the professionals, farmers, and tradesmen. was no easy endeavor. While engaged in the Along with technical knowledge came

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lessons about the need for a strong work Armstrong, S. C. (1879). Personal ethic and the appropriateness of self- communication from Samuel Chapman improvement. Washington’s message of Armstrong to Booker T. Washington, self-help and self-improvement was February 10, 1879. In L. R. Harlan, P. congruent with the personal views of many Daniel, S. B. Kaufman, R. W. Smock & W. of the philanthropists he courted, and donors M. Welty (Eds.), The Booker T. Washington were drawn to Washington and his work at papers (Vol. 2, pp. 75-77). Urbana, IL: Tuskegee (Harlan, 1983). Washington veiled University of Illinois Press (Reprinted from his efforts on behalf of Black suffrage Armstrong letterbooks, president's office largely because he could neither afford to vault, Hampton Institute, Virginia, 1879). alienate southern Whites nor damage his ability to raise funds and support for Armstrong, S. C. (1881). Personal Tuskegee. Tuskegee may have been built communication from Samuel Chapman with funds derived from Northern Armstrong to George Washington Campbell philanthropy, but there was no doubt that the and other trustees of Tuskegee Normal school existed very much in a southern School, May 31, 1881. In L. R. Harlan, P. political environment. Daniel, S. B. Kaufman, R. W. Smock, & W. Has the glass ceiling disappeared? M. Welty (Eds.), The Booker T. Washington Washington’s Tuskegee served a useful papers (Vol. 2, pp. 127-128). Urbana, IL: purpose in the training of African Americans University of Illinois Press (Reprinted from for industrial trades, and his work in the Armstrong letterbooks, president's office community of Tuskegee, was a significant vault, Hampton Institute, Virginia, 1(1), 1-2, attempt to encourage good relations between 1881). the races. However, regardless of how the Whites of the village of Tuskegee felt about Bruce, R. C. (1906). Personal Booker Washington, the ethnic unrest of the communication from Roscoe Conkling early and mid-twentieth century indicated Bruce to Booker T. Washington, April 12, that the U. S. was not yet ready to accept the 1906. In L. R. Harlan & R. W. Smock African American on his terms. (Eds.), The Booker T. Washington papers. Has agricultural education changed (Vol. 8, pp. 125-126), Urbana, IL: significantly for African Americans in University of Illinois Press (Reprinted from recent years? Croom, Moore and Armbruster B. T. Washington papers, Tuskegee (2005) surveyed the participants of the 2003 University, Alabama, 1906). national FFA career development events to determine their reasons for participating in Croom, D., Moore, G., & Armbruster, J. agricultural education and the FFA. Of the (2005) National FFA career development 2,145 survey responses, none came from events: An introspective inquiry. In African American students. If there were J. Kotrlik (Ed.) Southern Agricultural any African American students in the Education Research Conference national career development events, it would Proceedings, Agricultural Education seem that at least one or two would have Division, Southern Association of completed the survey instrument. The Agricultural Scientists. Little Rock, AK: implication is that African Americans Louisiana State University. continue to represent an underserved population in agricultural education, and the Dubois, W. (2004). The souls of black profession should find better ways to “turn folk. Boulder, CO: Paradigm. them on” to agricultural careers. Forth, C. E. (1987). Booker T. References Washington and the 1905 conference. Journal of Negro American Psychological Association. History, 72(3/4), 45-56. (2001). Publication manual of the american psychological association. Washington, Gall, M. D., Borg, W. R., & Gall, J. P. D.C.: Author. (1996). Educational research: An

Journal of Agricultural Education 20 Volume 48, Number 2, 2007 Croom Agricultural Education at… introduction (6th ed.). White Plains, NY: to Frances Chickering Briggs, June 28, Longman. 1881. In L. R. Harlan, P. Daniel, S. B. Kaufman, R. W. Smock & W. M. Welty Gregory, W. (1915). Starting Tuskegee. (Eds.), The Booker T. Washington papers (p. Literary Digest, LI (December 4) p. 1307. 133-134). Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press (Reprinted from Booker T. Hampton Normal and Agricultural Washington file, president's office vault, Institute. (1875). Catalog of the Hampton Hampton Institute, Virginia, 1881). Normal and Agricultural Institute, Hampton, VA: Normal School Press. Washington, B. T. (1881b). Personal communication from Booker T. Washington Harlan, L. R. (1971). The secret life of to James Fowle Baldwin Marshall, July 7, Booker T. Washington. The Journal of 1881. In L. R. Harlan, P. Daniel, S. B. Southern History, 37(3), 393-416. Kaufman, R. W. Smock & W. M. Welty (Eds.), The Booker T. Washington papers Harlan, L. R. (1975). Booker T. (Vol. 2, p. 137-138). Urbana, IL: University Washington: The making of a black leader of Illinois Press (Reprinted from Booker T. 1856-1901. New York: Oxford University Washington file, president's office vault, Press. Hampton Institute, Virginia, 1881).

Harlan, L. R. (1983). Booker T. Washington, B. T. (1881c). Personal Washington: The wizard of Tuskegee 1901- communication from Booker T. Washington 1915. New York: Oxford University Press. to James Fowle Baldwin Marshall, July 16, 1881. In L. R. Harlan, P. Daniel, S. B. Harris, R. P. & Worthen, H. D. (2004). Kaufman, R. W. Smock & W. M. Welty Working through the challenges: Struggle (Eds.), The Booker T. Washington papers and resilience within historically black land (Vol. 2, p. 132-133). Urbana, IL: University grant institutions. Education. 124(3), 447- of Illinois Press (Reprinted from Booker T. 455. Washington file, president's office vault, Hampton Institute, Virginia, 1881). Scott, R. A. (1863). An inventory of the estate of James Burroughs. In L. R. Harlan, Washington, B. T. (1882). Speech before P. Daniel, S. B. Kaufman, R. W. Smock, & the Alabama state teachers’ association, W. M. Welty (Eds.), The Booker T. Minutes of the first annual session of the Washington papers (pp. 9-12). Urbana, IL: Alabama State Teachers’ Association, April University of Illinois Press (Reprinted from 6-7, 1882, Selma, Alabama. p. 22-24. Will book 12, (1861-63), Franklin County Courthouse, Rocky Mount, Virginia, pp. Washington, B. T. (1895). Dedication 148-151). speech for Exhibit Hall at the Cotton States and International Exposition Tuskegee Normal School. (1882). The in Atlanta Georgia. Retrieved May 25, 2005 annual report of Tuskegee Normal School. from: http://historymatters.gmu.edu Tuskegee, AL: Author. Washington, B. T. (1899). The future of Tuskegee State Normal School. (1882). the American Negro. In L. R. Harlan & R. Catalogue of the Tuskegee State Normal W. Smock (Eds.), The Booker T. School at Tuskegee Alabama, 1881-1882. Washington papers. (Vol. 5, pp. 125-126), Hampton, VA: Normal School Press. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press (Reprinted from Booker T. Washington Washington, B. T. (1878). Letter to a papers, Tuskegee Hampton teacher. Southern Workman 7, 52. Alabama, 1899).

Washington, B. T. (1881a). Personal Washington, B. T. (1904). Personal communication from Booker T. Washington communication from Booker T. Washington

Journal of Agricultural Education 21 Volume 48, Number 2, 2007 Croom Agricultural Education at… to William Henry Baldwin, Jr., March 15, Carolina - Chapel Hill, Documenting 1904. In L. R. Harlan & R. W. Smock the American South Web site: (Eds.), The Booker T. Washington papers. http://docsouth.unc.eduwasheducation/washi (Vol. 7, pp. 467-468). Urbana, IL: ng.html. University of Illinois Press (Reprinted from Booker T. Washington papers, Tuskegee Washington, B. T. (1995). Up from University, Alabama, 1904). slavery. New York: Dover.

Washington, B. T. (1906). Personal Washington, B. T., Davidson, O. A., & communication from Booker T. Washington Cardwell, J. W. (1882). A circular appealing to Ruth Anna Fisher, November 14, 1906. In for donations, February 13, 1882. Tuskegee, L. R. Harlan & R. W. Smock (Eds.), The Al: Tuskegee Normal School. Booker T. Washington papers. (Vol. 9, pp. 125-126) Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Washington, B. T. & Dubois, W. E. B. Press (Reprinted from Booker T. (1907). The negro in the south; His Washington papers, Tuskegee University, economic progress in relation to his moral Alabama, 1906). and religious development; Being the William Levi Bull lectures for the Year 1907. Washington, B. T. (1907). Personal Retrieved May 24, 2005, from The communication from Booker T. Washington University of North Carolina - Chapel Hill, to Ella Flagg Young, May 17, 1907. In L. R. Documenting the American South Web site: Harlan & R. W. Smock (Eds.), The Booker http://docsouth.unc.edu T. Washington papers. (Vol. 9, p. 150) Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press Whipple, G. & Armstrong, S. C. (1875). (Reprinted from Booker T. Washington A certificate of achievement from Hampton papers, Tuskegee University Tuskegee Institute. June 10, 1875. In L. R. Harlan, P. Alabama, 1904). Daniel, S. B. Kaufman, R. W. Smock, & W. M. Welty (Eds.), The Booker T. Washington Washington, B. T. (1911). My larger papers (Vol. 2, p. 67), Urbana, IL: education: Being chapters from my University of Illinois Press (Reprinted from experience (Electronic Edition). Chapel Hill: Booker T. Washington papers in the Oaks University of North Carolina. Retrieved (Private Residence), Tuskegee Institute, May 26, 2005, from The University of North 1875).

D. BARRY CROOM is an Associate Professor in the Department of Agricultural and Extension Education at North Carolina State University, Box 7607, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7607. E-Mail: [email protected].

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