The Most Influential Iq Level and Aptitude Toward Learners’ Speaking Skills: a Correlational Study Between Intelligence and Speaking Skills

THE MOST INFLUENTIAL IQ LEVEL AND APTITUDE TOWARD LEARNERS’ SPEAKING SKILLS: A CORRELATIONAL STUDY BETWEEN INTELLIGENCE AND SPEAKING SKILLS

TINGKATAN IQ DAN BAKAT YANG PALING BERPENGARUH TERHADAP KEMAMPUAN BERBICARA SISWA: STUDI KORELASI ANTARA INTELIGENSI DAN KEMAMPUAN BERBICARA

WIRA KAFRYAWAN P0600215002

ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL HASANUDDIN UNIVERSITY MAKASSAR 2017

TITLE PAGE THE MOST INFLUENTIAL IQ LEVEL AND APTITUDE TOWARD LEARNERS’ SPEAKING SKILLS: A CORRELATIONAL STUDY BETWEEN INTELLIGENCE AND SPEAKING SKILLS

Thesis

as a partial fulfilment to achieve Master Degree

Program English Language Studies

Written and Submitted by

WIRA KAFRYAWAN

POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL HASANUDDIN UNIVERSITY MAKASSAR 2017

APPROVAL FORM

iii

A STATEMENT OF THESIS AUTHENTICITY

The undersigned.

Name : Wira Kafryawan

Study Program : English Language Studies

States truthfully that this thesis was the result of my own work. If it is proven later that some part or entire part of this thesis is the work of others. I am willing to accept any authorizations for my dishonesty.

Makassar, August 2017

Wira Kafryawan

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The writer would like to say great thanks to Allah SWT Who always gives the strength to face the life. Finally, he could finish this research as a requirement for Magister Degree of English Language Studies of Cultural

Science Faculty, Hasanuddin University.

First and foremost, the best parents, Sumarwan and Nurhayati who always give their love, thought, time, and energy to support him to finish this research. This is one of the evidences that the writer can be son of them.

Secondly, the writer says thanks a lot to his special consultants,

Prof. Dr. Abdul Hakim Yassi, Dipl.TESL, M.A. as the first consultant and

Dra. Nasmilah, M.Hum, Ph.D. as the second consultant who always give advices and help him to solve problems during the thesis completion. For their willingness, guidance, comments, suggestions, corrections, and overall support, the writer is deeply indebted.

His greatest thanks are also dedicated to Dr. H. Mustafa Makka,

M.S. as the first examiner, Dr. H. Sudarmin Harun, M.Hum. as the second examiner, and Dr. Hj, Sukmawaty, M.Hum. as the third examiner who give suggestions in writing this thesis. Moreover, his gratitude goes to all lecturers for giving the writer knowledge during the study.

Last but not least, the writer would like to dedicate his deepest appreciation and thankfulness for his classmates in ELS Hasanuddin

University who always support him with spirit throughout his study.

Finally, the writer realizes that this thesis is still imperfection and has some weakness. Therefore, the writer expects the helpful contribution and suggestion to complete this thesis.

Makassar, August 2017

Wira Kafryawan

ABSTRACT

WIRA KAFRYAWAN. The Most Influential IQ Level and Aptitude toward Learners’ Speaking Skills: A Correlational Study between Intelligence and Speaking Skills. (supervised by Abdul Hakim Yassi and Nasmilah).

The aims of the research were to observe 1) the correlation between learners’ intelligence and their speaking skills, 2) the most influential IQ level on learners’ speaking skills, and 3) the most dominant aptitude influencing learners’ speaking skills. The research employed a correlational research. Quantifiable data were obtained from speaking test based on the Heaton assessment and intelligence test based on the Barret assessment distributed to the learners. The data were analyzed with Pearson product moment. The research indicated that 1) there was a significant correlation between learners’ intelligence and their speaking skills. The correlation index was (ro = 0. 75) in the interval of 0.70 – 0.90, indicating a high correlation. The higher intelligence of the learners the better speaking ability they have, 2) bright was the most influential IQ level on learners’ speaking skills. The results of data calculation showed that Xg3 (68.48) > Xg4 (48.81), indicating that learners with bright intelligence performed better in speaking, 3) verbal ability was the most dominant among other aptitudes in influencing the learners’ speaking skills. The data showed Xs1 (77.67) > Xs2 (65.00), Xs3 (63.83), Xs4 (63.89), Xs5 (59.31). Therefore, the learners with dominant in verbal ability also perform better in speaking.

Keywords: intelligence, speaking skills, intelligence quotient (IQ) level, aptitude.

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ABSTRAK

WIRA KAFRYAWAN. Tingkatan IQ dan Bakat yang Paling Berpengaruh terhadap Kemampuan Berbicara Siswa: Studi Korelasi antara Inteligensi dan Kemampuan Berbicara (dibimbing oleh Abdul Hakim Yassi dan Nasmilah).

Penelitian ini bertujuan mengetahui (1) hubungan yang signifikan antara inteligensi siswa dan kemampuan berbicara mereka; (2) tingkatan IQ yang paling berpengaruh terhadap kemampuan berbicara siswa; dan (3) bakat yang paling dominan dalam mempengaruhi kemampuan berbicara siswa. Penelitian ini menggunakan kajian korelasi. Data kuantitatif diperoleh dari tes speaking berdasarkan kriteria penilaian Heaton dan tes inteligensi berdasarkan kriteria penilaian Barret yang telah didistribusikan pada siswa. Data kemudian di analisis menggunakan korelasi product moment oleh Pearson. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa (1) terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara inteligensi siswa dan kemampuan berbicara mereka. Terlihat jelas bahwa indeks korelasi (ro=0,75) berada pada jenjang 0,70- 0,90. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa korelasi berada pada hubungan yang tinggi. Oleh karena itu, semakin tinggi inteligensi seseorang semakin baik pula kemampuan berbicara mereka; (2) bright adalah tingkatan IQ yang paling berpengaruh terhadap kemampuan berbicara siswa. Hasil analisis data menunjukkan bahwa Xg-3 (68,48) > Xg-4 (48,81). Oleh karena itu, siswa dengan tingkatan IQ bright menunjukkan kemampuan berbicara yang lebih baik; dan (3) kemampuan verbal adalah bakat yang paling dominan diantara bakat-bakat lain yang memengaruhi kemampuan berbicara siswa. Data menunjukkan bahwa Xs-1 (77,67) > Xs-2 (65,00), Xs-3 (63,83), Xs-4 (63,89), dan Xs-5 (59,31). Artinya, siswa yang lebih dominan pada kemampuan verbal juga memiliki kemampuan berbicara yang lebih baik.

Kata Kunci: inteligensi, kemampuan berbicara, intelligence quotient, tingkatan IQ, bakat.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ...... i

APPROVAL FORM ...... ii

A STATEMENT OF THESIS AUTHENTICITY ...... iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT ...... iv

ABSTRACT ...... vi

ABSTRAK ...... vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... viii

LIST OF TABLES ...... x

LIST OF FIGURES ...... xi

LIST OF APPENDICES ...... xii

LIST OF ABBREVIATION ...... xiii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1

A. Background ...... 1

B. Research Question ...... 8

C. Objective of the Research ...... 8

D. Significance of the Research ...... 9

E. Scope of the Research ...... 10

F. Organization of the Thesis ...... 11

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ...... 12

A. Previous Related Studies ...... 12

B. Theoretical Background ...... 14

C. Conceptual Framework ...... 49

D. Hypothesis ...... 50

E. Operational Definition...... 51

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 53

A. Research Design ...... 53

B. Place and Time of Research ...... 54

C. Research Variables and Indicators ...... 55

D. Population and Sample ...... 56

E. Research Instrument ...... 56

F. Data Collection ...... 58

G. Data Analysis ...... 61

CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ...... 69

A. Findings ...... 69

B. Discussion ...... 76

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION ...... 90

A. Conclusion ...... 90

B. Suggestion ...... 91

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 92

APPENDICES ...... 96

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Scoring Learners’ Speaking Skill ...... 61

Table 2: The Assessment of Grammar ...... 61

Table 3: The Assessment of Pronunciation ...... 62

Table 4: The Assessment of Vocabulary ...... 63

Table 5: The Assessment of Fluency ...... 64

Table 6: Degree of Learners’ Speaking Skill ...... 65

Table 7: Assessment of Potential Score from Raw Score ...... 65

Table 8: Interpretation of Intelligence Scale ...... 67

Table 9: Degree of Pearson Product Moment ...... 68

Table 10: Data of Learners' Intelligence ...... 70

Table 11: Data of Learners’ Speaking Skills ...... 70

Table 12: The Correlation between Learners’ Intelligence

and Their Speaking Skills ...... 71

Table 13: Data of IQ Level ...... 73

Table 14: Data of Aptitude ...... 75

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Assessment of Potential Score to Intelligence Quotient...... 66

Figure 2: The Most Dominant IQ Level Influencing Speaking Skills ...... 74

Figure 3: The Most Influential Aptitude on Speaking Skills ...... 76

Figure 4: Intercorrelation to External Factor ...... 81

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix A : Raw Score of Intelligence Assessment

Appendix B : Potential Score of Intelligence Assessment

Appendix C : Average Score of Intelligence

Appendix D : Transcription of Speaking Skills

Appendix E : Scores of Speaking Skills Based on Interrater Assessment

Appendix F : Average Score of Speaking Skills

Appendix G : Data of Intelligence and Speaking Skills

Appendix H : Data of the Correlation between Intelligence and Speaking

Skills

Appendix I : Calculation of the Correlation

Appendix J : Values of the Correlation Coefficient for Different Level of

Significance

Appendix K : IQ Level Which is the Most Influential on Speaking Skills

Appendix L : Aptitude Which is the Most Dominant in Influencing Speaking

Skills

Appendix M : Letter of Permission

xiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

CA : Chronological Age g factor : General Factor

IQ : Intelligence Quotient

MA : Mental Age

MI : Multiple Intelligence s factor : Specific Factor

SI : Structure of Intellect

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides a brief explanation of entire contents of introduction. The items which are overviewed consist of background, research question, objective of the research, significance of the research, scope of the research, and organization of the thesis.

A. Background

Communication is essential need for human being. People are not able to communicate to the others without language. Language is a cultural product, a system of human communication, a social institution, and a learned behavior. By using a language people can make statements, convey facts and knowledge, explain or report something, and keep social relations among the language users. These indicate that by means of language, people are able to convey their message, to deliver their ideas in oral, written, or signal language, so that, they can cooperate and get along each other through communication.

Speaking is a device to communicate with other people. It is an activity conducted by a person to communicate with others in order to express ideas, feelings, opinions, etc. It is also used to share information among people, to negotiate, to solve problems, to maintain social relationship and friendship. Speaking is used by people almost every time to interact with others. According to Florez and Cunningham (1999),

speaking is the ability which requires the process of communicative competence, pronunciation, intonation, grammar and vocabulary improvement. Speaking is the most important skill, since it is one of the abilities to carry out conversation with others, give ideas, change the information with the people and know the situation that happen.

Almost all people from many different countries around the world use English to communicate because it is an international language.

Speaking English is needed by people as means of communication with other nations. In the modern era, people are not able to do something without using English because almost everything uses English.

Realizing the importance of English language, Indonesian government considers that English is one of the compulsory subjects to teach. In education, speaking is one of the four basic skills in learning foreign language besides listening, reading, and writing. It has been taught to learners from the elementary school to the third year of senior high school. Therefore, it is considered as an essential skill to be learned by learners in learning English.

Teaching speaking skills is an obligation to improve learners’ competence in English. The most important thing that should be noticed in teaching speaking is how to activate all of the language elements, such as: vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation, since the main function of language is communication. This means that the objective for learners to learn English speaking is to be able to use language to communicate

effectively and appropriately for all requirements, both in social and academic (Walter, 2004: 16).

For most learners, learning to speak English as a foreign language is a different thing to do because it cannot be learnt naturally as a mother tongue. In other word, learning foreign language means learning the dictionary, grammar and the system of sound in that language.

Furthermore, focusing on language form is important in foreign language learning, and developing the ability to communicate well in English is the main goals. Similarly, mastering the art of speaking is the most important aspect of learning foreign language, and success is measured in terms of the ability to carry out the conversation in the language. At the end, we should be able to communicate effectively in English in or outside the classroom for study, works or leisure.

Speaking is a complex skill among the other three skills in English.

It can’t be denied that mastering speaking English is not easy. As a matter of fact, that English is foreign language, it is quite complicated to attain good competence in speaking. Learners need extra effort to master speaking skill. Therefore, English teachers are demanded to be more creative in presenting their lessons, especially the speaking subject since it is considered as difficult skill to be mastered. Likewise, English teachers must take the chances to design many communication activities in the classroom which encourage and motivate learners to use the language actively and productively. Based on the information from English teachers

in SMA Negeri 2 Makassar, every learner in school especially at the first- grade students has different level of competence in speaking. Several learners have good competence in speaking and others are poor.

Furthermore, every learner has different perception about speaking. Not all learners perceive speaking in the same feeling. Many learners judge that speaking is a difficult subject to learn. No doubt that they get difficulties in learning and practice speaking. To learn speaking skill is not only learning about the language itself, but also learning how to speak in real communication. However, many learners cannot speak

English in the classroom and in real communication. To get successful in learning speaking, learners should be at the situation in which they are willing to speak in English, they also should have strength from inside to speak up and interaction with others is needed. Learning how to speak means something different because it deals not only with the efforts of the learners to understand the patterns of speaking but also the psychological problems inside themselves. In other words, many factors affect learners in learning speaking.

There are some psychological factors which influence learners in learning speaking. Littlewood (1984) stated that a persons’ motivation to learn and the qualities of the opportunities to learn are two of these factors. The third set of factors is those which make up the person’s ability to learn. This refers to the intelligence and a set of more specific language learning abilities called ‘language aptitude’. Therefore, there are sets of

factors which influence how successful a person is to get a good competence in speaking, such as: motivation, interest, environment, or intelligence.

Some previous studies have revealed that motivation is very influential in learners’ speaking skills. Motivation has high correlation to the learners’ speaking skills. Likewise, Interest has big influence on learners’ speaking skills. If learners like speaking, they will try to speak more and more. According to Slameto (2003: 57) in learning English, in this case speaking, it is easier for the learners if they have high interest. Because it can be made as a tendency to pay attention to and the learners can enjoy activities in speaking. However, the problem in some cases that few learners who have low motivation and less interest are able to speak

English well and vice versa. Environment generally cannot be the best reason of those cases because in Indonesia especially Makassar is not a native-speaker environment. The circumstances completely are not able to support learners to stimulate their competence in speaking. Besides,

English is rarely used in daily activities to interact with others. Moreover, learners are not accustomed to use English neither in the classroom nor outside the classroom. Consequently, intelligence can be the reason that learners with low motivation and less interest are able to speak English well and learners with high motivation are not.

In a sense, everyone knows what intelligence is. It is brightness, sharpness, ability to solve problems, speed in figuring things out, and

capacity to learn from experience. According to Known and Unknown

(1995) reported by American Psychological Association, Intelligence is the ability to engage in various forms of reasoning, to understand complex ideas, to learn from experience, to adapt effectively to the environment and to overcome obstacles (Muley, 2014:131). It can be understood from the definition above that intelligence is not merely a bookish or academic skill but it entails broader capability of comprehending and adapting with surroundings.

Through Terman’s popular term ‘IQ’ is used for measuring intelligence. According to Papalia and Olds (1988: 134), Intelligence

Quotient is nothing more than a mathematical score computed by a formula derived from Binet. Moreover, Santrock (2006: 107) stated that

Binet developed the concept of mental age (MA) which refers to an individual’s level of mental development relative to others. Not much later, in 1912, William Stern created the concept of Intelligence Quotient (IQ), which brings up a person’s mental age divided by chronological age (CA), multiplied by 100. Therefore, Intelligence quotient is a number used to indicate of person’s intelligence. In other word, IQ or Intelligence Quotient is a measurement of person’s intelligence. Every single person has different level of IQ. To describe a person’s IQ, it is used IQ classification.

IQ classification is the practice by IQ test publishers of labeling IQ score ranges with category names.

In 1904, British psychologist Charles Spearman found out two factors in intelligence namely, g factor for general factor and s factor for specific factor. IQ is usually seen as general ability while aptitude refers to specific ability. According to Thurstone (1938), intelligence is not a single general ability but consists of several specific independent abilities. In other word, specific type of intelligence is regarded as an aptitude.

Aptitude is usually defined as a natural or inherent talent for a certain skill or activity. For example, talking about a student’s aptitude for learning languages, a child’s aptitude for drawing, a mother’s aptitude for crossword puzzles or even a husband’s aptitude for golf. Another way of thinking about aptitude is as a competency whether innate, acquired or developed for a certain type of work and this competency can be physical or mental. In the field of intelligence, aptitude is often considered to represent specific subsets of mental ability which provides useful information on an individual’s potential, particularly with regards to education and employment. IQ denotes intelligence as a single, measurable trait whereas aptitude breaks intelligence down into several different characteristics that are relatively independent of each other.

Thus, it cannot be guaranteed that learner who has higher intelligence is able to speak well.

To know the influence of intelligence concerning with the learners’ competence in speaking as a foreign language. It is important to investigate whether or not there is a mutual relationship between learners’

intelligence and their speaking skills. Specifically, it is essential also to analyze the learners’ proficiency in speaking as a foreign language based on IQ level and aptitude. Based on the explanation above, the researcher determines the title ‘The most influential IQ level and aptitude toward learners’ speaking skills: a correlational study between intelligence and speaking skills’.

B. Research Question

Based on the background presented above, the researcher formulated the question of the research as follows:

1. Is there any significant correlation between learners’ intelligence

and their speaking skills?

2. Which IQ level is the most influential on learners’ speaking

skills?

3. Which aptitude is the most dominant in influencing learners’

speaking skills?

C. Objective of the Research

Relevant to the research questions, the research had three objectives, they were:

1. To find out whether or not there is a significant correlation

between learners’ intelligence and their speaking skills.

2. To identify which IQ level is the most influential on learners’

speaking skills.

3. To identify which aptitude is the most dominant in influencing

learners’ speaking skills.

D. Significance of the Research

The research contributed some useful information about intelligence and speaking skills. This research also examined the influence of intelligence on learners’ speaking skills in SMA Negeri 2 Makassar in the academic year 2016/ 2017. Hopefully, the result of this study was useful for writer, learners, teachers, and all the readers. The results were used for following:

1. For the writer

By doing the research, the writer hoped that he can learn and get more information about both learners’ intelligence and development of their speaking competence as a foreign language related to the teaching and learning.

2. For the learners

By knowing their IQ level and aptitude, the expectation was that the learners can be motivated to learn more especially in increasing their speaking skills.

3. For the teachers

The research was expected to provide information for teachers about development of learners’ speaking skill in which the teachers can help the learners when facing some problems in their speaking skills.

English teachers were able use the result of the study as a feedback on teaching speaking activities. Thus, the objectives of the English teaching program especially speaking goals can be achieved.

4. For the readers

Through the research, the readers can enhance their knowledge from the finding information and learn specifically about the existing relationship between intelligence and speaking skills.

E. Scope of the Research

The typical problems of the topic must be limited and specified in order to be able to have a focus of attention on the research discussions.

The scope of the research restricts intelligence and speaking skills.

1. Intelligence involves IQ level and aptitude.

2. Speaking skills involve grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and

fluency.

Therefore, the research focused on whether or not there was a significant correlation between learners’ intelligence and their speaking skills. Moreover, the research had determined which IQ level and which aptitude is the most influential on learners’ speaking skills related to the components of speaking involving grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary and fluency.

F. Organization of the Thesis

This thesis consists of five chapters. Chapter one covers background, research question, objective of the research, significance of the research, scope of the research, and organization of the thesis.

Chapter two consists of previous related studies, theoretical background, conceptual framework, hypothesis and operational definition. Furthermore, chapter three comprises research design, place and time of research, research variables and indicators, population and sample, research instrument, data collection and data analysis. Then, chapter four involves findings and discussion. Finally, the last chapter, chapter five, includes conclusion and suggestion.

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter offers an explanation of entire contents of literature review. The items which are overviewed consist of previous related studies, theoretical background, conceptual framework, hypothesis and operational definition.

A. Previous Related Studies

Some researchers had explored their findings on speaking skills of

English as a foreign language and intelligence related to the intelligence quotient. The findings of the studies are presented below:

Nurjanah (2011), a thesis in title of The Relationship between

Students’ Interest in Speaking and Their Speaking Score (A Correlational

Study at the Second Grade of MTsN Parung), reported that the result of the analysis in the research showed that there is positive correlation between students’ interest in speaking and their speaking score. Interest gives positive influence in teaching-learning speaking skill. Students who have higher interest in speaking get a better score than the lower one.

Istianti (2013), a thesis in title of The Correlation between Students’

Motivation in Learning Speaking and Their Speaking Ability (A

Correlational Study in the Second Grade of SMA Darussalam Ciputat), found that there is a positive correlation in medium degree between students’ motivation in learning speaking and their speaking ability. It

means that students with higher motivation will get better speaking ability than the lower one. In other words, the more motivated students are, the better speaking ability can be achieved.

Putri (2015), a thesis in title of The Correlation between Intelligence

Quotient and Students’ Achievement in Learning English at the First-Year

Students of SMPIT Nurul Fikri Depok, found in her research that there is a low significance correlation between intelligence quotient and students’ learning achievement in English. It can be concluded that there is no significance correlation in this research. Therefore, intelligence absolutely doesn’t influence students’ achievement in learning English from her findings.

Those findings above show that there are certain psychological factors which have mutual relationship to the learners’ speaking skills as a foreign language. From the findings, psychological factors affecting learners’ speaking skills are interest and motivation. However, intelligence doesn’t prove the correlation. Therefore, the findings above are sufficient to lead the researcher to conduct the research about speaking skill and intelligence as one of his considerations. The difference from the previous research that this study focuses on IQ level and aptitude as the factors of intelligence associated to the speaking skills.

B. Theoretical Background

1. Speaking Skills

a. Understanding of Speaking

As stated before in the first chapter that speaking is one of the four skills that play a significant role in mastering English. The people learning speaking deal not only with their cognitive basis to learn the forms of language but also deal with some internal psychological materials that affect people in learning process.

Speaking is significant to an individual’s living processes and experiences as the ability of seeing and walking. Speaking is also the most natural way to communicate. Without speaking, people must remain in almost total isolation from any kind of society. For most people, the ability to speak a language is the same with knowing a language since the speech is the most basic means of human communication. When we speak, a great deal more than just mouth is involved such as nose, pharynx, epiglottis, trachea, lungs and more. But, according to Cornbleet and Carter (2001: 17), speaking is not just making sound. Birds, animals, babies make sound and though it may be communication of sorts, it is not speaking.

The word speaking has many different meanings on linguistics views. According to McDonough and Christopher (2003: 133), speaking is not the oral production of written language, but includes learners in the mastery of a wide range sub skill which added together, then it supports

speaking skill. In addition, speaking is not produced without some combination of language skill, but it must be included a number of skills.

So, mastering speaking is gathering skill in thought because of including some input skills in it. As the result, the mouth is delivering those skills orally.

According to Widdowson (1978: 57), speaking is defined as usage and use. Speaking, in the usage sense, involves the manifestation either of the phonological system or the grammatical system of the language or both by using the speech organs. In term of use, however, the act of speaking involves not only the production of sounds but also the use of gesture, the movement of the muscles of the face, and indeed of the whole body.

Pollard (2008: 33) states that speaking is the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols.

Speaking is a crucial part of second language learning and teaching.

Speaking is one of the most difficult aspects for students to master. This is hardly surprising when one considers everything that is involved when speaking: ideas, what to say, language, how to use grammar and vocabulary, pronunciation as well as listening to and reacting to the person you are communicating with.

Another definition from Byrne (1976: 8), states that speaking is a two-ways process. In the process of speaking, a person does not only consider the informational content of what they are saying but also try to

project their own ideas appropriately and effectively, and present themselves to the world of the listeners in a way which engages their attention.

From the statement above, it can be inferred that speaking is expressing ideas, opinions, or feelings to others by using words or sounds of articulation in order to inform, to persuade, and to entertain which can be learnt by using some teaching learning methodologies. Moreover, speaking is the important instrument of communication. As human beings, especially as social creature we have a need to make meaning of our surroundings. We have a need to express our thoughts, opinions, or feelings in order to be accepted in social life. Speaking does not only make sound by the speech organs but ideas and emotions.

b. Element of Speaking

Speaking covers two elements which cannot be separated one another. They are accuracy which consists of vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar and fluency.

1) Accuracy

Accuracy means that speech where the message is communicated using correct grammar. The notion of accuracy can also be expanded to include correct pronunciation according to target language norms (Goh and Burns, 2012: 43).

According to Thornbury (2005), the terms “accuracy” seems to cover more than that. Specifically, speaking English accurately means

doing without or with few errors on not only grammar but vocabulary and pronunciation, as well. He also sets the clear scale for assessment of accuracy. First, grammar refers to students which use correct words order, tenses, tense agreement, etc. Students do not leave out articles, prepositions or difficult tenses. Second, vocabulary refers to students which have a range of vocabulary that corresponds to the syllabus year list and uses words which have been taught. Third, pronunciation refers to students which speak and most people understand.

2) Fluency

Fluency means that speech where the message is communicated coherently with few pauses and hesitations, thus causing minimal comprehension difficulties for the listeners (Goh and Burns, 2012: 43).

More specifically, Thornbury (2005) points out the criteria for assessing fluency. First, lack of hesitation refers to students which speak smoothly, at a natural speech. They do not hesitate long and it is easy to follow what they are saying. Second, length refers to students which can put ideas together to form a message or an argument. They can make not only the simplest of sentence pattern but also complex ones to complete the task. Third, independence refers to students which are able to express their ideas in a number of ways, keep talking and ask questions, and many more to keep the conversation going.

Harmer (2003: 269) states that the ability to speak English presupposes the elements which are necessary for spoken production as follows:

a) Language Features

The elements necessary for spoken production, are the following:

(1) Connected speech: in connected speech, sounds are modified

(assimilation), omitted (elision), added (linking r), or weakened

(through contractions and stress patterning). It is for this reason

that we should involve students in activities designed specifically

to improve their connected speech.

(2) Expressive devices: native speakers of English change the pitch

and stress of particular parts of utterances, vary volume and

speed, and show by other physical and non-verbal

(paralinguistic) means how they are feeling (especially in face t-

to – face interaction). The use of these devices contributes to

the ability to convey meanings.

(3) Lexis and grammar: teachers should therefore supply a variety

of phrases for different functions such as agreeing or

disagreeing, expressing surprise, shock, or approval.

(4) Negotiation language: effective speaking benefits from the

negotiatory language we use to seek clarification and show the

structure of what we are saying. We often need to ask for

clarification when we are listening to someone else talks and it

is very crucial for students.

b) Mental/ Social Processing

Success of speaker’s productivity is also dependent upon the rapid processing skills that talking necessitates:

(1) Language processing: Language processing involves the

retrieval of words and their assembly into syntactically and

propositionally appropriate sequence.

(2) Interacting with others: effective speaking also involves a good

deal of listening, an understanding of how the other participants

are feeling, and knowledge of how linguistically to take turns or

allow others to do so.

(3) (On the spot) information processing: quite apart from our

response to other’s feelings, we also need to be able to process

the information they tell us the moment we get it.

c. Function of Speaking

Teachers should understand the function of speaking because each function in speech activity is dissimilar. Brown and Yule (1983) make three distinction of speaking function, namely: talk as interaction, talk as transaction, and talk as performance.

1) Talk as interaction

This is referring to the normally conversation which describes interaction in terms of social function such as; small talking, chit chat,

greeting, and so on. The focus of such interaction is more on the speaker and how they wish to express themselves than on the message conveyed.

Speakers must be able to present a good image of them. Therefore, mastering the talk as interaction is difficult and may not become a priority for learner. In fact, speaker sometimes avoids situation which dealing with this kind of talk. The basic features of talk as interaction are employing many generic words, reflecting degree of politeness, reflecting the role of relationship, being formal and casual, reflecting speaker’s identity, using conversational conventions, and utilizing conversational register.

Moreover, some of the skills involved in using talk as interaction are opening and closing conversation, choosing topics, making small-talk, recounting personal incidents and experiences, turn-taking, using adjacency pairs, interrupting, and reacting to others. (Brown and Yule,

1983: 231).

2) Talk as transaction

This type of talk is contrary to the previous function of speaking. If the first talk is focus on the speaker’s image, this kind of talk concerns on what is said. In this regard, message is the core focus, making others understand what we mean clearly and accurately is very important rather than how speaker interact with each other socially. There are six main features of talk as transaction. First, it has primarily information focus.

Second, the main focus is the message and not the participants. Third, participants employ communication strategies to make themselves

understood. Fourth, there may be frequent questions, repetitions, and comprehension checks. Fifth, there may be negotiation and digression.

Sixth, linguistic accuracy is not always important. Moreover, some of the skills involved in using talk as transactions are explaining a need or intention, describing something, asking questioning, confirming information, justifying an opinion, making suggestions, clarifying understanding, and making comparisons (Brown and Yule, 1983: 231).

3) Talk as performance

This last type of talk refers to the formal situation and tends to be in the form of monolog rather than dialog. It follows a recognizable format and closer to written language than conversational language. This kind of talk covers; public of talk, public announcement, and speech. There are five main features of talk as performance. First, there is a focus on both message and audience. Second, it reflects organization and sequencing.

Third, form and accuracy is important. Fourth, language is similar to written language. Fifth, it is often monolog. Moreover, some of the skills involved in using talk as performance are: using an appropriate format, presenting information in an appropriate sequence, maintaining audience engagement, using correct pronunciation and grammar, creating an effect on the audience, using appropriate vocabulary, and using appropriate opening and closing (Brown and Yule, 1983: 231).

d. Difficulties of Speaking

In speaking activity, we sometimes find some problems. According to Thornbury (2006: 208), the ability to speak a second or foreign language is often equated with proficiency in the language. Indeed, one frustration commonly voiced by learners is that they have spent many years studying English, but still can’t speak it. One of the main difficulties is that speaking usually takes place spontaneously and in real time, which means that planning and production overlap. If too much attention is paid to planning, production suffers, and the effect is a loss of fluency. On the other hand, if the speaker’s attention is directed on production, it is likely that accuracy will suffer.

Ur (1996: 121) describes some difficulties in speaking activities that faced by the learners as below:

1) Inhibition. Unlike reading, writing and listening activities,

speaking requires some degree of real-time exposure to an

audience. Learners are often inhibited about trying to say things

in a foreign language in the classroom; worried about mistakes,

fearful of criticism or losing face, or simply shy of the attention

that their speech attracts.

2) Nothing to say. Even if they are not inhibited, you often hear

learners complain that they cannot think of anything to say.

They have no motive to express themselves beyond the guilty

feeling that they should be speaking.

3) Low or uneven participation. Only one participation can talk a

time if he or she is to be heard; and in a large group, this means

that each one will have only very little talking time. This problem

is compounded by the tendency of some learners to dominate,

while others spend very little or not at all.

4) Mother-tongue use. In classes where all, or a number of the

learners share the same mother-tongue, they may tend to use it

because it is easier, because it feels natural to speak to one

another in a foreign language, and because they feel less

“exposed” if they are speaking their mother-tongue. If they are

talking in a small group, it can be quite difficult to get some

classes, particularly the less disciplines or motivated one to

keep to the target language.

On the other hand, she also classified some characteristics of a successful speaking activity, as follow:

1) Learners talk a lot. As much as possible of the period allotted to

the activity is in the fact occupied by learners talk.

2) Participation is even. Classroom discussion is not dominated by

a minority of talk active participants: all get a chance to speak

and contributions are evenly distributed.

3) Motivation is high. Learners are eager to speak: because they

are interested in the topic and have something new to say about

it, or because they want to contribute to achieve a task

objective.

4) Language is an acceptable level. Learners express themselves

in utterances that are relevant, easily comprehensible to each

other, and of an acceptable level of language accuracy.

2. Intelligence

a. Understanding of Intelligence

Much is unknown about intelligence, and much will remain beyond human comprehension for a very long time. the fundamental nature of intelligence is only dimly understood, and the elements of self- consciousness, perception, reason, emotion, and intuition are cloaked in mystery that shrouds the human psyche and fades into the religious. even the definition of intelligence remains a subject of controversy, and so must any theory that attempts to explain what intelligence is, how it originated, or what are the fundamental processes by which it functions (Albus, 1991:

473).

Intelligence is a difficult construct to define. In a survey carried out by Snyderman and Rothman (in Li: 1996: 6-9), questioning social scientists and educators on the nature of intelligence, 99.3% indicated that abstract thinking or reasoning was an important element of intelligence;

97.7% indicated that the problem-solving ability was important, and 96% indicated that the capacity to acquire knowledge was important. This survey therefore emphasizes the importance of thinking, learning and

problem solving as elements of intelligence. In a study asking nearly 500 laypeople and 24 experts to define intelligence, Sternberg found that their responses were surprisingly similar. Both groups viewed intelligence as a complex construct made up of verbal ability, practical problem solving and social competence. Intelligence is an important component of learning and academic achievement because it can be seen as the ability to gain knowledge, to think about abstract concepts, to reason as well as the ability to solve problems (Li 1996: 10).

Intelligence and intellect are not one and the same thing.

Intelligence is wider in meaning than intellect. Intellect means cognitive powers or activities like perceiving, observing, remembering, imagining, and thinking, but intelligence on the other hand means not only intellectual activities but also the capacity for solving practical problems of live as well.

In simple words, intelligence means intellect as is applied in practice

(Kundu and Tutoo, 2008: 294).

The concept of intelligence has several interpretations. P.E Vernon in Sprinthall and Sprinthall (1990: 433) suggested three basic meanings of the concept of intelligence. The first is intelligence as genetic capacity.

This assumes that intelligence is completely inherited, that intelligence is simply part of one’s genetic equipment. The second is intelligence as observed behavior. Intelligence is based on an observation of what the individual does. This is the phenotypic form of intelligence and a result of the interaction of genes and the environment. The third is intelligence as a

test score. This is based on a strict operational definition of the concept.

Intelligence is what the intelligence test measures.

Psychologist have defined intelligence in many ways. No single definition is absolutely agreed upon. Also, there are controversies in defining various aspect of intelligence. Alfred Binet states that intelligence is the ability to judge and the faculty of adapting oneself to circumstances.

David Wechsler states that intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity to think rationally, to act purposefully and to deal effectively with environment. Lloyd Humphreys states that intelligence is the ability of acquiring, storing and using information and conceptual skills in new contexts. According to Howard Gardner, intelligence is a potential for identifying problems and solving them effectively. Linda Gottfredson states that intelligence is the ability to deal with cognitive complexity and abstract ideas. Sternberg & Salter states that intelligence is a goal-directed adaptive behavior. Moreover, Reuven Feuerstein states that intelligence is the unique propensity of human beings to change or modify the structure of cognitive functioning in order to adapt to the changing demands of situations (Muley, 2014: 130-131).

From the whole statement, it can be assumed that intelligence is the ability to engage in various forms of reasoning, to understand complex ideas, to learn from experience, to adapt effectively to the environment and to overcome obstacles.

b. Elements of Intelligence

Intelligence are able to be elaborated based on its system elements. There are four system elements of intelligence: sensory processing, world modeling, behavior generation, and value judgment.

Input to, and output from, intelligent systems are via sensors and actuators.

First, actuators mean that output from an intelligent system is produced by actuators that move, exert forces, and position arms, legs, hands, and eyes. Actuators generate forces to point sensors, excite transducers, move manipulators, handle tools, steer and propel locomotion. An intelligent system may have tens, hundreds, thousands, even millions of actuators, all of which must be coordinated in order to perform tasks and accomplish goals. Natural actuators are muscles and glands (Albus, 1991: 476). An intelligent system will be made up of multiple actuators and all these actuators need to be coordinated in order to perform tasks and accomplish goals (Asundi, 2011: 43).

Second, sensors mean that input to an intelligent system is produced by sensors, which may include visual brightness and color sensors; tactile, force, torque, position detectors; velocity, vibration, acoustic, range, smell, taste, pressure, and temperature measuring devices. Sensors may be used to monitor both the state of the external world and the internal state of the intelligent system itself. Sensors provide input to a sensory processing system (Albus, 1991: 476). Intelligent

systems are guided by sensors. Sensors serve a dual purpose that they monitor the external environment and the internal state of the intelligent system itself. (Asundi, 2011: 43)

Third, sensory processing means that perception takes place in a sensory processing system element that compares sensory observations with expectations generated by an internal world model. Sensory processing algorithms integrate similarities and differences between observations and expectations over time and space so as to detect events and recognize features, objects, and relationships in the world. Sensory input data from a wide variety of sensors over extended periods of time are fused into a consistent unified perception of the state of the world.

Sensory processing algorithms compute distance, shape, orientation, surface characteristics, physical and dynamical attributes of objects and regions of space. Sensory processing may include recognition of speech and interpretation of language and music (Albus, 1991: 476). The sensory data is used to perceive the external and the internal environment through comparison with expectations from the internal world model (Asundi, 2011:

44).

Fourth, the world model is the intelligent system’s best estimate of the state of the world. The world model includes a database of knowledge about the world, plus a database management system that stores and retrieves information. The world model also contains a simulation capability that generates expectations and predictions. The world model

thus can provide answers to requests for information about the present, past, and probable future states of the world. The world model provides this information service to the behavior generation system element, so that it can make intelligent plans and behavioral choices, to the sensory processing system element, in order for it to perform correlation, model matching, and model based recognition of states, objects, and events, and to the value judgment system element in order for it to compute values such as cost, benefit, risk, uncertainty, importance, attractiveness, etc. The world model is kept up-to-date by the sensory processing system element

(Albus, 1991: 476). Moreover, the world model provides answers to requests for information to the task decomposition element, so as to enable it to make intelligent plans and behavioral choices (Asundi, 2011:

44).

Fifth, the value judgment system element determines what is good and bad, rewarding and punishing, important and trivial, certain and improbable. The value judgment system evaluates both the observed state of the world and the predicted results of hypothesized plans. It computes costs, risks, and benefits both of observed situations and of planned activities. It computes the probability of correctness and assigns believability and uncertainty parameters to state variables. It also assigns attractiveness, or repulsiveness to objects, events, regions of space, and other creatures. The value judgment system thus provides the basis for making decisions for choosing one action as opposed to another, or for

pursuing one object and fleeing from another. Without value judgments, any biological creature would soon be eaten by others, and any artificially intelligent system would soon be disabled by its own inappropriate actions

(Albus, 1991: 476). It is emphasized that value judgment computes the costs, risks, benefits both of observed situations and of planned activities, the probability of correctness and assigns believability and uncertainty parameters to state variables (Asundi, 2011: 44).

Sixth, behavior generation means that behavior results from a behavior generating system element that selects goals, and plans and executes tasks. Tasks are recursively decomposed into subtasks, and subtasks are sequenced so as to achieve goals. Goals are selected and plans generated by a looping interaction between behavior generation, world modeling, and value judgment elements. The behavior generating system hypothesizes plans, the world model predicts the results of those plans, and the value judgment element evaluates those results. The behavior generating system then selects the plans with the highest evaluations for execution. The behavior generating system element also monitors the execution of plans, and modifies existing plans whenever the situation requires (Albus, 1991: 477). Behavior generation takes place in a task decomposition element where the planning and execution of tasks is carried out by decomposing them into subtasks and finally into goals.

(Asundi, 2011: 44).

c. Theories of Intelligence

Psychologists have advocated different types and aspects of intellectual abilities. It led to development of various theories of intelligence.

1) Charles Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory

In 1904, British psychologist Charles Spearman used statistically advanced technique, factor analysis, and found out two factors in intelligence namely, the g factor means a term used by him to connote general factor and s factor means specific factor (Muley, 2014: 136).

Charles Spearman regarded the high positive correlations between items designed to test aspects of intelligence, such as memory span, spatial ability and sequential reasoning, as an indication of the presence of a common factor. He named this the general intelligence factor (g) that is common to many abilities. At the same time, he saw that the items were not perfectly correlated with each other. This meant that there were other factors which were being tested. He consequently suggested that there are specific intelligence factors (s) that are specifically related to a single intellectual activity. This view of mental abilities came to be known as the

“two factor theory of intelligence” (Berk 2000: 317).

General factor refers to logical reasoning and problem solving ability and is present in all types of intellectual functioning. Specific factors are related with specific areas such as sports, music etc. and can be developed by special training and education in those domains. Many

intelligence tests available in market measure g-factor. Spearman was criticized by others for oversimplifying the nature of intelligence (Muley,

2014: 136).

2) Louis Thurstone’s Primary Mental Ability

An American psychologist Thurstone had built a theory of intelligence in 1938, which is also known as seven-factor theory. After using factor analysis, he concluded that intelligence was not a single general ability but consists of seven different and independent abilities.

They were so fundamental that he called them primary abilities (Muley,

2014: 136).

First, associative memory is the ability to relate different discrete information to have a meaningful unit. Second, numerical ability is the ability to engage correctly and rapidly in different computational operations. Third, Perceptual speed, it involves accurate and rapid identification of visual details, differences and similarities. Fourth, reasoning is the ability to find out principles and rules from individual instances. Fifth, spatial visualization is the ability to visually and mentally rotate the abstract figures in two or three-dimensional space. Sixth, verbal comprehension is related to person’s passive vocabulary. Multiple choice questions are used to assess it. Seventh, word fluency is related with person’s active vocabulary. Free recall is used to assess it. He had developed the battery of tests to measure these abilities. Later it was found that these abilities are not independent but correlated. Many

psychologists also disagreed with the number of abilities (Muley, 2014:

137).

3) Joy Guilford’s Structure of Intellect

He was psychologist of United States recognized for his psychometric study of intelligence. He proposed his theory on intelligence popularly known as Structure of Intellect (SI) in 1955. He explained three dimensions - content, operation and product - to describe 150 factors of intelligence involving 30 more abilities are added in 1980 and now the total number has become 180 (Muley, 2014: 137).

a) Content

Content includes information like symbols, images, signs etc. required for thinking. There are five broad types of content. First, visual refers to the concrete, real world information from environment perceived through seeing. Second, auditory refers to the concrete, real world information from environment perceived through hearing. Third, symbolic refers to the information perceived as signs or symbols which stand for something else. For example, numerals, alphabets, musical notes etc.

Fourth, semantic is related with ideas and meaning. It is abstract in nature.

Fifth, behavioral refers to the information is perceived as actions (Muley,

2014: 137-138).

b) Operations

Six operations are done on content which are explained by

Guilford. First, cognition is the ability to understand, to comprehend and to

discover meaning. Second, memory recording is related with encoding information. Third, memory retention deals with the recall of the information. Fourth, divergent production is creative ability which generate multiple solutions to a problem. Fifth, convergent production is rule- following ability and is useful in general and daily problem solving where deductive method is used for a single solution to a problem. Sixth, evaluation is the ability to judge the consistency, accuracy and validity of information (Muley, 2014: 138).

c) Products

Doing specific operation on specific content results in one of the six specific products mentioned below. The increasing complexity is seen in their order. First, units are a single item of knowledge. Second, classes are sets of units sharing common characteristics. Third, relations are linking of units in sequences, associations, analogies or as opposites. Fourth, systems are a network or structure having multiple interrelations among constituents. Fifth, transformations are the conversion or mutation of knowledge through changing perspectives. Sixth, implications are related with inferences, predictions, anticipation etc. of knowledge (Muley, 2014:

138-139).

From the above description, we can find 5 x 6 x 6 = 180 intellectual abilities or factors. Each ability is related to a particular content with particular operation resulting in a specific product. Even these factors were

found to be correlated and not independent in later research and so the model was criticized.

4) Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory

American Psychologist Gardner’s theory was based on neuroscience. Originally Gardner claimed that every human possessed seven intelligences, but later he added one more intelligence. He was of the view that intelligence expressed in terms of quotient or numerical value depicts incomplete picture of individual’s abilities. Its description should be based on skills and abilities of individuals which are valued within different cultures. He believed that intelligences could be nurtured through efforts and schools should take initiative in identifying and grooming intelligences of students. According to him there are nine mutually exclusive types of intelligences exist in each individual with varying amount (Muley, 2014:

140).

Gardner’s nine frames of mind of multiple intelligences is elaborated. First, verbal skills refer to the ability to think in words and to use language to express meaning (authors, journalists, speakers).

Second, mathematical skills refer to the ability to carry out the mathematical operations (scientists, engineers, accountants). Third, spatial skills refer to the ability to think three dimensionally (architects, artists, sailors). Fourth, bodily-kinesthetic skills refer to the ability to manipulate objects and be physically adept (surgeons, craftspeople, dancers, athletes). Fifth, musical skills refer to a sensitivity to pitch,

melody, rhythm, and tone (composers, musicians, and sensitive listeners).

Sixth, Intrapersonal skills refer to the ability to understand oneself and effectively direct one’s life (theologians, psychologists). Seventh, interpersonal skills refer to the ability to understand and effectively interact with others (successful teachers, mental health professionals). Eighth, naturalist skills refer to the ability to observe patterns in nature and understand natural and human-made systems (farmers, botanists, ecologists, landscapers). The last, existentialist skills refer to the ability to find big picture of world, meaning of life and death (philosopher, thinker)

(Santrock, 2006: 111).

Using MI in the classroom is necessary to notice. Because the IQ is easy to quantify and compare, we tend to focus on linguistic and logical- mathematical intelligences in our schools. However, Tele (2000) points out that this is a dangerous approach, since we only look at one or two ways that students learn. She says that students have different ways of learning.

Therefore, you cannot assess students’ performance only by looking at standardized tests.

Armstrong (2003) says that our culture places more value on linguistic intelligence than on any of the other seven intelligences, but we should not continue to do so. The theory of multiple intelligences suggests such value system needs to be reconsidered. We need to pay more attention to those neglected intelligences in our schools, especially spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, and naturalist intelligences, which become

great strengths to those students who have not been successful in linguistic-bound schools.

5) Robert Stenberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Robert Sternberg, an American psychologist defined intelligence in terms of selection and shaping of and purposive adaptation to one’s real- world environments (Muley, 2014: 141). According to him, intelligence should be successful. He suggested three different components.

First, analytical intelligence refers to problem-solving abilities. The students having this intelligence are called as ‘book smart’. Second, creative intelligence refers to the ability to deal creatively with new situations using past experiences and current skills. These people have divergent thinking ability which help them to find original and innovative solutions to problems. Third, practical intelligence refers to the ability to adapt to a changing environment. They use available information to maximize benefit and become successful. They are called as ‘street smart’

(Muley, 2014: 141).

Analytical intelligence works when the information-processing components of intelligence are engaged to analyze, evaluate, judge, or compare and contrast. It works when the components are engaged to the familiar kinds of problems where the judgement created are an abstract nature (Sternberg and Kaufman, 2011: 507). Creative intelligence contains some typical problems which is more novel than others. According to the theory of successful intelligence, creative intelligence is particularly well

measured by problems assessing how well an individual can cope with relative novelty (Sternberg and Kaufman, 2011: 509). Practical intelligence refers to individuals applying their abilities to the kinds of problem that confront them in daily life. Practical intelligence involves implementation of the component to experience (Sternberg and Kaufman, 2011: 511).

Students with high analytic ability tend to be favored in conventional schooling. They often do well in direct-instruction classes in which the teacher lectures and students are given objective tests. Students who are high in creative intelligence often are not on the top rung of their class.

Creatively intelligent students might not conform to teachers’ expectations about how assignments should be done. Instead of giving conformist answer, they give unique answers, for which they sometimes get reprimanded or marked down. Like student high in creative intelligence, students with high practical intelligence often do not relate well to the demands of school. However, these students often do well outside the classroom. They might have excellent social skills and good common sense (Santrock, 2006:110).

6) Emotional Intelligence

According to Goleman (1995), Emotional Intelligence consists of abilities such as being able to motivate oneself and persist in the face of frustrations, to control impulse and delay gratification, to regulate one’s moods and keep distress from swamping the ability to think, to empathize, and to hope. The main areas are knowing one’s emotions, managing

emotions, motivating oneself, recognizing emotions in others, and handling relationships.

Goleman proposed and explained five components of emotional intelligence. First, self-awareness is the ability to recognize and understand personal moods, emotions and drives and their effects on others. Second, self-regulation is the ability to control or redirect disruptive impulses, propensity to suspend judgment and to think before actions.

Third, internal motivation is the passion to work for internal reasons and pursue goals with energy and persistence that goes beyond tangible benefits. Fourth, empathy is one’s vicarious experience of another’s emotional experience. It is ‘feeling’ what another person feels. Fifth, social skills refer to the proficiency in managing relationships and building social networks based on common ground (Muley, 2014: 142).

d. Aptitude

According to Cohen & Swerdlik (2002: 257), Both intelligence and aptitude refer to cognitive abilities present in the individual. Berk, (2000:

316) states that intelligence refers to those cognitive abilities, for example verbal reasoning and knowledge of the meanings of words, which are called upon in a person’s general intellectual functioning across different areas of achievement. Aptitudes, however, are specific abilities which are utilized in certain areas of achievement (Berk, 2000: 319), for example three-dimensional spatial reasoning is used in architectural drawing.

Aptitude refers to a specific ability (Berk, 2000: 319), such as carrying out arithmetical calculations or recalling facts from information that has been read. Cohen & Swerdlik (2002: 301) states that aptitudes form as a result of the interaction between individual characteristics and learning opportunities in the environment. They, therefore, represent information and skills which are gradually acquired. According to Reber

(1995: 52), aptitudes can be measured and are used to predict a person’s potential for achievement in a defined area. If a person displays an aptitude for a type of activity by currently showing high specific ability in that field, one may predict that his or her performance will increase significantly with additional training in that area.

Intelligence is usually seen as g – the general complex problem- solving ability common to many skills, while aptitude refers to s – specific abilities, each involved in a certain domain or skill. There is a close relationship between general and specific intelligences. As was shown by

Carroll (Berk, 2000: 319), specific factors are related to general intelligence to a lesser or greater degree.

The differences between intelligence and aptitude are overviewed below:

Intelligence Aptitude

Intelligence is a general ability of a Aptitude is a specific ability of a person. person.

The knowledge of intelligence of an The knowledge of Aptitude, on other individual, we can predict his hand, acquaints us with the specific success in a number of situations abilities and capacities of an

involving mental function or activity. individual to succeed in a particular field of activity.

Wide scope Narrow scope

It refers to present ability. It refers to future potentiality.

It is usually measured by how much It is usually measured by how well a a person knows and can do certain person can perform certain task. areas. (Yaseer, 2015)

While g appears to be closely related to s, it seems logical that certain specific abilities may be developed to a greater or lesser degree in different people, influencing their scholastic performance and making them more suited to certain occupations than others. Carroll (1982: 29-120) states that while the general intelligence factor is the most important one in aptitude tests, some skills are specialized. He points out that certain skills in particular individuals have been developed to a point either above or below what could be expected from the level of general intelligence in a person. This variation makes it important to consider specific abilities as separate skills, independent of general intelligence, which will predict aspects of scholastic performance or make a person suited to a particular occupation.

Therefore, Aptitude is measured through the use of aptitude tests.

Aptitude tests tap a combination of learning experiences and inborn potential that was obtained under uncontrolled and undefined conditions

(Cohen & Swerdlik, 2002: 301). Test results obtained can then be used to predict a learner’s probable success in a future course or career.

One of the aptitude test is designed by Jim Barret (2004). Through this test, person’s major aptitude and IQ can be measured. There are five major abilities which can be revealed in this test, as follows: verbal ability, numerical ability, perceptual ability, spatial ability, and practical ability. The whole abilities can be summed up to get the potential score of IQ.

1) Verbal Ability

Verbal relates to the facility in the use and comprehension of words

(Webster, 2002). Verbal ability refers to the extent to which a person can approach words, sentences, written texts verbs, adjectives, as well as, the extent to which he/she can comprehend meanings, produce synonyms and antonyms, know the meaning and use of words, complete sentences with words omitted based on the word context and have a critical view towards written speech (Santrock, 2006: 212).

Test 1, ‘Word skills’, is a test of how well you understand words.

Language tests are often the most complex, because a word may be used in many different ways. Words are slippery, with alternative, deeper or hidden meanings. In Test 2, ‘Verbal concepts’, vocabulary is still important, but less so than perceiving what idea or association connects some words and not others. Rather than recognize the individual meanings of words, you are expected to work out those that form a ‘set’ or group. This test requires both a level of learning and experience and quickness in thinking.

In Test 3, ‘Critical application’, vocabulary is far less important than the ability to reason. While you will find that in Tests 1 and 2 you will, more or

less, either know the answer or not, with Test 3 you may need to take your time until you arrive at the answer (Barret, 2004: 8).

2) Numerical Ability

Numerical refers to the numbers or number system (Webster,

2002). Numerical ability refers to the way a person perceives, processes and calculates numbers and numerical symbols. It affects many skills, but the most common are basic arithmetic operations, the ability to perform estimates, geometry and statistics. Moreover, fundamental numerical ability includes the ability to understand time, measurement and estimation

(Santrock, 2006: 212).

Test 4, ‘Number skills’, examines arithmetical skills. You have to work with the rules of numbers: addition, subtraction, division and multiplication. It is also important to understand decimals, percentages and fractions. While skills such as the rules of numbers, percentages, weights and other measures can be learnt, Test 5, ‘Numerical reasoning’, measures mathematical potential in a broader way. It is the most abstract of the tests in this chapter. Test 6, ‘Number logic’, also looks at your aptitude for seeing a relationship between numbers. Again, the mathematical rules are simple, but you have to comprehend a pattern between the numbers, which is a more abstract process than mere arithmetic (Barret, 2004: 43).

3) Perceptual Ability

Perceptual involves perception especially in relation to immediate sensory experience (Webster, 2002). Perceptual ability refers to the faculty of interpreting or processing sensory information, such as that gathered from sight. It is often discussed in relation to cognitive (thought) and motor

(physical) abilities (Santrock, 2006: 213).

Perceptual tests are often used to establish levels of intelligence in a ‘fair’ manner because they do not have the biases of verbal or numerical tests, which depend to some degree upon learnt skills. In Test 7,

‘Perceptual logic’, you have to see how an idea evolves in order to work out what will happen next. Test 8, ‘Perceptual deduction’, asks you to form ideas or principles that link some things together, but exclude others. You have to see what is relevant in the information with which you are presented. If you are able to do well on Test 9, ‘Power focus’, it will show evidence of intelligence that may not be revealed in any conventional way

(by success at scholastic subjects). When performance on this test is better than that on any other test it generally indicates that your level of academic attainment has not been fully expressed, even if you have already done well academically (Barret, 2004: 71).

4) Spatial Ability

Spatial relates to the facility in perceiving relation as of object in space (Webster, 2002). Spatial ability is the capacity to understand, reason and remember the spatial relations among objects or space. Not

only do spatial abilities involve understanding the outside world, but they also involve processing outside information and reasoning with it through visual representation in the mind (Santrock, 2006: 214).

The tests in this chapter are looking for key practical as well as abstract aptitudes. In many of the problems that follow you will be expected to rotate an image in your mind so that you can ‘see’ what the reverse side looks like. We do this all the time in our daily lives, without giving it a thought, but psychologists have not yet discovered how a solid, three-dimensional shape is held in the mind, let alone what mental processes allow us to turn it around in our heads. It is a vital skill anyway, and one that some people are better at than others, as with most skills, which is the reason it is tested. In Test 10, ‘Shapes’, you have to work out how patterns are formed and what remains when part of a shape is removed. Test 11, ‘Blocks’, is a test of ‘sculptural’ and ‘construction’ potential. Test 12, the ‘Design’ test, is in its nature more fluid than the previous tests. The shapes become increasingly rounded until precise definition is almost lost (Barret, 2004: 115).

5) Practical Ability

Practical relates to practice and action (Webster, 2002). Practical ability means the ability performed by hand or with human intervention using equipment, tools or technology requiring guidance, force or movement. Practical ability primarily requires physical dexterity, although

an understanding of principles, processes and sequences is also essential, especially for more complex practices (Santrock, 2006: 215).

This chapter is intended to prepare you for tests that investigate some specific abilities. Test 13, ‘Word order’, demands that you use the alphabet. What is also being measured is how well you can maintain your concentration. Test 14, ‘Numerical systems’, looks at the basic numerical skills of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. At the same time, you have to substitute symbols for numbers, thus making the task more complex. In Test 15, ‘Graphs, tables and charts’, your ability to interpret information from a diagram or list is being assessed. Test 16, ‘Memory’, requires you to concentrate on a number of items and then to remember as many as possible. The test is in three parts, to enable you to see whether you are more proficient with words, numbers or pictures (Barret,

2004: 139).

e. Intelligence Quotient

Intelligence Quotient is the phenomena that involves assessment regarding one’s capability to observe, analyze and interpret the circumstances (Wechsler in Marwaha, 2015: 26). It’s the intellectual aptitude of an individual which is measurable and can be denoted numerically. Sternberg in Marwaha (2015: 26) termed Intelligence as a mental capacity which entails recognition and alteration of the surroundings in which an individual life. The level of IQ had been a predictor of the level of academic achievement of students. Intelligence will

encourage academic success and promote a quality learning experience

(Saibani & Simin, 2015).

Intelligence Quotient is a number used to indicate a person’s intelligence. A person’s IQ is based on a comparison of his or her score on an intelligence test with the scores of others on the same test. According to Papalia and Olds (1988: 134), Intelligence Quotient is nothing more than a mathematical score computed according to a formula derived by

Binet, but a great mystique has grown up around it. Moreover,

Hetherington (1993: 65) states that Intelligent Quotient is an index of intelligence that indicates how far below the mean the individual’s intelligence scores lies, relative to that of children age in the standardization group.

IQ classification is used to measure person’s level of intelligence.

IQ classification is the practice by IQ test publishers of labeling IQ score ranges with category names such as "superior" or "average". There are several publishers of tests of cognitive abilities. No two publishers use exactly the same classification labels, which have changed from time to time since the beginning of intelligence testing in the early twentieth century.

Intelligence Quotient can be classified based on its level. According to Slosson (1973), persons with IQ 140 and up is classified as very superior situated as genius or highest rank and placed in gifted classes, college, and graduate work. Person with IQ 120-139 is classified as

superior situated on higher up rank and placed in the same placement as very superior. Person with IQ 110-119 is classified as bright situated as clever or intelligent and placed in high school and college. Person with IQ

90-109 is classified as average situated as general significance and placed in high school and dubious college. Person with IQ 80-89 is classified as dull situated as stupid or mentally slow and placed in slow learner classes. Person with IQ 70-79 is classified as borderline situated as severe stupid and placed in slow learner and retarded classes. Person with IQ 50-69 is classified as moron situated as very stupid or mental retardation and placed in retarded classes (educable). Person with IQ 20-

49 is classified as imbecile situated as fool or moderate mental retardation and placed in retarded classes (trainable). Person with IQ 0-19 is classified as idiot situated as extreme mental retardation and not placed in school (not trainable).

C. Conceptual Framework

Learners of SMA Negeri 2 Makassar

Intelligence

Intelligence Intelligence

(s-factor) (g-factor)

Aptitude IQ Level

1. Very Superior 1. Verbal 2. Numerical Speaking Skills 2. Superior 3. Spatial 3. Bright 4. Perceptual 4. Average

5. Practical 5. Dull 6. Borderline 7. Moron

8. Imbecile

9. Idiot

The Most Influential IQ Level and Aptitude toward Learners’ Speaking Skills

The conceptual framework above shows the influence of intelligence on learners’ speaking skills. Particularly, this study focuses on

IQ level and aptitude which is the most dominant on learners’ speaking proficiency related to the correlation between their intelligence and speaking skills. The study also concerns with a correlational research which is conducted in SMA Negeri 2 Makassar.

Intelligence test is given to the learners to measure their IQ level and determine their major aptitude. Indicators of Intelligence test are verbal test, numerical test, perceptual test, spatial test, and practical test.

After diagnosing the result of the test, learners are categorized based on their IQ level and major aptitude. Then, test of speaking is conducted to know the learners’ speaking competence. Indicators of speaking test involve grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and fluency. Score of intelligence as the independent variable is correlated to the score of speaking skills as the dependent variable to measure the degree of mutual relationship between these two variables. Moreover, the result of speaking test is used to determine which IQ level is the most influential on speaking skills and which aptitude is the most dominant in influencing the speaking skills also.

D. Hypothesis

To find the answer of the problem, Alternative hypothesis (Hα) and

Null Hypothesis (Ho) are proposed. The hypothesis of the research is formulated as follows:

Hα : There is a correlation between learners’ intelligence and their

speaking skills at the first grade learners of SMA Negeri 2 Makassar.

Ho : There is no correlation between learners’ intelligence and their

speaking skills at the first grade learners of SMA Negeri 2 Makassar.

Significant critical value: 0.05 and 0.01

Criteria : If ro > rt means there is a correlation and Hα is

accepted, Ho is rejected.

If ro < rt means there is no correlation and Hα is rejected,

Ho is accepted.

According to Gay, et al. (2006:192), the existence of a high correlation does permit prediction. There are some predictions of mutual relationship between intelligence and speaking skills:

1. High speaking skill and high intelligence = Positive correlation

2. High speaking skill and low intelligence = Negative correlation

3. Low speaking skill and high intelligence = Negative correlation

4. Low speaking skill and low intelligence = Positive correlation

E. Operational Definition.

The operational definitions are presented below for explaining how variables are measured in the research.

1. Intelligence

Intelligence refers to the ability to engage in various forms of reasoning, to understand complex ideas, to learn from experience, to adapt effectively to the environment and to overcome obstacles. Based on

Charles Spearman’s two-factor theory, it is divided into g-factor for intelligence and s-factor for aptitude.

2. Intelligence Quotient

Intelligence Quotient refers to a number used to designate a person’s intelligence. A person’s IQ is based on a comparison of someone

score on an intelligence test with the scores of others on the same test. It is measured through the test developed by Barret (2004).

3. Aptitude

Aptitude refers to a natural or inherent talent for a certain skill or activity. Another way of thinking about aptitude is as a competency whether innate, acquired or developed for a certain type of work and this competency can be physical or mental. It is measured through the test developed by Barret (2004).

4. Speaking Skills

Speaking skills refer to productive skills in the oral mode. It, like the other skills, is more complicated than it seems and involves more than just pronouncing words. It is measured through the quantitative assessment developed by Heaton (1988).