Thesis submitted for the qualification of PhD in Geography Faith in action: religious organisations and development in Kolkata, India Jennifer Claire Lunn Department of Geography Royal Holloway University of London September 2010 Declaration I hereby declare that this thesis, submitted for the qualification of PhD in Geography at Royal Holloway University of London, is my own original work and has not been submitted elsewhere for any other award. Where other sources of information have been used, they are clearly acknowledged. Signature Date 2 Abstract Religion has returned to the public sphere after a long absence. Ideas of progressive secularisation, dominant for the last century, have been proved wrong by the revival and spread of religion across the world. Accordingly, religion has emerged as a revitalised topic of enquiry in almost every social science discipline. This includes the field of international development, where religion has appeared on the agendas of academics, policy-makers and practitioners. This research is framed within postdevelopment theory, which seeks to identify alternative approaches to development that are culturally specific and locally rooted; this includes incorporating the religious or spiritual dimension into development. One significant aspect of religion and development is the role of religious organisations as development actors. Although religious organisations have always been involved in development, their presence has been sidelined and their contribution undervalued: a better understanding is urgently required. There are major questions being asked about religious organisations in terms of the extent of their contribution to development, the ways in which they differ from secular organisations, their effectiveness, and the nature of their relationships with other development actors. This study joins the emerging literature that is seeking to address these questions; it offers a theoretically and conceptually framed analysis of the empirical complexities surrounding the role of religious organisations in development practice. This thesis is based on data collected from religious organisations in the city of Kolkata, India. The fieldwork was divided into three main stages. A survey of the civil society sector revealed over 220 religious organisations registered in central Kolkata; these were scrutinised by type and activities to identify those engaged in development. A sample of 50 organisations from ten different religions was selected for further analysis; data were collected through interviews with senior representatives and the examination of organisational documentation. Finally, three of these organisations were chosen for in-depth study, involving participant observation over a period of four months. The findings suggest that religious organisations form a significant part of civil society and play an active role in development. Many religious organisations are motivated to engage in development by their beliefs and values and see religion and development as inseparable. Some religious organisations also utilise particular religious resources and assets in development practice, with apparent effectiveness. Religious organisations tend to be situated within complex webs of interaction with a range of other development actors such as government, secular NGOs and the private sector; however, such relationships tend to be relatively superficial and the evidence of cooperation and collaboration in development is limited. 3 Contents Declaration 2 Abstract 3 Contents 4 List of figures 9 List of tables 10 Notes on terminology and spellings 11 Acronyms and abbreviations 12 Glossary 14 Acknowledgements 21 Dedication 22 Chapter 1 – Introduction 23 1.1 Introducing religious organisations and development 24 1.2 Some autobiographical reflections 25 1.3 A geographical approach to religion and development 27 1.3.1 Geographies of religion 28 1.3.2 Development geographies 31 1.3.3 Religion and development 33 1.4 A theoretical framework for religion and development 35 1.5 Terminology 38 1.5.1 Religion, spirituality, faith 38 1.5.2 Religious organisations 41 1.5.3 Development 42 1.5.4 Civil society 43 1.6 Contribution to the literature 45 1.7 Chapter outline 46 Chapter 2 – Religion and development 48 2.1 Religion and society 49 2.2 Religion and development 52 2.2.1 Theory 53 2.2.2 Practice 58 2.3 A postdevelopment framework for religion and development 62 2.3.1 Ways of thinking 63 2.3.2 Ways of doing 67 2.4 Reflections on the religion–development interface 70 Chapter 3 – Religious organisations 71 3.1 Introduction 72 4 3.2 Position and presence 73 3.2.1 Position in civil society 73 3.2.2 Typology of organisations 74 3.2.3 Research questions 78 3.3 Identity and expression 79 3.3.1 Organisational religiosity 79 3.3.2 Motivation and mission 80 3.3.3 Research questions 82 3.4 Impact and effectiveness 83 3.4.1 Characteristics 83 3.4.2 Effectiveness 86 3.4.3 Research questions 87 3.5 Interaction and collaboration 88 3.5.1 Intrareligious interaction and collaboration 89 3.5.2 Interreligious interaction and collaboration 89 3.5.3 Extrareligious interaction and collaboration 91 3.5.4 Research questions 92 3.6 Summary of main themes and research questions 92 Chapter 4 – Methodology 94 4.1 Introduction 95 4.2 Stage 1 – Survey of religious organisations in Kolkata 95 4.2.1 Data sources 96 4.2.2 Data collection 99 4.3 Stage 2 – Investigation of fifty religious organisations in Kolkata 100 4.3.1 Sampling 101 4.3.2 Choice of elite interviewing 103 4.3.3 Data collection 105 4.4 Stage 3 – In-depth study of three religious organisations in Kolkata 108 4.4.1 Sampling 108 4.4.2 Profiles of chosen organisations 110 4.4.3 Data collection 112 4.5 Research ethics 113 4.5.1 Cultural sensitivity 114 4.5.2 Informed consent 114 4.5.3 Confidentiality 115 4.5.4 Reciprocity 116 4.5.5 Emotional involvement 117 4.6 Researcher positionality 117 4.6.1 Accompanied fieldwork 119 4.7 Applying ethics and positionality 121 4.7.1 Researching the Global South 121 4.7.2 Researching civil society organisations 124 4.7.3 Researching religion 126 5 Chapter 5 – India and West Bengal 131 5.1 Introduction 132 5.2 Historical overview of the civil society sector in India 136 5.2.1 Ancient India to Mughal period (c.1000 BCE to mid 1700s CE) 136 5.2.2 Early to mid colonial period (late 1700s to 1900) 137 5.2.3 Late colonial period (early 1900s to 1947) 138 5.2.4 Early Independence period (1947 to late 1950s) 140 5.2.5 Post-Independence period (1960s to 1980s) 140 5.2.6 Contemporary period (1990s to present) 142 5.3 Relationship between government and civil society sector in India 143 5.3.1 Legislative framework 143 5.3.2 Institutional support 144 5.3.3 Five Year Plans 145 5.4 Levels of socio-economic development in West Bengal 147 5.5 Unique ethno-religious landscape of India and West Bengal 150 5.5.1 Religious diversity and coexistence 150 5.5.2 Tradition of religious harmony and tolerance 153 5.5.3 Legal and institutional framework for religious freedom 155 5.5.4 Contemporary communal relations 156 Chapter 6 – Position and presence 159 6.1 Introduction 160 6.2 Presence of religious organisations 161 6.3 Diversity of religious organisations 163 6.3.1 Religious affiliation 163 6.3.2 Date of formation 166 6.3.3 Parent bodies 169 6.4 Classification of religious organisations 170 6.4.1 Classification by type of organisation 170 6.4.2 Classification by activities 174 6.4.3 Classification by place in the aid chain 179 6.5 Emerging issues 182 6.5.1 Presence of religious organisations in civil society 182 6.5.2 Usefulness of different typologies for classifying religious organisations 183 6.5.3 Significance of informal religious organisations 185 6.6 Concluding reflections 186 Chapter 7 – Identity and expression 188 7.1 Introduction 189 7.2 Organisational religiosity 189 7.2.1 Identity 190 7.2.2 Purpose 194 6 7.2.3 Affiliation 194 7.2.4 Environment 195 7.2.5 Resources 195 7.2.6 Management and staff 197 7.2.7 Beneficiaries 198 7.2.8 Activities 199 7.2.9 Proselytism 202 7.2.10 Interaction 203 7.3 Organisational motivation 203 7.3.1 Scriptural teaching 204 7.3.2 Spiritual incentive 204 7.3.3 Community strengthening 205 7.3.4 Proselytism 207 7.4 Case studies – three organisations in Kolkata 208 7.4.1 RKM LSP – divinity of human beings 208 7.4.2 AFK – applied Islam 209 7.4.3 CRS – building the Kingdom of God 210 7.5 Emerging issues 211 7.5.1 Levels of organisational religiosity 211 7.5.2 Motivation and mission 212 7.5.3 Inseparability of religion and development 215 7.6 Concluding reflections 217 Chapter 8 – Impact and effectiveness 218 8.1 Introduction 219 8.2 Religious capital 219 8.2.1 Religious leaders 220 8.2.2 Religious congregations 221 8.2.3 Religious networks 222 8.3 Spiritual capital 224 8.3.1 Individual blossoming 225 8.3.2 Human rights education 226 8.3.3 Force of transformation 227 8.3.4 Character building 228 8.3.5 Philosophy of change 229 8.4 Case studies – three organisations in Kolkata 230 8.4.1 RKM LSP – self-improvement 230 8.4.2 AFK – influencing imams 231 8.4.3 CRS – denominational networks 233 8.5 Emerging issues 234 8.5.1 Comparative advantage 234 8.5.2 Added value 235 8.5.3 Effectiveness 237 8.6 Concluding reflections 239 7 Chapter 9 – Interaction and collaboration 241 9.1 Introduction 242 9.2 Mapping interactions 243 9.2.1 Religious organisations and the civil society sector 244 9.2.2 Religious organisations and the state sector 247 9.2.3 Religious organisations and the private sector 248 9.3 Negotiating coexistence 250 9.3.1 Duplication