Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of

Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, KG (24 June mours that he had arranged for his wife’s death continued 1532 or 1533[note 1] – 4 September 1588) was an English throughout his life, despite the coroner’s jury's verdict of nobleman and the favourite and close friend of Elizabeth accident. For 18 years he did not remarry for Queen Eliz- I from her first year on the throne until his death. The abeth’s sake and when he finally did, his new wife, Lettice Queen giving him reason to hope, he was a suitor for her Knollys, was permanently banished from court. This and hand for many years. the death of his only legitimate son and heir were heavy blows.[2] Shortly after the child’s death in 1584, a viru- Dudley’s youth was overshadowed by the downfall of his family in 1553 after his father, the Duke of Northumber- lent libel known as Leicester’s Commonwealth was circu- land, had unsuccessfully tried to establish lating in . It laid the foundation of a literary and historiographical tradition that often depicted the Earl as on the English throne. Robert Dudley was condemned to [3] death but was released in 1554 and took part in the Battle the Machiavellian “master courtier” and as a deplorable of St. Quentin under Philip II of Spain, which led to his figure around . More recent research has led full rehabilitation. On Elizabeth I’s accession in Novem- to a reassessment of his place in Elizabethan government ber 1558, Dudley was appointed Master of the Horse. In and society. October 1562 he became a privy councillor and in 1587 was appointed Lord Steward of the Royal Household. In 1564 Dudley became Earl of Leicester and from 1563 1 Youth one of the greatest landowners in North Wales and the English West Midlands by royal grants. Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, was one of Elizabeth’s leading statesmen, involved in domestic as well as foreign politics alongside William Cecil and Francis Walsing- ham. Although he refused to be married to Mary, Queen of Scots, Dudley was for a long time relatively sympa- thetic to her until from the mid-1580s he strongly advo- cated her execution. As patron of the Puritan movement he supported non-conforming preachers, but tried to me- diate between them and the bishops within the Church of England. A champion also of the international Protes- tant cause, he led the English campaign in support of the Dutch Revolt from 1585–1587. His acceptance of the post of Governor-General of the United Provinces infu- riated Queen Elizabeth. The expedition was a military and political failure and ruined the Earl financially. Le- icester was engaged in many large-scale business ventures and a main backer of Francis Drake and other explorers and privateers. During the the Earl was in overall command of the English land forces. In this Quartered arms of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester function he invited Queen Elizabeth to visit her troops at Tilbury. This was the last of many events he organised over the years, the most spectacular being the festival at his seat Castle in 1575 on occasion of a three- 1.1 Education and marriage week visit by the Queen. Dudley was a principal patron of the arts, literature, and the Elizabethan theatre.[1] Robert Dudley was the fifth son of John Dudley, , and his wife Jane, daughter of Sir Robert Dudley’s private life interfered with his court ca- Edward Guildford.[4] John and Jane Dudley had 13 chil- reer and vice versa. When his first wife, Amy Robsart, dren in all and were known for their happy family life.[5] fell down a flight of stairs and died in 1560, he was free Among the siblings’ tutors figured John Dee,[6] Thomas to marry the Queen. However, the resulting scandal very Wilson, and Roger Ascham.[7] Roger Ascham believed much reduced his chances in this respect. Popular ru- that Robert Dudley possessed a rare talent for languages

1 2 2 ROYAL FAVOURITE

and writing, regretting that his pupil had done him- ley, the youngest brother, fought for Philip II at the Battle self harm by preferring mathematics.[8] The craft of of St. Quentin in August 1557.[23] Henry Dudley was the courtier Robert learnt at the courts of Henry VIII, killed in the following siege by a cannonball—according and especially Edward VI, among whose companions he to Robert, before his own eyes.[24] All surviving Dudley served.[9] children—Ambrose and Robert with their sisters Mary and Katherine—were restored in blood by Mary I’s next In 1549 Robert Dudley participated in crushing Kett’s [18] Rebellion and probably first met Amy Robsart, whom he parliament in 1558. was to wed on 4 June 1550 in the presence of the young King Edward.[10] She was of the same age as the bride- groom and the daughter and heiress of Sir John Robsart, 2 Royal favourite a gentleman-farmer of .[11] It was a love-match, the young couple depending heavily on both their fathers’ gifts, especially Robert’s. John Dudley, who since early 1550 effectively ruled England, was pleased to strengthen his influence in Norfolk by his son’s marriage.[12] Lord Robert, as he was styled as a duke's son, became an im- portant local gentleman and a Member of Parliament. His court career went on in parallel.[13]

1.2 Condemned and pardoned

On 6 July 1553 King Edward VI died and the Duke of Elizabeth’s coronation procession: Robert Dudley is on horseback Northumberland attempted to transfer the English Crown on the far left, leading the palfrey of honour. to Lady Jane Grey, his daughter-in-law who was married to his second youngest son, Guildford Dudley.[14] Robert Robert Dudley was counted among Elizabeth's special Dudley led a force of 300 into Norfolk where Mary Tu- friends by Philip II’s envoy to the English court a week dor was assembling her followers. After some ten days in before Queen Mary’s death.[18] On 18 November 1558, the county and securing several towns for Jane, he took the morning after Elizabeth’s accession, he witnessed the King’s Lynn and proclaimed her on the market-place.[15] surrender of the Great Seal to her at Hatfield. He became The next day, 19 July, Jane’s reign was over in Lon- Master of the Horse on the same day.[4] This was an im- don. Soon, the townsmen of King’s Lynn seized Robert portant court position entailing close attendance on the Dudley and the rest of his small troop and sent him to sovereign. It suited him, as he was an excellent horse- Framlingham Castle before Mary I.[16] man and showed great professional interest in royal trans- He was imprisoned in the Tower of , attainted, port and accommodation, horse breeding, and the sup- and condemned to death, as were his father and four ply of horses for all occasions. Dudley was also entrusted brothers. His father went to the scaffold.[17] In the Tower, with organising and overseeing a large part of the Queen’s [25] Dudley’s stay coincided with the imprisonment of his coronation festivities. childhood friend,[18] Mary’s half-sister Elizabeth, who In April 1559 Dudley was elected a Knight of the Garter was sent there on suspicion of involvement in Wyatt’s in the good company of England’s only duke and an earl, Rebellion. Guildford Dudley was executed in February causing great wonder.[26] The ambassador of the Republic 1554. The surviving brothers were released in the au- of Venice soon wrote home: “My Lord Robert Dudley is tumn; working for their release, their mother (who died ... very intimate with Her Majesty. On this subject I ought in January 1555) and their brother-in-law, Henry Sid- to report the opinion of many but I doubt whether my ney, had befriended the incoming Spanish nobles around letters may not miscarry or be read, wherefore it is better Philip of Spain, Mary’s husband.[4] to keep silence than to speak ill.”[27] Philip II had already In December 1554, Ambrose and Robert Dudley took been informed shortly before Dudley’s decoration: part in a tournament held to celebrate Anglo-Spanish friendship.[4] Yet, the Dudley brothers were only wel- Lord Robert has come so much into favour come at court as long as King Philip was there,[19] oth- that he does whatever he likes with affairs and erwise they were even suspected of associating with peo- it is even said that her majesty visits him in his ple who conspired against Mary’s regime.[20] In January chamber day and night. People talk of this so 1557 Robert and Amy Dudley were allowed to repossess freely that they go so far as to say that his wife some of their former lands,[21] and in March of the same has a malady in one of her breasts[note 2] and the year Dudley was at Calais where he was chosen to deliver Queen is only waiting for her to die to marry personally to Queen Mary the happy news of Philip’s re- Lord Robert ... Matters have reached such a turn to England.[22] Ambrose, Robert, and Henry Dud- pass ... that ... it would ... be well to approach 2.1 Amy Dudley’s death 3

2.1 Amy Dudley’s death

Further information: Amy Robsart

Already in April 1559 court observers noted that Eliz- abeth never let Dudley from her side;[36] but her favour did not extend to his wife.[37] Lady Amy Dudley lived in different parts of the country since her ancestral was uninhabitable.[38] Her husband visited her for four days at Easter 1559 and she spent a month around London in the early summer of the same year.[39] They never saw each other again; Dudley was with the Queen at and possibly planning a visit to her, when his wife was found dead at her residence Place near on 8 September 1560:[40]

There came to me Bowes, by whom I do understand that my wife is dead and as he sayeth by a fall from a pair of stairs. Little other understanding can I have of him. The greatness and the suddenness of the misfortune doth so perplex me, until I do hear from you how the matter standeth, or how this evil should light upon me, considering what the malicious world will bruit, as I can take no rest.[41]

Elizabeth I Coronation Miniature

Lord Robert on your Majesty’s behalf ... Your Majesty would do well to attract and confirm him in his friendship.[28]

Within a month the Spanish ambassador, Count de Feria, counted Robert Dudley among three persons who ran the country.[note 3] Visiting foreigners of princely rank were bidding for his goodwill. He acted as official host on state occasions and was himself a frequent guest at am- bassadorial dinners.[29] By the autumn of 1559 several foreign princes were vying for the Queen’s hand; their im- patient envoys came under the impression that Elizabeth was fooling them, “keeping Lord Robert’s enemies and the country engaged with words until this wicked deed of killing his wife is consummated.”[30] “Lord Robert”, the new Spanish ambassador de Quadra was convinced, was the man “in whom it is easy to recognise the king that is to be ... she will marry none but the favoured Robert.”[31] Many of the nobility would not brook Dud- ley’s new prominence, as they could not “put up with his Lord Robert Dudley c. 1560 being King.”[32] Plans to kill the favourite abounded,[33] and Dudley took to wearing a light coat of mail under Retiring to his house at , away from court as from the his clothes.[34] Among all classes, in England and abroad, putative crime scene, he pressed for an impartial inquiry gossip got under way that the Queen had children by which had already begun in the form of an inquest.[42] Dudley—such rumours never quite ended for the rest of The jury found that it was an accident: Lady Dudley, her life.[35] staying alone “in a certain chamber”, had fallen down the 4 2 ROYAL FAVOURITE adjoining stairs, sustaining two head injuries and break- to give him a suitable title together with twenty thousand ing her neck.[43] It was widely suspected that Dudley pounds a year. There was universal relief when she recov- had arranged his wife’s death to be able to marry the ered her health; Dudley was made a privy councillor.[55] Queen. The scandal played into the hands of nobles He was already deeply involved in foreign politics, in- and politicians who desperately tried to prevent Elizabeth cluding Scotland.[56] In 1563 Elizabeth suggested Dudley from marrying him.[44] Some of these, like William Cecil as a consort to the widowed Mary, Queen of Scots, the and , made use of it,[45] but did idea being to achieve firm amity between England and not themselves believe Dudley to be involved[46] in the Scotland and diminish the influence of foreign powers.[57] tragedy which affected the rest of his life.[4] Elizabeth’s preferred solution was that they should all Most historians have considered murder to be live together at the English court, so that she would not have to forgo her favourite’s company.[4] Mary of Scot- unlikely.[47] The coroner’s report came to light in The National Archives in 2008 and is compatible with land at first enquired if Elizabeth was serious, wanting [48] above all to know her chances of inheriting the English an accidental fall as well as suicide or other violence. [58] In the absence of the forensic findings of 1560, it was crown. Elizabeth repeatedly declared that she was only prepared to acknowledge Mary as her heir on condition often assumed that a simple accident could not be the [59] explanation[49]—on the basis of near-contemporary that she marry Robert Dudley. Mary’s Protestant ad- visors warmed to the prospect of having Dudley as their tales that Amy Dudley was found at the bottom of a [60] short flight of stairs with a broken neck, her headdress prince, and in September 1564 he was created Earl [50] of Leicester, a move designed to make him more accept- still standing undisturbed “upon her head”, a detail [4] that first appeared as a satirical remark in the libel able to Mary. In January 1565 Thomas Randolph, the English ambassador to Scotland, was told by the Scot- Leicester’s Commonwealth of 1584 and has ever since [61] been repeated for a fact.[51] To account for such oddities tish queen that she would accept the proposal. To his and evidence that she was ill, it was suggested in 1956 amazement, Dudley was not to be moved to comply: by Ian Aird, a professor of medicine, that Amy Dudley might have suffered from breast cancer, which through But a man of that nature I never found any metastatic cancerous deposits in the spine, could have ... he whom I go about to make as happy as ever caused her neck to break under only limited strain, such was any, to put him in possession of a kingdom, as a short fall or even just coming down the stairs.[50] to lay in his naked arms a most fair ... lady This explanation has been widely accepted.[47] Suicide ... nothing regardeth the good that shall ensue has also often been considered an option, motives being unto him thereby ... but so uncertainly dealeth [62] Amy Dudley’s depression or mortal illness.[52] that I know not where to find him.

Dudley indeed had made it clear to the Scots at the be- 2.2 Marriage hopes and proposals ginning that he was not a candidate for Mary’s hand and forthwith had behaved with passive resistance.[63] He also Elizabeth remained close with Dudley and he, with her worked in the interest of Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, blessing and on her prompting, pursued his suit for her Mary’s eventual choice of husband.[64] Elizabeth herself hand in an atmosphere of diplomatic intrigue.[53] His wavered as to declaring Mary her heir, until in March wife’s and his father’s shadows haunted his prospects.[4] 1565 she decided she could not bring herself to it.[65] Pope Pius IV explained to one of his cardinals: Still, she finally told the Spanish ambassador that the pro- posal fell through because the Earl of Leicester refused to the greater part of the nobility of that island cooperate.[66] take ill the marriage which the said queen de- By 1564 Dudley had realised that his chances of becom- signs to enter with the Lord Robert Dudley ... ing Elizabeth’s consort were small.[67] At the same time they fear that if he becomes king, he will want he could not “consider ... without great repugnance”, as to avenge the death of his father, and extirpate [68] [54] he said, that she chose another husband. Confronted the nobility of that kingdom. with other marriage projects, Elizabeth continued to say that she still would very much like to marry him.[69] Dud- Elizabeth countered such notions, saying that Lord ley was seen as a serious candidate until the mid- Robert “was of a very good disposition and nature, not and later.[70] To remove this threat to Habsburg and Valois given by any means to seek revenge of former matters [54] suitors, between 1565 and 1578, four German and French past”. His efforts leading nowhere, in the spring of princesses were mooted as brides for Leicester, as a con- 1561 Dudley offered to leave England to seek military solation for giving up Elizabeth and his resistance to her adventures abroad; Elizabeth would have none of that and [71] [4] foreign marriage projects. These he had and would everything remained as it was. continue to sabotage.[72] In 1566 Dudley formed the opin- In October 1562 the Queen fell ill with smallpox and, be- ion that Elizabeth would never marry, recalling that she lieving her life to be in danger, she asked the Privy Coun- had always said so since she was eight years old; but he cil to make Robert Dudley Protector of the Realm and still was hopeful—she had also assured him he would be 5

her choice in case she changed her mind (and married an The sanitary situation in the palaces was a perennial prob- Englishman).[73] lem, and a talk with Leicester about these issues inspired John Harington to construct a water closet.[83] Leices- ter was a lifelong sportsman, hunting and jousting in the 2.3 Life at court tiltyard, and an indefatigable tennis-player.[83] He was also the Queen’s regular dancing partner.[84]

3 Ancestral and territorial ambi- tion

Robert Dudley, dressed partly in tilting armour, 1575[74]

As “a male favourite to a virgin queen”, Robert Dudley found himself in an unprecedented situation.[4] His apart- ments at court were next to hers,[75] and—perceived as knowing “the Queen and her nature best of any man”— Ambrose, , Robert Dudley’s elder brother his influence was matched by few.[76] Another side of such privileges was Elizabeth’s possessiveness and jeal- After the Duke of Northumberland’s attainder the entire ousy. His company was essential for her well-being and [4] Dudley inheritance had disappeared. His sons had to start for many years he was hardly allowed to leave. Sir from scratch in rebuilding the family fortunes, as they had reported a growing emergency when renounced any rights to their father’s former possessions the Earl was away for a few weeks in 1578: “This court or titles when their own attainders had been lifted in Jan- wanteth your presence. Her majesty is unaccompanied [85] [77] uary 1558. Robert Dudley financed the lifestyle ex- and, I assure you, the chambers are almost empty.” pected of a royal favourite by large loans from City of On ceremonial occasions Dudley often acted as an un- London merchants until in April 1560 Elizabeth granted official consort, sometimes in the Queen’s stead.[78] In a him his first export licence, worth £6,000 p.a.[86] He also personal letter to the , an old friend received some of his father’s lands, but since he was not of Leicester’s, Elizabeth said she considered Leicester as the family heir it was a matter of some difficulty to find a “another ourself”.[79] He largely assumed charge of court suitable estate for his intended peerage.[87] In June 1563 ceremonial and organised hundreds of small and large the Queen granted him Kenilworth Manor, Castle, and festivities.[80] From 1587 he was Lord Steward,[81] be- Park, together with the lordships of Denbigh and Chirk in ing responsible for the royal household's supply with food North Wales. Other grants were to follow.[88] All in all, and other commodities. He displayed a strong sense for Leicester and his elder brother Ambrose, Earl of War- economising and reform in this function, which he had wick, came to preside over the greatest aristocratic inter- de facto occupied long before his official appointment.[82] est in the West Midlands and North Wales.[89] 6 4 LOVE AFFAIRS AND REMARRIAGE

3.1 Denbighshire and, with his brother, adopted the ancient heraldic device of the earls of Warwick, the bear and ragged staff.[100] At the time Robert Dudley entered his new Welsh pos- Due to such genealogical aspects the West Midlands held sessions there had existed a tenurial chaos for more than a special significance for him.[101] The town of Warwick half a century. Some leading local families benefited felt this during a magnificent visit by the Earl in 1571 to from this to the detriment of the Crown’s revenue. To celebrate the feast of the Order of Saint Michael, with remedy this situation, and to increase his own income, which Leicester had been invested by the French king in Dudley effected compositions with the tenants in what 1566.[102] He shortly afterwards founded Lord Leyces- Simon Adams has called an “ambitious resolution of ter’s Hospital, a charity for aged and injured soldiers still a long-standing problem ... without parallel in Eliza- functioning today.[103] beth’s reign”.[90] All tenants that had so far only been was the centre of Leicester’s ambitions copyholders were raised to the status of freeholders in to “plant” himself in the region,[104] and he substantially exchange for newly agreed rents. Likewise, all tenants’ transformed the site’s appearance through comprehensive rights of common were secured as were the boundaries alterations.[105] He added a 15th-century style gatehouse of the commons, thus striking a balance between prop- to the castle’s medieval structures, as well as a formal erty rights and protection against enclosure.[91] garden and a residential wing which featured the “brittle, Though an absentee landlord, Leicester, who was also thin walls and grids of windows” that were to become the Baron of Denbigh, regarded the lordship as an inte- hallmark of Elizabethan architecture in later decades.[106] gral part of a territorial base for a revived House of His works completed, the Earl staged a spectacular 19- Dudley.[92] He set about developing the town of Denbigh day-festival in July 1575 as a final, allegorical bid for the with large building projects;[93] the church he planned, Queen’s hand; it was as much a request to give him leave though, was never finished, being too ambitious. It would to marry someone else.[4] There were a Lady of the Lake, not only have been the largest,[94] but also the first post- a swimming papier-mâché dolphin with a little orchestra Reformation church in England and Wales built accord- in its belly, fireworks, masques, hunts, and popular en- ing to a plan where the preacher was to take the centre in- tertainments like bear baiting.[107] The whole scenery of stead of the altar, thus stressing the importance of preach- landscape, artificial lake, castle, and Renaissance garden ing in the Protestant Church. In vain Leicester tried to was ingeniously used for the entertainment.[108] have the nearby episcopal see of St. Asaph transferred to Denbigh.[95] He also encouraged and supported the trans- lation of the Bible and the Common Prayer Book into 4 Love affairs and remarriage Welsh.[96]

Confronted by a Puritan friend with rumours about his 3.2 Warwick and Kenilworth “ungodly life”,[109] Dudley defended himself in 1576:

I stand on the top of the hill, where ... the smallest slip seemeth a fall ... I may fall many ways and have more witnesses thereof than many others who perhaps be no saints nei- ther ... for my faults ... they lie before Him who I have no doubt but will cancel them as I have been and shall be most heartily sorry for them.[110]

With Douglas Sheffield, a young widow of the Howard family, he had a serious relationship from about 1569.[111] He explained to her that he could not marry, not even in order to beget a Dudley heir, without his “ut- ter overthrow":[112] Fireplace at Kenilworth Castle, decorated with heraldic emblems of Robert Dudley and the letters R and L for “Robert Leicester”[97] You must think it is some marvellous cause Ambrose and Robert Dudley were very close, in mat- ... that forceth me thus to be cause almost of ters of business and personally.[98] Through their pater- the ruin of mine own house ... my brother you nal grandmother they descended from the Hundred Years see long married and not like to have children, War heroes, John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, and it resteth so now in myself; and yet such occa- Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick.[99] Robert Dud- sions is there ... as if I should marry I am sure ley was especially fascinated by the Beauchamp descent never to have [the Queen’s] favour”.[113] 7

Although in this letter Leicester said he still loved her as tate (after his brother Ambrose’s death), including Kenil- he did at the beginning, he offered her his help to find worth Castle.[123] Douglas Sheffield remarried in 1579. another husband for reasons of respectability if she so After the death of Elizabeth I in 1603, the younger Robert wished.[114] The affair continued and in 1574 Douglas Dudley tried unsuccessfully to prove that his parents had gave birth to a son, also called Robert Dudley.[115] married 30 years earlier in a secret ceremony. In that case he would have been able to claim the earldoms of Leicester and Warwick.[124] His mother supported him, but maintained that she had been strongly against rais- ing the issue and was possibly pressured by her son.[125] Leicester himself had throughout considered the boy as illegitimate.[126][note 4] On 21 September 1578 Leicester secretly married Lady Essex at his country house at Wanstead, with only a hand- ful of relatives and friends present.[127] He did not dare to tell the Queen of his marriage; nine months later Le- icester’s enemies at court acquainted her with the situa- tion, causing a furious outburst.[128] She already had been aware of his marriage plans a year earlier, though.[129] Leicester’s hope of an heir was fulfilled in 1581 when an- other Robert Dudley, styled Lord Denbigh, was born.[130] The child died aged three in 1584, leaving behind discon- solate parents.[131] Leicester found comfort in God since, as he wrote, “princes ... seldom do pity according to the rules of charity.”[132] The Earl turned out to be a devoted husband:[133] In 1583 the French ambassador, Michel de Castelnau, wrote of “the Earl of Leicester and his lady to whom he is much attached”, and “who has much influ- ence over him”.[134] Leicester was a concerned parent to his four stepchildren,[135] and in every respect worked for the advancement of Robert Devereux, 2nd , whom he regarded as his political heir.[136] Lettice, Countess of Leicester, by George Gower c. 1585 The marriage of her favourite hurt the Queen deeply. [137] was the wife of Walter Devereux, 1st Earl She never accepted it, humiliating Leicester in pub- of Essex, and first cousin once removed of Queen Eliza- lic: “my open and great disgraces delivered from her [138] beth on her mother’s side. Leicester had flirted with her in Majesty’s mouth”. Then again, she would be as fond [139] the summer of 1565, causing an outbreak of jealousy in of him as ever. In 1583 she informed ambassadors the Queen.[116] After Lord Essex went to Ireland in 1573, that Lettice Dudley was “a she-wolf” and her husband a [140] they possibly became lovers.[117] There was much talk, “traitor” and “a cuckold”. Lady Leicester’s social life [141] and on Essex' homecoming in December 1575, “great en- was much curtailed. Even her movements could pose mity between the Earl of Leicester and the Earl of Essex” a political problem, as Francis Walsingham explained: “I was expected.[118] In July 1576 Essex returned to Ireland, see not her Majesty disposed to use the services of my where he died of dysentery in September.[117] Rumours Lord of Leicester. There is great offence taken at the [142] of poison, administered by the Earl of Leicester’s means, conveying down of his lady.” The Earl stood by his were soon abroad. The Lord Deputy of Ireland, Sir Henry wife, asking his colleagues to intercede for her; there was [143] Sidney, conducted an official investigation which did not no hope: “She [the Queen] doth take every occasion find any indications of foul play but “a disease appropri- by my marriage to withdraw any good from me”, Leices- [144] ate to this country ... whereof ... died many”.[119] The ter wrote still after seven years of marriage. rumours continued.[120] The prospect of marriage to the Countess of Essex on the horizon, Leicester finally drew a line under his re- lationship with Douglas Sheffield. Contrary to what she 5 Colleagues and politics later claimed, they came to an amicable agreement over their son’s custody.[4] Young Robert grew up in Dud- For the first 30 years of Elizabeth’s reign, until Leices- ley’s and his friends’ houses, but had “leave to see” ter’s death, he and Lord Burghley were the most powerful his mother until she left England in 1583.[121] Leices- and important political figures, working intimately with ter was very fond of his son and gave him an excellent the Queen.[145] Robert Dudley was a conscientious privy education.[122] In his will he left him the bulk of his es- councillor, and one of the most frequently attending.[146] 8 6 PATRONAGE

lious provinces. This debate stretched over a decade until 1585, with the Earl of Leicester as the foremost interventionist. Burghley was more cautious of mili- tary engagement while in a dilemma over his Protestant predilections.[157] Until about 1571/1572 Dudley supported Mary Stuart’s succession rights to the English throne.[158] He was also, from the early 1560s, on the best terms with the Protes- tant lords in Scotland, thereby supporting the English or, as he saw it, the Protestant interest.[159] After Mary Stuart’s flight into England (1568) Leicester was, unlike Cecil,[160] in favour of restoring her as Scottish queen un- der English control, preferably with a Protestant English husband, such as the Duke of Norfolk.[161] In 1577 Le- icester had a personal meeting with Mary and listened to her complaints of captivity.[162] By the early 1580s Mary had come to fear Leicester’s influence with James VI, her son, in whose privy chamber the English Earl [4] Robert Dudley in 1576, aged 44, as is stated in the margin. had placed a spy. She spread stories about his supposed Miniature by [4] lust for the English throne,[4] and when the Catholic anti- Leicester libel, Leicester’s Commonwealth, was published in 1584 Dudley believed that Mary was involved in its [163] In 1560 the diplomat Nicholas Throckmorton advocated conception. vehemently against Dudley marrying the Queen, but The Bond of Association, which the Privy Council gave Dudley won him over in 1562.[147] Throckmorton hence- out in October 1584, may have originated in Dudley’s forth became his political advisor and intimate. After ideas.[164] Circulated in the country, the document’s sub- Throckmorton’s death in 1571 there quickly evolved a po- scribers swore that, should Elizabeth be assassinated (as litical alliance between the Earl of Leicester and Sir Fran- William the Silent had been a few months earlier), not cis Walsingham, soon to be Secretary of State. Together only the killer but also the royal person who would bene- they worked for a militant Protestant foreign policy.[148] fit from this should be executed.[165] Leicester’s relations There also existed a family relationship between them with James of Scotland grew closer when he gained the after Walsingham’s daughter had married , confidence of the King’s favourite, Patrick, Master of Leicester’s favourite nephew.[149] Leicester, after some Gray, in 1584–1585. His negotiations with the Master initial jealousy, also became a good friend of Sir Christo- were the basis for the Treaty of Berwick,[4] a defensive pher Hatton, himself one of Elizabeth’s favourites.[150] alliance between the two British states against European Robert Dudley’s relationship with William Cecil, Lord powers. In 1586 Walsingham uncovered the Babington Burghley, was complicated. Traditionally they have been Plot; after the Ridolfi Plot (1571) and the Throckmorton seen as enemies, and Cecil behind the scenes sabotaged Plot (1583), this was a further scheme to assassinate Eliz- Dudley’s endeavours to obtain the Queen’s hand.[70] On abeth in which Mary Stuart was involved. Following the other hand they were on friendly terms and had an ef- her conviction, Leicester, then in the Netherlands, vehe- ficient working relationship which never broke down.[151] mently urged her execution in his letters; he despaired of [166] In 1572 the vacant post of Lord High Treasurer was of- Elizabeth’s security after so many plots. fered to Leicester, who declined and proposed Burgh- Leicester having returned to England, in February 1587 ley, stating that the latter was the much more suitable Elizabeth signed Mary’s death warrant with the proviso candidate.[152] In later years, being at odds, Dudley felt that it be not carried out until she gave green light. As like reminding Cecil of their “thirty years friendship”.[153] there was no sign of her doing so, Burghley, Leicester, On the whole, Cecil and Dudley were in concord about and a handful of other privy councillors decided to pro- policies while disagreeing fundamentally about some is- ceed with Mary’s execution in the interest of the state. sues, such as the Queen’s marriage and some areas of The Queen’s wrath at the news of Mary’s death was ter- foreign policy.[154] Cecil favoured the suit of Francois, rifying. Leicester went to Bath and Bristol for his health, Duke of Anjou, in 1578–1581 for Elizabeth’s hand, while yet unlike the other culprits escaped Elizabeth’s personal [167] Leicester was among its strongest opponents,[72] even wrath. contemplating exile in letters to Burghley.[155] The An- jou courtship, at the end of which Leicester and sev- eral dozen noblemen and gentlemen escorted the French prince to Antwerp,[156] also touched the question of En- 6 Patronage glish intervention in the Netherlands to help the rebel- 6.3 Religion 9

6.1 Exploration and business ber, their “Lord and Governor”.[176] He was allowed to build his own apartments on the premises and organised grand festivities and performances in the Temple.[177] As Chancellor of Oxford University Dudley was highly committed.[178] He enforced the Thirty-nine Articles and the oath of royal supremacy at Oxford, and obtained from the Queen an incorporation by Act of Parliament for the university.[179] Leicester was also instrumental in found- ing the official Oxford University Press,[180] and installed the pioneer of international law, Alberico Gentili, and the exotic theologian, Antonio del Corro, at Oxford. Over del Corro’s controversial case he even sacked the university’s Vice-Chancellor.[181] Around 100 books were dedicated to Robert Dud- ley during Elizabeth’s reign.[182] In 1564/1567 Arthur Golding dedicated his popular translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses to the Earl.[183] Dudley took a special interest in translations, which were seen as a means to popularise learning among “all who could read.”[184] He was also a history enthusiast, and in 1559 suggested to Sir Francis Drake. Leicester was happy to invest in his ventures the tailor John Stow to become a chronicler (as Stow re- and invite him to play cards.[168] called in 1604).[185] Robert Dudley’s interest in the the- atre was manifold, from academic plays at Oxford to Robert Dudley was a pioneer of new industries; interested the protection of the Children of St. Paul’s and of the in many things from tapestries to mining, he was engaged Royal Chapel, and their respective masters, against hos- in the first joint stock companies in English history.[169] tile bishops and landlords.[186] From at least 1559 he had The Earl also concerned himself with relieving unem- his own company of players,[187] and in 1574 he obtained ployment among the poor.[170] On a personal level, he for them the first royal patent that was ever issued to ac- gave to poor people, petitioners, and prisons on a daily tors so that they could tour the country unmolested by basis.[83] Due to his interests in trade and exploration, local authorities.[188] The Earl also kept a separate com- as well as his debts, his contacts with the London city pany of musicians who in 1586 played before the King fathers were intense.[83] He was an enthusiastic investor of Denmark; with them travelled William Kempe, “the in the Muscovy Company and the Merchant Adventur- Lord Leicester’s jesting player”.[189] [171] ers. English relations with Morocco were also han- Leicester possessed one of the largest collections of paint- dled by Leicester. This he did in the manner of his pri- ings in Elizabethan England, being the first great pri- vate business affairs, underpinned by a patriotic and mis- vate collector.[191] He was a principal patron of Nicholas sionary zeal (commercially, these relations were a los- Hilliard, as well as interested in all aspects of Italian [172] ing business). He took much interest in the careers culture.[192] The Earl’s circle of scholars and men of let- of John Hawkins and Francis Drake from early on, and ters included, among others, his nephew Philip Sidney, was a principal backer of Drake’s circumnavigation of the astrologer and Hermeticist John Dee, his secretaries the world. Robert and Ambrose Dudley were also the Edward Dyer and Jean Hotman, as well as John Florio and principal patrons of Martin Frobisher's 1576 search for Gabriel Harvey.[193] Through Harvey, Edmund Spenser [173] the Northwest Passage. Later Leicester acquired his found employment at Leicester House on the Strand, the own ship, the Leicester, which he employed in Earl’s palatial town house, where he wrote his first works a luckless expedition under Edward Fenton, but also un- of poetry.[194] Many years after Leicester’s death Spenser der Drake. As much as profit, English seapower was on wistfully recalled this time in his Prothalamion,[195] and his mind, and accordingly Leicester became a friend and in 1591 he remembered the late Earl with his poem The leading supporter of Dom António, the exiled claimant to Ruins of Time.[196] the Portuguese throne after 1580.[174]

6.3 Religion 6.2 Learning, theatre, the arts, and litera- ture From infancy Robert Dudley grew up as a Protes- tant. Presumably conforming in public under Mary Apart from their legal function the Inns of Court were Tudor,[4] he was counted among the “heretics” by Philip the Tudor equivalents of gentlemen’s clubs.[175] In 1561, II’s agent before Elizabeth’s accession.[197] He immedi- grateful for favours he had done them, the Inner Tem- ately became a major patron to former Edwardian cler- ple admitted Dudley as their most privileged mem- ics and returning exiles.[4] Meanwhile, he also helped 10 7 GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE UNITED PROVINCES

under Archbishop John Whitgift.[208]

7 Governor-General of the United Provinces

During the Leicester built a special relationship with Prince William of Orange, who held him in high es- teem. The Earl became generally popular in the Nether- lands. Since 1577 he pressed for an English military ex- pedition, led by himself (as the Dutch strongly wished) to succour the rebels.[209] In 1584 the Prince of Orange was murdered, political chaos ensued, and in August 1585 Antwerp fell to the Duke of Parma.[210] An English inter- vention became inevitable; it was decided that Leicester would go to the Netherlands and “be their chief as hereto- fore was treated of”, as he phrased it in August 1585.[211] He was alluding to the recently signed Treaty of Nonsuch in which his position and authority as “governor-general” of the Netherlands had only been vaguely defined.[212] The Earl prepared himself for “God’s cause and her Queen Elizabeth at Wanstead House. The figures in the garden Majesty’s” by recruiting the expedition’s cavalry from his may include representations of Robert and Lettice Dudley.[190] retainers and friends, and by mortgaging his estate to the Painting by Marcus Gheeraerts the Elder sum of £25,000.[213] At the end of December 1585 Leicester was received in the Netherlands, according to one correspondent, in the some of Mary’s former servants and maintained Catholic manner of a second Charles V; a Dutch town official al- contacts.[198] From 1561 he advocated and supported ready noted in his minute-book that the Earl was going to the Huguenot cause,[199] and the French ambassador have “absolute power and authority”.[214] After a progress described him as “totally of the Calvinist religion” in through several cities and so many festivals he arrived in 1568.[200] After the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in The Hague, where on 1 January 1586 he was urged to 1572 this trait in him became the more pronounced, and accept the title governor-general by the States General of he continued as the chief patron of English Puritans and the United Provinces. Leicester wrote to Burghley and a champion of international Calvinism.[201] On the other Walsingham, explaining why he believed the Dutch im- hand, in his household, Leicester employed Catholics like portunities should be answered favourably. He accepted Sir Christopher Blount, who held a position of trust and his elevation on 25 January, having not yet received any of whom he was personally fond. The Earl’s patronage of communications from England due to constant adverse and reliance on individuals was as much a matter of old winds.[215] family loyalties or personal relationships as of religious [202] The Earl had now “the rule and government general” with allegiances. a Council of State to support him (the members of which Leicester was especially interested in the furtherance he nominated himself).[216] He remained a subject of of preaching, which was the main concern of moder- Elizabeth, making it possible to contend that she was now ate Puritanism.[203] He went to great lengths to support sovereign over the Netherlands. According to Leicester, non-conforming preachers, while warning them against this was what the Dutch desired.[217] From the start such too radical positions which, he argued, would only en- a position for him had been implied in the Dutch proposi- danger what reforms had been hitherto achieved.[204] tions to the English, and in their instructions to Leicester; He would not condone the overthrow of the existing and it was consistent with the Dutch understanding of the church model because of “trifles”, he said.[205] “I am Treaty of Nonsuch.[218] The English queen, however, in not, I thank God, fantastically persuaded in religion but her instructions to Leicester, had expressly declined to ... do find it soundly and godly set forth in this uni- accept offers of sovereignty from the United Provinces versal Church of England.”[206] Accordingly, he tried to while still demanding of the States to follow the “advice” smooth things out and, among other moves, initiated sev- of her lieutenant-general in matters of government.[219] eral disputations between the more radical elements of Her ministers on both sides of the Channel hoped she the Church and the episcopal side so that they “might would accept the situation as a fait accompli and could make reconcilement”.[207] His influence in ecclesiastical even be persuaded to add the rebellious provinces to her matters was considerable until it declined in the 1580s possessions.[214] Instead her fury knew no bounds and 11

money and troops.[231] This not only forced Dudley to raise further funds on his own account, but much aggra- vated the soldiers’ lot.[232] “They cannot get a penny; their credit is spent; they perish for want of victuals and cloth- ing in great numbers ... I assure you it will fret me to death ere long to see my soldiers in this case and cannot help them”, Leicester wrote home.[233] Many Dutch statesmen were essentially politiques; they soon became disenchanted with the Earl’s enthusias- tic fostering of what he called “the religion”.[234] His most loyal friends were the Calvinists at Utrecht and Friesland, provinces in constant opposition to Holland and Zeeland.[235] Those rich provinces engaged in a lu- crative trade with Spain which was very helpful to ei- ther side’s war effort. On Elizabeth’s orders Leicester en- forced a ban on this trade with the enemy, thus alienating the wealthy Dutch merchants.[236] He also effected a fis- cal reform. In order to centralise finances and to replace the highly corrupt tax farming with direct taxation, a new Council of Finances was established which was not under supervision of the Council of State. The Dutch mem- Leicester as Governor-General, 1586. Engraving by Hendrik bers of the Council of State were outraged at these bold Goltzius steps.[237] English peace talks with Spain behind Leices- ter’s back, which had started within days after he had left England, undermined his position further.[238] Elizabeth sent Sir Thomas Heneage to read out her letters In September 1586 there was a skirmish at Zutphen, of disapproval before the States General, Leicester having in which Philip Sidney was wounded. He died a few to stand nearby.[220] Elizabeth’s “commandment”[221] was weeks later. His uncle’s grief was great.[239] In De- that the Governor-General immediately resign his post in cember Leicester returned to England. In his absence, a formal ceremony in the same place where he had taken William Stanley and Rowland York, two Catholic offi- it.[222] After much pleading with her and protestations by cers whom Leicester had placed in command of Deventer the Dutch, it was postulated that the governor-generalship and the fort of Zutphen, respectively, went over to Parma, had been bestowed not by any sovereign, but by the States along with their key fortresses—a disaster for the Anglo- General and thereby by the people.[223] The damage was Dutch coalition in every respect.[240] His Dutch friends, done, however:[224] “My credit hath been cracked ever as his English critics, pressed for Leicester’s return to the since her Majesty sent Sir Thomas Heneage hither”, Le- Netherlands. Shortly after his arrival in June 1587 the icester recapitulated in October 1586.[225] English-held port of Sluis was lost to Parma, Leicester Elizabeth demanded of her Lieutenant-General to refrain being unable to assert his authority over the Dutch allies, [241] at all cost from any decisive action with Parma, which was who refused to cooperate in relieving the town. Af- the opposite of what Leicester wished and what the Dutch ter this blow Elizabeth, who ascribed it to “the malice [242] expected of him.[226] After some initial successes,[227] or other foul error of the States”, was happy to enter the unexpected surrender of the strategically important into peace negotiations with the Duke of Parma. By De- town of Grave was a serious blow to English morale. cember 1587 the differences between Elizabeth and the Leicester’s fury turned on the town’s governor, Baron Dutch politicians, with Leicester in between, had become Hemart, whom he had executed despite all pleadings. insurmountable; he asked to be recalled by the Queen and [243] The Dutch nobility were astonished: even the Prince of gave up his post. He was irredeemably in debt because [4] Orange would not have dared such an outrage, Leicester of his personal financing of the war. was warned; but, he wrote, he would not be intimidated by the fact that Hemart “was of a good house”.[228] Leicester’s forces, small and seriously underfinanced 8 Armada and death from the outset, faced the most formidable army in Europe.[229] Unity among their ranks was at risk by Le- In July 1588, as the Spanish Armada came nearer, the icester’s and the other officers’ quarrels with Sir John Earl of Leicester was appointed “Lieutenant and Captain- Norris, who had commanded previous English con- General of the Queen’s Armies and Companies”.[245] At tingents in the Netherlands and was now the Earl’s Tilbury on the Thames he erected a camp for the defence deputy.[230] Elizabeth was angry that the war cost more of London, should the Spaniards indeed land. Leicester than anticipated and for many months delayed sending vigorously counteracted the disorganisation he found ev- 12 9 HISTORIOGRAPHICAL TREATMENT

death in her bedside treasure box, endorsing it with “his last letter” on the outside. It was still there when she died 15 years later.[252] Leicester was buried, as he had requested, in the Beauchamp Chapel of the Collegiate Church of St Mary, Warwick—in the same chapel as Richard Beauchamp, his ancestor, and the “noble Impe”, his little son.[253] Count- ess Lettice was also buried there when she died in 1634, alongside the “best and dearest of husbands”, as the epi- taph, which she commissioned, says.[254]

9 Historiographical treatment

The Armada Portrait of Elizabeth I, painted after Leicester’s The book which later became known as Leicester’s Com- death. She possibly wears the necklace of six hundred pearls the monwealth was written by Catholic exiles in Paris and Earl bequeathed to her in his will.[244] printed anonymously in 1584.[255][note 5] It was published shortly after the death of Leicester’s son, which is alluded erywhere, having few illusions about “all sudden hurley- to in a stop-press marginal note: “The children of adul- [246] terers shall be consumed, and the seed of a wicked bed burleys”, as he wrote to Walsingham. When the Privy [256] Council was already considering to disband the camp to shall be rooted out.” Smuggled into England, the libel became a best-seller with underground booksellers and save money, Leicester held against it, setting about to [257] plan with the Queen a visit to her troops. On the day the next year was translated into French. Its underly- ing political agenda is the succession of Mary Queen of she gave her famous speech he walked beside her horse [258] bare-headed.[247] Scots to the English throne, but its most outstanding feature is an allround attack on the Earl of Leicester. He is presented as an atheistic, hypocritical coward, a “per- petuall Dictator”,[259] terrorising the Queen and ruining the whole country. He is engaged in a long-term conspir- acy to snatch the Crown from Elizabeth in order to set- tle it first on his brother-in-law, the , and ultimately on himself. Spicy details of his monstrous private life are revealed, and he appears as an expert poi- soner of many high-profile personalities.[260] This influ- ential classic is the origin of many aspects of Leicester’s historical reputation.[261]

The tomb of Robert and Lettice Dudley, erected by the Countess. Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick

After the Armada the Earl was seen riding in splen- dour through London “as if he were a king”,[248] and for the past few weeks he had usually dined with the Queen, a unique favour.[248] On his way to Buxton in Der- byshire to take the baths, he died at Cornbury Park near Oxford on 4 September 1588. Leicester’s health had not been good for some time and historians have considered both malaria and stomach cancer as death causes.[249] His death came unexpectedly,[4] and only a week earlier he had said farewell to his Queen. Elizabeth was deeply af- Queen Elizabeth and Leicester by William Frederick Yeames, fected and locked herself in her apartment for a few days 1865 until Lord Burghley had the door broken.[250] Her nick- name for Dudley had been “Eyes”, which was symbolised In the early 17th century, William Camden saw “some by the sign of ôô in their letters to each other.[251] Eliz- secret constellation” of the stars at work between Eliza- abeth kept the letter he had sent her six days before his beth and her favourite;[262] he firmly established the leg- 13

end of the perfect courtier with the sinister influence.[263] 12 Footnotes Some of the most often-quoted characterisations of Le- icester, such as that he “was wont to put up all his passions [1] There is a popular tradition that Robert Dudley was the in his pocket”, his nickname of “the Gypsy”, and Eliza- same age as Elizabeth I; however, in a letter to William beth’s “I will have here but one mistress and no master"- Cecil he denotes 24 June as his birthday, and a 1576 por- reprimand to him, were contributed by Sir Henry Wotton trait miniature by Nicholas Hilliard gives his age as 44, “so and Sir Robert Naunton almost half a century after the 1532 is the most likely year of his birth” (Adams 2008b). Earl’s death.[264] The Victorian historian James Anthony [2] “está muy mala de un pecho” (“she is very ill in one Froude saw Robert Dudley as Elizabeth’s soft plaything, breast”), in the original Spanish (Adams 1995 p. 63). combining “in himself the worst qualities of both sexes. Without courage, without talent, without virtue”.[265] [3] The others he listed were William Cecil and his brother- The habit of comparing him unfavourably to William in-law Nicholas Bacon (Chamberlin 1939 p. 101). Cecil[266] was continued by Conyers Read in 1925: “Le- [4] Sir Robert Dudley lost his case in the Star Chamber in icester was a selfish, unscrupulous courtier and Burghley 1605 (Warner 1899 p. xlvi). Historians have had differ- [267] a wise and patriotic statesman”. Geoffrey Elton, in ing views on the problem: While Derek Wilson believes his widely read England under the Tudors (1955), saw in a marriage (Wilson 1981 p. 326), it has been rejected Dudley as “a handsome, vigorous man with very little by, for example, Conyers Read (Read 1936 p. 23), Jo- sense.”[268] hanna Rickman (Rickman 2008 p. 51), and Simon Adams (Adams 2008d). Since the 1950s, academic assessment of the Earl of Le- [269] icester has undergone considerable changes. Leices- [5] The original title began: The copie of a leter, wryten by ter’s importance in literary patronage was established by a Master of Arte of Cambrige ... (WorldCat Retrieved 5 Eleanor Rosenberg in 1955. Elizabethan Puritanism has April 2010). In 1641 it was reprinted in London as Leyces- been thoroughly reassessed since the 1960s, and Patrick ters Commonwealth (Burgoyne 1904 p. vii). Collinson has outlined the Earl’s place in it.[269] Dud- ley’s religion could thus be better understood, rather than simply to brand him as a hypocrite.[270] His impor- 13 Citations tance as a privy councillor and statesman has often been [78] overlooked, one reason being that many of his letters [1] Haynes 1992 p. 12; Wilson 1981 pp. 151–152 are scattered among private collections and not easily ac- cessible in print, as are those of his colleagues Walsing- [2] Adams 2002 pp. 145, 147 ham and Cecil.[4] Alan Haynes describes him as “one [3] Adams 2002 p. 52 of the most strangely underrated of Elizabeth’s circle of close advisers”,[271] while Simon Adams, who since the [4] Adams 2008b early 1970s has researched many aspects of Leicester’s life and career,[272] concludes: “Leicester was as central [5] Adams 2002 p. 133 [273] a figure to the 'first reign' [of Elizabeth] as Burghley.” [6] Wilson 1981 p. 16

[7] Chamberlin 1939 pp. 55–56

10 Ancestry [8] Chamberlin 1939 p. 55; Adams 2008b

[9] Wilson 1981 pp. 23, 28–29; Adams 2008b; Loades 1996 11 See also p. 225 [10] Wilson 1981 pp. 31, 33, 44 • Alienation Office [11] Adams 2002 pp. 135, 159 • Cultural depictions of Elizabeth I of England [12] Loades 1996 pp. 179, 225, 285; Haynes 1987 pp. 20–21

• Kenilworth (novel) [13] Loades 1996 pp. 225–226; Wilson 1981 pp. 45–47

• Lady Catherine Grey [14] Loades 1996 pp. 256–257, 238–239 [15] Ives 2009 pp. 199, 209; Haynes 1987 pp. 23 • Greenwich armour [16] Haynes 1987 pp. 23–24; Chamberlin 1939 p. 68, 69 • Maria Stuarda [17] Loades 1996 pp. 266, 270–271 • Mary Stuart (play) [18] Adams 2002 p. 134

• Sebastian Westcott [19] Loades 1996 p. 280 14 13 CITATIONS

[20] Adams 2002 pp. 161–162 [56] Adams 2002 p. 137

[21] Loades 1996 p. 273 [57] Wilson 1981 pp. 140–141

[22] Adams 2002 p. 158; Wilson 1981 p. 71 [58] Chamberlin 1939 pp. 138–139

[23] Loades 1996 pp. 238, 273 [59] Chamberlin 1939 pp. 136, 160, 144–145

[24] Adams 2002 p. 134; Chamberlin 1939 pp. 87–88 [60] Chamberlin 1939 pp. 140, 146, 147

[25] Wilson 1981 pp. 78, 83–92 [61] Chamberlin 1939 pp. 151–152

[26] Wilson 1981 p. 96 [62] Chamberlin 1939 p. 158

[27] Gristwood 2007 p. 92 [63] Chamberlin 1939 pp. 143–144, 152, 158, 168; Wilson 1981 p. 141; Jenkins 2002 p. 119 [28] Hume 1892–1899 Vol. I pp. 57–58; Wilson 1981 p. 95 [64] Chamberlin 1939 p. 152; Wilson 1981 p. 142 [29] Owen 1980 p. 9 [65] Adams 2008b; Chamberlin 1939 pp. 155, 156–157, 159– [30] Skidmore 2010 pp. 166, 162 161

[31] Chamberlin 1939 p. 118 [66] Fraser 1972 p. 267; Wilson 1981 p. 243

[32] Chamberlin 1939 pp. 116–117; Doran 1996 p. 42 [67] Doran 1996 p. 65

[33] Adams 1995 p. 78; Wilson 1981 p. 100; Chamberlin [68] Hume 1904 p. 90; Doran 1996 p. 65 1939 p. 117 [69] Hume 1904 pp. 90–94, 99, 101–104; Jenkins 2002 p. [34] Adams 1995 p. 151 130

[35] Wilson 1981 p. 114; Doran 1996 p. 72 [70] Doran 1996 p. 212

[36] Wilson 2005 p. 261 [71] Hume 1904 pp. 94, 95, 138, 197; Doran 1996 p. 124

[37] Adams 2011 [72] Doran 1996 pp. 212–213

[38] Adams 1995 pp. 380–382 [73] Adams 2002 p. 139

[39] Adams 1995 p. 378 [74] Watkins 1998 p. 163

[40] Adams 1995 p. 383 [75] Gristwood 2007 p. 151; Girouard 1979 p. 111

[41] Adams 2002 p. 136 [76] Adams 2002 p. 140; Wilson 1981 p. 305

[42] Doran 1996 p. 43; Skidmore 2010 p. 382 [77] Wilson 1981 p. 230

[43] Skidmore 2010 p. 378 [78] Wilson 1981 p. 305

[44] Owen 1980 p. 10; Doran 1996 p. 45 [79] Lovell 2006 pp. 265–267; 355

[45] Doran 1996 p. 212; Gristwood 2007 pp. 108–109; Skid- [80] Adams 2002 p. 120; Wilson 1981 pp. 78, 305 more 2010 pp. 243–244 [81] Adams 2002 p. 43 [46] HMC 1911 p. viii; Gristwood 2007 pp. 112, 119; Skid- more 2010 p. 223 [82] Haynes 1987 pp. 141–144; Wilson 1981 pp. 326–327

[47] Doran 1996 p. 44 [83] Adams 1996

[48] Adams 2011; Skidmore 2010 pp. 230–233 [84] Loades 2004 p. 271

[49] Doran 1996 pp. 42–44 [85] Adams 2002 p. 319

[50] Jenkins 2002 p. 65 [86] Adams 2008b; Adams 1996

[51] Jenkins 2002 p. 291 [87] Adams 2002 p. 163; Adams 2008b

[52] Gristwood 2007 pp. 115, 120–123; Doran 1996 p. 44 [88] Haynes 1987 p. 59; Adams 2002 p. 235

[53] Doran 1996 p. 45–52; Adams 2008b [89] Adams 2002 p. 310; Wilson 1981 p. 170

[54] Adams 2002 p. 165 [90] Adams 2002 pp. 3, 264, 272, 275

[55] Wilson 1981 p. 136 [91] Adams 2002 pp. 268–269, 275–276 15

[92] Adams 2002 pp. 3, 276–277 [130] Hammer 1999 p. 35

[93] Wilson 1981 pp. 171–172 [131] Jenkins 2002 p. 287

[94] Adams 2002 p. 225 [132] Nicolas 1847 p. 382

[95] Wilson 1981 p. 172; Adams 2002 p. 225 [133] Jenkins 2002 p. 362

[96] Wilson 1981 p. 173 [134] Jenkins 2002 pp. 280–281

[97] Morris 2010 p. 27 [135] Adams 1995 p. 182

[98] Adams 2002 pp. 322, 3 [136] Hammer 1999 pp. 34–38, 60–61, 70, 76

[99] Wilson 1981 pp. 1, 3 [137] Wilson 1981 pp. 228, 230–231

[100] Adams 2002 pp. 312–313, 321 [138] Nicolas 1847 p. 97; Jenkins 2002 p. 247

[101] Adams 2002 p. 312–313, 320–321, 326 [139] Owen 1980 p. 44; Jenkins 2002 pp. 263, 305

[102] Jenkins 2002 pp. 179–181 [140] Hume 1892–1899 Vol. III p. 477; Jenkins 2002 p. 279

[103] Adams 2002 p. 327 [141] Wilson 2005 p. 358; Jenkins 2002 p. 280

[104] Adams 2002 p. 312 [142] Jenkins 2002 p. 305

[105] Molyneux 2008 pp. 58–59 [143] Wilson 1981 p. 247

[106] Morris 2010 pp. 47–48 [144] Hammer 1999 p. 46

[107] Doran 1996 pp. 67–69; Jenkins 2002 pp. 205–211 [145] Adams 2002 pp. 17–18

[108] Henderson 2005 pp. 90–92 [146] Wilson 1981 p. 195

[109] Gristwood 2007 p. 249 [147] Doran 1996 p. 59

[110] Gristwood 2007 pp. 249–250 [148] Wilson 1981 p. 215; Collinson 1960 pp. xxv–xxvi

[111] Rickman 2008 p. 49 [149] Rosenberg 1958 p. 23

[112] Read 1936 p. 24 [150] Adams 2002 p. 121

[113] Read 1936 p. 25 [151] Adams 2002 p. 18; Alford 2002 p. 30; Doran 1996 p. [114] Read 1936 pp. 23, 26 216

[115] Warner 1899 pp. iii–iv [152] Wilson 1981 p. 217

[116] Jenkins 2002 pp. 124–125 [153] Wilson 1981 p. 216

[117] Adams 2008a [154] Adams 2002 pp. 18–19, 59

[118] Jenkins 2002 p. 212 [155] Jenkins 2002 p. 247

[119] Freedman 1983 pp. 33–34, 22 [156] Doran 1996 p. 190

[120] Freedman 1983 pp. 33; Jenkins 2002 p. 217 [157] Adams 2002 p. 34

[121] Adams 2008d; Adams 2008c [158] Adams 2002 pp. 104, 107

[122] Warner 1899 p. vi; Wilson 1981 p. 246 [159] Adams 2002 pp. 137–138, 141

[123] Warner 1899 p. ix [160] Adams 2002 p. 18

[124] Warner 1899 p. xxxix [161] Jenkins 2002 pp. 159, 169

[125] Warner 1899 p. xl; Adams 2008d [162] Wilson 1981 p. 243

[126] Warner 1899 p. vi, vii [163] Jenkins 2002 p. 298

[127] Jenkins 2002 pp. 234–235 [164] Adams 2008b; Collinson 2007 p. 75

[128] Doran 1996 p. 161 [165] Collinson 2007 p. 75

[129] Wilson 1981 pp. 229–230 [166] Jenkins 2002 pp. 323–324 16 13 CITATIONS

[167] Hammer 1999 pp. 59–61; Gristwood 2007 p. 322 [203] Adams 2002 pp. 230–231

[168] Gristwood 2007 p. 292 [204] Wilson 1981 pp. 198–205; Adams 2002 p. 231

[169] Wilson 1981 p. 146; Adams 2002 p. 337 [205] Adams 2002 p. 231

[170] Adams 2002 pp. 142, 337 [206] Wilson 1981 p. 205

[171] Wilson 1981 p. 165 [207] Adams 2002 pp. 231, 143, 229–232; Collinson 1960 p. xxx [172] Haynes 1987 pp. 88–94 [208] Collinson 1960 pp. xxi–xxiii, xxxviii [173] Wilson 1981 pp. 164–165; Gristwood 2007 p. 198 [209] Strong and van Dorsten 1964 pp. 7–15; Wilson 1981 p. [174] Haynes 1987 pp. 145–149 238; Haynes 1987 p. 158

[175] Wilson 1981 p. 169 [210] Strong and van Dorsten 1964 pp. 20, 24

[176] Adams 2002 p. 250 [211] Adams 2002 p. 147

[177] Wilson 1981 pp. 131–132, 168–169 [212] Strong and van Dorsten 1964 p. 25

[178] Chamberlin 1939 pp. 177–178 [213] Gristwood 2007 pp. 307–308; Hammer 2003 p. 125

[179] Haynes 1987 pp. 75–76; Jenkins 2002 p. 178 [214] Strong and van Dorsten 1964 p. 53

[180] Rosenberg 1958 pp. 295–296 [215] Wilson 1981 pp. 276–278

[181] Rosenberg 1958 p. 137; Haynes 1987 p. 77 [216] Strong and van Dorsten 1964 pp. 55, 73

[182] Rosenberg 1958 p. xiii; Adams 2008b [217] Strong and van Dorsten 1964 p. 54

[183] Rosenberg 1958 pp. 156–158; Jenkins 2002 p. 143 [218] Haynes 1987 pp. 158–159; Bruce 1844 p. 17; Strong and van Dorsten 1964 pp. 23, 25 [184] Rosenberg 1958 p. xvi [219] Bruce 1844 p. 15 [185] Adams 2008b; Rosenberg 1958 p. 64; Wilson 1981 pp. 160–161 [220] Gristwood 2007 pp. 311, 313; Chamberlin 1939 p. 263

[186] Rosenberg 1958 pp. 301–307 [221] Bruce 1844 p. 105

[187] Adams 1995 p. 56 [222] Gristwood 2007 p. 313

[188] Wilson 1981 p. 153 [223] Strong and van Dorsten 1964 p. 59

[189] Rosenberg 1958 p. 305 [224] Hammer 2003 p. 127

[190] Morris 2010 p. 34; Wilson 1981 illustration caption [225] Bruce 1844 p. 424

[191] Hearn 1995 p. 96; Haynes 1987 p. 199 [226] Strong and van Dorsten 1964 p. 72

[192] Hearn 1995 p. 124; Haynes 1992 p. 12 [227] Gristwood 2007 pp. 316–317

[193] Haynes 1987 pp. 76–78, 125–126; Wilson 1981 p. 307 [228] Bruce 1844 p. 309; Wilson 1981 pp. 282–284

[194] Jenkins 2002 pp. 254–257 [229] Adams 2002 p. 147; Gristwood 2007 p. 307; Hammer 2003 pp. 125–126 [195] Jenkins 2002 p. 261 [230] Adams 2002 p. 180; Hammer 2003 p. 126 [196] Adams 2002 p. 149 [231] Hammer 2003 pp. 132–133 [197] Starkey 2001 pp. 230, 231 [232] Wilson 1981 p. 282; Hammer 2003 p. 133 [198] Doran 1996 pp. 66–67; Skidmore 2010 pp. 129, 128; Porter 2007 p. 412 [233] Gristwood 2007 pp. 315–316

[199] Doran 1996 pp. 59, 67 [234] Strong and van Dorsten 1964 p. 75

[200] Collinson 1971 p. 53 [235] Strong and van Dorsten 1964 pp. 75–76; Haynes 1987 p. 175 [201] MacCulloch 2001 pp. 213, 249; Adams 2002 pp. 141– 142 [236] Haynes 1987 pp. 172–173; Adams 2008b

[202] Adams 1995 p. 463; Adams 2002 p. 190 [237] Haynes 1987 pp. 173–174 17

[238] Strong and van Dorsten 1964 pp. 43, 50 14 References [239] Haynes 1987 pp. 170–171 • Adams, Simon (ed.) (1995): Household Accounts [240] Wilson 1981 p. 291 and Disbursement Books of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, 1558–1561, 1584–1586 Cambridge Uni- [241] Wilson 1981 pp. 291–294 versity Press ISBN 0-521-55156-0 [242] Wilson 1981 p. 294 • Adams, Simon (1996): “At Home and Away. The [243] Wilson 1981 pp. 294–295 Earl of Leicester” History Today Vol. 46 No. 5 May 1996 Retrieved 2010-09-29 [244] Watkins 1998 p. 167; Gristwood 2007 p. 337 • [245] Haynes 1987 p. 191 Adams, Simon (2002): Leicester and the Court: Es- says in Elizabethan Politics Manchester University [246] Jenkins 2002 pp. 349–351 Press ISBN 0-7190-5325-0

[247] Haynes 1987 pp. 191–195 • Adams, Simon (2008a): “Dudley, Lettice, countess [248] Hume 1892–1899 Vol. IV pp. 420–421; Jenkins 2002 p. of Essex and countess of Leicester (1543–1634)" 358 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online edn. Jan 2008 (subscription required) Retrieved 2010- [249] Adams 1996; Gristwood 2007 pp. 333–334 04-04

[250] Wilson 1981 p. 302 • Adams, Simon (2008b): “Dudley, Robert, earl of [251] Adams 2002 p. 148; Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester: Leicester (1532/3–1588)" Oxford Dictionary of Na- Autograph letter, signed, to Queen Elizabeth I. Folger tional Biography online edn. May 2008 (subscrip- Shakespeare Library Retrieved 17 July 2009 tion required) Retrieved 2010-04-03

[252] Wilson 1981 p. 303 • Adams, Simon (2008c): “Dudley, Sir Robert (1574–1649)" Oxford Dictionary of National Biog- [253] Adams 2002 p. 149; Gristwood 2007 p. 340 raphy online edn. Jan 2008 (subscription required) [254] Gristwood 2007 p. 340 Retrieved 2010-04-03

[255] Wilson 1981 pp. 262–265 • Adams, Simon (2008d): “Sheffield, Douglas, Lady Sheffield (1542/3–1608)" Oxford Dictionary of Na- [256] Jenkins 2002 p. 294 tional Biography online edn. Jan 2008 (subscription [257] Bossy 2002 p. 126; Wilson 1981 p. 251 required) Retrieved 2010-04-03

[258] Wilson 1981 pp. 253–254 • Adams, Simon (2011): “Dudley, Amy, Lady Dud- ley (1532–1560)" Oxford Dictionary of National Bi- [259] Burgoyne 1904 p. 225 ography online edn. Jan 2011 (subscription re- [260] Wilson 1981 pp. 254–259; Jenkins 2002 pp. 290–294 quired) Retrieved 2012-07-04

[261] Adams 1996; Wilson 1981 p. 268 • Alford, Stephen (2002): The Early Elizabethan Polity: William Cecil and the British Succession Cri- [262] Gristwood 2007 p. 9 sis, 1558–1569 Cambridge University Press ISBN [263] Adams 2002 pp. 53–55; Adams 2008b 0-521-89285-6

[264] Adams 2002 pp. 55, 56 • Bossy, John (2002): Under the Molehill: An Eliz- abethan Spy Story Yale Nota Bene ISBN 0-300- [265] Adams 2002 p. 57 09450-7 [266] Haynes 1987 p. 11 • Bruce, John (ed.) (1844): Correspondence of Robert [267] Chamberlin 1939 p. 103 Dudley, Earl of Leycester, during his Government of the Low Countries, in the Years 1585 and 1586 Cam- [268] Wilson 1981 p. 304 den Society [269] Adams 2002 p. 176 • Burgoyne, F.J. (ed.) (1904): History of Queen Eliz- [270] Adams 2002 pp. 226–228 abeth, Amy Robsart and the Earl of Leicester, being a Reprint of “Leycesters Commonwealth” 1641 Long- [271] Haynes 1992 p. 15 mans [272] Gristwood 2007 p. 372; Adams 2002 p. 2 • Chamberlin, Frederick (1939): Elizabeth and [273] Adams 2002 p. 7 Leycester Dodd, Mead & Co. 18 14 REFERENCES

• Collinson, Patrick (ed.) (1960): “Letters of Thomas • Hume, Martin (1904): The Courtships of Queen Wood, Puritan, 1566–1577” Bulletin of the Institute Elizabeth Eveleigh Nash & Grayson of Historical Research Special Supplement No. 5 • November 1960 Ives, Eric (2009): Lady Jane Grey: A Tudor Mystery Wiley-Blackwell ISBN 978-1-4051-9413-6 • Collinson, Patrick (1971): The Elizabethan Puritan Movement Jonathan Cape ISBN 0-224-61132-1 • Jenkins, Elizabeth (2002): Elizabeth and Leicester The Phoenix Press ISBN 1-84212-560-5 • Collinson, Patrick (2007): Elizabeth I Oxford Uni- versity Press ISBN 978-0-19-921356-6 • Loades, David (1996): John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland 1504–1553 Clarendon Press ISBN • Doran, Susan (1996): Monarchy and Matrimony: 0-19-820193-1 The Courtships of Elizabeth I Routledge ISBN 0- 415-11969-3 • Loades, David (2004): Intrigue and Treason: The Tudor Court, 1547–1558 Pearson/Longman ISBN • Fraser, Antonia (1972): Mary Queen of Scots Pan- 0-582-77226-5 ther Books ISBN 0-586-03379-3 • Lovell, M.S. (2006): Bess of Hardwick: First Lady • Freedman, Sylvia (1983): Poor Penelope: Lady of Chatsworth Abacus ISBN 978-0-349-11589-4 Penelope Rich. An Elizabethan Woman The Kensal Press ISBN 0-946041-20-2 • MacCulloch, Diarmaid (2001): The Boy King: Ed- ward VI and the Protestant Reformation Palgrave • Girouard, Mark (1979): Life in the English Country ISBN 0-312-23830-4 House. A Social and Architectural History BCA • Molyneaux, N.A.D. (2008): “Kenilworth Castle in • Gristwood, Sarah (2007): Elizabeth and Leicester: 1563” English Heritage Historical Review Vol. 3 Power, Passion, Politics Viking ISBN 978-0-670- 2008 pp. 46–61 01828-4 • Morris, R.K. (2010): Kenilworth Castle English • Hammer, P.E.J. (1999): The Polarisation of Eliza- Heritage ISBN 978-1-84802-075-7 bethan Politics: The Political Career of Robert De- vereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, 1585–1597 Cambridge • Nicolas, Harris (ed.) (1847): Memoirs of the Life University Press ISBN 0-521-01941-9 and Times of Sir Christopher Hatton Richard Bentley

• Hammer, P.E.J. (2003): Elizabeth’s Wars: War, • Owen, D.G. (ed.) (1980): Manuscripts of The Government and Society in Tudor England, 1544– Marquess of Bath Volume V: Talbot, Dudley and 1604 Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 0-333-91943-2 Devereux Papers 1533–1659 HMSO ISBN 0-11- 440092-X • Haynes, Alan (1987): The White Bear: The Eliza- bethan Earl of Leicester Peter Owen ISBN 0-7206- • Porter, Linda (2007): Mary Tudor: The First Queen 0672-1 Portrait ISBN 978-0-7499-5144-3

• Haynes, Alan (1992): Invisible Power: The Eliza- • Read, Conyers (1936): “A Letter from Robert, Earl bethan Secret Services 1570–1603 Alan Sutton ISBN of Leicester, to a Lady” The Huntington Library Bul- 0-7509-0037-7 letin No. 9 April 1936

• Hearn, Karen (ed.) (1995): Dynasties: Painting in • Rickman, Johanna (2008): Love, Lust, and License Tudor and Jacobean England 1530–1630 Rizzoli in Early Modern England: Illicit Sex and the Nobility ISBN 0-8478-1940-X Ashgate ISBN 0-7546-6135-0

• Henderson, Paula (2005): The Tudor House and • Rosenberg, Eleanor (1958): Leicester: Patron of Garden: Architecture and Landscape in the Sixteenth Letters Columbia University Press and Seventeenth Century Yale University Press ISBN 0-300-10687-4 • Skidmore, Chris (2010): Death and the Virgin: Elizabeth, Dudley and the Mysterious Fate of Amy • Historical Manuscripts Commission (ed.) (1911): Robsart Weidenfeld & Nicolson ISBN 978-0-29- Report on the Pepys Manuscripts Preserved at Mag- 784650-5 dalen College, Cambridge HMSO • Starkey, David (2001): Elizabeth: Apprenticeship • Hume, Martin (ed.) (1892–1899): Calendar of ... Vintage ISBN 0-09-928657-2 State Papers Relating to English Affairs ... in ... Simancas, 1558–1603 HMSO Vol. I Vol. III Vol. • Strong, R.C. and J.A. van Dorsten (1964): Leices- IV ter’s Triumph Oxford University Press 19

• Warner, G.F. (ed.) (1899): The Voyage of Robert Dudley to the West Indies, 1594–1595 Hakluyt So- ciety

• Watkins, Susan (1998): The Public and Private Worlds of Elizabeth I Thames & Hudson ISBN 0- 500-01869-3 • Wilson, Derek (1981): Sweet Robin: A Biography of Robert Dudley Earl of Leicester 1533–1588 Hamish Hamilton ISBN 0-241-10149-2

• Wilson, Derek (2005): The Uncrowned Kings of England: The Black History of the Dudleys and the Tudor Throne Carroll & Graf ISBN 0-7867-1469-7

15 External links

• “Dudley, Robert (DDLY564R)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.

• Archival material relating to Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester listed at the UK National Archives

• Lord Robert Dudley at The Internet Movie Database 20 16 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

16 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

16.1 Text • Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Dudley,_1st_Earl_of_Leicester?oldid=632207502 Contributors: Deb, William Avery, Isis, Leandrod, Paul Barlow, Lezek, Wapcaplet, Jdforrester, Rl, John K, Loren Rosen, Charles Matthews, Lord Emsworth, Proteus, Onebyone, Bearcat, Wjhonson, Henrygb, Timrollpickering, Fuelbottle, Arun, DocWatson42, Angmering, JRR Trollkien, Necrothesp, Icairns, Faedra, Eisnel, Grstain, D6, Cnyborg, Bender235, Maclean25, StanZegel, Jeltz, Craigy144, Gsandi, Velella, DrGaellon, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, The Wordsmith, Tabletop, Dysepsion, Mandarax, BD2412, Kbdank71, Koavf, MZMcBride, Kmorozov, Choess, PKM, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, RobotE, Sceptre, Mukkakukaku, RussBot, Longbow4u, Sarranduin, Tdevries, Gaius Cornelius, Winerock, Astorknlam, Rednikki, Daanschr, Jpbowen, Aldux, DeadEyeArrow, BazookaJoe, Mais oui!, Kungfuadam, Attilios, SmackBot, Cactus Wren, PeterSymonds, Hmains, Chris the speller, OrphanBot, Ruthmi, J1729, Dutch Rongo, Ohconfucius, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, KEB, Writtenonsand, Hotspur23, Lampman, Neddyseagoon, Iridescent, The Giant Puffin, Tryde, Fsotrain09, Tawkerbot2, Fvasconcellos, J Milburn, CmdrObot, Mattbr, IP Address, DanielRigal, Rtrac3y, CornflakeGirl70, Overt13, Cydebot, Southernbelle28, Maxamaris, Thijs!bot, RobbieG, Daystarr99, Phoe, Kbthompson, Darklilac, Iandron, DagosNavy, Dogru144, Dsp13, Connormah, Roland Woodruff, Martínhache, Shoester, Laura1822, Iccaldwell, R sirahata, Bissinger, R'n'B, DrKiernan, Reedy Bot, Johnbod, QuickClown, Olegwiki, Fingerpuppet, Wilhelm meis, Thismightbezach, VolkovBot, Derekbd, Leonidaa, Mickraus, Jeremy Bolwell, Mimich, Alaric the Goth, Motmit, Billinghurst, Kierancassel, Cnilep, Bporopat, AlleborgoBot, Aol2002, Ma499, PeterCanthropus, Caltas, SE7, Sjwells53, Berlinschneid, IdreamofJeanie, Mygerardromance, Altzinn, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Rs-nourse, Sun Creator, Nuclear- Warfare, Iohannes Animosus, Elphaba18, Tseno Maximov, Thingg, HarrivBOT, EstherLois, RexxS, Boleyn, Fastily, RogDel, Spitfire, Dark Mage, WikHead, Surtsicna, Addbot, American Eagle, Queenmomcat, Toyokuni3, Xoloki, Jeanne boleyn, Bikerpbl, Favonian, Light- bot, Inoysterbay, Yobot, Mahistory, AnomieBOT, Nirvaan.wiki, Cheers-darling, Ruby2010, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Jayarathina, Idoysterbay, Sir Stanley, RibotBOT, Buchraeumer, FrescoBot, Golden Hound, Plucas58, Île flottante, Doooglas, Trappist the monk, Lady Meg, An- drea105, Domj111, Wikifranch, LcawteHuggle, EmausBot, HiW-Bot, Brianboro88, Pbl1998, ClueBot NG, Konakonian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bendernas, Bmusician, HueSatLum, ChrisGualtieri, YFdyh-bot, Khazar2, VIAFbot, Luxorr, Nimetapoeg, Greatuser, Lizabetha, Inglok, LordWiltshire1529, Glaisher, OccultZone, Mugsalot and Anonymous: 183

16.2 Images • File:Ambrose_Dudley_Earl_of_Warwick.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Ambrose_Dudley_Earl_ of_Warwick.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/ambrosedudley.htm Original artist: Willem de Passe • File:Coat_of_arms_of_Sir_Robert_Dudley,_1st_Earl_of_Leicester,_KG.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/2/27/Coat_of_arms_of_Sir_Robert_Dudley%2C_1st_Earl_of_Leicester%2C_KG.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rs-nourse • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Coronation_Procession_of_Elizabeth_I_of_England_1559.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/ Coronation_Procession_of_Elizabeth_I_of_England_1559.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.elizabethan-portraits. com/Elizabeth41.jpg Original artist: Unknown • File:Elizabeth_I_(Armada_Portrait).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Elizabeth_I_%28Armada_ Portrait%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/elizarmada.jpg Original artist: Formerly at- tributed to George Gower • File:Elizabeth_I_Coronation_Miniature.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Elizabeth_I_Coronation_ Miniature.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.elizabethan-portraits.com/elizabeth_4.htm Original artist: Nicholas Hilliard • File:Elizabeth_I_of_England_Marcus_Gheeraerts_the_Elder.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/ Elizabeth_I_of_England_Marcus_Gheeraerts_the_Elder.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned from Karen Hearn, Marcus Gheeraerts II: Elizabethan Artist, London, Tate Publishing, 2002, ISBN 1854374435 Original artist: Marcus Gheeraerts the Elder • File:Kenilworth_fireplace.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Kenilworth_fireplace.jpg License: CC- BY-2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/47446154@N08/4362208240/sizes/o/in/photostream/ Original artist: User mitey- heroes (James Fishwick) on Flickr • File:La_reine_Elisabeth_1ere_et_Leicester-William_Frederick_Yeames-MBA_Lyon_2014.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/La_reine_Elisabeth_1ere_et_Leicester-William_Frederick_Yeames-MBA_Lyon_2014.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: François de Dijon Original artist: William Frederick Yeames • File:Leicester_as_Governor-General_engraving_by_Goltzius.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/ Leicester_as_Governor-General_engraving_by_Goltzius.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ collectionimages/AN00049/AN00049443_001_l.jpg Original artist: Hendrik Goltzius • File:Leicestersig.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Leicestersig.gif License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/Bios/RobertDudley%281ELeicester%29.htm Original artist: Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester (1532–1588) • File:Lettice_Knollys1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Lettice_Knollys1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.elizabethan-portraits.com/LetticeKnollys.jpg Original artist: Attributed to George Gower • File:Nicholas_Hilliard_005.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Nicholas_Hilliard_005.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Nicholas Hilliard • File:Robert_Dudley.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Robert_Dudley.jpg License: Public domain Con- tributors: TudorPlace.com Original artist: Attributed to Steven van der Meulen (fl. 1543–1568) 16.3 Content license 21

• File:Robert_Dudley_Earl_of_Leicester_drawing_by_Zuccaro_1575.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/d/d4/Robert_Dudley_Earl_of_Leicester_drawing_by_Zuccaro_1575.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.britishmuseum.org/collectionimages/AN00095/AN00095542_001_l.jpg Original artist: Federico Zuccari • File:Sfdrake42.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Sfdrake42.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://tudor-portraits.com/ by way of: http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/Bios/FrancisDrake.htm (control stripe prevents illicit reproduction, etc.) Original artist: Nicholas Hilliard • File:Symbol_support_vote.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg License: ? Contribu- tors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Warwick_ChurchofStMary_BeauchampChapel01.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/ Warwick_ChurchofStMary_BeauchampChapel01.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Chris Nyborg • File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

16.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0