Journal of Archaeological Science 120 (2020) 105179

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Journal of Archaeological Science

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Archaeoentomological indicators of long-term food plant storage at the Prehispanic granary of La Fortaleza (Gran Canaria, )

Pedro Henríquez-Valido a,*, Jacob Morales a, Paloma Vidal-Matutano a, Marco Moreno-Benítez b, � a a c,d,e Angel Marchante-Ortega , Amelia Rodríguez-Rodríguez , Jean-Bernard Huchet a G. I. Tarha. Dpto. Ciencias Historicas,� Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, C/ P�erez del Toro 1, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain b Tibicena Arqueología y Patrimonio, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain c UMR 5199 - PACEA, Anthropologie des Populations Pass�ees et pr�esentes, Universit�e de Bordeaux, 33615, Pessac Cedex, d UMR 7209 - Arch�eozoologie, Arch�eobotanique: soci�et�es, pratiques et environnements, Mus�eum National d’Histoire Naturelle, case postale 56, 55 rue Buffon, 75005, Paris, France e Institut de Syst�ematique, Evolution et Biodiversit�e, ISYEB, UMR 7205 CNRS MNHN UPMC EPHE, Mus�eum national d’Histoire naturelle, CP 50 (Entomologie), Paris Cedex, 05, France

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Storage is crucial to the sequence of food management. It is nonetheless at times difficult to recognize in the Canary islands archaeological record due to problems of preservation of ancient food remains. Archaeoentomology in this sense Prehispanic period can be of great value as it sheds light on past storage techniques. This study presents the findings of the Cave granaries archaeoentomological analyses carried out at the ancient granary of La Fortaleza (Gran Canaria, Spain, ca. 600- Plant remains 1450 AD), a site where the favorable conditions of preservation allow recording the food plants and pests Food associated with storage. Moreover, the recovery of several taxa of primary and secondary pests connected to Pests different stages of store infestation (i.e. Sitophilus granarius (L.), Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.), Tenebrioides mauritanicus (L.), americanum (Laporte de Castelnau), Stegobium paniceum (L.) and Cryptolestes sp.) offers data as to the storage conditions and time intervals of the Prehispanic Canarian indigenous population. Finally, new radiocarbon-datings of the pests yield data casting light on the origin and spread of several cosmopolitan taxa such as M. americanum and on past relations between , and the New World.

1. Introduction The advent of the Neolithic period, with the emergence of sedenta­ rization, husbandry, agriculture and population growth, had an There are numerous cultural contexts marked by specificnutritional impact on local natural ecosystems that inevitably had a significant in­ and ecological conditions in which the study of insects merges with that fluence on biodiversity and, consequently, on invertebrate fauna. The of archaeology. Within the bioarchaeological disciplines, the study of study of the insect and parasites recovered from archaeological contexts insect remains from Quaternary deposits is a science that emerged in reveals that many managed to adapt perfectly to these new, anthropo­ Britain in the second half of the 20th century (Coope, 1977, 1986; 1990; genic niches and, consequently, had a considerable impact on the sub­ Osborne, 1969; Buckland, 1976). Designated as “Quaternary ento­ sistence economy, as they provoked major losses of food reserves. mology”, this discipline includes two distinct entities respectively Archaeoentomology yields data leading to the reconstruction of referred as “Palaeoentomology” and “Archaeoentomology”. Although human-made environments or indoor spaces and the activities that took based on the same principles and methods, the first focuses on exam­ place in these areas, as the presence of certain pests in archaeological ining insect assemblages for palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental contexts can be linked to specific plants and animal species (Buckland, reconstructions, while the second, exclusively related to archaeological 1979; Forbes and Milek, 2014; Giordani et al., 2020). The discipline also contexts, serves to reconstruct the way of life and health of past pop­ serves to identify features such as pens and latrines (Panagiotakopulu ulations, the evolution of dietary patterns, agro-pastoral practices, and and Van Der Veen, 1997; Panagiotakopulu et al., 2010). Furthermore, the impact of human activities on the past environments. insects can be a factor in the degradation of organic matter and hence

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (P. Henríquez-Valido). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2020.105179 Received 25 October 2019; Received in revised form 27 April 2020; Accepted 31 May 2020 0305-4403/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. P. Henríquez-Valido et al. Journal of Archaeological Science 120 (2020) 105179 their study can serve as a taphonomic marker of the conditions of preservation of certain sites (Adams, 1984). Another interesting appli­ cation relates to past storage since many species of insects are closely linked to types of food and their different stages of processing (Buckland, 1990; Panagiotakopulu, 2001; Huchet, 2017). Despite the great potential of entomological analyses to identify storage spaces, there is still little archaeoentomological research focusing on granaries and other specific structures due to problems of preservation and identification of these foods and features. This study offers evidence of archaeobotanical and archaeoentomological remains from the granary of La Fortaleza (Gran Canaria), a collective place of storage serving between the 6th-15th centuries AD. The organic mate­ rials recovered at this site include both plant remains and insect pests in an exceptional state of preservation. Their study identifies which pests are associated with the different types of stored food, determines the conditions in which the granary was maintained, estimates the time of silage, and finally offers unpublished data as to the function of Gran Canaria’s collective granaries and subsistence strategies.

2. Storage and collective granaries in Gran Canaria

The Canary Islands is an archipelago in the eastern Atlantic comprising eight volcanic islands that are at least 100 km from the North African coast (Fig. 1). They were initially settled since at least the outset of the 1st millennium AD by Berber populations from the Northwest of Africa (Springer, 2001; Maca Meyer et al., 2004; Hagenblad et al., 2017; Rodríguez-Varela et al., 2017; Fregel et al., 2019, Velasco-Vazquez� et al., 2020). Although they initially settled all the islands, the different pop­ ulations remained isolated from each other leading each island to indi­ vidual historical developments until the arrival of European explorers in the 14th century AD. To cover their nutritional needs, the first settlers brought from the continent cereals, pulses and a single fruit (fig),as well as livestock (sheep/goats and pigs). The development of livestock and agriculture on the different islands progressed unevenly, with that of Gran Canaria predominating over that of the other islands as evidenced both by the archaeological record (Morales, 2010) and by diet analyses of human remains of Prehispanic populations (Velasco Vazquez,� 1998; Delgado-Darias, 2009; Arnay de la Rosa et al., 2009, 2010) (see Fig. 2). The many large indigenous settlements on the Island of Gran Canaria suggests a substantial population characterized by a complex society (Onrubia Pintado, 2003). Both archaeological evidence and information Fig. 1. Top: map of the Canary Islands. Center: Position of Gran Canaria in the gleaned from old texts penned by early European explorers signal that archipelago. Bottom: Digital shadow model of Gran Canaria with the sites agriculture played a fundamental role in the diet of the indigenous mentioned in the text (source: IDECanarias.es). population (Morales, 2010). Among the most compelling archaeological features linked to agriculture are the collective fortified granaries distributed throughout the island. These sites share links with the igudar troglodytic features and the magasins de falaise of the Maghreb (Marcy, 1940; Onrubia Pintado, 1986, 2003; Rodríguez et al., 2011–2012). These structures in Gran Canaria were dug into volcanic rock cliffs of difficultaccess near fertile agricultural soils (Morales et al., 2018). Their inner spaces consist of silos directly cut into the rock organized in rows or along the walls of circular chambers. Although the silos no longer retain their original covers, they were once sealed by large stones or wood doors (Morales et al., 2014; Naranjo-Mayor and Rodríguez-Ro­ dríguez, 2015). Two factors explain the conditions of desiccation inside the silos that led to the preservation of foodstuffs for centuries. The first is the constant temperature and humidity throughout the year averting the spread of pests (Culver and Pipan, 2009; Bescherer and Beaudry, 2015). The second is their inaccessibility, despite that they remained open, which reduced postdepositional disruption by humans, large mammals and other external factors. Radiocarbon datings of the plants and insects from several granaries indicate that they served mainly between the 10th and 15th centuries Fig. 2. La Fortaleza (Cave 31). Top: Floor of the silos of Unit 1 and of Silo 1 of AD (Morales et al., 2018). This time frame coincides with a period of Unit 2. Unit 1 is marked as C1 and Unit 2 as C2. Bottom: view of the mouths of the caves along the cliff. great demographic growth among the indigenous population as evi­ denced by the expansion of settlements and cemeteries (Morales et al.,

2 P. Henríquez-Valido et al. Journal of Archaeological Science 120 (2020) 105179

2014; Alberto Barroso et al., 2019). correspond to two groups of caves (Cave 31) interconnected by a hori­ The study of the storage features evidences that the products inten­ zontal passage 6.1 m long. ded for storage most likely comprised both cultivated and wild plants (Morales et al., 2014, 2018; Henríquez-Valido et al., 2019). The do­ 4. Material and methods mestic species were barley (Hordeum vulgare subsp. vulgare), durum wheat (Triticum durum), lentil (Lens culinaris), broad bean (Vicia faba) Samples were collected from all of the silos of Cave 31 of the granary and fig (Ficus carica). Barley and figs are among the main crops of the of La Fortaleza. These hollows contain fillings only a few centimeters early Canarian diet (Morales, 2010). Seeds of wild species such as thick and thus do not offer conventional archaeological stratigraphic Canarian palm (Phoenix canariensis) and Canary Island pine (Pinus can­ sequences. The fills in the silos consist of a combination of aeolian de­ ariensis) suggest that they could have also been stored. Finally, certain posits, elements detached from their walls and an organic matrix of plant silos contained laurel leaves (Laurus novocanariensis), a plant known for and insect remains (Fig. 3). These factors, together with the difficultyof its insecticide properties (Morales et al., 2018) and active principles that access, led to the decision to only collect several random samples from inhibit the spread of insects and fungi (Rodilla et al., 2008). each silo. In the case of the smaller silos, samples were limited to a single The data available to date suggest that the storage techniques were 1-L probe collected from the middle. The probes from the larger silos of complex and designed to preserve the crops for long periods of time Unit 1, and Silo 1 of Unit 2, by contrast, were collected from several (Morales et al., 2018). Besides introducing plants serving as insecticides, equidistant points (a, b, c and d). A total of 18 L of sediment was the indigenous Canarians developed other strategies such as storage of collected. Despite this relatively modest volume, the samples are rich in grains attached to their ear or in their pod. This technique offers pro­ organic materials and yield enough data to undertake the comparative tection from temperature fluctuationsand pests, but also requires larger study. silos. The samples were then dry-screened with meshes of 10, 5, 2, 1 and The volume of the harvest increases when the grains are stored with 0.5 mm. The finds surpassing 2 mm, analyzed in their entirety, were their glumes and other floral covers forming part of their spike. separated according to their nature (wood, seeds and insects). Those Although storage in these spaces supposes a greater seed aeration, recovered in the 1 and 0.5 mm meshes, due their abundance, were sub- improving their conservation, it also implies a greater investment in sampled through a riffle box. Their study focused respectively on 1/4 labor to fashion the storage unit (Sigaut, 1988). Several of the silos and 1/8 of their volume. Several samples verified with meshes inferior reveal traces of mortar or plaster covers, as well as channels cut through to 0.5 mm (250 and 125 μm) revealed no insect or botanical remains. the rock to increase air circulation. Despite the efforts to condition and The intention of sub-sampling was to reduce the work time (each maintain the silos, the samples reveal the presence of pests through probe can contain more than 1000 plant and insect remains) and to damaged grains and insects themselves, in particular granary weevils estimate the number of invertebrates in each silo. This was carried out (Sitophilus granarius L.) (Morales et al., 2014, 2018; Henríquez-Valido by multiplying the number of specimens identifiedin each probe by four et al., 2019). in the case of the 1 mm sieve and by eight in the case of the 0.5 mm sieve. Unprocessed plants were likewise stored in these granaries. Finds of This method, applied in earlier studies of Gran Canaria granaries (Mo­ hand driven querns at the granary of Cenobio de Valeron, a site dated by rales et al., 2014; Henríquez-Valido et al., 2019) and other sites else­ radiocarbon between 1040 and 1440 cal AD, suggests food processing where containing desiccated organic remains (Alonso Martínez et al., took place at the granary itself (Naranjo-Mayor and Rodríguez-Ro­ 2000; Panagiotakopulu et al., 2010, 2013), has proven the most suitable. dríguez, 2015). Moreover, the absence of unprocessed plants in settle­ The number of pronota, the exoskeleton’s most durable part, served to ments also bolsters the notion that the querns in these granaries served calculate the minimum number of insects (MNI) of each taxon. If other to process the cereal after storage, before its transport to where it was parts of the insects were more numerous, then that number was applied consumed (Morales et al., 2018). for the calculation. Separating the plant and entomological remains was carried out with 3. La Fortaleza granary a Nikon SMZ-2T (8-80 X) stereo microscope. Identification of insect remains was undertaken by consulting specialized publications (Haines, La Fortaleza (510 m a.s.l.) is in the Municipality of Santa Lucía de 1991; Delobel and Tran, 1993) and by directly comparing the specimens Tirajana in the southeast of Gran Canaria. It is in the bed of the Caldera from the modern reference collection in the Archaeology Laboratory of de Tirajana, a large erosive depression that includes three knife-shaped the Department of Historical Sciences of the University of Las Palmas de elevations named respectively La Fortaleza Grande, La Fortaleza Chica Gran Canaria and the PACEA Laboratory of the University of Bordeaux. and Titana (Moreno, 2017). These natural towers rise above a basaltic Digital images of the insect remains were carried out at the PACEA base and are covered by ignimbritic flows of rhyolitic to trachyphono­ litic and peralkaline (Balcells et al., 1990). The vegetation surrounding the site is typical of the thermocanarian bioclimatic level of the semiarid ombroclimate with forests of Canary Island pine (Pinus canariensis) in the higher altitudes and Canary Island palm (Phoenix canariensis) in the mid-low areas accompanied by other thermophilic shrubs. It is noteworthy that some of these shrubs such as balo (Plocama pendula) are also recorded among the anthracological finds of the granary (Vidal-Matutano et al., 2020). The indigenous populations dug out and raised dwellings, places of worship, cemeteries, as well as granaries, in these volcanic towers be­ tween the 5th and 15th centuries AD. The dating of an ovicaprine bone from a structure at the top of La Fortaleza Grande offers a range between the 5th-7th centuries AD (Moreno et al., 2017), although historical re­ cords suggest that the settlement was occupied until the end of the 15th century (Moreno et al., 2017). The granary is actually located at a great height with access requiring climbing equipment. Although the site is made up of a series of caves cut Fig. 3. View of Silo 3a (Unit 1) serving as an example of how the storage into the eastern slope of La Fortaleza Grande, its main features features are preserved at the granary of La Fortaleza.

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Laboratory with a Canon E0S 6D digital camera (zoom MP-E 65 mm) mats or containers. A few fragments of Lauraceae in certain silos can also mounted on a Kaiser RTx column. The zstepper was controlled through be linked either to the introduction of green laurel branches with their the focus stacking software Helicon Remote 3.8.6w and images were leaves as insecticide (Morales et al., 2018; Vidal-Matutano et al., 2020) processed using Helicon focus 6. The digital images were ultimately or for woodworking. imported into Adobe Photoshop CS4 for post-processing, labelling and plate composition. 5.2. Archaeoentomological remains

4.1. Radiocarbon datings The statistical estimation of the insects of the granary of La Fortaleza indicates 9143 subfossil insect remains belonging to 2 classes, 4 orders, Ten AMS datings were obtained on the materials from the silos 14 families and 22 genera (Table 4; Fig. 4 and Supplementary data S1). (Table 1). Four were carried out on insects [S. granarius, Oryzaephilus Coleoptera at 98.83% is the most represented order. The other classes surinamensis (L.), Stegobium paniceum (L.), and are Isopoda (0.62%), Hymenoptera (0.50%) and Heteroptera (0.05%). (Laporte de Castelnau)] providing radiocarbon dates that range between Arachnida are represented by the remains of and mites. 776 and 981 cal AD and 1184–1275 cal AD. The other six datings were Archaeoentomological analyses of the granary of La Fortaleza iden­ carried out on plant remains from the silos containing insects so as to tifiedat least six species of pests that inflictdamage to stored plants. The confirm their antiquity. They range from 545 to 645 cal AD and most common is the granary weevil (S. granarius) represented by 4291 1274–1393 cal AD. remains (47% of the entomological assemblage). This worldwide species These datings as a whole indicate that the granary of La Fortaleza is one of the main dangers to stores of barley and wheat (Delobel and served for at least 800 years, between the 6th and 14th centuries AD. Tran, 1993) and thrives in temperate climatic zones in environments of � However, most of the radiocarbon dates point to the 1169–1393 cal AD approximately 30 C and 70% relative humidity (Haines, 1991). range, suggesting this time period witnessed the most intensive use of This species is highly synanthropic as it depends on humans for the silos. mobility. This is due, unlike the two other Sitophilus species (Sitophilus oryzae (L.) and Sitophilus zeamais Mots.), to the loss of its ability to fly 5. Results and discussion (Huchet, 2017). It is the main pest at La Fortaleza as it bored holes into the whole grains to lay its eggs (Buckland, 1990; Trematerra et al., 2000; 5.1. Archaeobotanical remains Panagiotakopulu and Buckland, 2018). Its origin is probably in the Middle East (Zohary, 1969) from where it spread throughout Europe The dating of the content of the silos suggest the storage of plants by during the Neolithic (Plarre, 2010). Archeologically it has been detected the Prehispanic populations analogous to that observed at other gra­ in different Neolithic contexts of and Turkey (Panagiotakopulu naries in Gran Canaria (Table 2). Although the analyses of the current and Buckland, 2018), as well as in the Bronze Age stores of Akrotiri study are still in progress, its preliminary findings indicate the pre­ (Santorini, Greece) (Panagiotakopulu and Buckland, 1991). In Egypt it dominance of barley (H. vulgare) and fig( F. carica) (ca. 90%) and lesser was found among the remains of barley deposited as offerings in the proportions of durum wheat (T. durum) and pulses, i.e., lentils tomb of the pyramid of Saqqara (Solomon, 1965; Panagiotakopulu, (L. culinaris) and broad beans (V. faba). 2001). This pest in France is also known in Romanized contexts at There is likewise evidence that certain wild species were collected Amiens in a granary that burned down at the end of the 2nd century BC and stored, notably Canary Island palm dates (Phoenix canariensis), pine (Matterne et al., 1998) as well as at the Gallo-Roman villa of Touffreville� nuts (Pinus canariensis) and bay leaves (L. novocanariensis). Mocan� (Calvados, France) where it led to the identification of storage spaces (V. mocanera), a small fruit tree endemic to the Canary Islands and (Ponel et al., 2000). This pest in Great Britain is among the charred Madeira, is also present. cereal deposit at Malton, Yorkshire (Buckland, 1981) and in the cereal Wood remains are also recorded at La Fortaleza (Table 3). Among deposits of Tanner Row, York (Kenward and Carrott, 2006). In America them are a few anthracological (wood charcoal) remains probably it is identifiedin colonial Boston at the 17th century site of Cross Street associated with the disintegration of the mortar covering the walls since Back Lot (USA) associated with products stored in a household (Bain, mortar usually contained ashes and charcoals. Most, in turn, are xylo­ 1998). It is nonetheless very likely that this pest attained the Americas logical (desiccated) fragments corresponding to different uses (e.g. tools, earlier, with the first European settlers. In Gran Canaria, the granary � containers, elements serving for the spatial organization inside the silos, weevil is identifiedat the granary of El Alamo-Acusa between 1020 and silo covers, etc) (Vidal-Matutano et al., 2020). Other fragments, espe­ 1150 cal AD (Morales et al., 2014) and at Risco Pintado-Temisas be­ cially those of Canary Island pine (Pinus canariensis), could have served tween 1020 and 1155 cal AD (Henríquez-Valido et al., 2019). as constructive features. To a lesser extent, and spread out heteroge­ La Fortaleza offers nonetheless the oldest range of dates (776–981 cal neously in the silos, are the remains of fig tree (F. carica), dragon tree AD) of S. granarius in Gran Canaria. This timeframe, together with that � (Dracaena sp.), palm tree (Phoenix canariensis), balo (P. pendula), Aster­ obtained of the Gran Canaria granaries of El Alamo-Acusa (Morales aceae and woody legumes (Fabaceae). There is also evidence of different et al., 2014) and Risco Pintado-Temisas (Henríquez-Valido et al., 2019), monocotyledons probably evidencing plant fibersserving to make ropes, confirms its contemporaneity with the indigenous Prehispanic

Table 1 Radiocarbon dates of the insect and seed remains from the granary of La Fortaleza. Material Common designation Type material Lab. Code Sample ref. Location 14C age BP cal. AD (95,4%)

Visnea mocanera mocan� seed Beta-477343 FOR17S5C2VIS Silo 5-Unit 2 1470 � 30 545–645 Sitophilus granarius granary weevil insect Beta-477349 FOR17S2AC1SIT Silo 2a-Unit 1 1140 � 30 776–981 Lens culinaris lentil seed Beta-477347 FOR17S2C2LENS Silo 2- Unit 2 950 � 30 1024–1155 Mezium americanum black insect Beta-477351 FOR17S1DC2MEZ Silo 1d- Unit 2 810 � 30 1169–1270 Stegobium paniceum biscuit beetle insect Beta-554542 FOR17C2S1DSTE Silo 1-Unit 2 800 � 30 1184–1275 Oryzaephilus surinamensis sawtoothed grain beetle insect Beta-477350 FOR17S1AC2ORY Silo 1a- Unit 2 760 � 30 1219–1284 Pistacia lentiscus mastic tree seed Beta-477348 FOR17S1AC1PIS Silo 1a- Unit 1 680 � 30 1270–1390 Hordeum vulgare barley seed Beta-477344 FOR17S2AC1HOR Silo 2a-Unit 1 670 � 30 1274–1391 Hordeum vulgare barley seed Beta-477346 FOR17S2BC1HOR Silo 2b- Unit 1 670 � 30 1274–1391 Hordeum vulgare barley seed Beta-477345 FOR17S2CC1HOR Silo 2c -Unit 1 660 � 30 1276–1393

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Table 2 Presence of carpological remains at the granary of La Fortaleza. X: 0–500 remains; XX: 501–1000 remains; XXX: 1001–1500 remains; XXXX: more than 1501 remains.

Unit 1 Unit 2

1a 1b 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4 1a 1b 1c 1d 2 3 4 5 6

Cultivated plant Common name Hordeum vulgare, grain Barley x x x x x x x x x x x x x Hordeum vulgare, articulated Barley x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x set of hulls Hordeum vulgare, rachis Barley x xxx xx xx x x x x x x x x x x xx xxx x x Hordeum vulgare, basal rachis Barley x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Triticum durum, grain Wheat x x x x x Triticum durum, rachis Wheat x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Triticum durum, basal rachis Wheat x x x x x x x Vicia faba, hilum Broad bean x x x x x x x x x x x x x Vicia faba, pod Broad bean x Vicia sativa, seed Broad bean x Lens culinaris, seed Lentil x x x x x x x x x Lens culinaris, hilum Lentil x x xx x x x x x x x x x Lens culinaris, pod Lentil x x x xx x x x Ficus carica, endocarp Fig tree xxx x xxx xxx x xxxx x xx xxxx xx x x x xxx xxxx xxx xx xxxx Ficus carica, peduncle Fig tree x x x x x x x x x x x x Ficus carica, fruit Fig tree x x x x x Harvested wild plants Laurus novocanariensis, leaf Laurel x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x fragment Phoenix canariensis, perianth Canarian palm x tree Phoenix canariensis, rachis Canarian palm x x x tree Pinus canariensis, needle Canary Island x x x x pine Pinus canariensis, seed Canary Island x x x x pine Pinus canariensis, cortex Canary Island x pine Pinus canariensis, peduncle Canary Island x pine Pistacia lentiscus, seed Mastic tree x x x x x Visnea mocanera, seed Mocan� x

population. As noted above, the granary weevil is synanthropic and was recovered in sediments from the earliest layers of the site of Man­ requires humans to disperse. It is therefore reasonable to speculate that dalo (Valamoti and Buckland, 1995). It is identified in the Bronze Age it was introduced in Gran Canaria together with the grains transported together with S. granarius in the stores of Akrotiri (Santorini, Greece) to the island by the first settlers from the northwest of Africa. (Panagiotakopulu and Buckland, 1991). In Egypt, it was contained in It must be noted, however, that the datings obtained from barley one of the jars of Tutankhamun’s tomb (Zacher, 1937). In Roman times, from the same silo containing the granary weevil suggest a later date O. surinamensis appears in storage contexts in England (Coope and (1270–1393 cal AD). This insect certainly appears in the granary with Osborne, 1968; Buckland, 1981; Kenward and Carrott, 2006), the stored seeds. There is also no doubt as to the consistency of the AMS (Buckland, 1981) and (Dal Monte, 1956; Buckland, 1981). dating of the remains of the insect preserved by desiccation in another Radiocarbon analyses at La Fortaleza place it in the Prehispanic archaeological context (Panagiotakopulu et al., 2015). Hence the dates period between 1219 and 1284 cal AD and at Risco Pintado-Temisas, linked to this pest preceding those of the grains can be explained by the also in Gran Canaria, between 886 and 1013 cal AD (Henríquez-Va­ lack of systematic cleaning of the silos allowing certain pests to remain. lido et al., 2019). It is therefore safe to assume that the indigenous The granary weevil, as previously stated, likewise spread to other population had to contend with this pest. Like S. granarius, it is synan­ � granaries in Gran Canaria such as El Alamo-Acusa and Risco Pintado- thropic and was probably introduced with seeds from the continent. This Temisas (Morales et al., 2014; Henríquez-Valido et al., 2019). This suggests that it was already widespread in the Maghreb, the origin of the dispersion throughout different parts of the island, coupled with a archipelago’s first inhabitants. mobility depending on humans, suggests an exchange of contaminated Another pest of interest at La Fortaleza granary is the American seeds. (M. americanum). Although there is little data regarding its Another insect infesting the granaries of La Fortaleza is the saw­ biology, it is a cosmopolitan that consumes the residues of food toothed grain beetle (O. surinamensis), a cosmopolitan pest that thrives and other insects. It is classified for this reason as a secondary pest in granaries in tropical climates. It is a secondary synanthropic pest since (Haines, 1991). It consumes dried animal and plant remains such as it is not identified among the grains collected before the harvest and is skins, fruits and seeds, and develops in temperate zones (Hagstrum and unable to attack whole grains. Hence it requires grains to be damaged by Subramanyam, 2009). a primary pest or processed by humans. It rarely flies, and most often There is no archaeological evidence of this pest in Europe prior to � develops in spaces at 20-35 C and 70% r.h. (Haines, 1991; Halstead, 1492. The findat the site of Chimù-Chancay (Peru) is the only case in the 1993). Its adults usually consume the larvae of other pests such as Americas in Pre-Inca funerary context (McCauley et al., 2014; Huchet, S. granarius (Lepesme, 1944; Huchet, 2017). 2017). Certain authors, nonetheless, claim that the origin of The sawtoothed grain beetle very likely has an origin in Africa M. americanum is in the African continent (Borowski, 2009), or possibly, (Panagiotakopulu and Buckland, 2018), although the oldest evidence of although not corroborated, in the Canary Islands (Borowski, 2017). The this pest so far is from a Neolithic context in Macedonia where a head problems in tracking its origin may in fact stem in part from its poor

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conservation in archaeological contexts due to its weak sclerotized 6 D x x x xx x exosqueleton. M. americanum was, nonetheless, identified elsewhere in the Canary Islands at the granary of Risco Pintado-Temisas (Henrí­ 5 D x quez-Valido et al., 2019). Radiocarbon datings of it at La Fortaleza charcoal). indicate a 1169–1270 cal AD range confirming a precocious presence C xx x x (preceding the 15th century) in the Canary Islands. In any case, the

(wood question of this taxon’s origin requires further research. 4 D x x The biscuit beetle (S. paniceum) is a secondary pest that affects pro­ cessed products. Its presence at La Fortaleza is the first to be dated in 3 D x Gran Canaria, and confirmsthat it was likewise introduced by the early carbonized – C: indigenous Canarians (1184 1275 cal AD). It is recorded beyond the C x x archipelago since the Bronze Age in Greece (Panagiotakopulu and Buckland, 1991) and the Iron Age in the United Kingdom (Chowne et al., 2 D x xx x xx x x 1986). It was identified in ancient Egypt in the tomb of Tutankhamun desiccated; (Alfieri, 1931) and in a variety of other storage features (Levinson and 1d C x D: Levinson, 1985, 1994; Panagiotakopulu, 2001). It is also known in En­ gland in Roman times (Buckland, 1981). This beetle develops in envi­ 1c C x x � ronments between 15 and 34 C and from 60 to 90% r.h. Under optimal remains. conditions it can live up to 40 days (Haines, 1991). 16 C x x xx Other less numerous pests at La Fortaleza are not directly dated and

than therefore cannot be assumed to have been contemporary to the Pre­ 1b D x xx x hispanic Canarians. The most common is the cadelle beetle more mauritanicus (L.). Among the members of the family , this is C x x

2 the only taxon that affects stored products. It is cosmopolitan and not

XXXX: only inflicted damage on stored products but preyed on the other pests Unit 1a D x x x cited above (Haines, 1991). Although it probably comes from Africa (Denux and Zagatti, 2010; Huchet, 2017), certain authors claim an 4 remains; origin in the forests of southern Europe (Crowson, 1958). Remains of 15

– T. mauritanicus are found in Neolithic contexts in Germany (Schmidt, 3c D x 11 1998, 2013; Panagiotakopulu and Buckland, 2018). In Egypt it was identifiedin a cave by the Red Sea storing plant products arriving at the XXX: 3b C x x x x Port of Mersa/Wadi Gawasis (Borojevic et al., 2010). It is also in England among the remains of a Bronze Age shipwreck (Buckland, 1981). It is 3a D x xx

remains; recorded in Roman Israel among the storage facilities of Masada (Kislev

10 and Simchoni, 2007). It presumably spread across the European conti­ – 2c D xx 6 nent in Roman times (Huchet, 2017). Although lacking direct AMS

XX: dating, the cases at La Fortaleza make up the earliest archaeological 2b D x evidence of this species in the Canary Islands suggesting that it also arrived with the early settlers from northwestern Africa. remains; 2a D x x x The insect family Tenebrionidae is represented at La Fortaleza by five 5

– cases of depressed flour beetle (Palorus cf. subdepressus), a minor pest 0

X: that consumes both processed plant products (Haines, 1991) and those C x x x x xx x consumed previously by primary pests such as S. granarius which is also 1b D x x x its prey. It is identifiedin Egypt in the storage rooms of Amarna together with S. granarius (Panagiotakopulu, 2001) and in Roman contexts in Fortaleza. England (Buckland, 1981). Its presence at La Fortaleza is, once again, La at C x xx xxx x x xxxxx the earliest evidence of this species in a Canarian archaeological context.

1 Although it does not benefit from any direct radiocarbon dating con­ firming its Prehispanic context, its association with stored food and 1a Unit D x x x xx x remains other synanthropic insects suggests it was introduced, like other cases, by the first settlers from . tree

pine Cryptolestes sp. (Laemophloeidae), also present at La Fortaleza, is a secondary granary pest that consumes flour and materials attacked name palm Island tree tree legume legume previously by primary pests such as S. granarius. Several species of this anthracological

tree family are known to damage plant products (Hagstrum and Sub­ and Common dragon dragon woody woody fig laurel Canarian Canary balo balo ramanyam, 2009). However, only Cryptolestes minutus (or C. pusillus) (Olivier), Cryptolestes ater (Olivier) and Cryptolestes granulatus (Wollas­ ton) are recorded in Gran Canaria (Machado and Oromí, 2000). Mem­

Poales bers of this genus are cited in Roman contexts in England (C. ferrugineus: xylological

tp. Buckland, 1981; Kenward and Carrott, 2006). the The diet of the insects identified at La Fortaleza indicates that the of

sp. silos served to store plant products, for the most part cereals. However, a pendula sp. pendula

canariensis single frischii Kugenlann, an insect known to consume bones, canariensis carica 3 cheese and dried fish and other insects (Hagstrum and Subramanyam, Dracaena Fabaceae Plocama 2009), was recorded in Silo 6 - Unit 2. This pest could also have arrived Taxa Angiosperm Asteraceae Dracaena cf Fabaceae cf Ficus Lauraceae Monocotyledoneae Monocotyledoneae Phoenix Pinus Plocama cf

Table Quantification accidently at the granary as it consumed other non-stored foods

6 P. Henríquez-Valido et al. Journal of Archaeological Science 120 (2020) 105179

Table 4 Statistical estimation of insect remains from Units 1 and 2 of the granary of La Fortaleza.

Common name Unit 1 Unit 2 TOTAL

1a 1b 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4 1a 1b 1c 1d 2 3 4 5 6

Pests Coleoptera Sitophilus granarius, Granary weevil 4 4 28 4 69 24 24 8 16 20 32 40 55 18 12 358 entire Sitophilus granarius, Granary weevil 8 428 40 24 476 20 32 36 4 144 24 8 16 16 1.276 head Sitophilus granarius, Granary weevil 8 560 36 24 452 24 40 32 40 8 24 216 80 24 61 8 1.637 pronotum Sitophilus granarius, Granary weevil 12 152 24 224 36 8 28 4 8 24 48 44 24 20 656 abdomen Sitophilus granarius, Granary weevil 104 24 160 16 40 16 360 elytra Oryzaephilus Sawtoothed 72 8 25 8 12 40 8 173 surinamensis, entire grain beetle Oryzaephilus Sawtoothed 8 16 4 72 8 2 8 32 150 surinamensis, head grain beetle Oryzaephilus Sawtoothed 8 48 32 40 64 60 336 40 133 8 24 96 889 surinamensis, grain beetle pronotum Oryzaephilus Sawtoothed 64 40 12 180 96 24 64 13 28 8 529 surinamensis, grain beetle abdomen cf. Casapus, head 1 1 cf. Casapus, 2 4 6 pronotum cf. Casapus, elytra 4 2 10 8 2 2 2 30 Mezium americanum, Black spider 17 1 12 1 4 24 16 148 82 113 209 116 91 33 80 947 entire beetle Mezium americanum, Black spider 32 40 8 40 16 12 16 164 pronotum beetle Mezium americanum, Black spider 4 4 abdomen beetle Stegobium paniceum, Biscuit beetle 8 3 4 8 228 348 68 5 672 entire Stegobium paniceum, Biscuit beetle 1 64 65 torax� Stegobium paniceum, Biscuit beetle 8 40 8 12 68 abdomen Tenebroides Cadelle 1 1 2 mauritanicus, entire Tenebroides Cadelle 12 4 16 9 4 36 8 89 mauritanicus, head Tenebroides Cadelle 8 1 12 1 4 8 4 51 4 93 mauritanicus, pronotum Tenebroides Cadelle mauritanicus, abdomen Tenebroides Cadelle 8 8 mauritanicus, mandible Tenebroides Cadelle 4 22 4 12 1 9 1 53 mauritanicus, elytra Tenebroides Cadelle 4 4 mauritanicus, pupae Cryptolestes sp. entire 4 4 Cryptolestes sp., head 8 8 Cryptolestes sp., 8 8 pronotum No pests Coleoptera Hegeter sp., head 2 2 1 1 1 1 8 Hegeter sp., pronotum 1 1 2 1 2 1 6 1 2 17 Hegeter sp., elytra 2 1 8 2 12 25 Hegeter sp., sternum 4 9 2 15 Hegeter sp., 1 1 metasternum Melansis cf. kazsabi, head Melansis cf. kazsabi, 1 1 2 pronotum 1 1 (continued on next page)

7 P. Henríquez-Valido et al. Journal of Archaeological Science 120 (2020) 105179

Table 4 (continued )

Common name Unit 1 Unit 2 TOTAL

1a 1b 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4 1a 1b 1c 1d 2 3 4 5 6

Melansis cf. kazsabi, abdomen Palorus cf. 8 8 subdepressus, head Palorus cf. 8 8 8 24 subdepressus, pronotum Scleron cf. asperulum, 1 1 pronotum Aphodius 2 2 hydrochaeris, pronotum Aphodius 1 1 hydrochaeris, head squalida 1 1 2 canariensis, head 2 2 canariensis, pronotum Tropinota squalida 1 4 5 canariensis, elytra Dermestes frischii, 1 1 entire 8 16 56 80 Dermestidae, 1 1 2 pronotum Dermestidae, pupae 4 4 Latriidae 1 1 Latriidae, pronotum 8 12 4 8 32 Curculionidae, head Curculionidae, 8 8 4 16 8 44 pronotum Curculionidae, elytra Hymenoptera Formicidae, head 8 8 4 16 8 44 Isopoda Isopoda, segments 4 16 9 10 14 53 Heteroptera Heteroptera, 4 4 pronotum Arachnida Arachnida, 5 1 6 chelicerae Acari 1 1 2

Other undetermined 35 27 20 28 39 17 52 4 10 46 44 2 50 1 6 76 38 7 502 remains

TOTAL 9.143

(Kingsolver, 1991). It is therefore possible that it only colonized the silo account when assessing the state of stored products (Huchet, 2017) as a after its abandonment, perhaps attracted by the modest decaying re­ granary infested by these pests also suffers total damage that offers mains of Soricidae or Muridae, Lacertidae and Columbidae. compelling information as to the storage timeframe. For this reason, Aphodius remains were likewise identified in Silo 4 (Unit 2). Their although the percentage of primary pests (47%) at La Fortaleza is presence in the granary of this coprophagous family (Beynon et al., significantlyhigher than that of secondary pests (37%), the latter yields 2012) is interpreted either as accidental or due to the use of excrement broader information as to the conditions and length of storage. to prepare the mortar covering the silo’s walls. An example is that the life cycle of S. granarius can endure up to one Finally, the existence of certain insect remains in the silos, not year (Haines, 1991), while that of secondary insects (e.g. necessarily pests, may be fortuitous. Although members of the genus O. surinamensis) can extend up to three years and three months in Scleron, for example, can be present in storerooms (Hagstrum and Sub­ optimal conditions of temperature and humidity (Back and Cotton, ramanyam, 2009), this is not the case of S. asperolum, the taxa identified 1926; Sahito et al., 2017). Furthermore, the life cycle of T. mauritanicus in La Fortaleza. exceeds a year during which it can lay several eggs (Cotton, 1924). The origin of the other non-pest insects of the granary of La Fortaleza The life cycles exceeding one year indicate either inadequate con­ must be accidental. Their low number also points to an anecdotal nature, ditions of hygiene leading to the infestation or that of grain storage over probably arriving after the abandonment of the site. There are also in­ long stretches of time. As mentioned above, plant processing by the sects at the site endemic to the Canary Islands with no relationship to indigenous Prehispanic population could also serve as evidence of long- humans such as Hegeter sp., Melansis cf. kazsabi, and Tropinota squalida term storage in these silos. The different techniques linked to preserving canariensis Lindberg. grains observed at the sites of Gran Canaria such as storing in their Although primary pests induce the greatest amount of damage due to spikes or resorting to insecticide plants bolsters the idea of their desire their consumption of whole grains, secondary pests must be taken into for long-term crop preservation. Pulse pods and palm rachis also form

8 P. Henríquez-Valido et al. Journal of Archaeological Science 120 (2020) 105179

AD, although vague as to the exact lengths of storage time, reinforce the notion that the indigenous Canarian populations stockpiled their har­ vests in granaries “for many years” (Gomez� Escudero, in Morales Padron,� 2008: 436). Ethnographic records on the use of historical col­ lective granaries in the Maghreb, traditionally serving for comparison with the granaries of Gran Canaria (Marcy, 1940; Onrubia Pintado, 1986), advance an imprecise timeframe of ‘several years’ (Lefebure,� 1985; Delaigue et al., 2006, 2011; 2013). The lack of accuracy of the ethno-historical texts confirms the importance of archaeoentomological analyses for the understanding of former storage techniques. Evidence obtained at La Fortaleza suggests that pests offer accurate information as to long-term storage and serve as indicators of this activity in other archaeological contexts of the Canary Islands and beyond.

6. Conclusions

Ensuring human survival in isolated contexts such as the Canary Islands requires a correct managing of a series of different resources. The first settlers of Gran Canaria built granaries high in the cliffs with the aim of storing mostly cereals, pulses and figs all domesticated plants whose origins can be traced to the African continent. The arrival of these plants for future cultivation involuntarily introduced pests that spread throughout a landscape molded by humans. Archaeoentomology is therefore a new and relevant discipline in the Canary Islands as it allows pinpointing the propagation of different pests coexisting with the Pre­ hispanic Canarians and identifying how their presence affected human activities. Nevertheless, the data available are still limited to a few communal granaries, and future studies should extend their analyses settlements and other sites such as burials, where entomological evi­ dence is still missing. The study of the insects of the granary of La Fortaleza reveals that Fig. 4. Views of insect pests from the granary of La Fortaleza: a. granary weevil certain insect pest species, especially those of secondary type, developed (Sitophilus granarius); b. saw-toothed grain beetle (Oryzaephilus surinamensis); c. during storage periods extending for more than one year. Ethno- cadelle (Tenebroides mauritanicus); d. biscuit beetle (Stegobium paniceum); e. historical written records corroborate long-term storage in collective ¼ black spider beetle (Mezium americanum); f. Cryptolestes sp. (scale bar 1 mm). granaries, a notion bolstered by the fact that the grains were stored with the protection of the ear. Therefore, data obtained at La Fortaleza part of the plants found in the granaries. Hence, cereals, as well as pulses confirm that insect remains in certain archaeological contexts can be and fruits, were stored in their natural envelopes (Morales et al., 2018). used to estimate the length of food storage. This scenario could be Resorting to these techniques, although not totally effective against extrapolated to other geographical areas and chronological periods certain insects, suggests that the ancient Canarians were aware of the where taphonomical conditions allow the preservation of insect pests. remains. Complete pest elimination (with the exception of those that can Finally, an unexpected findof this study is the presence of the spider � � survive in extreme temperatures, e.g. below 10 C or above 50 C) re­ beetle M. americanum in the Old World in a timeframe prior to the Eu­ quires very long periods of time in subtropical climates such as that of ropean conquest of America (1492). This suggests an African or Eurasian Gran Canaria (Bell, 2014) because the warm weather allows survival of origin rather than one of the New World. eggs and insects not detected by the naked eye. It is probable that a lack of silo care and short intervals between each use, essential for total in­ Declaration of competing interest sect eradication, led to a propagation of secondary pests over a long period of time. Radiocarbon dates from S. granarius of Silo 2a-Unit 1 are ☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial ca. 300 years earlier than barley from the same silo (Table 1), confirming interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence � an incomplete cleaning of the silos. Although cooling below 10 C for a the work reported in this paper. prolonged period of time is difficult to achieve in subtropical climates ☒The authors declare the following financial interests/personal re­ � such as that of the Canary Islands, heating above 50 C was probably lationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: effective. Yet there is currently no evidence implying the use of fire for pest eradication. Acknowledgements Long-term food storage also requires frequent ventilation, especially when the seeds are stored in their ears (Sigaut, 1988). This leads to a This study benefited from the research project HAR 2017-83205-P drop in temperature inside the silo preventing the arrival of secondary funded by the Ministry of Economy and Innovation of Spain, together pests. The proliferation of pests, on the other hand, increases silo tem­ with FEDER European funds, and the research project 2018 PATRI25 perature and humidity provoking more damage (Trematerra et al., funded by La Caixa and CajaCanarias Foundation. P. Henríquez is ben­ 2000). The presence of both primary and secondary pests in the granary eficiaryof a PhD grant from Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. of La Fortaleza therefore indicates either a lack of silo aeration or that J. Morales is beneficiaryof a Ramon� y Cajal research fellowship funded the grains were not sufficiently stirred and storage in these conditions by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Innovation of Spain (grant over a period of at least 1–3 years. number RYC-2015-18072). P. Vidal-Matutano is funded by the Spanish The narratives penned by European explorers in the 15th century Government’s Ministry of Economy and Innovation, under the “Juan de

9 P. Henríquez-Valido et al. Journal of Archaeological Science 120 (2020) 105179

la Cierva-Formacion� ” program (FJCI-2017-32461). The authors are very Delaigue, M.C., Bokbot, Y., Onrubia Pintado, J., Amarir, A., 2006. Etnoarqueología de los grateful to Alisios Actividades for support in the field work; and to graneros fortificados magrebíes: el agadir de Id Aysa (Amtudi, Marruecos). Treballs d’Etnoarqueologia 6, 161–172. Timothy Anderson and John Spencer for assistance with an earlier draft Delaigue, M.C., Onrubia Pintado, J., Amarir, A., Bokbot, Y., 2011. Une technique of this article. d’engrangement, un symbole perche.� Le grenier fortifie� Nord-afrocain. Tech. Cult. 57, 2–21. Delaigue, M.C., Onrubia Pintado, J., Bokbot, Y., 2013. “El agadir de Id Aysa (Amtudi, Appendix A. Supplementary data Marruecos). Materialidad y espacio social. In: De la estructura domestica� al espacio social. Lecturas arqueologicas� del uso social del espacio. Publicaciones Universidad Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi. de Alicante, pp. 299–313. 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