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Sheet-Metal Forming Processes

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Sheet-Metal Forming Processes Sheet-Metal Forming Processes Process Characteristics Roll forming Long parts with constant complex cross-sections; good surface finish; high production rates; high tooling costs. Stretch form- Large parts with shallow contours; suitable for low-quantity production; high ing labor costs; tooling and equipment costs depend on part size. Drawing Shallow or deep parts with relatively simple shapes; high production rates; high tooling and equipment costs. Stamping Includes a variety of operations, such as punching, blanking, embossing, bending, flanging, and coining; simple or complex shapes formed at high production rates; tooling and equipment costs can be high, but labor costs are low. Rubber-pad Drawing and embossing of simple or complex shapes; sheet surface protected forming by rubber membranes; flexibility of operation; low tooling costs. Spinning Small or large axisymmetric parts; good surface finish; low tooling costs, but labor costs can be high unless operations are automated. Superplastic Complex shapes, fine detail, and close tolerances; forming times are long, forming and hence production rates are low; parts not suitable for high-temperature use. Peen forming Shallow contours on large sheets; flexibility of operation; equipment costs can be high; process is also used for straightening parts. Explosive Very large sheets with relatively complex shapes, although usually axisym- forming metric; low tooling costs, but high labor costs; suitable for low-quantity production; long cycle times. Magnetic-pulse Shallow forming, bulging, and embossing operations on relatively low- forming strength sheets; most suitable for tubular shapes; high production rates; requires special tooling. TABLE 7.1 General characteristics of sheet-metal forming processes. www.machinemfg.com Localized Necking G/2 E1 E2 F E2 = E3 E1 2F~110° Diffuse neck Localized neck (a) (b) (c) (d) FIGURE 7.1 (a) Localized necking in a sheet-metal specimen under tension. (b) Determination of the angle of neck from the Mohr's circle for strain. (c) Schematic illustrations for diffuse and localized necking, respectively. (d) Localized necking in an aluminum strip in tension; note the double neck. Source: S. Kalpakjian. www.machinemfg.com Lueders Bands Yield-point Yupper elongation Ylower Yielded metal Lueder!s band Stress Unyielded metal 0 Strain (a) (b) (c) FIGURE 7.2 (a) Yield-point elongation and Lueders bands in tensile testing. (b) Lueder's bands in annealed low-carbon steel sheet. (c) Stretcher strains at the bottom of a steel can for common household products. Source: (b) Courtesy of Caterpillar Inc. www.machinemfg.com Stress-Corrosion Cracking FIGURE 7.3 Stress-corrosion cracking in a deep-drawn brass part for a light fixture. The cracks have developed over a period of time. Brass and 300-series austenitic stainless steels are particularly susceptible to stress- corrosion cracking. www.machinemfg.com Shearing Process F Fracture surface Punch Punch Penetration A C Sheet Sheet T Slug Die B D Die c Clearance FIGURE 7.4 Schematic illustration of the shearing process with a punch and die, indicating important process variables. www.machinemfg.com Hole & Slug Penetration depth Burnish dimension Rollover depth Burnish depth Sheet thickness depth Fracture Fracture angle Breakout Burr height dimension (a) Flattened portion Burr under the punch FIGURE 7.5 Characteristic features of (a) A Dishing C Burr height Rough surface a punched hole and (b) the punched slug. Note that the slug has a different scale Smooth surface B D (burnished) than the hole. Ideal slug (b) www.machinemfg.com Shearing Mechanics 140 180 200 160 120 180 220 160 Punch 140 (HV) 200 120 Force 120 Die 120 Clearance, c 200 180 160 140 140 0 1. 2. 3. 160 180 200 Penetration (a) (b) FIGURE 7.7 Typical punch force vs. FIGURE 7.6 a) Effect of clearance, c, on the deformation zone in shearing. Note penetration curve in shearing. The that, as clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled into the die, rather area under the curve is the work than being sheared. (b) Microhardness (HV) contours for a 6.4-mm (0.25-in.) done in shearing. The shape of the thick AISI 1020 hot-rolled steel in the sheared region. Source: After H.P. Weaver curve depends on processing and K.J. Weinmann. parameters and material properties. Maximum punch force: Fmax = 0.7(UTS)tL www.machinemfg.com Shearing Operations Discarded Parting Perforating Slitting Notching Punching Blanking Lancing (a) (b) FIGURE 7.8 (a) Punching and blanking. (b) Examples of shearing operations on sheet metal. www.machinemfg.com Fine Blanking (a) Blanking punch Upper Upper pressure pad pressure pad Stinger (impingement ring) Punch Sheet Sheet metal Fracture Slug Blanking die surface Lower pressure cushion Die Lower Support pressure cushion Clearance (b) FIGURE 7.9 (a) Comparison of sheared edges by conventional (left) and fine-blanking (right) techniques. (b) Schematic illustration of a setup for fine blanking. Source: Feintool International Holding. www.machinemfg.com Rotary Shearing Driven cutter Workpiece Ilding cutter Clearance FIGURE 7.10 Slitting with rotary blades, a process similar to opening cans. www.machinemfg.com Shaving & Beveled Tooling FIGURE 7.11 Schematic illustration of shaving on a sheared edge. (a) Shaving a sheared edge. (b) Shearing and shaving combined in Sheet Sheared Sheet one punch stroke. edge Clearance Die Die (a) (b) Punch Punch Blank Shear angle Die thickness Die Bevel shear Double-bevel shear Convex shear (a) (b) (c) (d) FIGURE 7.12 Examples of the use of shear angles on punches and dies. Compare these designs with that for a common paper punch. www.machinemfg.com Progressive Die Ram Blanking Piercing punch punch Pilot Stripper Scrap Strip Die Stop Slug Part Strip Finished Scrap First washer operation (a) (b) FIGURE 7.13 (a) Schematic illustration of producing a washer in a progressive die. (b) Forming of the top piece of a common aerosol spray can in a progressive die. Note that the part is attached to the strip until the last operation is completed. www.machinemfg.com Blanking; Laser welding Stamping laser cutting Tailor-Welded Blanks 1 mm m 20/20 1 mm 1 mm 0.8 mm g 45/45 g 45/45 g 45/45 1 mm g 60/60 Legend g 60/60 (45/45) Hot-galvanized alloy steel sheet. Zinc amount: 60/60 (45/45) g/m2. m 20/20 Double-layered iron-zinc alloy electroplated steel sheet. Zinc amount 20/20 g/m2. (a) 1.5 mm 0.8 mm 2.0 mm 0.7 mm 2.0 mm 1.5 mm 0.7 mm Motor-compartment Shock-absorber Quarter inner with integrated side rail support shock-absorber support 0.7 mm 1.5 mm 0.7 mm 1.5 mm 2.5 mm 1.5 mm FIGURE 7.14 Examples of laser-welded and 1.25 mm 0.7 mm 0.7 mm stamped automotive body components. Source: After M. Geiger and T. Nakagawa. Girder Fender with Floor plate integrated reinforcement (b) www.machinemfg.com Bending & Minim Bend Radius FIGURE 7.5 (a) Bending terminology. Bend Length of 20 Note that the bend radius is measured to allowance, Lb bend, L the inner surface of the bend, and that the ) ) R 15 Setback t length of the bend is the width of the R = (60/r) - 1 sheet. (b) Relationship between the ratio T 10 t of bend-radius to sheet-thickness and tensile reduction of area for a variety of Thickness ( 5 Bend A Bend radius, R Bend radius ( materials. Note that sheet metal with a angle, A 0 reduction of area of about 50% can be 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 bent and flattened over itself without Bevel angle Tensile reduction of area (%) cracking, similar to folding paper. Source: (a) (b) After J. Datsko and C.T. Yang. Material Condition Material Soft Hard Aluminum alloys 0 6t Beryllium copper 0 4t Brass, low leaded 0 2t Magnesium 5t 13t Steels austenitic stainless 0.5t 6t low carbon, low alloy, and HSLA 0.5t 4t Titanium 0.7t 3t TABLE 7.2 Minimum bend radii for Titanium alloys 2.6t 4t various materials at room temperature. www.machinemfg.com Bending Mechanics Plane Plane stress strain Rolling 4 direction Cracks No cracks Rough 3 edge 2 Smooth Rolling Thickness edge Elongated Bend radius direction inclusions 1 (stringers) (a) (b) (c) 0 1 2 4 8 16 Length of bend Thickness FIGURE 7.17 (a) and (b) The effect of elongated inclusions (stringers) on FIGURE 7.16 The effect of length of bend cracking in sheets as a function of the direction of bending with respect to and edge condition on the ratio of bend the original rolling direction. This example shows the importance of radius to thickness for 7075-T aluminum orienting parts cut from sheet to maximize bendability. (c) Cracks on the sheet. Source: After G. Sachs and G. Espey. outer radius of an aluminum strip bent to an angle of 90°; compare this part with that shown in (a). www.machinemfg.com Springback T FIGURE 7.18 Terminology for springback in bending. Note that the bend angle has After Ri become smaller. There are situations A whereby the angle becomes larger, called Af Rf Af negative springback (see Fig. 7.20). Ai Before 1.0 No springback a Springback factor: ) s 0.9 b K c Increasing springback α f (2Ri/t) + 1 0.8 Ks = = αi (2R f /t) + 1 d FIGURE 7.19 Springback factor, Ks, for 0.7 e various materials: (a) 2024-0 and 7075-0 aluminum; (b) austenitic stainless steels; Springback estimation: Springback factor ( 0.6 (c) 2024-T aluminum; (d) 1/4-hard austenitic stainless steels; and (e) 1/2- 3 0.5 hard to full-hard austenitic stainless R R Y R Y 1 5 10 20 i i i steels.
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