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The Routledge Handbook of Stylistics

Michael Burke

Functionalist stylistics

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 Patricia Canning Published online on: 18 Feb 2014

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The ‘story’ ofDavidbuilding inour wemaysimplyconclude(withoutanycircumstantial indicatorsto‘explain’little brother’, remove thecircumstantialadjunct (‘whilewaitingforthebus’),toleave‘Davidkicked his nature ofsiblingrelationships) anddeducethathehasanaxetogrindwithhis‘victim’.If we is impulsiveorbored,whileothersmayintuitimportsome contextualclues(suchasthe The moregenerousamongstus maydeducethatDavid old tincan’,with‘hislittlebrother’? infl The modifyingadverb‘viciously’ suggestsamoreinsidiousactionwhichmaynegatively differently aboutDavidifwereadthat, the words‘kicked’,‘old’,‘tin’ and‘can’ inthesamesentence.However, wemightthink We mightthinkDavidwasabitbored,butrelativelyharmless. We mayevenexpectto For example,consideryourpersonalresponsetoDavidinthefollowing(very)shortstory: text, actions,events,statesofbeingandthelikearekeyaspects‘story’ encodedtherein. are notexplicitlydelineatedinblackandwhite,asitwere?InMacbeth,everyliterary on interpretation,howdoweaccountforintuitinganyknowledgefromatextwhenevents Macbeth actuallydidanythingtoanyone. While notwishingtomakeanaffective judgement have demonstratedelsewhere(Canning2010)itisnotclearfromthetextofplaythat though thisinformationismerelyimplied(‘Ihavedonethedeed’ II.ii.14).However, asI murdered!’ II.iii.83). Arguably, weprettymuch‘know’ thattheeponymousherodidit,even King Duncan,isthathewaskilled. This muchisexplicitintheplaytext(‘ourroyalmaster’s In Shakespeare’s Macbeththeonlycertaintyregardingdeathofreigningmonarch, Introduction uence ouropinionofDavid.Butwhatifwereplacedtheobjectin ‘While waitingforthebus,Davidviciouslykickedanold tin can.’ ‘While waitingforthebus,Davididlykickedanoldtincan.’ Functionalist stylistics Patricia Canning fi rst example,‘an fi nd 3 45 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:50 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315795331, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 that, asEggins (2004,p.21)putsit,atext’s pivotalnatureisthe ‘meetingpointofcontextual simultaneously informstheproduction andinterpretationofmeaningtodiffering degrees,so While allthreemetafunctions canbeexploredindependently, itisimportanttonotethateach c. Textual – b. (among otherthings)the linguistics (Saussure1916,Chomsky1957,1986)insofarasthelatterisconcernedwith Traditionally, functionaliststylisticshasoftenbeenregardedasdistinctfromformalist Historical perspectives before movingontoconsideritsfunctionalityinreal,practicalterms. begin withanoutlineofthehistoricalbackgroundtofunctionalstylisticsasadiscipline, follows, Iaimtodeveloptheseconnectionsbyexploringwhatitisthatlanguagecan‘do’. between whatLeech(2008,p.104)calls‘languageandisnotlanguage’.In construction andreception.Inotherwords,functionalstylisticsdealswiththeconnections cultural andpolitical(whatwemaycollectivelycallideological)factorsthatimpactuponits language asasystemandthecontextorsituationofitsproduction,wellsocial, of itself.Functionaliststylisticsisconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenforms words, languagedoesnotfunctioninavacuum–it‘do’ ormeaneverythinginand our understandingoffunctional(ordysfunctional)familialrelationships,andsoon.Inother Patricia Canning 46 a. ‘metafunctions’ asfollows: language hasatripartitefunction,whichcanbebroken down intothreeinterconnecting (‘a construalofsomeprocessinongoinghumanexperience’). Thus, Hallidayobserves, anditisameansof‘representation’between aspeakerandlistenerorwriterreader’), ‘message’ (theinformationaboutDavidandhisaction),itisan‘exchange’ (‘atransaction can’ hasthreeinterrelatedfunctionsinHalliday’s terms(1994,p.34):itcontainsa roles orfunctionswhichintersecttomakemeaning. The example‘Davidkickedanold tin Functional Grammar(1994),Hallidaydevelopedtheideathatlanguagehasthree primary with developingthekeyconceptsoffunctionaliststylistics.Inhiswork in languageandsociety’ (1950),Halliday(1971,1985,1994,2004)hasoftenbeencredited Malinowski’s (1923)workontheimportanceofsituationalcontext,andFirth’s ‘Personality event isasimportanttheformalfeaturesofwhichitcomprised.Buildingon along anaxisoflanguageanduse.Forfunctionalists,thecontexta continuum thatconnectsthetwoschoolsofthought–couldbelooselyunderstoodasbeing combinations thatgaverisetotheirmeaning of language,andinsodoingtheyexploredthemotivationsbehindselections Functionalists developedthestructuralmodeloflanguagetoaccountforvariety ‘paradigmatic relations’)andahorizontalaxisofcombination(‘syntagmaticrelations’). which involvedthesimultaneousselectionfromaverticalaxisof‘choice’ (whathetermed used fundamentally concernedwiththewaysinwhichformalpropertiesoflanguageare other hand,functionalistapproaches(Halliday1994,HallidayandHasan1976)are that is,its exchange Interpersonal –tomediateintheestablishmentofsocialrelationships (clauseas Ideational – pragmatically propositional toprovidetheformalproperties oflanguage(clauseas ) to expressideasandexperience(clauseas . Saussuredevelopedtheconceptoflanguageasasemioticsystem meaning (seeBurkeandEvers,Chapter2inthisvolume).Onthe semantic functionoftheformalpropertieslanguagesystem, potential . The distinction–orrather, the representation message) An Introduction to ) uses

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:50 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315795331, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 continent. All threesetoff insearch ofCurtis’s brother, whohasdisappeared whiletreasure compatriots SirHenryCurtis andCaptainJohnGoodastheytravelthroughthe African 1879. Haggard’s novel chartstheadventuresofitsBritishnarrator Allan Quartermainandhis war of1880–81. While hewastherewitnessedtheBritish army’s defeatbytheZulusin take upapositionofemployment in1875andremainedthereuntilshortlyafterthe growth andcolonialexpansion in Africa. HaggardtravelledtoSouth Africa fromEnglandto particular direction. which cohesivetiescanfunction‘environmentally’ tosteerthereaders’ interpretationina The followingsectionexplorestheseprinciplesinHaggard’s novelandlooksatthewaysin environment’. Thus, cohesioninatextcanoftensignalnon-textualorsituational of thespeaker’s andhearer’s (orwriter’s andreader’s) material,socialandideological and Hasan(1976,p.20)putit,‘therelationsBETWEENthe languageandtherelevantfeature formal propertieswithinthetextitselfbutalsofromsituational knowledge,orasHalliday text servesasthebasisforestablishingcohesion,itscohesiveness derivesnotonlyfromthe cohesion, andoffunctionaliststylisticsgenerally, isthatwhilethe‘internalorganisation’ ofa example) becauselesseffort isrequiredtomakesenseofthetext. An importantfeatureof easier andfasterthantextswithlesscohesion(compareHemmingwayJoyce,for example above). Texts exhibitingahighnumberofcohesivetieswillbeprocessedmuch say wordsthatwouldreasonablybeexpectedtoco-occur(like‘old’,‘tin’,and‘can’ inthe repetition ofcertainwordsorcollocation(Firth1957,Hoey2005, Toolan 2009),whichisto elements thataresemanticallytiedtogether. Cohesionisalsorealised and reliesonthereader’s abilitytomakethenecessarylinkagesbetweentwo(ormore) through aseriesofcohesivedevicessuchasconjunction,ellipsis,substitutionandreference, make sense. This ‘internalorganisation’ (Eggins2004,p.29)isrealised Hasan 1976)referstothewayinwhichsentencesarerelatedorlinkedtogetherorder features ormodels.Partofthe Each ofthemetafunctionslanguagecanbeelucidatedthroughparticulargrammatical Textual metafunction calls the‘contextofsituation’ –inaspeci intersect totakeaccountofatextandthecontextitsproduction–whatMalinowski(1923) are reinforcedandmodulated.Inshort,Iaimtoshowhowthemetafunctionsoflanguage interpersonal metafunctionoffers aframework(modality)throughwhichtheserelationships perceptions ofthesocialrelationshipsthatobtainbetweencharacters.Moreover, the – ofthecharacterstextdescribes.Myargument willbethatcohesionhelpsstructureour of thetextualmetafunction,helpsreadersto‘makesense’ –fromaparticularpointofview however, drawingfromHallidayandHasan(1976),Iwillexaminehowcohesion,afeature offers awayofreadingbehind Haggard’s texttouncoveracolonialworldview. Firstly, departure, Iwillexplorethewaysinwhichtransitivity, afeatureoftheideationalmetafunction, particularly ideasaboutrace.UsingH.RiderHaggard’s I amparticularlyinterestedinthewayswhichtheyintersecttoencodeandexpressideas, of thecontiguousstylisticmodelsthroughwhichmetafunctionsaretraditionallyespoused. analysis thanwouldotherwisebethecasewithoneoranother. study ofatext’s meaningpotentialcanmakegood useofallthem,offering amorerobust and linguisticexpression’. The factthatthesethreemetafunctionsoverlapmeansany H. RiderHaggardwrote Thus, Iaimtoexplorethescopeoffunctionalistlinguisticsthroughanapplicationsome King Solomon’s Minesin1885duringatimeofgreatimperial textual metafunctionoflanguage, fi c socialandculturalmilieu. King Solomon’s Minesasapointof cohesion (Hallidayand lexically Functionalist stylistics grammatically throughthe fi fl rst Boer uences. 47

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:50 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315795331, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 choices exhibitsomestrikingpolarities: used byHaggard(theitalicisedreferencesareambiguousandmayrefertobothfactions).His exophoric orexternalreference),thechainbelowisolatesvariousnomenclaturalitems by differentiating betweenthetypesofreference(endophoricorin-textreference,and objects that which meaningtakesplaceismadeupof‘realities[which]mayresideinthepersonsand to beperceived:asHallidayandHasan(1976,p.305)acknowledge,thesocialcontextwithin relationships moretransparent.IntheHaggardtext,itoffers insightsintohowcharactersare person orsocialgroupinatext,oftenmakescharacterisationandthenatureof The Zulus: The British: simple referencechain,thatis,acollatedlistofallthetermstospeci p. 305)as‘asemanticrelationlinkinganinstanceoflanguagetoitsenvironment’,anda or referenced.ReferenceisatypeofcohesiondescribedbyHallidayandHasan(1976, least intermsofthewayswhichtwofactions–BritishandZulusarepresented signifi chapter titled‘The Attack’ (reproducedintheappendix)anddemonstrates cultural uncharacteristically Western (almostnoble)traits. The extractunderanalysisisfromthe contiguous relationshipbetweenIgnosi’s ‘assumption ofdignity’ (47) and his ‘very light-colouredforaZulu’ (46),adescriptionthat,asthenarrativecontinues,suggests known asIgnosi)who,wearetold,‘wasdifferent fromtheordinaryrunofZulus’ (48),being hunting Patricia Canning 48 eyes –hishead –thehorridapparitionhim –himselfhethematter reserves –theleftattackswarms oftheenemy–advancingfoeahugeruf – struggling warriors–mentheattackingforcethatthird impenetrablehedgeofspears advance –theattackingforce –theirbreaththeythebattle – theyseveralmen – thatmightyrushofarmedhumanitytheythe men –theyanominousroarsimilartheothertwo divisions–themassofmen man –hisarmsfacetheforcegeneralhe the densemass–eightorten – thechesthemymanhisorderlyof – theplainthattallfellowhimmyfriendanorderly –himtheneck the threecolumns–mainorcentrecolumnother two–theserriedphalanxes – thelatterhimIweusIgnosiourfi myself –IwetheregimentswhitemanSirHenryGood – ImeQuartermainGoodyouone us –GoodheI We –youQuartermainwemeI – Imemyselfmyprostrateform –I captains –ImyselfIgnosimewethe right defence–usIgnosimethereserveregiment Greys–itselfIgnosithe himself –myselfI–histallformheamessengerweourmenthe – – ourfi defence –oursecondthirdpeople cance ofthetextualmetafunction.Stylistically, itmakesforinterestingreading,not the densemassofstrugglingwarriors–SirHenryakindlingeyeheGood the densemassofstruggling warriors en route toKingSolomon’s mines. They areassistedbyanative,Umbopa(also rst lineofdefence–thesecondourpeoplethird line–theassailantsmen fi gure intheimmediatevicinity’. Without wishingtoovercomplicatetheanalysis –thesoldiersattacking force–itits fi cer –hisforcehimthegeneralpoor the massofstrugglingwarriors–men fl ying groups ofourmen–usI the massof rst lineof fi an – fi c Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:50 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315795331, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 establishing adichotomyofcultural difference betweenthe Britishandthe African characters, Bhabha 1994andSaid1979). Haggard’s novelperpetuatesacolonial worldviewby incorporating theminasystem of operation of British. The tablebelowexhibits thedistributionofreferenceitemsinfull. phalanxes’, andsoon)comparedtoonlythirteeninstancesofinanimatereferencethe Zulus arereferredtoinanimatelyonthirtyoccasions(‘thethreecolumns’,‘theserried (‘that mightyrushofarmedhumanity’,‘theleftattack’,advancingfoe’).Secondly, the Zulus (seventeeninstances)whoaremoreoftenthannotpresentedasahomogenousentity there isacomparativelackofpronominalreferencing(he,him,they)whenitcomesthe Quartermain’s (whichlargely accountsfortheheavybiasinpronominaldistributionoverall), the British(eighty-fourintotal).Notwithstandingfactthatnarrativeviewpointis here toenvironment. The nextsectionexploresthisphenomenon. Zulus. Inotherwords,toreturnHallidayandHasan’s contentionabove,languageislinked presenting adepersonalisedstrugglebetweenhumanBritish factionandthesubhuman view thatHaggard’s selectionsembodycolonialorimperialideasaboutracialothernessby raises questionsabouthowbothfactionsareideologicallyconstructed andperceived.Itismy with thehighoccurrenceofinanimatereferencetoZulus, theissueofcohesivereferencing parts –isunequallyweightedtowardstheZulus(seveninstances tothree). Taken together Furthermore, meronymicreference–thatis,wherecharacters arereferredtointermsofbody proper nouns pronouns personal Table 3.1 The reference animate nominal reference inanimate nominal reference meronymic ‘Colonialism’, say Tif fi rst obvious difference hereistheabundanceofpersonalpronounsinrepresentations Reference chainfrom discourse, andasanoperationof itinterpellatescolonialsubjectsby British (2); theGreys(1) Good (4);IgnosiQuartermain(2);SirHenry (5); he(3);him(1);himself(1) I (33);we(12);me(6);myself(5);youus groups ofourmen messenger –ourmenthecaptainsfl – themassofstrugglingwarriorsmena our people(2)–thewhitemanregiments prostrate form regiment–itselfmy defence –thereserve – theassailantshistallformright second –ourthirdtheline our fi rst lineofdefence(2)–thelatterour a kindlingeye fi n andLawson(1994,p.3),likeitscounterpart, racism,‘isan The Attack representation TOTAL (84) TOTAL (10) TOTAL (13) TOTAL (1) ying ’ (myitalics; seealso Althusser 1984, Zulus they (7);him(6);he(3);himself mass ofmen– – theoffi cer –poormaneightortenmenthe – myfriendanorderlymanhis the general(3)–severalmen(2)thattallfellow horrid apparition–thematter enemy –theadvancingfoeahugeruffi an –the –theleftattackswarmsof it –itsreserves dense massofstrugglingwarriors–thesoldiers – thatthirdimpenetrablehedgeofspearsthe throwing knives–themassofstrugglingwarriors of armedhumanity–theadvancetollasor roar –theothertwodivisionsthatmightyrush – thedensemassanominousroarasimilar serried phalanxes–theplainhisforce –theforce main orcentrecolumn–theothertwo the attackingforce (3);the threecolumns–the breath –eyeshishead the neck–chesthisarmsfacetheir Functionalist stylistics TOTAL (17) TOTAL (15) TOTAL (31) TOTAL (7) 49 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:50 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315795331, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 takes adirectobject. We canuse thetransitivitysystemtoaccount forpatternsof would besuggestedbyitstraditional grammaticalroleindeterminingwhetherornota verb terms as‘clauserepresentation’. and representingideasexperience. Inthisway, transitivity canbeconsideredinHalliday’s is referringtothe picture ofreality, tomakesenseofwhatgoesonaroundthemandinsidethem.’ Here,Halliday because asHalliday(1994,p.106)putsis,‘languageenables humanbeingstobuildamental feel alltheriskworthfeeling,saveactualphysicalrisk’. Ourincongruousexampleworks (2001, p.145)acknowledge,‘readingabouttherisksincurred byamanwhohuntstigers,I is whyliteratureprovidesawonderfulconduitforexperience, sothat,aswriterslikePessoa We don’t haveto haveexperiencedinrealitysomethingthatweencounterlanguage–this responsible forandaffected bythatactionandevent,arecapturedneatlyheretheclause. the ‘reality’ orstory, the which anoldtincanmaywellkickahumanparticipant. The pointisthathoweverincongruous construction intoadifferent kindof historically tincansdon’t actonhumans.However, wearepropelledbythisincongruous structure. Pragmatically, wemayfeelthatitdoesn’t ‘makesense’ becauseweknow that different typealtogether. Ineffect, thereisnothinggrammaticallywrongwiththisclausal reverse theparticipantstoread‘anoldtincankickedDavid’,ourstorywouldbeofavery pragmatically for astorytomakesense,thesesalientaspectsneedcoherebothgrammatically I suggestedearlierthatstoriesaremadeupofactions,events,goings-onandthelike.Inorder Ideational metafunction metafunction elucidatedthroughthemodeloftransitivity. their unequaldistributioninthetext. The followingsection,then,dealswiththeideational An explorationoftheseunderpinningideascanhelpusmakesensethecohesivetiesand with acolonialworldviewoftheindigenousnativeasstereotypicallyuncivilisedand‘other’. skewed storypresentedthroughthereferencechainandsummary(Table 3.1)thataccords 1979, p.5). These ideasunderpintheactionsinHaggardtextanddevelopideologically of relationships‘power, ofdomination,varyingdegreesacomplexhegemony’ (Said to embodyOrientalistideasbymakingadistinctionbetweentheOrientand West interms presence inandforthe West’ (1979,pp.4–5,myitalics).Haggard’s novelcouldbeunderstood has ahistoryandtraditionofthought,imageryvocabularythathavegivenitreality Orientalism ontheassumptionthatOrientis‘notaninertfactofnature[but] distinction betweentheOrientand(mostoftime)Occident’.Saidbaseshiscritique Said (1979,p.2)proposesthatOrientalismis‘baseduponanontologicalandepistemological perpetuation ofEuropean(orOccidental)ideasaboutthetext’s non-Europeancharacters. Said (1979)calls‘Orientalism’,thediscursiveconstructionofracialothernessthrough the civilisedandcivilisingforce.Itcouldbeargued thattheauthortacitlyengagesinwhat eighteenth-century cognateoftheterm‘savage’),whileBritishleadersareconstructedas ‘natives’, asthenarratoroftenreferstothem,areconstructedsavages(‘native’ isan discourse of‘otherness’ fi that isneverthelessthreatenedwithdissolutionthroughtheambivalentcharacterIgnosi. A the novel,‘theproudwhiteman’ oftenpitchedagainstthe‘poorHottentot’ (101),adichotomy with thelatterbeingdescribedas‘heathenish’ (65). The twofactions arepolaroppositesin Patricia Canning 50 Transitivity isamorecomplexstylisticmodelinthecontextof thismetafunctionthan . Forinstance,ifweweretotaketheclause‘Davidkickedanoldtincan’ and ideational nds expressionincolonialstereotypes,wherebytheZulus,or representation metafunction,theareaoflanguage thataccountsforencoding experience ofactionandevent,aswelltheparticipants . Perhapsthereisascience fi ction novel in experience idea that and

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:50 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315795331, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 below thedifferent materialprocesstypesandtheirvariouspermutations. those abovecan in (see Simpson1993,pp.92–95 foranergative interpretation ofsuchprocesses). The as involuntary, inthatitimpliesnoexternalagent,whereas theuseof‘kicked’ requiresone although thepassiveformationallowsustoask‘bywhom’. Ind)theProcessisrepresented Goal, oraffected entity, isgivenfocalprominence.Inc)the Actor isdeletedfromtheclause, whom, whileinb)hisactiveroleis‘backgrounded’ throughapassiveformationandthe is moreorlesspresentaswereaddownthetable;ina)it clearwhatDavidisdoingandto In eachoftheexamples,onlyconstantelementisProcess, the‘doing’. The Actor role Table 3.2 functionalist stylisticsisasmuchabout off DavidbyforegroundingtheGoalasin‘anoldtincanwaskicked are afewotherwaysofexpressingthissameprocess–sothat,forexample,wetakethefocus an oldtincan’,Davidisthe Actor and‘anoldtincan’ istheGoalelement.However, there account forthescopeof‘materialness’.Ifwereturntoouroriginalexample‘Davidkicked ‘Actor’ and‘Goal’ respectively, andtherearedifferent kindsofmaterialprocesswhich does thedoing,aswellentity(orthing)affected bythedoing. These rolesaretermed outline belowwithexamples. 2004, Simpson1993,Eggins2004)makefurthersubdivisions,someofwhichIwill processes (or‘inner’ and‘outer’ experience),Hallidayandothers(HallidayMattheissen ‘doing’. However, whereasBerryretainstheprimarydistinctionbetweenMentalandMaterial experience sothatprocessesof‘sensing’,forexample,arecontrastedwith Halliday’s breakdownofprocesstypesmakes thedistinctionbetweeninnerandouter and theCircumstancesofclause(the‘where’,‘when’,‘how’).FollowingBerry(1975), nominalised verb)whileotherconstituentssatisfytheParticipantroles(agentandaffected) process isrealisedthroughtheverborphrase(althoughitcanbeimplieda p. 106),‘construestheworldofexperienceintoamanageablesetPROCESS TYPES.’ The happening andbecoming–sothetransitivitysystem,accordingtoHalliday(1994, in atextbecauserealityismadeupofexperientialprocesses–doing,sensing,being, responsibility forthe‘doing’. Itisnotdif formulation towhichitcorresponds. The moreexplicitthe Participants,themoreexplicit column inthetablerelatesto the degree(presenceorabsence)ofagencythatresultsfrom the (passive voice) (b) Action-intention (passive voice) (c) Action-intention (d) Action-Supervention (a) Action-intention Material Processesareprocessesofdoingandusuallyinvolvetheentity(orthing)that Material ProcessType Material processes fl uence ourinterpretation ofthesameeventandcould havepoliticalor An oldtincan An oldtincan An oldtincan David Actor Actor Goal Goal Clausal Confi choice fi cult tosee howgrammaticalcon was kicked Process Process kicked asanythingelse,wecanseefromthetable guration was kicked Process Process rolled an oldtincan by David Actor Goal Functionalist stylistics Agency deleted Agency excised fi Agency explicit by David’.As backgrounded gurations like gurations Agency Agency fi nal 51 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:50 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315795331, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 Haggard, ‘crept’ istheprocess,but‘on’ speci Range feelsabitlikeGoalandCircumstance.Intheaboveexamplefrom constituent. Putsimply, theRangeelaboratesonprocessbyextendingit. At times,the of notehere,whichistheirabilitytore This examplethrowsupaninterestingfeatureofMaterial(andother)processesthatisworthy the momentwhilealso‘backgrounding’ ‘crept’,theactionencodedinMaterialprocess. This Circumstance/Actor/Processconstructionhasthedeicticeffect ofplacingthereaderin the clause,asboldtypeinthisexamplefromHaggard’s noveldemonstrates: positioning oftheCircumstancemayhaveabearingonhowweperceiveinformationin offers specifi and Trew 1979,KressandHodge1979). cultural leverageinarangeofdiscursivepractices(seeFowler1981,Fowler, Hodge,Kress Patricia Canning 52 has everlaggedbehindintheirstudieswouldprobablyunderstand thepragmaticsigni Inrealitythiscannothappen,butanyonewho was watchingmefromitshomeontheshelf’. objects canbeendowedwithconsciousnessbyassuming the roleofSenser, asin ‘thebook Phenomenon (the‘thing’ sensed).Generally, theSenserisananimateentity, butinanimate there aretwopotentialparticipants,theSenser(theentity thatdoesthesensing),and clause (inbold),‘Shebelieved mediated throughaMentalprocess andconstruedasgiven.Inthesameway, theprojected presupposes the‘fact’ ofamanstanding. The projectedelement,itselfaMaterialprocess,is projection. Forinstance,asimpleclauselike‘Isawmyman standing’ (fromtheHaggardtext) Examples areoutlinedintable3.3. Reaction (liking,fearingetc.),andCognition(thinking, knowing,understandingetc.). 1994, pp.118), namelyPerception(seeing,hearingetc.), Affection, sometimesknownas of suchastatement.Mentalprocessesaredividedintothree ‘principalsub-types’ (Halliday the Range.FurtherRangeelementscanbefoundinfollowingexamplesboldtype: the Olympics). The pointisthattheprojected clause interpretation (the‘fact’ ofhisracebeing‘competitive’ aswellthe‘fact’ ofhimrunning at as fact–itistruethat‘she’ transitivity con in b),‘thebestofabadjob’,euphemisticallyencodestheMaterialprocesskilling. comment atthisstage,readersmaybeshockedtoknowthatthefairlyinnocuousnounphrase both, theRangeelementssubstituteforaffected entity. Without makinganyfurthercritical Examples b)andc)arefromHaggard’s textandconstituteGoal-lessMaterialprocesses.In in a)with‘amess’ and‘made’.Otherexamplesare‘sing’ and‘asong’ or‘done’ and‘thedeed’. The Rangeistypically, but notexclusively, acognateoftheverbinprocess,asiscase Each ofthepermutationscantakeaCircumstantialcomponent,deletableelementwhich A signifi Mental processesareof‘sensing’ –thinking,feeling,perceivingandthe columns crepton’. ‘Slowly, andwithouttheslightestappearance ofhasteor excitement,thethree b) ‘I made a) ‘Ella made c) ‘We kept cant featureofMentalprocesses istheirabilitytoencodepresupposed‘facts’ through c informationaboutthe‘where’,‘when’,and‘how’ oftheexperience. The fi gurations necessitatedifferent kindsofparticipants.InaMentalprocess, the bestofabadjob up asteadyfi a mess’ believed her brother ranacompetitiveraceattheOlympics re ’ thistobefact,butwhetherit was fact ’ fl ect thescopeofactionthrougha‘Range’ fi es the extentofthe‘creeping’ andthussatis be construed as accepted fact. may beconstruedas acceptedfact. in reality is open to isopento ’ istaken fi cance fi es Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:50 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315795331, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 below, offers examplesthataccountforbothmodes. identi a classofcleverpeople. The Identifyingmode,ontheotherhand,singlesheroutasbeing it isnottheidentifyingtraitputtingherinaclassofone,butanattributewhichputs The quality‘clever’(128), asin‘mydaughterisclever’. doesnotde identifying mode.Intheattributivemode‘someentityisbeingsaidtohaveanattribute’ Each Relationalprocesshastwomodes,anattributivemode(denotingattribute)and c. b. Figure 3.1 a. Intensive the relationshipcanbecapturedbythreeprimarycategoriesofprocessasfollows: said to‘be’ somethingelse’,andarelationshipexistsbetweenthetwothings. The natureof In Halliday’s terms(1994,pp.119), thereare‘twopartstothe‘being’:somethingisbeing Perhaps oneofthemostcomplexprocesstypes,Relationalprocessesdenotestatesbeing. Table 3.3 Relational Process (c) Mental-Cognition Mental-Reaction) (Also knownas (b) Mental-Affection (a) Mental-Perception Mental ProcessType role, matterorangle’ (130) Circumstantial Possessive –marksarelationshipofownership( fi ed bythatqualityas‘clever’ doesin‘mydaughteristheclever one’.Figure3.1, Mental processes Relational processes –marksarelationshipofequivalence( –marksarelationshipof‘time,place,manner, cause,accompaniment, Senser Senser Senser Fiona She Circumstantial Possessive Intensive I (x isony,xatandsoon) believed Process Process Process loves saw her brotherranacompetitiveraceattheOlympics Clausal Confi ‘The queue is for passport control’ queueisfor passport Identifying: ‘The queuelasted aneternity’Attributive: ‘The hasthebestshoes’Identifying: ‘Brid hastoo manyAttributive: ‘Winnie shoes’ Identifying: ‘Mydaughter istheclever one’ Attributive: ‘Mydaughter isclever’ x isy) x hasy) guration Matchbox Twenty my manstanding Phenomenon Phenomenon Phenomenon fi ne her;inotherwords, Functionalist stylistics 53 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:50 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315795331, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 c) The end b) Stephanie heard a) Encoded actionsareinbold thefollowingexamples: other processtypes,suchas theMaterialprocessof‘murdering’ intheexampleabove. effect relationshipsbyelidingtheparticipantrolesandusingnominalisedverbsthatencode while ‘amurder’ functionsasthe‘Existent’.Existentialprocessescancircumvent causeand the casewith‘there’ inotherprocesses)butasa‘dummysubject’ (Simpson2004,pp.25), This constructionoffers noparticipantclues–‘there’ actsnotasaCircumstance(asisoften is completelyanteriortothe‘truth’ ofhimmakingthestatement. example ofaprojectedprocess. Whether theprojectedRelationalprocessistrueinfact or not Intensive processin‘Gerardtoldusthat layered inthattheycanprojectothernon-Verbal processes. The highlightedRelational- the order‘Keepout’.Interestingly, likeMentalprocesses Verbal processescanbemulti- the‘notice’, whilethe Verbiageinstance ofaninanimate‘Sayer’, componentissatis orthepersontowhom Verbiage‘Receiver’, (elliptedhere)isdirected.Examplec)an processes canalsotakeaRangeconstituentasinb),signalledby‘out’.‘Katie’ isthe In a)thereisno Verbiage component–‘atthereferee’ isaCircumstantialelement. Verbal c) Declan’s notice b) Daniel a) Conor the Verbiage Examplesof Verbal andispredictablyknownasthe‘Receiver’. processesare: Verbal processestakeanadditionalparticipantrolethataccountsforthepersonwhoreceives theentitywhoverbalises,and‘Verbiage’,the ‘Sayer’, thatwhichissaidorcommunicated. kind ofsymbolicexchangemeaning’ (Halliday1994,pp.140).Clausalconstituentsinclude ‘Barcelona’ inexamplec)above(seeHalliday1994,pp.139). This isalsothecasewithsomeCircumstantialcomponents,particularlythoseofManner, like process ‘took’. As inotherprocesseswithaRange,thebehaviourappears‘participant-like’. In b)theprocessisextendedthroughRangeelement‘adeepbreath’ whichquali c) Maura b) I a) He take aRangeelement.ExamplesofBehaviouralprocessesareasfollows: Circumstance ifapplicable.LikeMaterialandMentalprocesses,Behaviouralprocessescan aprocessand Behavioural processesareself-explanatoryinthatthereisa‘Behaver’, dreaming, looking(incontrastto‘seeing’ whichisMental)andsuchlike.Keyconstituentsof ‘physiological andpsychologicalbehaviour’ (Halliday1994,pp.139)suchascoughing, are self-explanatory. is ascribed)and Attribute. IntheIdentifyingmode, theparticipants,Identi The clauseconstituentsforRelationalProcessesareCarrier(theentitytowhomtheattribute Patricia Canning 54 Existential processes function to state that something exists, as in ‘There was a murder’. Existential processesfunctiontostatethatsomethingexists, asin‘Therewasamurder’. Verbal processesaccountfor‘saying’,notjustofthehumancommunicationkind,but‘any Behavioural processessitbetweenMaterialandMentalaccountfor There wasashoutacrossthehall took adeepbreath sighed heavily shouted atthereferee dreamt ofBarcelona called outtoKatie is near told everyoneto‘KeepOut’ there wasacar crash his children were thecleverest intheclass fi ed andIdenti fi fi esthe edby ’ isan fi er, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:50 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315795331, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 yields thefollowingMaterialprocesses,shownin Table 3.4below. or what. A simpletransitivityanalysisofthephysicalroleBritishplayedinattack sense toassessthecontextoftheiroccurrencesbyexploringwhoorwhatdidwhom Table 3.4 many ofthesereferenceitemsfeatureasparticipantsintransitivitycon that thecohesivereferencechainsuggestedafavourablebiastowardBritishfaction. As I nowwanttobringtheseprocesstypeslifethroughtheHaggardextract.statedearlier Figure 3.2 than assertsagency. Finally, inc)theprocessis simplystatedasa‘fact’. created it,whileinb)the(projected)Existentialprocess‘therewasacarcrash’ impliesrather In a)the‘shout’ merelyexists,althoughitisreasonabletoassumethatsomeanimateentity lueActor Clause iiØ viii i I vii In summary, then,thespectrumofprocessesandparticipantsisoutlinedinFigure3.2below. iI vi iv iii v ii i I (would) you you try you (Suppose) you Summary ofBritishaction(materialprocesses)

Summary ofprocesstypesandconstituents Summary

clear Mental fi nd him took covered theball (don’t) drop miss go Behavioural Phenomenon

Process

Process Behaver Senser Process the plain him him him Ø Ø Transitivity Material Verbiage Receiver Process Process Verbal Range Sayer Actor Goal The British Goal

Carrier Process Existent

within tenyards in twentyminutes

in thechest halfway downtheneck there to thattallfellow Attribute Existential icmtneRange Circumstance Relational fi Functionalist stylistics gurations,itmakes a shot 55 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:50 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315795331, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 Patricia Canning 56 lueActor Clause xii(I) xxxiii xiiI xxviii xi I xxxii xi fudmsl)ivle Ø involved I(foundmyself) xxvii xiI xxxi xx(I) xxix xiI xxvi I xxiv xi (he) xxiii vi (we) xviii x we xxx x h eev eietetne itself extended regiment thereserve xxv xihe xxii vi(we) xvii i Ø xix x u hr iecame our thirdline xxi i h atr(od rwigtednems beforehimwitha thedensemass we xvi browning thelatter(Good) xiv iiSrHnyadGo took and Good SirHenry xiii xØ xx vwe xv i I xii iI xi I ix I x ete thematter settled fl rose cone Ø accounted eedie ourpeople were driven ourfi rst lineofdefence was pressed Ø produced ode Ø Ø were plunging toddled put kept on myself found Ø stopped Ø fl ung rushed made a aeØ Ø had made let drive Ø did pressed ung Process myself Ø some eightortenmen Ø himself Ø Ø Ø Ø The British Goal down revolver from behindwithmy to theoccasion for severalmen in afuriousonslaught back andup of armedhumanity upon thatmightyrush our men the fl ying groupsof along hors decombat Winchester repeater advancing foe onslaught uponthe involved inafurious where Iwas fray into thehottestof Ø Ø with thesecondbarrel icmtneRange Circumstance back effect no more through to bekilled fi up asteady off into action bad job the bestofa fi and beganto up theirrifl no mistake a rashthing re re es Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:50 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315795331, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 Moreover, aninterestingpatternof under-speci can actively‘look’,butcannot purposefully‘ convey suchwilfulactionas murder becauseitimpliesadegreeofinvoluntarycontrol. One action isobscuredthroughthe choiceofverb‘ man (heful is grammaticallyexplicitthat the Britishprotagonistisresponsibleforkillingofthis Zulu ambiguous andmitigatestheforceofmurderousaction againsttheZuluvictim. While it seven syntacticallyprominentclausesthatprecedeit.Similarly, ‘Itookhim’ issemantically The action‘Icoveredhim’ issofarpost-positionedastorenderitalmostperipheralthe vi, viiandviiifeatureintheparagraphbelow: they areemployedtorepresent. To givea defi euphemistic; allofthemarelexicallyunder-speci The Materialprocesses(inbold)areinterestingbecausetheymetaphoricandthus xv. ‘We viii. ‘[I calculated to] vii. ‘I vi. ‘I xv). Letushaveacloserlookattheseclausesbelow. presented astheaffected GoalandinwhichtheBritishoccupyroleas Actor (vi,vii,viii, are onlyfourinstancesoutofthirty-twoMaterialprocesseswheretheZulusexplicitly the Zulusasinanimate(i,xiv, xxxii). This breakdown ofclausalconstituentsmeansthatthere although oneofthese(‘him’,clauseiv)ishypothetical. The remainingthree(ofeight)present xiv, xv, xxxii)canbesplitfurthertoaccountfor Interestingly, theeightclauses inwhichtheZulusoccupyGoalelement(i,iv, vi,vii,viii, clauses xxiii,xxv, xxvi, xxxi)ortheyfeatureasGoalinclauseswithno Actor (xix,xx). of thesefi Zulus asGoal. With theexceptionofoneclausethat ishypothetical(iv)theremainingseven which accordswiththehighZuludeathtoll.However, ofthese two MaterialprocessesenactedbytheBritish.Nearlyhalfofthese( the Britishsoldiersastheyin not besurprisingto wounded’, while‘they[theZulus]musthavelostthree’ (209).Givensuchlosses,itwould ‘dreadfully heavy’ loss. The Britishclaimto‘havelostquite two thousandkilledand depicts aviolentbattlebetweentheBritishandZulus,culminationofwhichis represented byøwherenecessary. The extractfromwhichtheseprocesstypesaretaken that is,theyareimaginedoranticipated,butnotrealised. Absent participantelementsare For thepurposesofclari nitively suggestmurder(‘covered’,‘took’,‘ which ought,Icalculated, rock, accompanied onlybyanorderly, andthen,lyingdownrestingtheexpressupon a some tenyardsoutfromhisforce,inordertogeta better viewofourposition, This piquedme,so,loadingtheexpresswithsolidball,I waited tillmyfriendwalked fi fty yards,so toallowforthedropintrajectory took himhalfwaydowntheneck’ covered him’ put someeightortenmen fteen processesareeitherself-re I coveredrifl him.The fi ls theroleof Actor inaMaterial processinwhichtheZulumanisGoal), fi nd ahigh incidenceofMaterialprocessesinthetext,particularlyfrom fi ndhiminthechest’ fi cation, theprocessesinboldtyperepresentnon-realactions– fl ict theheaviestlosses. As wouldbeexpected,therearethirty- to fi e, likeallexpresses,wasonlysightedtothreehundred and nd him inthechest(203–4). hors decombat’ fl avour oftheircontextinthenarrative,examples fl exive (theBritishful fi fi nd’. Arguably, ‘fi nd’. Itsinclusionhere,then,issigni fi nd’, ‘put’).However, thatispreciselywhat fi city is developedthroughthefollowing fi fi ve thatpresenttheZulusasanimate, c andsemantically vague,andnone I tookhimhalf-waydowntheneck, nd’ isnottypicallyusedto fi fteen, onlyeightpositthe fi fi fteen) affect aparticipant, l both Actor andGoalin Functionalist stylistics fi cant. 57 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:50 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315795331, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 systematic patternofselectionemerges asiscapturedby Table 3.5below. fi myself involved’,‘madethebestofabadjob’,‘rosetooccasion’,and‘settledmatter’. hors decombat’,‘keptupasteady Table 3.5 ‘covered’, ‘took’,‘ sixteen Materialprocesses(allofwhichencodemurderbytheBritish):‘clearplain’, Patricia Canning 58 lueAtrPoesGoal Process Actor Clause nd similarinstancesofeuphemisticallyencodedaction.However, oncloserexamination,a vi they xviii vithey xvii x h takn oc hadto theattackingforce xxi they xix v tems fmn aeØ came (themassofmen) xvi theothertwo xiv iitheforce xiii iihisorderly viii xthey xx vtems fmnoee Ø opened the massofmen xv i tepo a)fell (thepoorman) xii i myman vii If weshiftourfocustotheactionsofZulus(mediatedthroughBritishnarrator), xtheoffi cer Ihad ix itepo a he hisarms threw thepoorman xi i(he) vi myfriend iv i h te w icmetourposition circumvent theothertwo iii he x he v ithemainorcentre ii h he oun rp Ø crept thethreecolumns i column aimed at divisions Summary ofZuluaction(Materialprocesses) fi nd’, ‘pressed’,‘letdrive’,‘madenomistake’,‘browning’,‘put[men] atdØ halted tnigØ me standing Ø gave Ø stood walked stretched was a Ø ran run began to come up Ø theoutposts were driving came back began to fall aeØ came Ø advanced engaging were fi re’, ‘accounted for’, ‘producednomoreeffect’, ‘found re’,‘accountedfor’, Ø Ø the hill Ø Ø us The Zulus unharmed quite still some tenyards dead upon theground,apparently towards hisforce on out in confusion ontohisface forward on on towardsthehill Circumstance on opportunity every up in a little Range Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:50 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315795331, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 vi. He gave of them. They areasfollows(inbold): affect anyotherentity. OfthesenineGoal-directed processes, theGoalisanimateinonlyfour Astonishingly, ofthirty-four Materialprocesses,onlyninecarryaGoalelementandthus second ‘opportunity’ aftermissingthe warrior isdepictedasgivinghimselfsacri the process,‘gave’,isametaphoricconstructionthatevades explicitquali In thefi A hugeruffi xxxiii. Theassailantslost Theothertwodivisionswereengaging xxvii. xiv. becomes dif which makethemappearresponsible fortheirowndemise.IntheZuluattackonBritish, it third exampletheZulusoccupy both Actor (‘theassailants’)andGoal(‘many men’)roles, down theroleofnativesin effecting anyreal‘damage’ totheirBritishcounterparts.Inthe process, ‘engaging’,likethe‘making’ inthefourthexample,isarather weakverbandplays construes himselfasmerelyhitting atarget thathaspresented itself.Inthesecondexample, his murder. As thenarrativepoint of viewisQuartermain’s, itisperhapsnosurprise thathe murder. The implication ofsuch‘willingness’ onthe part oftheZulumayfunctiontonaturalise lueAtrPoesGoal Process Actor Clause xi h ordaprto aeØ came thehorridapparition xxxiv xiiahg ufia aigme making ahugeruffi an xxxiii xiithedensemassof xxviii xvhe xxxv xi wrso h nm ucee Ø succeeded swarmsoftheenemy xxxii xxvii xxØ xxix xiØ xxxi ximen xxvi xvthetollasor xxiv xi they xxiii x it(theattacking xxx x themassof xxv xi(h takn oc)cm Ø came (theattackingforce) xxii rst exampletheZuluis Actor andtheBritish narratorisGoal.However, thenatureof struggling warriors struggling warriors throwing knives force) fi cult totellwhoisresponsible fortheretreatof Englishfaction: me everyopportunity an makingstraightat a rse h takn oc backdown theattackingforce was pressed Ø swung aln Ø falling Ø swayed okØ took Ø fl began to came repulsed had been Ø retreated ash many men Ø the leftattack fi rst), thusplayinganactiveroleineffecting hisown fi cially totheBritishsoldierwhokillshim(on me withabloodyspear The Zulus us backwards andforwards thick asleavesinanautumnwind to andfro backwards andforwards ih vrm rsrt omaheader right overmyprostrateform with abloodyspear on slowly upon itsreserves at thispoint Circumstance Functionalist stylistics fi cation –theZulu straight at Range 59 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:50 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315795331, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 Even detaileddepictionsofone-to-onecombataresimilarly biased: lack ofindigenousthreatand,onecouldargue, tomaintainthecivilisedOccidentalstereotype. powerful force,althoughtheirmurderousactionsareheavily mitigatedtoaccordwiththis natives appeartooffer norealthreattothemightyBritish. The British,fortheirpart,area homogenised (‘theforce’,‘they’,‘themass’,assailants’,‘swarmsoftheenemy’), ball’). Armed primitively, heavilydepersonalised(‘thehorridapparition’) andultimately British havemoreadvanced(andlethal)weapons(‘Winchester ‘express’ repeater’, and‘solid divides thenativeswhouseprimitive‘tollas’ or‘throwingknives’ and‘spears’,whilethe dichotomy canbediscernedinthedetailofdescriptions,suchasbattlearmourythat the nativeisuncivilised,uneducatedandultimately, Glimpsesofthis radically‘other’. well offer somejusti actions encodelittleornocausation–fromanOrientalistperspectivetheirinef murderousness. Incontrast,theZulusarepresentedasineptorperhapsuntrainedandtheir as ‘cameintoaction’,thatimplydiligence,progressionandproductivity, ratherthan positively glossedthroughadverbslike‘industriously’ andmetaphoricalsubstitutionssuch and soon–buttheyreallydon’t ‘crept’, ‘halted’,‘circumvent’,‘walked’,‘stood’,‘stretched’,‘fell’,‘swayed’,‘retreated’, primary actionsthroughoutthebattlesceneareintransitiveandinvolvemovingaround– warriors’, ‘menfalling’,‘thesuperiorweightoftheattackingforce’ and‘thestruggle’. Their confi In thefi Compare thistotheBritishattackonnatives: Patricia Canning 60 effective without beingbrutal(‘Ipressed’). Throughout theextract narratoriscarefulnot killing theorderlyhasbeen ellipted, apatternthatdiscursivelyconstructstheBritish as the gun),butpointisthat agencyisnotexplicit–thekeyactionofbullethitting and Of course,wecanassumethat thebulletkilledhim(asopposedtonarratorwhodischarged is describedthroughaRelational Circumstantialprocess,‘wasstretchedupontheground’. Quartermain ‘pressed’ resultedinthedeathofhis‘friend’,Zulu orderly. The latter’s death ‘I pressed’ tellsusnothingandcausationhasbeenellipted–wemerelyinferthatwhatever gurations (inboldtype)andcollectivenounphrasessuchas‘massofstruggling ‘Getting deadon,asIthought,a hors decombatbeforetheygotoutofrange’ (205). shot ortwo,withtheresultthatsofaraswecouldjudge ‘browning’ thedensemassbeforehimwitha Winchester repeater, andIalsohadanother ‘Sir HenryandGoodnowtookuptheirrifl action’ (206). length, withintwentyminutesofthecommencement the strugglewasveryfi our autumn wind;butbeforelongthesuperiorweightofattackingforcebegantotell,and ‘To andfroswayedthemassofstrugglingwarriors,menfallingthickasleavesinan (204). was atleastthreepacestotheleft,stretchedupon the ground,apparentlydead’ cleared away, I,tomydisgust,sawmanstandingunharmed,whilsthisorderly, who rst extract,thenativesarecompletelyelidedoratbestobscuredinpassive fi rst lineofdefencewasslowlypressed back,tillitmerged intothesecond. Here fi cation forcolonialism,whichreliesonthe(Western) assumptionthat erce, butagain do anything.Ontheotherhand,whatBritish‘do’ is fi nesight, our peoplewere drivenbackandup,tillat es, and I pressed, andwhenthepuff ofsmokehad began to fi ght, ourthirdlinecameinto fi put someeightortenmen re , thelatterindustriously fi cacycould Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:50 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315795331, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 metafunction. this contentionbrie processes thatdepictthenatives’ demiseunderthedirectionofBritish.Iwanttodevelop processes conveyingtheZulunativesasinept,andheavilymitigatedeuphemistic through thelanguagechoicesexaminedabove. This iscertainlythecasewithintransitive consistently reaf between thecoloniserandcolonised(considerIgnosi)maycompelnarratorto fear of‘goingnative’ (‘Ibegantowonderifmyfacelookedliketheirs’). The ambivalence native armythatsurroundshim,alludingtowhatBhabha(1994,p.86)calls‘mimicry’,orthe Signifi predicated onthedesiretobringindigenouspopulationinto Western Christianity. his controlandisimpelledbyChristianfaith. This isinterestingascolonialismoften The killinginstinct,whenitdoessurfaceintheBritishnarrator, seemstohappenoutsideof fi ‘savage’ tagasinherentlyboundupwithphysiology. The followingquotationtakenfromthe Oriental stereotype,metonymicallycapturedthroughaperpetuationofthenaturalness colonialism. The samenaturalising discoursegovernsthelinguisticchoicesthatconstrue extract accordingtothefourprincipal types. The tableonthefollowingpage outlinestheprominenceofmodalmarkersinHaggard level ofdesire(‘boulomaic’ modality)andthedegreeofperception (‘perception’ modality). obligation ordutyinastatement(‘deontic’ modality),itstruth-value(‘epistemic’ modality), 1973, Fowler1996)canbecategorisedinfourprimary ways toaccountforthelevelof its contributiontotheemerging pointofviewinouranalysisthusfar. Modality(seeUspensky in thisvolumeaptlydemonstrates.Itmakessense,therefore, toconsidermodalityintermsof such, modalityisinherentlyboundupwithpointofview(Fowler 1996),asNeary’s chapter light ontheattitudinalbiasesraisedinanalysesofcohesion andtransitivityabove. As of the‘truth’ valueofthepropositionsHaggard’s omniscientnarratormaywellshedsome The conceptof‘attitude’ iscentraltomodality(seeFowler1996,p.168),andsoaconsideration their attitudetowardsthesituationoreventdescribedbya sentence’ (Simpson1993,p.47). towards, oropinionabout,thetruthofapropositionexpressed byasentence[and]extendsto Modality, akeyexponentoftheinterpersonalmetafunction,refersto‘speaker’s attitude Interpersonal metafunction yards’. The ‘naturalness’ oftheBritish-ledactionsmayoffer ideologicaljusti you misshim,andanevensovereigntobepaid…thatdon’t droptheballwithinten onslaught, evenpresentingtheexecutionofaZulugeneralasgametobewon:‘Two toone to beconstruedassavagehimselfandgoessomewaytowardsnaturalisingtheBritish nal standoftheBritish(withtheirsupportingnativearmy)subtlydemonstratesthis: if myfacelookedliketheirs not. Iglancedroundattheserriedranksofwarriorsbehindus,and… beating through myveins,andthere cameuponmeasavagedesire tokillandspare sanguinary versesfromtheOld Testament, sprangupinmybrain…blood ‘At thismoment,however…Ifeltmybosomburnwithmartialardournumbersof cantly, Quartermain drawsaparallelbetweenhisirregular‘savagedesire’ andthe fi rm thedifferences betweentheBritishandtheir African counterparts fl y in the followingsectionthroughanexplorationofinterpersonal .’ (224) Functionalist stylistics began towonder fi cation for cation went 61 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:50 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315795331, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 term, framed. subjective consciousnessthrough whichtherestofextractis,inironicsense the represented asmerefact,without judgement,withoutexcuseandevidenceof the its bald,genericstyle.Itisperhaps nosurprisethatsuchsavagehand-to-handcombat is incorporate nojudgementorsubjective re that followitaredevoidofwhatUspenskycalls‘ from thestylisticpatterningofrestextract,this sectionandthethreeparagraphs the massofstrugglingwarriors’),thereis,surprisingly, almostnomodality. Inamoveaway extract abovewhichdepictstheactual However, ifwehaveanotherlookatthe and‘Ifound myself’. thought’, ‘allIcanremember’, modalised: ‘sofaraswecouldjudge’,‘Ihadmadenomistake’, ‘apparentlydead’,‘asI mitigated Materialprocessesthroughwhichtheyareconveyed), theclausesareheavily instances inwhichthelinguisticexpressionofmurderismore explicit(notwithstandingthe epistemic modality),whichre The mostcommontypeisepistemicmodality(perception modalityisasub-categoryof simultaneously’ should bedelivered ‘that thethreefoldassault Table 3.6 Patricia Canning 62 done for’ where Iwasmustbe ‘seeing thatifIstood the chest’ calculated, tofi nd himin ‘which ought,I ashot’ ‘Suppose youtry (expressions ofduty) Deontic Modality Summary ofmodalcategoriesandnarrativedistribution O,fragtig terojc en,n ob’‘Seehownearyoucango ‘theirobjectbeing,nodoubt’ ‘Oh, foragatling’ Boulomaic Modality (expressions ofdesire) fl ects degreesoftruthorcertainty. Inpracticallyallofthe fi ghting (theextractwhichbegins‘To andfroswayed fl happened’ ‘I’m sureIdonotknowwhat was nolongerindoubt’ ‘From thatmomentontheissue ‘The issuewasdoubtful’ more effect’ men, butofcourseproducedno ‘Ignosi …accountedforseveral ten menhorsdecombat’ could judgeweputsomeeightor with theresultthatsofaraswe ‘I alsohadanothershotortwo, ‘Swarmsoftheenemy… ‘This timeIhadmadenomistake’ the ground,apparentlydead’ ‘his orderly…wasstretchedupon being alongshot,Idon’t know’ of thewind,orfactman ‘but whetheritwastheexcitement ection. Itis, infact,almostHemminway-esque (expressions ofbelief) Epistemic Modality verba sentiendi ’ (wordsof‘feeling’),andso appears tobeincommand’ to thattallfellowwho short tome’ ‘The timeseemedalltoo starting outofhishead’ seemed literallytobe ‘a hugeruffi an, whoseeyes meeting ofshields’ dreadful rollingnoiseofthe ‘All Icanrememberisthe as thoughIlikedit’ ‘I toddledalongtobekilled a furiousonslaught’ ‘I foundmyselfinvolvedin this point’ had evidentlysucceededat alarm’ towards hisforce, inevident ‘the offi cer …begantorun thought, afi ‘Getting deadon,asI Perception Modality (expressions of perception) ne sight’ ne Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:50 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315795331, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 such afi unthreatening (‘Imadethebestofabadjob’)andnon-barbaricpressed’).Inrepresenting convey themaresemanticallyvagueandheavilymitigated(‘Isettledthematter’), civilised andnon-barbaric. Their ‘actions’ aremurderous,yet the Materialprocessesthat acting materiallyinthebattle,andthusaseffectual, butcruciallytheyarealsopresentedas makes theseunderpinningideasmoretransparent;theBritisharesystematicallypresentedas representation ofactioninthetext. The transitivityanalysisoftheBritishcharacters’ actions I suggestedearlierthatideasaboutracialisedothernesscouldbediscernedthroughthe Conclusion the importanceofnationalism–cananddoesin aggression towardsyoungersiblings,therelationshipbetween socialclassandculture,oron O’Toole refers. Forinstance,holdingaparticularworldview–whetheronthenatureof results fromthedialecticrelationshipbetweenlinguisticform andintuitivefeelingtowhich The externalforcesthatimpelatextcanbecrucialdeterminers ofthehermeneuticspiralthat stylistics –providesawayofansweringtheimplicitquestion, ‘whatisthepointofthistext?’ sorts of‘realities’ areconstructedthroughlanguage’,stylistics–andparticularlyfunctionalist properties. As wellasprovidinga‘powerfulmethodforunderstandingthewaysinwhichall In short,functionalstylisticsoffers awayofreadingbetweenandbeyondtext’s formal spiral, ofinteractingwithit.Itoffers insightsintopossiblemotivationsforthetext’s existence. and O’Toole 1988,p.12),thenfunctionaliststylisticsoffers awayofreadingaroundthe between precisedescriptionofthedetailslinguisticformandlessintuitions’ (Birch political andmoralvictory. one thatexpoundscolonialviewsandpresentstheBritishattackon African nativesasa Western pursuitof African riches,Haggard’s novelencodesasecondstory–anenvironmental it couldbesuccessfullyargued thatratherthanbeinganadventurestorybeganfromthe cultural milieuinwhichitwasproduced.Byreadingthetextasboundupwithincontext, pragmatic storiesthatHaggard’s novelarticulatesandencodes,aswellaccountingforthe and cohesion,Ihopetohaveprovidedamulti-dimensionalreadingofboththeliterary intersect tobringHaggard’s literarymasterpiecetolife. Through anexplorationoftransitivity fi and developedbykeythinkersinstylistics.Ihaveshownhowideasaboutstereotypescan Haggard’s novel,Ihavedemonstratedthereciprocityandscopeofmetafunctionsoutlined impels andinformsatext’s productionandinterpretation. Through anexplorationof shown howpatternsinaliterarytextcanshedsomelightonthecontextofsituationthat makes useoftheideational,interpersonalandtextualmetafunctionslanguage,Ihave factors inperpetuatinganOrientalistworld-view. Through afunctionaliststylistictoolkitthat softly’ narrative. all, the‘it’ in attached) allowsustoinferthat whileonthe(decontextualised)surface‘it’ saysnothingat construction ‘hedidit’ towhichnegativeconnotations–ofblame, forinstance–areoften character, ofShakespeare’s play, ofthehistorymonarchy, andevenofthelinguistic nothing otherthantherewasanevent,a‘doing’ ofsomething.Ourculturalknowledge(ofthe refer totheopeningsentenceofthischapter, whatever‘it’ wasthatMacbeth‘did’ tellsus nd theirwayintoaliterarywork,andhowtheclause asmessageandtheclauseexperience If stylisticsencourageswhatO’Toole callsa‘hermeneuticspiral’, thatis,a‘dialectic I haveargued herethatHaggard’s novelismotivatedbyenvironmentalandideological erce andviolentbattle,itseems strangetoencounterwhatamountsa‘killingme Macbeth sayseverything. fl uence howwereadanduselanguage. To Functionalist stylistics 63 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:50 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315795331, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 linguistic perspectives. analyses oftextandcontextascribesequalimportancetosociological,literary short introductionhasdemonstrated.Bringingbothhermeneuticapproachestogetherenriches supplement psychologicalpro through anamalgamofthevariousmetafunctions.Furthermore,wherepossibleitcan insights intoauthorship(ofliteraryandnon-literarytexts)byexamininglinguisticpatterning Bhabha, H.K.,1994.Thelocationofculture Birch, D.andO’Toole, M.,1988. The poweroffunctionalstylistics. Berry, M.,1975.Anintroduction tosystemiclinguistics:Structures and systems Althusser, L.,1984.Essaysonideology.London: Verso. References Fowler, R.,Hodge,Kress,G.and Trew, T., eds.1979.Languageandcontrol Halliday, M. A. K.,1994.Anintroduction tofunctionalgrammar Simpson, P., 1993.Language,ideologyandpointofview Said, E.,1979.Orientalism.London: Vintage. Further reading emotion andneuroscience. metaphor andmetonymy, multimodality, narratology, pointofviewand modality, stylistics, Critical stylistics,feministformalistlinguisticlevelsofforegrounding, Related topics also together sothatthemeaningpotentialthereincanbemostfullyrealised.Suchrobustness on thepage.Inthisway, itprovidesarobustandcogentwayofbringingmulti-layeredstories shape itsconstructionallowsustoengagewithlanguageinwaysthatgobeyondthewords The capacityforfunctionaliststylisticstoseethroughthetextunderlyingideasthat Recommendations forpracticeandfuturedirections Patricia Canning 64 Chomsky, N.,1986.Knowledgeoflanguage:Itsnature, origins,anduse Chomsky, N.,1957.Syntacticstructures Canning, P., 2010.StylingtheRenaissance:Language andideologyinearlymodernEngland Functions ofstyle functionalist stylisticmodels,touncoverpoliticalandideological biasesinjournalisticdiscourse. This isaveryusefulstudyofrangediscursivepracticesand usestransitivity, amongstother and KeganPaul. account ofthetransitivitymodel. This isanindispensableintroductiontofunctionaliststylisticsandincludesafullycomprehensive its dynamicmeaningpotential. Simpson offers extremelyaccessible andengaginganalysesoflanguageuse,givesexamples Occidental viewpoint. Said’s workexpoundstheessentiallyideologicalpracticeofreadingOrientaliststereotypesfroman Continuum. Functionalist stylisticsisalsopracticallyusefulforexpoundingliterarytheory, asthis fi nd practicalapplicationinotherareasofresearchsuchasforensiclinguistics,offering . London:Pinter, 1–11. fi ling, offering pro . The Hague:Paris:Mouton. . London:Routledge. fi table analysesinthe . LondonandNew York: Routledge. . 2nded.London: Arnold. In:D.BirchandM.O’Toole, eds. . New York: Praeger. fi eld ofcriminology. . London:Batsford. . London:Routledge . London: Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:50 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315795331, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 ten yardsoutfromhisforce, in ordertogetabetterviewofourposition,accompanied only drop theballwithintenyards.’ miss him,andanevensovereign, tobehonestlypaidifeverwegetoutofthis,thatyoudon’t See hownearyoucangotothat tallfellowwhoappearstobeincommand. Two tooneyou would cleartheplain*intwentyminutes.’ delivered simultaneously. towards thetownofLoo,theirobjectbeing,nodoubt,that thethreefoldassaultshouldbe our position,whichwasshapedmoreorlessintheformof a horse-shoe,thetwopointsbeing root ofatongueopenplainwhichranupintothehill,toenable theothertwotocircumvent Saussure, F. de,1916. Said, E.,1979.Orientalism.New York: Vintage. Pessoa, F., 2001.Thebookofdisquiet Malinowski, B.,1923. The problem ofmeaninginprimitivelanguages. Leech, G.,2008. Kress, G.andHodge,R.,1979.Languageasideology.London:RoutledgeKeganPaul. Hoey, M.,2005.Lexicalpriming: A newtheoryofwords andlanguage Halliday, M. A. K.andMatthiessen,C.M.I.M.,2004.Anintroduction tofunctionalgrammar Halliday, M. A. K.andHasan,R.,1976.CohesioninEnglish Halliday, M. A. K.,1996.Linguisticfunctionandliterary style: An inquiryinto thelanguageof William Halliday, M. A. K.,1994.Anintroduction tofunctionalgrammar Haggard, H.R.,1998.KingSolomon’s mines.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress. Greenblatt, S.,Cohen, W., Howard,J.E.andMaus,K.eds.1997.TheNortonShakespeare. New Fowler, R.,Hodge,Kress,G.and Trew T. eds.1979.Languageandcontrol . London:Routledgeand Fowler, R.,1996.Linguisticcriticism Fowler, R.,1981.Literature associaldiscourse Firth, J.R.,1957.Papersinlinguistics1934–1951 crept on. When withinabout (203) Slowly, andwithouttheslightestappearanceofhasteorexcitement,three columns Chapter XIII:TheAttack(Battle) Appendix Tif Simpson, P., 2004.Stylistics: A resource bookforstudents Simpson, P., 1993.Language,ideologyandpointofview Firth, J.R.,1950.Personalityandlanguageinsociety. Reprinted1957inJ.R.Firth, Eggins, S.,2004.Anintroduction tosystemicfunctionallinguistics. Uspensky, B.,1973.A poeticsofcomposition Toolan, M.,2009.Narrativeprogression intheshortstory: A corpusstylisticapproach 1977. Courseingenerallinguistics Richards, eds.TheMeaningofmeanings.London:RoutledgeandKeganPaul. London: Arnold. present. London: Arnold, 56–86. Golding’s York andLondon: W.W. Norton&Company. Kegan Paul. 1934–1951. London:OxfordUniversityPress. New York: JohnBenjamins. Routledge. This piquedme,so,loadingthe expresswithsolidball,Iwaitedtillmyfriendwalkedsome ‘We havenotgot one,soitisnouseyearningforit;butsupposeyoutryashot, Quartermain. ‘Oh, foragatling!’ groanedGood,ashecontemplatedtheserriedphalanxesbeneathus.‘I fi n, C.andLawson, A., eds.1994.De-scribingempire: Post-colonialismandtextuality The Inheritors.In:J. Weber, ed.Thestylisticsreader: From RomanJakobsontothe Language inliterature: Styleandforegrounding. Cours delinguistiquegenerale fi ve hundredyardsofus,themainorcentrecolumnhaltedat . LausanneandParis:Payot.Glasgow:Fontana/Collins( . 2nded.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress. . London:Penguin. . Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress. . London:Batsford. . London:OxfordUniversityPress. . In: C. Ballyand A. Sechehaye,eds. W. Baskin,trans. . London:Routledge. . London:Routledge. . London:Longman. . 2nded.London: Arnold. Harlow:PearsonLongman. 2nded.London:Continuum. . London:Routledge. In:C.K.OgdenandI. A. Functionalist stylistics Papers inlinguistics . Amsterdam and . Amsterdam passim). . London: . 3rded. 65 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:50 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315795331, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 now andthetollasorthrowingknivesbeganto Smite! Smite!).‘Ignosi!Ignosi!Chielé!Chielé!’ answeredourpeople. They werequiteclose edge oftheplain. their powers. For awhilethedensemass ofstrugglingwarriorsswung backwardsand and wounded,tobreakthrough thatthirdimpenetrablehedgeofspearsprovedbeyond minutes ofthecommencement ofthe was veryfi fi autumn wind;butbeforelongthesuperiorweightofattacking forcebegantotell,andour an awfulyellthebattleclosedin. about half-wayuptheside,oursecond to comeuphill,andcameslowlysavetheir(206)breath. Our little slower, forthoughasyetwehadoffered noseriousopposition,theattackingforcehad outposts wehadplacedamongtherocksatfootof hill. After thattheadvancewasa armed humanitythanhewhothrowspebblesdoesontheadvancingwave. accounted forseveralmen,butofcourseproducednomoreeffect uponthatmightyrushof drop intrajectoryItookhimhalf-waydowntheneck,whichought,calculated,to rifl by anorderly, andthen,lyingdownrestingtheexpressuponarock,Icoveredhim. The Patricia Canning 66 We keptupasteady up thespitofbaregrasslandataslowtrot,singingdeep-throatedsongastheyadvanced. from ourleft. The twootherdivisionswereengagingus. men horsdecombatbeforetheygotoutofrange. had anothershotortwo,withtheresultthatsofaraswecouldjudgeputsomeeightten industriously ‘browning’ thedensemassbeforehimwitha Winchester repeater, andIalso back inconfusion.SirHenryandGoodnowtookuptheirri belonged –which,indeed,asweafterwardsascertained,hehadcommandedbegantofall man’s magic,whichtheytookasanomenofsuccess,whiletheforcetogeneralhad own prideorreputationareinquestion–Iwasbruteenoughtofeeldelightedatthesight. time Ihadmadenomistake;and–sayitasaproofofhowlittlewethinkotherswhenour with thesecondbarrel. The poormanthrewuphisarms,andfellforwardontoface. This of myselfatmyfailure,Ididarashthing.Rapidlycoveringthegeneral*asheran,letdrive only doonethingwell,likestokeepupone’s reputationinthatthing.Movedquiteout Turning swiftly, theof who wasatleastthreepacestotheleft,stretcheduponground,apparentlydead. smoke hadclearedaway, I,tomydisgust,sawmanstandingunharmed,whilsthisorderly, what happened.Gettingdeadon,asIthought,a excitement orthewind,factofmanbeingalongshot,Idon’t know, butthiswas in thechest.Hestoodquitestillandgavemeeveryopportunity, butwhetheritwasthe rst lineofdefencewasslowly pressedback,tillitmerged intothesecond.Herestruggle e, likeallexpresses,wasonlysightedtothreehundredand On theycame,shoutingtheirwar-cry, ‘Twala! Twala! Chielé!(Twala! Twala! But bythistimetheassailants weremuchexhausted,andhadbesideslostmanymenkilled To andfro swayed themassofstrugglingwarriors,men*fallingthickasleavesinan On theycame,withashoutandtheclashingofspears;nowweredrivingin At thesound,massofmenbeforeusopenedoutalittle,andcameontowardshill Just aswestoppedfi (205) The regimentswhohadseenthefeatcheeredwildlyatthisexhibitionofwhite This mademeveryangry, forifpossibletoavoidit,Ihatemissinpublic. When onecan ‘Bravo, Quartermain!’ sangoutGood;‘you’vefrightenedhim.’ erce, butagainourpeoplewere drivenbackandup,tillatlength,withintwenty fi ring therecameanominousroarfromourfarright,thenasimilar fi re fromourrifl cer* Ihadaimedatbegantoruntowardshisforce,inevidentalarm. fi es astheycame,Ignosijoininginoccasionally, and ght, ourthirdlinecame into action. fi fty yardsfurtherback,whileourthirdoccupiedthe fl ash backwards andforwards,nowwith fi ne sight,Ipressed,andwhenthepuff of fl es, andbeganto fi fty yards,sotoallowforthe fi rst lineofdefencewas fi re, thelatter fi nd him Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:50 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315795331, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315795331.ch3 Before hecouldriseagain,Ihadrisenandsettledthematterfrombehindwithmyrevolver. cleverly, that,beingunable tostophimself,hetookaheaderrightovermyprostrateform. I mustbedonefor, I,as thehorridapparitioncame, which mostpeoplewouldhavecollapsedonceandforall.SeeingthatifIstoodwherewas a bloodyspear. But–Isayitwithpriderosetotheoccasion.Itwasanoccasionbefore ruffi is adreadfulrollingnoiseofthemeetingshields,andsuddenapparitionhuge (208) re-formbehindus,andthenIamsuredonotknowwhathappened. All Icanremember short tome–wewereplungingthroughthe toddled alongtobekilled,asthoughIlikedit.Inaminuteortwo–thetimeseemedalltoo Getting asmuchIcouldbehindIgnosi’s hugeframe,Imadethebestofabadjob,and intense disgust,Ifoundmyselfinvolvedinafuriousonslaughtupontheadvancingfoe. of command,whichwastakenupandrepeatedbythecaptains,inanothersecond,tomy Instantly thereserveregimentroundus(theGreys)extendeditself. Again Ignosigaveaword the enemy, whohadevidently succeededatthispoint. engaged intherightdefencebeingdriventowardsusacrossplain,followedbyswarmsof affair wasoverforthepresent,when,toourhorror, weperceivedourmenwhohadbeen the leftattackhadbeenrepulsed;andIwasjustbeginningtocongratulatemyselfthat its reservesinsomethinglikeconfusion. At that moment,too,amessengerarrivedtosaythat gallantry, theattackingforcewaspressedbackdownhillside,tillatlastitretreatedupon a cryof– by Good,andfl the desperatestrugglewithakindlingeye,andthenwithoutwordherushedoff, followed forwards inthefi Ignosi, whowasstandingbyme,tookinthesituationataglance,andissuedrapidorder. From thatmomenttheissuewasnolongerindoubt.Inchbyinch, ‘Nanzia Incubu!’ (Hereistheelephant!)‘Chielé!Chielé!’ (207) The soldierscaughtsight ofhistallformasheplungedintothebattle,andthererose an, whoseeyesseemedliterallytobestartingoutofhishead,makingstraightatmewith ung himselfintothehottestoffray. As formyself,Istoppedwherewas. erce ebband fl ow ofbattle,andtheissuewasdoubtful.SirHenrywatched fl ying groupsofourmen,whoatoncebeganto fl ung myselfdowninfrontofhimso fi ghting with desperate Functionalist stylistics 67