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Theory Development in Early Universe Cosmology

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Theory Development in Early Universe Cosmology APPROACHING THE ABSOLUTE ZERO OF TIME: THEORY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY UNIVERSE COSMOLOGY by Christopher Joel Smeenk B.A., Physics and Philosophy, Yale University, 1995 M.S., Physics and Astronomy, University of Pittsburgh, 2001 M.A., Philosophy, University of Pittsburgh, 2002 Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Arts and Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Pittsburgh 2003 We approve the thesis of Christopher Joel Smeenk. Date of Signature John S. Earman University Professor of History and Philosophy of Science Co-Chair of Committee John D. Norton Professor of History and Philosophy of Science Chair of the Department of History and Philosophy of Science Co-Chair of Committee Laura M. Ruetsche Associate Professor of Philosophy Allen I. Janis Professor Emeritus of Physics and Astronomy iii Abstract This dissertation gives an original account of the historical development of modern cos- mology along with a philosophical assessment of related methodological and foundational is- sues. After briefly reviewing the groundbreaking work by Einstein and others, I turn to the development of early universe cosmology following the discovery of the microwave background radiation in 1965. This discovery encouraged consolidation and refinement of the big bang model, but cosmologists also noted that cosmological models could accomodate observations only at the cost of several “unnatural” assumptions regarding the initial state. I describe various attempts to eliminate initial conditions in the late 60s and early 70s, leading up to the idea that came to dominate the field: inflationary cosmology. I discuss the pre-history of inflationary cos- mology and the early development of the idea, including the account of structure formation and the introduction of the “inflaton” field. The second part of my thesis focuses on methodological issues in cosmology, opening with a discussion of three principles and their role in cosmology: the cosmological principle, indifference principle, and anthropic principle. I assess appeals to explanatory adequacy as grounds for theory choice in cosmology, and close with a discussion of confirmation theory and the issue of novelty in relation to cosmological theories. iv Table of Contents List of Figures : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : vi Acknowledgments : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : vii Chapter 1. Introduction : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1 1.1 Einstein and Cosmology . 2 1.2 Evolutionary Cosmology . 10 1.3 Overview of the Dissertation . 22 I History of Cosmology 28 Chapter 2. The Origins of Early Universe Cosmology : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 29 2.1 Development of the Standard Model . 33 2.1.1 Relativisitic Cosmology . 35 2.1.2 Thermal History . 40 2.2 Fine-Tuning Problems of the Standard Model . 45 2.2.1 Misner’s Chaotic Cosmology . 47 2.2.2 Particle Creation . 53 2.2.3 Baryogenesis . 57 2.3 The Horizon Problem . 60 2.4 Conclusions . 68 Chapter 3. False Vacuum : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 70 3.1 Eliminating the Singularity . 73 3.1.1 Λ in the USSR . 73 3.1.2 Starobinsky’s Model . 80 3.2 Hidden Symmetry . 85 3.2.1 Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking and the Higgs Mechanism . 86 3.2.2 Conformal Symmetry Breaking . 97 3.2.3 Symmetry Restoration . 101 3.3 Early Universe Phase Transitions . 106 3.4 Conclusions . 114 Chapter 4. An Inflationary Field : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 117 4.1 Old and New Inflation . 117 4.2 The Nuffield Workshop: Birth of the Inflaton . 131 4.3 The Baroque Era . 141 v II Philosophy of Cosmology 145 Chapter 5. Cosmological Principles : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 146 5.1 Two Approaches to Cosmology . 148 5.2 Global Aspects of Cosmology . 156 5.3 The Cosmological Principle . 163 5.3.1 Underdetermination . 163 5.3.2 Status of the CP . 177 5.4 The Indifference Principle . 179 5.4.1 Probabilities . 189 5.5 Anthropic Principles . 193 Chapter 6. Explanations in Cosmology : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 200 6.1 Unification . 202 6.1.1 Kitcher’s Account of Unification . 209 6.1.2 Unification in Cosmology . 216 6.2 Robustness and Causality . 224 6.2.1 Reichenbach’s Principle of the Common Cause . 226 6.2.2 Causality in the Early Universe . 233 6.2.3 Robustness . 239 6.3 Conclusion . 242 Chapter 7. Confirming Inflation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 244 7.1 Testing Inflation I . 248 7.2 Testing Inflation II: Structure Formation . 255 7.3 Use-Novelty and Independence . 258 7.4 Inflation and Independence . 267 7.5 Robustness Revisited . 268 Appendix A . Aspects of Relativistic Cosmology : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 271 A.1 A Primer on General Relativity . 271 A.2 FLRW models . 279 A.3 Horizons . 284 A.4 Causal Structure . 288 A.5 No-Hair Theorems . 291 A.6 Conservation Laws . 293 Appendix B . Topics in Quantum Field Theory : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 297 B.1 Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking . 297 B.2 Vacuum Energy . 299 Bibliography : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 302 vi List of Figures 2.1 The horizon problem . 61 3.1 Higgs potential . 105 4.1 “Old inflation” potential . 144 4.2 “New inflation” potential . 144 5.1 de Sitter solution . 171 5.2 WOI counterparts . 172 5.3 Ellis et al. (1978)’s model . 173 6.1 Illustration of the LCI . 232 A.1 Null Cone and Causal Sets . 289 vii Acknowledgments Without the encouragement and support from many people I would not have completed this dissertation, and I am indebted to all of them. Several institutions supported different aspects of this research. A grant from the Na- tional Science Foundation (SES 0114760) made it possible to perform interviews with cosmol- ogists, and I learned an enormous amount from the interviewees: John Barrow, Andrei Linde, Jeremiah Ostriker, James Peebles, Martin Rees, William Saslaw, Paul Steinhardt, and Neil Turok. I would also like to thank Spencer Weart at the American Institute of Physics (AIP) for support- ing the interview project. The AIP sponsored an interview with Charles Misner, a visit to the AIP archives, and transcription of all the interviews. Patrick McCray and Spencer Weart both gave me helpful advice. The Slater Fellowship from the American Philosophical Society gave me the freedom to extend the project in various ways, and I am very grateful for the award. I am also grateful for the generous financial support in various guises that I have received from the Department of History and Philosophy of Science. My greatest intellectual debt is to the members of my committee: John Earman, Al Janis, John Norton, and Laura Ruetsche. The work of the two Johns has set high standards for scholarship in the history and philosophy of science, and their advice and encouragement has helped me to come closer to attaining that standard. Conversations with John Earman initially inspired this project, and I owe a clear debt to his work on modern cosmology. His insightful comments at various stages have helped me to avoid a number of misconceptions. I benefitted enormously from John Norton’s thoughtful responses and suggestions, and discussions with John invariably led me to a much clearer conception of the issues at hand. Al Janis read everything I handed him with much more care than I had any right to expect, and his detailed comments improved the dissertation considerably. Laura Ruetsche consistently pointed me towards fruitful intersections between technical issues and the broader philosophical literature. Finally, I learned a great deal from Rob Clifton in the early stages of this work. His tragic early death robbed the community of one of its most insightful and penetrating scholars, and I sorely missed the opportunity to benefit from his further guidance. Many people contributed to the productive and engaging atmosphere of HPS and helped me enjoy my stint in graduate school. I thank Bernard Goldstein, Peter Machamer, and Ted McGuire for inspiring and encouraging my interest in early modern science and philosophy. Several friends have helped me to maintain my sanity through graduate school, but I am particu- larly indebted to Zvi Biener, Chris Martin, Greg Morgan, Wendy Parker, Gualtiero Piccinini, and John Roberts. I would like to thank my family for always encouraging me to pursue whatever career interested me, even if it meant leaving the farm and taking up something as bizarre as philosophy of science. They have been a constant source of support throughout my long career as a student. Finally, my greatest debt is to my wife, Sarah Gallagher. She has contributed directly to this dissertation in many ways, including drawing the figures, giving me LATEX advice, and patiently answering my questions about astrophysics. But more importantly, our relationship has been a constant source of strength and inspiration throughout the last eight years. I look forward to continuing this intellectual adventure together with Sarah. viii Nature, we ®nd, even from our limited experience, possesses an in®nite number of springs and prin- ciples, which incessantly discover themselves on every change of her position and situation. And what new and unknown principles would actuate her in so new and unknown a situation as that of the formation of a universe, we cannot, without the utmost temerity, pretend to determine. David Hume Cosmologists are often in error, but never in doubt. Lev Landau 1 Chapter 1 Introduction
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