sign in sign up
<<
Home , Diatomaceous earth

Proceedings of the 7 th Iniernaiumal Working Conference on Stored-product Protection, - Volume 1

Diatomaceous earth: Advantages and limitations

Paul G. Flelds1

Abstract into one of two categones. One, msecncides have negatrve effects on non-target orgamsms Insect parasites and The gram industry needs to reduce Its reliance on synthetic predators, which would normally keep pest insect pesticides because of deregulation, resistant populations in check, can be killed by . Also populations and consumer concerns over msecticide insecticides can be tOXICto fish, birds, or mammals. Some residues, DIatomaceous earth (DE )-based msecticides are msecncides (eg. malatluon, chlorpynfos-methyl, fmdmg increased use as stored commodity protectants pmmrphos-methyl or deltamethnn; Snelson, 1987; Whrte, because of these concerns DE IS obtained from geological and Leesch, 1995) used to control stored-product insects deposits of diatomite, which are fossihzed sedimentary must be applied directly to the gram, and therefore residues layers of rmcroscopic called , DE, made up can be mgested by consumers. GIven that the effects mainly of SI~, works as an msecticrde through physical consuming low levels of msecticide residues for many years mechamsms. The fme DE absorbs wax from the insect , causing death due to desiccation. are unknown and effects may only appear after years of exposure, there IS a desire to have foods free of pesticide The main advantages of DE are ItS lOw-tOXICIty to mammals and ItS stability. However, several problems hmrt residues. Two, the WIdespread use of a single insecticide or Its WIdespread use: reduction of the bulk densrty and a class of msecticide can lead to resistance with the pest flowabhty of grain, dusty to apply, low efficacy against populations (Subramanyam, 1995) some msects and reduction m efficacy at high moisture These two factors have caused a reducnon m the number contents. Fmally there has been concern that DE will and quantity of chemical msectictdes used in stored gram A case in pomt; at present two gram fumigants, phosphme and mcrease wear on machinery, but there are no data to support or refute tlus hypothesis. methyl bromide, remain in common use, yet Bond (1984) The purpose of the workshop on diatomaceous earth IS to listed 13 such materials only 15 years ago Even methyl provide people with enough mformauon to be able to use DE bromide will soon be severely restncted or discontmued effectively We have divided the workshop into five because of ItS contribution to stratosphenc ozone depletion presentations covering: Introduction (this paper), Efficacy (Watson et al. 1992). ( Subramanyam ) , Evaluations and Standardized Testing In response to these concerns, alternative methods, many (Korurnc and Ormesher), Application (Bridgeman}, and m use before the arnval of chemical insecticides are seemg a Safety (Desmarchelier and Allen) renaissance. PhYSIcal methods of III gram storage are becommg mcreasmgly Important. PhYSIcal control of msect pests mvolves the manipulatIon of phYSIcal factors to elImmate pests or reduce theIr populations to a tolerable level. Temperature, relative humIdIty, Concerns with Insecticides atmosphenc compoSItIon, Impact, deSICcatIon, phYSIcal exclUSIon, removal, and IOmzmg radiation all may be It In the last 60 years, the story of msect control has been employed separately or m combmation. IS likely that wntten predommantly by the chemIsts and the tOXIcologIStS. physical methods of pest control will become the method of The stunning successes of the organochlonnes, chOice for advanced systems of grain handling and storage and fumIgants in controlling insects m the (Banks and Fields, 1995) 1950's led to a dramatic increase m the number and quantity of msectICides used m agnculture (Ware, 1988) . WIth the Diatomaceous Earth publication of 'Silent Spnng' by Rachel Carson (1962), the publIc, SCIentIsts and the agncultural community began to Inert have a long hIstory of use for grain protection examme the hidden costs of chemical pesticide control (Ebelmg, 1971; Ross, 1981; Korumc, 1997; 1998). There The costs or disadvantages of the chemical msecticldes fall are four baSIC types of mert dusts: • clays, sands and earths that are used as top dressing in

1Agnculture and Agn-Food Canada, Cereal Research Centre, 195 tradItional gram stores; Dafoe Rd, Wmrupeg, MB, R3T 2M9, Canada, pfwlds@em agr ca . synthetic SIlica that are lIght, fme powders made 781 Proceedings of the 7th International Working Conference on Stored-product Protection - Yolurne 1

up of 100% SiOz; calcium hydroxide; and . non-silica dusts such as pulverised phosphate rock and . diatomaceous earth (DE) (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Scanning electron micrograph of remains in the DE, Celite 209.

DE is a light weight, porous made up of cosmetics, insulation, anti-caking agents, filler and the prehistoric remains of diatoms (Round et al., 1990), absorbent. Several proprietary insecticidal formulations are which are microscopic, .unicellular, aquatic-plants that have available, some of which contain additional materials, e. g. , a fine shell made of amorphous hydrated silica. There are ammonium fluorosilicate, silica or attractants, that three types of commercial deposits; marine DE found on the are said to enhance their potency. continental margins, freshwater DE from diatoms from or marshes, and from present day water bodies. Advantages Geological deposits of DE can be hundreds of metres thick (Ross, 1981). Many of these sedimentary layers originated There are several advantages to using DE to control stored- 20 to 80 million years ago. After quarrying, crushing and product insect pests. The low mammalian toxicity of DE milling, a fine light dust is obtained. The main constituent makes it simpler for applicators to apply (see paper by of these deposits is silica (SiOz) although there are small Bridgeman). Phosphine and methyl bromide are acutely amounts of other minerals (aluminum, iron oxide, lime, toxic and require specialized training, licencing and magnesium, and sodium). DE is actively mined around the protective equipment and storage. Pesticide residues are a world, with the main producers being Untied States (705 tI concern throughout the grain and food processing. In the yr}, Russia (100 t/yr) , Denmark (96 t/yr}, France (85 tI USA and Canada, DE is registered as a feed additive. yr) and Korea (80 t/yr ). The world production of DE in Amorphous dioxide is considered Generally 1997 is estimated at 1.4 million t (Anon., 1998)'. It has Recognized as Sate (GRAS), and is a registered food many uses: filters in food processing and swimming pools, additive in the USA and Canada. Most of the DE registered 782 Proceedings of the 7th International Workmg Conference on Stored-product Protection - Volume 1 as msectrcides are more than 90% amorphous silicon However DE ISrelatively soft havmg a Moh's hardness mdex dioxide. has low mammalian toxicity (3160 of 2, wluch ISsofter than gold (2.5 - 3), copper (2.5 - 3) , mg/kg LD50, rat oral; NIOSH, 1977, see paper by mckel Iron (5) and quartz (7) and diamond (10) (Glover, Desmarcheher and Allen) . 1997). Tests need to be conducted to determine If DE does As DE ISinert, It provides long-lastmg protection as long mcrease on the actual wear on gram handlmg and rmlhng as the gram or structure remams dry (White et al , 1975). equipment. In Australia DE IS used extensively as a pre-harvest Depending upon the source and processmg, DE can structural treatment (see paper by Bridgeman}, because contam from 60 to O. 1% crystalline sihca. The DE organophosphates degrade rapidly m the heat, but the DE registered as insecticides generally have less than 7 % remains effective for long durations. Unlike the fumigants crystalline silica For other uses, DE is heated or calcined which are used as curative treatments, DE IS applied as a and the crystallme silica content can mcrease to more than preventative treatment, as a structural treatment before 60% Crystalline silica has been shown to be carcmogemc If gram IS placed in storage and as a residual on freshly mhaled (IARC, 1997) However, the use of proper dust harvested gram as It goes into storage· The long lastmg masks, or the use of low crystallme silica DE can protect protection provided by DE makes It Ideal to be used in this agamst this health risk (see paper by Desmarcheher and capacity In addition to Australia, DE ISregistered as a gram Allen). protectant or for structural treatment in Canada, Chma, To overcome some of these lmutations DE can be used as Croatia, Germany, USAand some other Asian countnes a top dressmg or applied m layers in the granary. ThIS Extensive testing has shown that there ISno effect on end method has been used m the USA. In Australia, DE has been use quality: baking, maltmg or pasta production used m combmation WIth low dose, long duration phosphme (DesmarchelIer and Dmes, 1987; Aldryhim, 1990; treatment (SIROFLO; Wmks and Russell, 1994) or WIth Koruruc, et al. 1996). aeration (NIckson et ai, 1994). These methods of application reduce the amount of DE needed and hence would Limitations reduce the cost and the reduction m bulk density. Fmally, DE ISone tool of many and It should be used not in isolation The mam lmutations of DE are; reduction in the flowabihty but as part of an mtegrated pest management program. of gram, reduction of the bulk density of gram, meffective in some SItuations, discomfort due to arr borne dust and Acknowledgments health concerns due to crystalline silica DE sticks to the surface of the kernels and increases I am grateful to Suvira Prashar for takmg the SEM friction between grams. This causes mcreased angles of photograph and Zlatko Korumc for revIewmg the repose and decreased bulk denSIties (Korumc et al , 1998). manuscnpt. DE at 500 ppm decreases bulk denSIty by about 6 kglhl m wheat, barley, oats, rye or corn Also the source of DE References affects how much the bulk denSIty ISreduced There can be as much as a four-fold difference m reductIOn m bulk Aldryhim, Y. N 1990. EffIcacy of the amorphous SIlica denSIties between DE sources (Korumc et al, 1998; see dust, DryaClde, agamst Trtboliurn confusum Duv. and paper by Korunic and Ormesher). Unfortunately, the DE Sdophilus grananus (L ) (Coleoptera: Tenebnomdae that are the most effective msectIcides, are also the ones and CurculIomdae). Journal of Stored Products Research, that reduce the bulk denSities the most (Korumc, 1997) 26, 207 - 210 As deSiccation IS the mode of action, DE does not control Aldryhim, Y. N 1993. CombmatIonof classes of wheat and msects m mOIst grain as well as m dry gram (le Patourel, envIronmental factors affectmg the efficacy of amorphous 1986; Aldryhim, 1993). Unhke a fumIgant, It Will not SIlIca dust, DryacIde, agamst Rhyzopertha dorntntea control the Immature stages that remam withm the gram (F.) Journal of Stored Products Research 29, 271- 275. kernel eg SitophIlus spp EffIcacy Willbe covered m detaIl m Annon., 1998, Mmeral CommodIty Summanes. Umted the paper by Subramamyam. States GeologIcalSurvey, Washmgton, 197 p ApplIcatIOnof mert dusts can be undeSIrable because of Banks, H. J and FIelds, P 1995. PhYSicalmethods for the dust generated. To alleVIate thIS, aqueous applIcations msect control m stored-gram ecosystems. In Jayas,D S. , for surface treatments are used m Austraha (see paper by WhIte, N D. G. and MUir, W. E , ed Stored Gram Bndgeman ), although thIS somewhat reduces the Ecosystems, Marcel Dekker Inc, New York 353 - 410. effectiveness of the mert dusts (Macel]skl and Korumc Bond, J 1984 Manual of fumIgation for msect control. 1972). DE can be used as a mIld and there is Food and Agricultural Organization, Plant Production and concern over mcreased wear on gram handlIng machmery. Protection Paper No 54. Rome, Italy. 432 p. 783 Proceedmqe of the 7th Internatwnal Working Conference on Stored-product Protection - Volume 1

Carson, R. 1962 Silent Spring. Fawcett Crest Books, CBS Combination of coolmg WIth a surface apphcation of Publications, New York, 304 p Dryacide to control msects In: Highley, E. , Wright, E. Desmarchelier, J M., and Dmes, J C 1987 Dryacide J. , Banks, H. J and Champ, B R. Eds. , Proceedmgs of treatment of stored wheat: Its efficacy agamst insects, and the 6th International Workmg Conference on Stored after processmg. Austrahan Journal of Expenmental Product Protection. pp 646 - 649 CAB!, Cambridge. Agncul ture, 27, 309 - 312 Snelson, J. T 1987. Gram Protectants. Monograph no. 3, Ebelmg, W. 1971. Sorptrve dusts for pest control Annual Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Review of Entomology, 16, 123-158. Canberra, Australia, 448 p. Glover, T J. 1997. Pocket Ref. SeqUOIa Pubhshmg, Inc. Ross, T. E 1981 Diatomaceous earth as a possible LIttleton, CO, USA, 554 p. alternative to chemical insecticides. Agnculture and International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) , 1997. Environment, 6, 43 - 51. Sihca, some , coal dust and para-aranud fibrils. Round, F. E., Crawford, R. M. and Mann, D. G 1990. Volume 68, IARC Workmg Group on the Evaluation of The diatoms Cambndge University Press, Cambridge, Carcmogemc RIsks to Humans, Lyon, 506 p. 747 p. Korumc, Z. 1997 Rapid assessment of the insecticidal Subramanyam, Bh 1995. Resistance measurement and value of diatomaceous earths WIthOUtconductmg bioassays. management, In Subramanyam, Bh. and Hagstrum, D Journal of Stored Products Research, 33, 219 - 229 ed Integrated Management of Insects m Stored Products, Korurnc, Z 1998. Diatomaceous earths, a group of natural Marcel Dekker, New York, 331 - 398. msecttcides. Journal of Stored Product Research, 34, 87- Ware, G. W. , 1988. Complete guide to pest control: WIth 97. and WIthout chemicals. Thomson Publications, Fresno, Korumc Z. , FIelds, P. G , CIVICS, M. I. P , Noll, J. S., 304 p. Lukow, O. M., Demianyk , C. J., and Shibley, K J Watson, R. T , D. L. Albntton, S. O. Andersen, and L. 1996. The effect of diatomaceous earth on grain quahty. Lee-Bapty. 1992. Methyl bromide: its atmospheric Postharvest Biology and Technology, 9, 373 - 387. science, technology and economics. Umted Nations Korumc Z , Cenkowski, S. and FIelds P 1998. Gram bulk Environment Programme, Nairobi. 42 p. density as affected by diatomaceous earth and application WhIte, G. D , W. L. Berndt, and J. L. WIlson. 1975. method. Postharvest BIology and Technology 13, 81 - 89. Evaluatmg diatomaceous earth, sihca-aerogel dusts, and Ie Patourel, G. N. J 1986. The effect of gram moisture to protect stored wheat from msects. Marketmg content on the tOXICIty of a sorptive silica dust to four Research Report Umted States Department of Agriculture, species of gram beetles. Journal of Stored Products No 1038 18 P Research, 22, 63 - 69 WhIte, N. D. G., and Leesch, J. G. 1995 Chemical Maceljski, M , and Koruruc, Z 1972 Trials of mert dusts Control, In: Subramanyam, Bh and D. Hagstrum, D m water suspension for controllmg stored-product pests. ed., Integrated Management Of Insects In Stored Zastita BIlJa, 22, 377 - 387. Products, Marcel Dekker Inc , New York, 287 - 330. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health Winks, R G. and Russell, G. F. 1994. The effectiveness of (NIOSH) 1977. Registry of Teoxic effect of Chemical SIROFLO in vertical silos In: HIghley, E , Wright, E. Substances. U. S. Department of Health Education and J. , Banks, H J. and Champ, B. R. Eds. , Proceedmgs of Welfare DHEW Pubhcation Number. (NIOSH) 78 -104- the 6th Intemational Workmg Conference on Stored A. Government Pnntmg Office, Washmgton, D C Product Protection. pp. 1245 -1249. CABI, Cambndge. NIckson, P.J. , Desmarcheher, J. M. and GIbbs, P 1994.

784