International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology

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Ecoregions and ecosystem management in China

Bo-Jie Fu , Guo-Hua Liu , Yi-He Lü , Li-Ding Chen & Ke-Ming Ma

To cite this article: Bo-Jie Fu , Guo-Hua Liu , Yi-He Lü , Li-Ding Chen & Ke-Ming Ma (2004) Ecoregions and ecosystem management in China, International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 11:4, 397-409, DOI: 10.1080/13504500409469842

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13504500409469842

Published online: 02 Jun 2009.

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Download by: [Research Center of Eco-Environmental Sciences] Date: 29 October 2015, At: 00:23 Znt.J. Sustain. Dev. World Ecol. 11 (2004) 397-409

Ecoregions and ecosystem management in China

Bo-Jie Fu, Guo-Hua Liu, Yi-He Lu, Li-Ding Chen and Xe-Ming Ma

Key Laboratory Systems Ecology, Research Center Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 28’71, Beijing 100085, China

Key words: Ecoregion, classification level, ecosystem management, China

SUMMARY Ecological regionalization is a base for rational management and sustainable utilization of ecosystems and natural resources. It can provide a scientific basis for constructing healthy ecological environments and making policies of environmental management. In this paper, based on synthetic analysis of the characteristics of the ecology and environments of China, the principles of ecological regionalization are discussed, and indices and nomenclature of ecological regionalization are proposed. The ecoregions on a national scale are divided. The results show that there are 3 domains, 13 ecoregions and 57 ecodistricts. The present scheme can be used as a framework for ecosystem assessment and management. Based on the ecoregions, measurements of management for forest, grassland, agriculture and wetland ecosystems are recommended. The experience and information can be used within and beyond the national scale for land- use planning, biodiversity conservation and ecosystem restoration.

INTRODUCTION With the development of global and regional conditions and characteristics of human inter- economies and the intensification of human vention, the contents of ecological regionaliza- activities, natural ecosystems are subjected to more tion in different countries are very distinctive. and more human intervention. The problems of Ecological regionalization such as most of that in ecological and environmental degradation, at the North American region often refers to the various scales, plague the further improvement of regionalization of natural ecosystems (Bailey 1983, society and the economy. Ecological regional- 1989; Omernik 1987; Wiken et aL 1996). ization is a powerful tool and a sound basis for In its most basic form, ecological regionali- identification and tackling of the related problems zation involves discriminating between different Downloaded by [Research Center of Eco-Environmental Sciences] at 00:23 29 October 2015 (Omernik 1995). The interaction between man spatial patterns or associations of site-specific and ecosystems is an important research field in ecosystems (Bailey 1985). Based on intensive modern ecology. Ecological regionalization and study and deep understanding of ecosystems, the mapping of many countries have been given much present paper manages to uncover the rules importance in recent years (Bailey 1998; Wiken et underlying the similarity and differentiation of aL 1996; Hardin and Winterbourn 199’7). How- natural ecoregions and human intervention ever, because of the diverse natural environmental in ecosystems, and then suggest ecological

Correspondence: Bo-Jie Fu, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 2871,Beijing 100085, China. e-mail: [email protected]

397 Ecmegions and ecosystem management in China Fu et al.

regionalization through bottom-up integration principles for ecological regionalization depend and top-down division (Liu and Fu 1998). on its object and the understanding of that Although progressed on the basis of various object. It is well known that the present eco- physical regionalizations, ecological regionali- systems are the results of comprehensive zation is quite different. It considers not only the interactions between long-term processes of process and characteristics of natural ecosystems, natural evolution and human disturbance. With but also the effects of human activity. In this unique structures, functions and characteristics, respect, it is the unification of characteristic and different ecosystems that undergo human functional regionalization (Liu and Fu 1998; Fu impacts of different intensity occupy various et aL 1999). geographical spatial locations (Fu et al. 2004). According to different objects and intentions Generally, ecosystems have the following of regionalization, the distinctiveness of eco- characteristics: similarity and dissimilarity; a logical regionalization is evident. Different hierarchy; intensity of human disturbance; etc. requirements can be raised for the different The integration and classification of various social and ecoenvironmental status during dif- ecosystems must be done correctly to form ferent periods of their evolution. Consequently, ecoregions in terms of these characteristics. Thus, ecological regionalization should improve with it is crucial to abide by the following principles the development of social economy and the during the course of ecological regionalization: deepening insights for nature (Fu et al. 1999). (1) The differentiation of ecoregions: The To put the ecosystem (biotic and abiotic environ- integral macroecosystem is composed of ments) as the object at the macro-scale, with in- a series of different types of ecosystems depth research of the characteristics and rules which distribute continuously in space. about factors such as ecoregions, ecosystem Because of the differences of climate, services, ecological capital, ecological vulner- physiognomy, geomorphology and soil ability and the threats to eco-environment from conditions within different regions, there humankind in China, the paper presents are differentiations between and within principles, methods and indices for ecological different regions. According to these regionalization at the national level. On the basis differentiations, ecoregions of different of this regionalization, the ecoregions in China level are defined and recognized. Thus it are divided and combined within different can be seen that the differentiation of hierarchical ecological units. The purpose of the ecoregions is the theoretical foundation present study is to identify the ecological and of ecological regionalization and also a environmental problems and their mechanisms very basic principle of formation, to support the policy-making process for rational exploitation, utilization and (2) The hierarchy of ecosystems: Hierarchy environmental conservation, and to serve for the theory, which includes the structural rehabilitation and restoration of ecosystems and hierarchy of ecosystems and the hierarchy environments. It is a pathway and framework for of ecological processes, is the keystone for sustainable development. a better understanding of the spatial patterns of ecosystems. In general, the

Downloaded by [Research Center of Eco-Environmental Sciences] at 00:23 29 October 2015 characteristics of ecosystem hierarchy can METHODS be characterized as follows (Klijn and de Haes 1994): (a) The patterns of higher Principles level components can be represented in The role of ecological regionalization is to reflect the lower level hierarchy; (b) Lower level the true differentiation rules of various regional components depend on higher levels for units objectively and completely. Accordingly, it existence; (c) Materials and energy usually is necessary to know the process of construction, flow from a higher level to a lower level; structural and functional characteristics, and (d) The change of some individual spatial distribution of ecosystems as well as other components affects the related compo- factors concerned. Therefore, the fundamental nents inevitably. It is obvious that the

398 InternationalJournal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology Ecoregions and ecosystem management in China Fu et al.

hierarchy principle is the theoretical base to give a comprehensive analysis of the indices to recognize and define ecoregions step to grasp dominant factors. Generally, atmo- by step across various scales. Therefore, spheric processes are the main determinants of ecoregions should be hierarchical, with ecosystems at large spatial scales, and thermal their size depending on the scale of moisture distribution is mainly affected by study, and their boundaries based on topography and geomorphology. Thus, the semipermanent landscape components climatic and geomorphologic factors are often (Bailey et al. 1994). used as part of the main indices during the process of ecological regionalization (Klijn and (3) The similarity and dissimilaritywithin and between ecoregions. The physical geo- de Haes 1994; Harding and Winterbourn 1997). graphical environment is the concrete We have three levels of classification to derive background within which ecosystems the ecological regionalization scheme. Accord- undergo succession, differentiation and ing to the characteristics of climate, topography, geomorphology, ecosystems and anthropogenic evolution. Although the eco-environment within an ecoregion tends to be homog- features in China, we choose qualitative and quantitative indices for different levels of classi- eneous, the structure of ecosystems within fication. the region also shows some similarity and dissimilarity on account of some other differences of physical factors. Level I Based on these, ecoregions are identified and generalized, and then incorporated and divided China lies to the west of the Pacific Ocean. The at different scales in the course of ecological climate in China is influenced mainly by the East regionalization. Asia monsoon. The ladder-like relief, with three Additionally, ecosystems are more or less steps, in China plays an important role in disturbed by human beings but the intensity of modifying the climate, making the dominant disturbances may differentiate between regions features of the climate in China humid in the resulting in different status and problems for the east, arid in the west and extremely cold on the ecoenvironment concerned. Hence, the anthro- plateau of Tibet. The types of macro-ecosystems, pogenic factors have to be taken into account to such as forests, grasslands, deserts and meadows give a rational view of the implications of humans under cold climate, are controlled by thermal for the evolution of ecosystems and environ- moisture factors. So, based mainly on the features ments. of the climate and relief in China, we use two types of indices to make the first level classi- fication: (a) thermal moisture and climatic Indices system indices, including dryness or aridity (annual rainfall and evapotranspiration), humidity and An indices system is the theoretical and opera- mean annual temperature; (b) the differen- tional tool to carry out the ecological regionali- tiation of relief, including large-scale patterns of zation. The system can be distinctive according relief and elevation. We then define the main to different objects, scales, purposes and ecological zones, such as the humid ecological

Downloaded by [Research Center of Eco-Environmental Sciences] at 00:23 29 October 2015 researchers. So it is a very complex process to domain, arid ecological domain and extremely ascertain the system and is the topic that has cold ecological domain. Within each domain, we aroused much debate in the history of research. select further indices to make the second level However, for whatever the regionalization, the classification. indices chosen and the entire system of indices decided for use have to represent the purpose of the work and the regional differentiation for as Level long as possible. The structure, function and I1 process of evolution, which is controlled and This level is closely related to the patterns of affected by many factors and their interactions, landform and geomorphology and the climatic are extremely complex. Therefore, it is necessary conditions at large scales. The patterns of land-

International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 399 Ecoregions and ecosystem management in China Fu et al.

form and geomorphology continue to affect the the following three types of indices should be distribution of thermal moisture factors at large taken into account for the third level division: scales within the framework of the first level. For (a) geomorphological types including basin, example, thermal factors are related to latitude plain, river valley, plateau and hill; (b) types of and moisture is related to longitude. Furthermore, ecosystems including the structure and species these factors result in further differentiation of composition of ecosystems, ecosystem services the ecosystem types within the first level regions. and ecological susceptibility; (c) indices concern- This can be reflected by the general rules that ing human activities including population zonal vegetations distribute along latitude and density, land use, soil erosion and desertification. longitude. So that, for the second level, we use the following two types of indices: (a) indices of temperature and moisture including mean annual Nomenclature temperature, 2 10 “C accumulated temperature The nomenclature of the ecological regions, and annual rainfall; (b) zonal vegetation types, which is the direct representation of the including the latitudinal and longitudinal differ- hierarchy of ecological regions, is an important entiation of the vegetation types. Here, zonal step of the ecological regionalization. We class@ vegetations are the main indices for division, with the ecological regions in China to three levels, the regional differentiation of other indices taken namely the first level ‘Domain’, the second level into full consideration. ‘Ecoregion’ and the third level ‘Ecodistrict’. At each level, the nomenclature of the ecological regions mainly follows: (a) to characterize each Level 111 region exactly; (b) to indicate the geographical location of the regions; (c) to make clear the The regions of this level should belong to types ecosystem types; (d) the ‘tiles’ of the ecological of the same geomorphological origin. The third regions at the same level should correspond to level geomorphological types are subdivisions each other; (e) to represent the effects of humans comparing features of geomorphology. Within towards the ecoenvironment; (0 to be literally second level regions, the geomorphological types concise and readily accepted. Thus we consider lead to further differentiation of the ecosystem mainly the factors of Domain (geographical types. Different geomorphological types have location and thermal moisture condition), distinctive environmental factors that make the Ecoregion (thermal moisture condition and structure and species composition of ecosystems, typical zonal vegetation types), Ecodistrict ecosystem services, susceptibility and vulner- (geomorphological types and ecosystem types ability of ecosystems differ in some degree. In and human activities). addition, the complexity and characteristics of human activities are mainly represented at this level. On the one hand, the population pressure ECOREGIONS OF CHINA and the demand for land resources, as well as irrational use of the resources, largely affect Based on the above methods with the regional natural ecosystems, and even devastate them with features of physical environment, ecosystem

Downloaded by [Research Center of Eco-Environmental Sciences] at 00:23 29 October 2015 severe environmental problems such as soil types, main regional environmental problems erosion and desertification aroused. On the other and status of human activities in China, we use hand, through scientific management practices the holistic approach which is a combination of and moderate disturbance, people can construct top-down classification processes, expert inte- artificial ecosystems with high productivity to gration and quantitative modelling (Yang and Li serve development of humankind. Therefore, 1999) to carry out the present scheme of eco- the ecosystems within the same region of the logical regionalization. First, the Level I classi- third level are supposed to have similar species fication is mainly based upon the features of composition, structure, ecosystem service, eco- climate formed under the influence of the East logical susceptibility and vulnerability, as well as Asia monsoon and the corresponding difference characteristics of human activities. In this case, of ecosystem types. At the same time, we follow

400 InternationalJournal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology Ecoregions and ecosystem management in China Fu et al.

Figure 1 Ecological regionalization map of China

the traditional division scheme of three main extremely cold domain of the Tibet plateau. We large-scale regions, given the consideration of then divide this into 13 ecoregions at Level I1 (6 previous studies and their acceptability. Con- in the east, 4 in the west and 3 in the Tibet sequently, we have three domains at the Level I: plateau), and at Level I11 these are subdivided eastern humid and semi-humid domain, north- into 57 ecodistricts (35 in the east, 12 in the west western arid and semi-arid domain, and the and 10 in the Tibet plateau, see Figure 1).

I Eastern humid and semi-humid domain 11 Humid coniferous forest ecoregion of cold temperate zone I1(1) Northern Daxinganling mountain coniferous forest ecodistrict I2 Humid needle broadleaved mixed forest ecoregion of the temperate zone I2(1) Daxinganling and Xiaoxinganling mountain needle broadleaved mixed forest ecodistrict

Downloaded by [Research Center of Eco-Environmental Sciences] at 00:23 29 October 2015 I2(2) Sanjiang Plain agriculture and wetland ecodistrict 12(3) Changbaishan Mountain needle broadleaved mixed forest ecodistrict IZ(4) Northeastern Plain agriculture ecodistrict Is Humid and semi-humid deciduous broadleaved forest ecoregion of warm temperate zone Deciduous broadleaved forest ecodistrict of North China mountain region 13(2) Urban and suburban agriculture ecodistrict circles Bohai Bay region Deciduous broadleaved forest ecodistrict of Liaodong Peninsular

I3(4) Deciduous broadleaved forest ecodistrict of middle southern Shandong hilly mountain region I3(5) Huanghuaihai Plain agriculture ecodistrict The ecodistrict vulnerable to soil erosion in the Loess Plateau

InternationalJournal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 40 1 Ecoregions and ecosystem management in China Fu et al.

Fenhe and Weihe River valley agriculture ecodistrict I4 Humid evergreen broadleaved forest ecoregion of the subtropical zone 14(1) Evergreen-deciduous broadleaved forest ecodistrict of Qin-Ba Mountains region I4(2) Chengdu Plain agriculture ecodistrict I4(3) Vulnerable ecodistrict of the Three Gorges Reservoir region 14(4) Mainstream Yangtze River plain agriculture and wetland ecodistrict 14(5) Dabieshan and Tianmushan Mountain evergreen broadleaved forest ecodistrict 14(6) Yangtze River delta urban and suburban agriculture ecodistrict I4(7) Zhejiang-Fujian Mountains evergreen broadleaved forest ecodistrict 14(R) Hunan-Jiangxi Hills agriculture ecodistrict 14(9) Western Hunan and Eastern Guizhou Mountains evergreen broadleaved forest ecodistrict 14(10) Guangxi-Guizhou Karst vulnerable ecodistrict 14(11) Lingnan Mountain evergreen broadleaved forest ecodistrict 14(12) Southwest Guangdong coastal hill agriculture ecodistrict I4(13) Zhujiang River delta urban and suburban agriculture ecodistrict 14(14) Taiwan Island evergreen broadleaved forest ecodistrict I5 Humid rain forest monsoon forest ecoregion of the tropical zone IS(1) Leizhou Peninsular tropical agriculture ecodistrict Is(*) Circle Hainan Island tropical agriculture ecodistrict I5(3) Middle Hainan Island mountain rain forest monsoon forest ecodistrict 15(4) South China Sea islands ecodistrict I6 Humid and semi-humid evergreen broadleaved forest ecoregion of South Asia monsoon zone Xishuangbanna tropical rain forest monsoon forest ecodistrict I6p) East Himalaya Mountains tropical rain forest monsoon forest ecodistrict 16(3) South Yun-Gui Plateau humid evergreen broadleaved forest ecodistrict 16(4) North Yun-Gui Plateau semi-humid evergreen broadleaved forest ecodistrict Hengduanshan Mountain evergreen broadleaved forest and shady coniferous forest ecodistrict I1 Northwest arid and semi-arid domain 111 Semi-arid prairie ecoregion II,,,) Hulunbeier prairie ecodistrict 111 (2) Inner Mongolia Plateau arid ecodistrict 111(3) Southeast Inner Mongolia Plateau agriculture grazing ecotone vulnerable ecodistrict 112 Semi-arid desert prairie ecoregion 112(1) Hetao alluvial plain irrigated agriculture ecodistrict II,(,) Mu Us Desert ecodistrict II,,,, Eerduosi Plateau desert prairie ecodistrict 113 Arid and semidesert ecoregion 113(1) Arasan Plateau semi-desert ecodistrict

Downloaded by [Research Center of Eco-Environmental Sciences] at 00:23 29 October 2015 II3(,) Hexi Corridor oasis agriculture ecodistrict 114 Arid desert ecoregion II,,,) Aertai Mountain forest prairie ecodistrict II,,,, Zhungaer Basin desert ecodistrict II4(3) Tianshan Mountain prairie coniferous forest ecodistrict II4(4) Talimu Basin desert Gobi ecodistrict I11 Tibet Plateau extremely cold domain 1111 Tibet Plateau forest and extremely cold meadow ecoregion 1111 (1) Southeast Tibet Plateau evergreen broadleaved forest and shady coniferous forest ecodistrict 1111 (2) East Tibet Plateau shady coniferous forest and extremely cold meadow ecodistrict

402 InternationalJournal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology Ecoregions and ecosystem management in China Fu et al.

1112 Tibet Plateau alpine prairie and extremely cold meadow ecoregion 1112(1)Qilianshan Mountain coniferous forest and extremely cold meadow ecodistrict IIIz(2) East Qinghai agriculture grazing ecodistrict III2(s, Riverhead region extremely cold meadow ecodistrict 1112(4)South Tibet agriculture grazing ecodistrict III2(,) Qiangtang Plateau extremely cold prairie ecodistrict 111s Tibet Plateau extremely cold desert and semidesert ecoregion III,,,, Qaidam Basin desert and salt desert ecodistrict 1113(2)Hoh Xi1 Desert and semi-desert ecodistrict IIIs(3) Kara-Kunlun Mountain gravel desert ecodistrict

IMPLICATIONS FOR ECOSYSTEMS by destruction of forest. Indeed, the history of MANAGEMENT human development is a history of forest destruction. And now, mankind is cognizant of From the era of the Industrial Revolution, human the forest’s significance, not only for wood beings have seized all sorts of resources from products, but also for environment protection. nature for developing their social economy, with China is one of the countries with the lowest no end and no order. This has caused many bad forest coverage in the world. The area of forest consequences, such natural resource decrease, as in China is about 133.70 million hectares (not biodiversity loss, land degradation, destroyed including Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macao), environment. These consequences threaten making up 13.9% of the whole Chinese territory humankind’s survival and development. There- (Ministry of Forestry 1994; The Editorial Board fore, ecological security has increasingly caused of Forest in China 1997). The distribution of many scientists and governments concerns. Chinese forests is in disequilibrium. Because they Indeed, it is important for national security. Thus, are influenced by the natural conditions, Chinese many scientists began to rethink the ideas and forests are mainly located in the eastern region. knowledge of ecosystem management (Aley et al. In the northwest only a few forests are scattered 1998; UNDP 2000). Today, the goals of ecosystem in mountains such as Tianshan Mountain, Aertai management are very different from the tradi- Mountain, Qilian Mountain. In our ecoregion tional ones. They mainly focus on ecosystem scheme, there are 23 ecodistricts that have forest functions for environment protection, and not ecosystems. In recent years, the forest area has only on ecosystem production. They also em- been expanded dramatically due to the estab- phasize the sustainable use of natural resources. lishment of timber plantations, shelterbelts and Because the natural conditions are very different, by natural forest protection. However, there are ecosystem management is faced with many dif- also many problems in Chinese forests (Liu et al. ficulties at national or regional scales. Ecoregions 2000a) : are thought of as a framework or a tool for ecosystem management (Omernik 1995; CECC (1) Forest fragmentation: In China, because 1997; Wright et al. 1998). of the growing population and long agricultural history, most forestlands have

Downloaded by [Research Center of Eco-Environmental Sciences] at 00:23 29 October 2015 been turned into farmlands. Thus, cur- rent forests are extremely fragmented, Forest ecosystem management especially in Eastern China. Most forests Forest is a main type of global terrestrial eco are isolated and only distributed on some system. It plays vital roles for maintaining our mountains and hills, forming many ‘forest global environment and social development, islands’. It is well known that only when a such as carbon sequestration, soil protection, piece of forest reaches a certain area, can biodiversity, climate regulation and wood product it fulfil its functions for environment supply. However, we are faced with the fact that protection and wildlife habitat. Forest the global forests are decreasing dramatically, and fragmentation maybe enhances the that many environmental problems are caused frangibility of Chinese forest.

International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 403 Ecoregions and ecosystem management in China Fu et al.

Poor quality of forest: In China, secondary time. This shortcoming also shows that forest is the principal type. The area of Chinese forest is not stable. natural forest is only 87.26 million hect- Low productivity of forest stands: The ares, about 65.3%of the total forest area (5) average stem volume of Chinese forest and 9% of the territory area. The areas of is 83m3.hm-2, only threequarter of that open forest and shrub forest are 18.02 of the global average (110m3.hm-2). The million hectares and one million hectares, Chinese forest average biomass is respectively (Ministry of Forestry 1989). 77.4t-hd (Liu et al. 2000b), only 45% of This indicates that Chinese forest quality that global average (according to Dixon is very poor. Compared to the 1980s, et al. (1994), the global forest average Chinese forest increased by 9.5 million biomass is 172 t-hm2). hectares in the early 1990s (Ministry of Forestry 1989). However, this increase is The reasons that have led to these problems are mainly focused on the increased areas of mainly inadequate forest management, unsound open forest, manmade forest and shrub systems in the government forestry sector, and forest. The area of natural forests is policy mistakes. During the past several decades, decreasing, especially the area of natural there have been many organizations in the forest mature forest which has decreased by 7.32 sector, such as bureaus of forestry in central and million hectares compared to the end of local government, national forest enterprises, the 1970s (Ministry of Forestry 1983). collective forestry, and individual forestry com- panies. However, the authorities are very unco- Simple ecosystem structure of forest ordinated. Many organizations only emphasized stands: China has the largest area of af- economic benefits, and largely neglected planning forestation. For meeting the high demand for timber logging. The phenomena of indis For wood products, fast-growing tree criminate logging and illegal poaching are species such as Chinese fir, Masoon pine extremely serious, as a result, many bureaus in the and poplar were chosen. The area of national forest region have essentially run out established plantations totals 34.25 million of timber resources (Yin 1998). For example, hectares in China, and accounts for in Western Sichuan, the forest coverage has 26.65%of the total forested land area (Shi decreased from more than 30% in the 1950s to et 1998).These manmade forests always aL less than 20% in the early 1990s. Correspondingly, have a simple structure (e.g only one tree the area of water and soil erosion in the Yangtze species). Consequently, the stability of River basin has increased from 36 million hectares such forests is low. When disturbed by in the 1950s to 56.2 million hectares at the end of external forces (e.g. forest fire, diseases the 1980s (Ma0 and Li 1994). and pests), they are very easily destroyed. Although there are many problems, it is not It is incontestable that manmade forests denied that the Chinese government has made play some roles for alleviating and great efforts to resolve them in the past decade, ameliorating our environments (e.g. and also makes much progress with forest forest shelterbelts in Three Northern development. Some important documents for region), however, their ecological service

Downloaded by [Research Center of Eco-Environmental Sciences] at 00:23 29 October 2015 forest development and environment protection, functions are far lower than that of natural such as the Implementation Plan for Forest forests. Principles, the Forestry Action Plan for China’s Immoderate age structure of forest stands: Agenda 21, Outline of China’s Programme for Young and middle age forests forms a Environment Development, and China Bio- large proportion of Chinese forests which diversity Conservation Action Plan were for- has increased from 63.8% in 1976 to mulated. In 1998, a project of natural forest 81.5% in 1993 (Liu et al. 2000b). This protection that forbids timber logging all over immoderate age structure indicates that the country began. The ten long-term planned Chinese forests are young and cannot projects for forest development and environment meet the demands for timber for a long protection have ultimately been implemented

404 InternationalJournal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology Ecoregions and ecosystem management in China Fu et al.

(Shi et al. 1998): the Three-North Shelterbelt the Inner Mongolia Plateau to the Xinjiang Project, the upper and mid-Yangtze River Basin Municipality. Land desertification is the main Shelterbelt Project, the Coastal Shelterbelt environmental problem. Desertifkation is caused Project, the Plain Afforestation Project, the by both natural factors (e.g. climate) and inap Taihang Mountains Afforestation Project, the propriate human activities (includingovergrazing, Shelterbelt Project for Comprehensive Manage- cultivation, excessive gathering of fuelwood, and ment of Huaihe River and Taihu Lake Basin Area, excavating plant species for medicinal purposes), the Pearl River Valley Shelterbelt Project, the As inner factors, natural conditionsdetermine that Liaohe River Valley Integrated Shelterbelt these regions are prone to suffer desertification, Project, the Shelter Project along the Middle and human activities, as exterior forces, play a role Reaches of the Yellow River, and the Natural for accelerating desertifkation. In these regions, Forest Protection Project. Furthermore, about the social economy is very underdeveloped and 14.6 million hectares of natural reserves that poverty and lag are the main regional social related to forest for providing wildlife habitats problems. With the fast expansion of population had been established by the end of 1995 in recent decades, people feed large number of (according to SEPAC and EBCRRCB 1998). In cattle or reclaim grassland for cultivated land in 2000, another huge project called ‘grain for pursuit of economic benefits for survival. This has green’ was proposed and began to be imple- caused overgrazing and grassland areas have mented. Because these shelterbelt projects were decreased sharply, leading to serious deser- established, the environments in some fragile tification and poor quality of grassland. areas had been ameliorated. At present, the area of desertification in China With social economic development,some new is about 160.7 million hectares, accounting for strategies must be adopted for sustainable 16.7% of the total country area. About 136.8 development of forest resources. There are many million hectares of desertification lands are detailed discussions about the reform of forestry distributed in arid and semi-arid regions, making sectors, forestry policies and forestry ownership up 53.3% of these regions’ total area (CCICCD rights (Yin 1998; Shi et al. 1998). However, few 1997).In the early 199Os, the degraded grasslands papers talk about the appropriate practices of were about 84.2 million hectares in the arid and forest ecosystem management. As pointed out semi-arid regions, accounting for about 60% of above, Chinese forests are mainly distributed in the total grasslands in these regions (CCICCD 23 ecodistricts. In different ecodistncts, there are 1997). These regions have become the origin of distinct forest ecosystems, natural conditions, and Northern China’s sand storms that have moved human activities. Furthermore, the different nearer to Beijing (Zhu and Zhu 1999). forest ecosystems also have different structures Since the 1950s, enormous efforts have gone and functions, and are operated by different into combating desertifkation in China. Espe- ecological processes and mechanisms. Thus, the cially from 1978, when the Three-North Shel- measures of forest ecosystem management must terbelt Project was started, 5.68 million hectares correspond to different regions and types. of manmade forests have been built. By the end of the 199Os, about 12% desertifkation lands had been improved, and about 10% desertification Grassland ecosystem management Downloaded by [Research Center of Eco-Environmental Sciences] at 00:23 29 October 2015 lands had been controlled in the Three-North In China, the area of grassland is about 263.52 region. However, the situation of desertification million hectares (not including Taiwan, Hong is still grave for the whole country. From the 1950s Kong and Macao), making up 27.5% of the total to the 1970s, the annual rate of desertification area. Grasslands are mainly located on the Inner was 156 000 ha (Zhu 1985), reaching 210 000 ha Mongolia Plateau, Xinjiang, and Tibetan Plateau. in the 1980s (Zhu and Chen 1994). In the 199Os, There are 5 ecodistricts relative to grassland in it reached 246 000 ha (CCICCD 1997). our ecoregion scheme. Recently, the efforts for combating deser- Because of rigorous natural conditions (such tification were enhanced. Many projects have as aridity and poor soil quality),they make up the been implemented, such as the National Project second largest ecotone in the world, from of Combating Desertification, the National Eco-

International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 405 Ecoregions and ecosystem management in China Fu et al.

Environmental Construction Planning, and the grain per year (EPRCC 1997). By 2002, Project for Returning Farmland to Grassland. the reduction in cultivated landswas about Some new technologies have also been applied 1.66 million hectares, compared to that to monitor the changes in desertification (Sun in 2001. However, this is mainly because and Zhou 2000). Furthermore, some techniques of returning cultivated lands to forestlands and models for combating desertification and and grasslands (Ministry of Land and degraded grassland ecosystems rehabilitation Resources 2003). have been summarized according to the past (2) Soil erosion: Soil erosion is one of the practices (Zha and Gao 1997; Zhu and Zhu 1999; main problems in China. Because of the Lu 2000). large population and a lack of arable land, Many measures of grassland ecosystem many other areas (such as forestland, management have been adopted according to grassland, and wetland) must be con- the different conditions in different ecodistrics. tinuously reclaimed to satisfy people’s First, most herdsman have changed their demands for sufficient food. Many arable traditional custom of nomadism and now have lands are located in mountains and hills adopted enclosure grazing. In some seriously and easily suffer from water and soil degraded regions, herdsmen are forbidden to erosion. At present, a common perception graze. Second, the amount of cattle is controlled is that the areas of soil erosion, including according to the carrying capacity in a region. water and wind erosion, are 3.67 million Third, the pastures have been improved by km2,about 38.2% of the territory. In some introducing some high quality herbaceous regions there is serious soil erosion. In the species. Fourth, the area of manmade pasture has Loess Plateau, the soil erosion area is been increased. Fifth, industries related to 450 000 km2, up to 79% of the total area grazing have been increasingly developed. in this region, which loses about 1.6 billion tons of topsoil annually. In the Yangtze River Valley, the loss of topsoil is 2.24 Agricultural ecosystem management billion tons per year (Ma0 and Li 1994). It is well known that the cultivated land is the (3) Degradation of land quality: Because of base for people’s food supply. In China, there the increasing utilization of pesticides, are 125.93million hectares of cultivated land and herbicides and fertilizer, the physical and 10.79 million hectares of horticultural land chemical properties of soils have been (Ministry of Land and Resources 2003). As one severely altered. Moreover, lots of waste of largest agricultural countries in the world, water pours into the rivers and enters farmers in China account for 80% of its popu- irrigation systems without any treatment. lation, nearly 22% of the world’s population, but This results in cultivated lands being the Chinese rely on only 7% of the world’s land seriously polluted. Thus, the cultivated resources (Liu and Fu 2000). This is a heavy land quality is increasingly degraded. burden. Now, with the development of the social According to investigations, about 30% of economy and expansion of population, there are cultivated land’s production is very low, and about 6.67 million hectares culti- Downloaded by [Research Center of Eco-Environmental Sciences] at 00:23 29 October 2015 many problems that must be faced in Chinese of agriculture: vated land are affected by pollution (Ma0 and Li 1994). (1) Cultivated land reduction: Although China is the third biggest country, there (4) Water resources shortage: In China, there are only about 0.11 ha land per capita, are about 3540 billion m3water resources. only one third of the world average. In About 815% of water resources are located the past 15 years, about 5.4 million south of the Yangtze River, and large hectares of cultivated land have been lost, regions of northern China only have nearly 360 000 ha of cultivated land per 19% of total water resources. However, annum, corresponding to a loss of the there are large areas of cultivated lands ability to grow 2.5 billion kilograms of in northern China that are extremely

406 International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology Ecoregions and ecosystem management in China Fu et al.

short of water resources, especially in world’s wetlands. Among these wetlands, there Huanghuaihai Plain which has 18.1% of are about 25.94million hectares natural wetland, the whole country’s cultivated lands, but including 1 1.97 million hectares of bog, 9.1 only 2.8% of the total water resources. million hectares of lakes and 2.17 million hectares of coastal wetland. Another million To prevent the agricultural environment from 40 hectares are manmade wetland, mainly rice further deterioration, the Chinese government paddy amounting to million hectares, and has made numerous efforts to improve agri- 38 making up of manmade wetland and cultural conditions, such as the project ‘grain for 95% 57.6% of the total wetland (Bureau of National Forestry green’, the South-North Water Transfer Project, For the past decades, wetland has played several shelterbelt projects, and maintaining the 2000). important roles in providing products and balance of total area of cultivated land. However, wildlife habitats and regulating floods, however, the balance of total area of cultivated land with because of irrational overexploitation of wetland the development and expansion of urban areas, resources, wetland ecosystems have been severely actually implies that millions of hectares of fertile endangered and degraded. land are currently turned to townships, industrial First, the area of wetland has decreased dra- and road construction land, while areas of barren matically. During the past years, millions and marginal land are reclaimed as the cultivated 50 of hectares of wetland were reclaimed as farmland, land. Therefore, the quantity of cultivated land e.g. 000 ha of farmland, and 000 ha appears to be maintained in balance, but the 786 5 345 of natural bog in the Sanjiang Plain in (Liu quality of cultivated land is actually decreased. 1949 and Ma By farmland had increased In attempting to resolve the conflicts between 2002). 2000, up to 000 ha and the natural bog had agricultural production and environmental 5 240 decreased to 835 000 ha (Li et al. 2002). In the degradation, Ma and Li (1987) advanced the middle and downriver plain of the Yangtze River theory of agro-ecological engineering. Its about lakes disappeared due to reclamation. propose is to establish highly efficient and 1000 The area of Tongting Lake (the second biggest sustainable agroecosystems that utilize natural lake in China) decreased from 000 ha in resources rationally and maintain ecological 430 1949 to ha by the end of the shrunk stability. This agro-ecological engineering (or 240 000 199Os, about (Bureau of National Forestry ecological agriculture) has paid increasing 40% 2000). The area Poyang Lake (the biggest lake in attention to agricultural ecosystem management of China) decreased from 516 000 ha in 1954 to and land planning (Ye et al. 2002;Zhong 1999), ha in (Kong et About and considered to be a way towards sustainable 386 000 1996 aL 2001). 2.19 million hectares of coast wetland, about 50% of agriculture (Liu and Fu 2000). the total area of coast wetland, were lost. The area of mangrove decreased from 50 000 ha in the Wetland ecosystem management early 1950s to 14 000 ha by the end of the 199Os, reduced by about 72% of the total area (Bureau Wetland is a non-zonal ecosystem. As a special of National Forestry 2000). Furthermore, sands ecosystem, wetlands play vital roles for main- poured into and filled up lakes and reservoirs taining biodiversity, regulating floods, purifymg due to water and soil erosion, decreasing the area

Downloaded by [Research Center of Eco-Environmental Sciences] at 00:23 29 October 2015 water quality, providing water and energy and volume of the lake. The decrease in area has resources. It is called the ‘kidney of our globe’ led to wetlands (especially lakes) losing some and is a very important type of terrestrial eco- functions, such as flood regulation and habitat system. fragmentation. In China, wetlands are mainly located in the Second, the pollution of wetlands is serious. Sanjiang Plain, the middle and downriver plain With the development of industry and increased of the Yangtze River, and the Tibetan Plateau. utilization of pesticides and fertilizers, large Wetland ecosystems are also distributed in the amounts of waste water pour into rivers and lakes Yellow River Delta, the Liaohe River Delta, and without treatment, making the water quality of on the eastern coast. The area of wetland is 65.94 lakes worse. According to investigations, about million hectares in China, about 10% of the two thirds of lakes in China are eutrophic and

International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 407 Ecoregions and ecosystem management in China Fu et al.

more than one third of rivers are polluted seriously degraded regions (eg. Dongting Lake (Bureau of National Forestry 2000). The wetland region), farmland has been returned to wetland biodiversity is decreased, such as in Honghu Lake or lake. From 1998, the government also began where 50 species of fish have been lost, half of to control and improve the environments of the total species number in 40 years. Moreover, eutrophic lakes such as Chaohu Lake, Taihu Lake there are about 50 species of waterfowl in danger. and Dianchi Lake, where some progress has been Therefore, it is exigent for protecting wetlands. made. In recent decades, the Chinese government has paid increasing attention to wetland conser- vation and rehabilitation. Until now, about 262 natural protection areas have been established, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS about 16.6 million hectares, seven of these are This work was supported by the Key Project of internationally important wetlands in the Ramsar KIP, Chinese Academy of Sciences (KZCX2405), Convention. In 2000, the government drew National Natural Sciences Foundation of China up the Action Plan of Wetland Conservation (NSFC 40321101) and the Key Project of the containing short and long-term targets. Mean- Ninth Five Year Plan for Resource and Envi- while, 39 preferential projects began to operate ronment, Chinese Academy of Sciences (KZ951- (Bureau of National Forestry 2000). In some B1-208).

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