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Forest Structure and Projections of Avicennia Germinans (L.) L Article Forest Structure and Projections of Avicennia germinans (L.) L. at Three Levels of Perturbation in a Southwestern Gulf of Mexico Mangrove Basáñez-Muñoz Agustín de Jesús 1, Jordán-Garza Adán Guillermo 2,* and Serrano Arturo 3 1 Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias, Cuerpo Académico Manejo de Ambientes Marinos y Costeros, Universidad Veracruzana, Tuxpan 92870, Mexico; [email protected] 2 Coral Reefs Laboratory, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias, Cuerpo Académico Ecosistemas Costeros, Universidad Veracruzana, Tuxpan 92870, Mexico 3 Observatorio Marino y Costero, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias, Universidad Veracruzana, Tuxpan 92870, Mexico; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +52-7831469318 Abstract: Mangrove forests have declined worldwide and understanding the key drivers of regener- ation at different perturbation levels can help manage and preserve these critical ecosystems. For example, the Ramsar site # 1602, located at the Tampamachoco lagoon, Veracruz, México, consists of a dense forest of medium-sized trees composed of three mangrove species. Due to several human activities, including the construction of a power plant around the 1990s, an area of approximately 2.3 km2 has suffered differential levels of perturbation: complete mortality, partial tree loss (divided Citation: Agustín de Jesús, B.-M.; into two sections: main and isolated patch), and apparently undisturbed sites. The number and size Adán Guillermo, J.-G.; Arturo, S. of trees, from seedlings to adults, were measured using transects and quadrats. With a matrix of Forest Structure and Projections of the abundance of trees by size categories and species, an ordination (nMDS) showed three distinct Avicennia germinans (L.) L. at Three Levels of Perturbation in a groups corresponding to the degree of perturbation. Projection matrices based on the size structure Southwestern Gulf of Mexico of Avicennia germinans showed transition probabilities that varied according to perturbation levels. Mangrove. Forests 2021, 12, 989. Lambda showed growing populations except on the zone that showed partial tree loss; a relatively https://doi.org/10.3390/f12080989 high abundance of seedlings is not enough to ensure stable mangrove dynamics or start regeneration; and the survival of young trees and adult trees showed high sensitivity. Academic Editors: Victor H. Rivera-Monroy, Xosé Keywords: mangrove; Gulf of México; population; Leslie matrix Lois Otero-Pérez, Jorge Lopez-Portillo and Tiago Osorio Ferreira Received: 9 June 2021 1. Introduction Accepted: 20 July 2021 Published: 26 July 2021 Mangrove forests are diverse ecosystems that provide human communities with many goods and services [1]. Unfortunately, recent climate change is altering the latitudinal Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral limits of woody assemblages [2], and sea-level rise will likely provoke catastrophic changes with regard to jurisdictional claims in in most wetlands due to inundation and salinity changes [3,4]. At a more regional and published maps and institutional affil- local level, coastal development causes land-cover changes due to different human activ- iations. ities [5–7]. Mangroves along the Gulf of Mexico have declined due to urban and harbor development, energy generation, and tourism development [8,9]. Understanding the main drivers of decline and recovery at small spatial scales can help decide on the best manage- ment practices to protect and rescue these highly valuable ecosystems [10]. In the coastal area of the southwestern Gulf of Mexico, along with three Mexican states (Tamaulipas, Ver- Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. acruz, and Tabasco), a fringe of approximately 87,047 ha of mangrove forests is present [11]. This article is an open access article Four mangrove species that vary in relative abundance dominate the structure of these distributed under the terms and forests: Rhizophora mangle L., Avicennia germinans (L.) L., Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn., conditions of the Creative Commons and Conocarpus erectus L. [12]. It has been shown that well-preserved mangrove communi- Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// ties are composed, with local variations, of these mangrove species and that the enrichment creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ of the floristic assemblages can, in fact, be a sign of perturbation [13]. In Veracruz, the 4.0/). mangrove fringe is not continuous and is divided into smaller patches (<1000 ha) located Forests 2021, 12, 989. https://doi.org/10.3390/f12080989 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/forests Forests 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 12 Forests 2021, 12, 989 2 of 12 that the enrichment of the floristic assemblages can, in fact, be a sign of perturbation [13]. In Veracruz, the mangrove fringe is not continuous and is divided into smaller patches between(<1000 ha) the located coast andbetween large the coastal coast lagoons and large such coastal as Tamiahua, lagoons such Tampamachoco, as Tamiahua, and Tampa- San Agustmachoco,ín [12 and]. Along San Agustín the Tampamachoco [12]. Along lagoon,the Tampamachoco Ramsar site number lagoon, 1602Ramsar was site established number by1602 Mexico was established in 2006 due by to Mexico its vast in and 2006 well-preserved due to its vast mangrove and well-preserved area, one ofmangrove the largest area, in theone Gulfof the of largest Mexico. in Itsthe structure, Gulf of Mexico. composition, Its structure, productivity, composition, phenology, productivity, restoration, phenol- and usesogy, haverestoration, been studied and uses by varioushave been local studie universities—particularlyd by various local universities—particularly an area of approxima- tivelyan area 40 of ha, approximatively located near the 40 power ha, located plant [near14–18 the]. Inpower the 1980s, plant the[14–18]. construction In the 1980s, of three the embankments,construction of built three to embankments, support power built towers, to support changed power the average towers, water changed circulation, the average and 20water ha ofcirculation, mangrove and developed 20 ha of mangrove signs of top developed dying [17 signs]. This of mortalitytop dying continued[17]. This mortality until an areacontinued between until the an power area plantbetween and the the Tampamachocopower plant and lagoon the Tampamachoco ultimately died. lagoon Although ulti- themately activities died. Although to set up thethe poweractivities plant to set were up the probably power theplant origin were of probably the mortality, the origin there of isthe still mortality, no explanation there is still of why no explanation the area has of notwhy recovered, the area has why not restoration recovered, why efforts restora- have failed,tion efforts and mortality have failed, continues and mortality to expand. continues Within theto expand. affected Within area, five the perturbation affected area, levels five exist:perturbation complete levels mangrove exist: mortality,complete partialmangrove mangrove mortality, mortality, partial apparently mangrove unaffected mortality, and ap- isolatedparently patches, unaffected and and adjacent isolated unaffected patches, areas. and Theadjacent present unaffected study quantified areas. The mangrove present communitystudy quantified structure mangrove in these community areas, highlighting structur structurale in these differences areas, highlighting according structural to pertur- bationdifferences levels. according In addition, to perturbation we used a matrix-population levels. In addition, analysis we used of A. a germinans matrix-population, to assess theanalysis effects of of A. transition germinans probabilities, to assess the and effects recruitment of transition on the probabilities stability of the and mangrove recruitment forest on atthe the stability different of perturbationthe mangrove areas. forest at the different perturbation areas. 2.2. Materials andand MethodsMethods TheThe studystudy sitesite is is located located to to the the north north of of the th Veracruze Veracruz state, state, approximately approximately 10 km 10 tokm the to westthe west of Tuxpan, of Tuxpan, México México (Figure (Figure1). 1). FigureFigure 1.1. MapMap showingshowing thethe locationlocation ofof thethe studystudy atat thethe northeastnortheast coastcoast ofof thethe GulfGulf ofof Mexico.Mexico. TheThe mangrovemangrove isis locatedlocated betweenbetween a powerplantpowerplant to the east and the Tampamachoco lagoonlagoon to the west.west. TheThe studystudy areaarea isis markedmarked inin yellowyellow andand showsshows differentdifferent levelslevels ofof perturbationperturbation fromfrom thethe lagoonlagoon toto the power plant: Apparently unaffected forest (AUF); Partial mangrove mortality (PMM); complete the power plant: Apparently unaffected forest (AUF); Partial mangrove mortality (PMM); complete mangrove mortality (CMM); and a thin band of isolated apparently unaffected forest growing next mangrove mortality (CMM); and a thin band of isolated apparently unaffected forest growing next to the power plant (AUF isolated). The embankments that support electric towers can be seen within tothe the study power area. plant Map (AUF made isolated).in QGIS 3.2 The with embankments Natural Earth, that free support vector electricand raster towers map candata be @ natu- seen withinralearthdata.com the study area. (accessed Map madeon 24 in August QGIS 3.22021). with Satellite Natural image Earth, from free vector the study and rastersite in map 2019 data
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