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CORNERSTONE BIBLICAL COMMENTARY MINOR PROPHETS - Richard D. Patterson Andrew E. Hill

GENERAL EDITOR Philip W. Comfort

with the entire text of the NEW LIVING TRANSLATION

TYNDALE HOUSE PUBLISHERS, INC. CAROL STREAM, ILLINOIS Cornerstone Biblical Commentary, Volume 10 Visit Tyndale’s exciting Web site at www.tyndale.com Hosea, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, & Zephaniah copyright © 2008 by Richard Patterson. All rights reserved. , Micah, Haggai, Zechariah, & Malachi copyright © 2008 by Andrew Hill. All rights reserved. Designed by Luke Daab and Timothy R. Botts. Unless otherwise indicated, all Scripture quotations are taken from the Holy , New Living Translation, copyright © 1996, 2004. Used by permission of Tyndale House Publishers. Inc., Carol Stream, Illinois 60188. All rights reserved. TYNDALE, New Living Translation, NLT, Tyndale’s quill logo, and the New Living Translation logo are registered trademarks of Tyndale House Publishers, Inc.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Cornerstone biblical commentary. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-8423-3436-5 (hc : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-8423-3436-X (hc : alk. paper) 1. Bible—Commentaries. I. Hill, Andrew E. II. Patterson, Richard D. BS491.3.C67 2006 220.7´7—dc22 2005026928

Printed in the United States of America 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 7654321 CONTENTS

Contributors to Volume 10 vi

General Editor’s Preface vii

Abbreviations ix

Transliteration and Numbering System xiii

HOSEA NAHUM 1 353

JOEL HABAKKUK 97 395

AMOS ZEPHANIAH 153 445

OBADIAH HAGGAI 213 491

JONAH ZECHARIAH 241 519

MICAH MALACHI 293 609 CONTRIBUTORS TO V O L U M E 1 0

Hosea, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah: Richard D. Patterson MDiv, Northwest Baptist Seminary ThM, Talbot Theological Seminary PhD, University of California, Los Angeles Retired Chair of the Department of and Retired Professor of and Hebrew, Liberty University

Amos, Micah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: Andrew E. Hill MDiv, Grand Rapids Baptist Seminary MA, University of Michigan PhD, University of Michigan Professor of Old Testament Studies, Wheaton College GENERAL EDITOR’S PREFACE

The Cornerstone Biblical Commentary is based on the second edition of the New Living Translation (2004). Nearly 100 scholars from various church back- grounds and from several countries (United States, Canada, England, and Australia) participated in the creation of the NLT. Many of these same scholars are contributors to this commentary series. All the commentators, whether participants in the NLT or not, believe that the Bible is God’s inspired word and have a desire to make God’s word clear and accessible to his people. This Bible commentary is the natural extension of our vision for the New Living Translation, which we believe is both exegetically accurate and idiomati- cally powerful. The NLT attempts to communicate God’s inspired word in a lucid English translation of the original languages so that English readers can understand and appreciate the thought of the original writers. In the same way, the Cornerstone Biblical Commentary aims at helping teachers, pastors, students, and laypeople understand every thought contained in the Bible. As such, the commentary focuses first on the words of Scripture, then on the theological truths of Scripture—inasmuch as the words express the truths. The commentary itself has been structured in such a way as to help readers get at the meaning of Scripture, passage by passage, through the entire Bible. Each Bible book is prefaced by a substantial book introduction that gives general historical background important for understanding. Then the reader is taken through the Bible text, passage by passage, starting with the New Living Transla- tion text printed in full. This is followed by a section called “Notes,” wherein the commentator helps the reader understand the Hebrew or Greek behind the English of the NLT, interacts with other scholars on important interpretive issues, and points the reader to significant textual and contextual matters. The “Notes” are followed by the “Commentary,” wherein each scholar presents a lucid interpretation of the passage, giving special attention to context and major theological themes. The commentators represent a wide spectrum of theological positions within the evangelical community. We believe this is good because it reflects the rich variety in Christ’s church. All the commentators uphold the authority of God’s word and believe it is essential to heed the old adage: “Wholly apply yourself to the Scriptures and apply them wholly to you.” May this commentary help you know the truths of Scripture, and may this knowledge help you “grow in your knowledge of God and our Lord” (2 Pet 1:2, NLT).

PHILIP W. COMFORT GENERAL EDITOR ABBREVIATIONS

GENERAL ABBREVIATIONS b. Babylonian Heb. Hebrew NT Gemara ibid. ibidem, in the same OL Old Latin bar. baraita place OS Old Syriac c. circa, around, i.e. id est, the same OT Old Testament approximately in loc. in loco, in the place p., pp. page, pages cf. confer, compare cited pl. plural ch, chs chapter, chapters lit. literally Q Quelle (“Sayings” contra in contrast to LXX as source) DSS M Majority Text rev. revision ed. edition, editor m. Mishnah sg. singular e.g. exempli gratia, for masc. masculine t. Tosefta example mg margin TR Textus Receptus et al. et alli, and others ms manuscript v., vv. verse, verses fem. feminine mss manuscripts vid. videur, it seems ff following (verses, MT viz. videlicet, namely pages) n.d. no date vol. volume fl. flourished neut. neuter y. Jerusalem Gemara Gr. Greek no. number

ABBREVIATIONS FOR BIBLE TRANSLATIONS

ASV American Standard NCV New Century NKJV New King James Version Version Version CEV Contemporary NEB New English Bible NRSV New Revised English Version NET The NET Bible Standard Version ESV English Standard NIV New International NLT New Living Version Version Translation GW God’s Word NIrV New International REB Revised English HCSB Holman Christian Reader’s Version Bible Standard Bible NJB New Jerusalem RSV Revised Standard JB Jerusalem Bible Bible Version KJV King James Version NJPS The New Jewish TEV Today’s English NAB New American Bible Publication Society Version NASB New American Translation TLB The Living Bible Standard Bible (Tanakh)

ABBREVIATIONS FOR DICTIONARIES, LEXICONS, COLLECTIONS OF TEXTS, ORIGINAL LANGUAGE EDITIONS ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary BAGD Greek-English Lexicon of BDB A Hebrew and English (6 vols., Freedman) [1992] the New Testament and Other Lexicon of the Old Testament ANEP The Ancient Near Early Christian Literature, (Brown, Driver, Briggs) East in Pictures (Pritchard) 2nd ed. (Bauer, Arndt, [1907] [1965] Gingrich, Danker) [1979] BDF A Greek Grammar of the ANET Ancient Near Eastern BDAG Greek-English Lexicon of New Testament and Other Texts Relating to the Old the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature Testament (Pritchard) Early Christian Literature, 3rd (Blass, Debrunner, Funk) [1969] ed. (Bauer, Danker, Arndt, [1961] Gingrich) [2000] ABBREVIATIONS x

BHS Biblia Hebraica IDB The Interpreter’s Dictionary NIDOTTE New International Stuttgartensia (Elliger and of the Bible (4 vols., Buttrick) Dictionary of Old Testament Rudolph) [1983] [1962] Theology and Exegesis (5 CAD Assyrian Dictionary of ISBE International Standard vols., W. A. VanGemeren) the Oriental Institute of the Bible Encyclopedia (4 vols., [1997] University of Chicago [1956] Bromiley) [1979–1988] PGM Papyri graecae magicae: COS The Context of Scripture KBL Lexicon in Veteris Die griechischen (3 vols., Hallo and Younger) Testamenti libros (Koehler, Zauberpapyri. (Preisendanz) [1997–2002] Baumgartner) [1958] [1928] DBI Dictionary of Biblical LCL Loeb Classical Library PG Patrologia Graecae (J. P. Imagery (Ryken, Wilhoit, L&N Greek-English Lexicon of Migne) [1857–1886] Longman) [1998] the New Testament: Based on TBD Tyndale Bible Dictionary DBT Dictionary of Biblical Semantic Domains (Louw (Elwell, Comfort) [2001] Theology (2nd ed., and Nida) [1989] TDNT Theological Dictionary Leon-Dufour) [1972] LSJ A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament DCH Dictionary of Classical (9th ed., Liddell, Scott, (10 vols., Kittel, Friedrich; Hebrew (5 vols., D. Clines) Jones) [1996] trans. Bromiley) [1964– [2000] MM The Vocabulary of the 1976] DJD Discoveries in the Judean Greek New Testament TDOT Theological Dictionary Desert [1955–] (Moulton and Milligan) of the Old Testament (8 vols., Botterweck, Ringgren; trans. DJG Dictionary of Jesus [1930; 1997] Willis, Bromiley, Green) and the (Green, NA26 Novum Testamentum [1974–] McKnight, Marshall) [1992] Graece (26th ed., Nestle- TLNT Theological Lexicon of the DOTP Dictionary of the Old Aland) [1979] New Testament (3 vols., C. Testament: Pentateuch. NA27 Novum Testamentum Spicq) [1994] (T. Alexander, D.W. Baker) Graece (27th ed., Nestle- [2003] Aland) [1993] TLOT Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament (3 vols., DPL Dictionary of Paul and NBD New Bible Dictionary E. Jenni) [1997] His Letters (Hawthorne, (2nd ed., Douglas, Hillyer) Martin, Reid) [1993] [1982] TWOT Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament (2 vols., EDNT Exegetical Dictionary of NIDB New International Harris, Archer) [1980] the New Testament (3 vols., Dictionary of the Bible H. Balz, G. Schneider. ET) (Douglas, Tenney) [1987] UBS3 United Bible Societies’ [1990–1993] NIDBA New International Greek New Testament HALOT The Hebrew and Dictionary of Biblical (3rd ed., Metzger et al.) Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Archaeology (Blaiklock and [1975] Testament (L. Koehler, W. Harrison) [1983] UBS4 United Bible Societies’ Baumgartner, J. Stamm; NIDNTT New International Greek New Testament trans. M. Richardson) Dictionary of New Testament (4th corrected ed., Metzger [1994–1999] Theology (4 vols., C. Brown) et al.) [1993] IBD Illustrated Bible Dictionary [1975–1985] WH The New Testament in the (3 vols., Douglas, Wiseman) Original Greek (Westcott and [1980] Hort) [1882]

ABBREVIATIONS FOR BOOKS OF THE BIBLE

Old Testament

Gen Genesis 1 Sam 1 Samuel Esth Esther Exod Exodus 2 Sam 2 Samuel Ps, Pss Psalm, Lev Leviticus 1 Kgs 1 Kings Prov Proverbs Num Numbers 2 Kgs 2 Kings Eccl Deut Deuteronomy 1 Chr 1 Chronicles Song Josh Joshua 2 Chr 2 Chronicles Isa Isaiah Judg Judges Ezra Ezra Jer Jeremiah Ruth Ruth Neh Nehemiah Lam Lamentations xi ABBREVIATIONS

Ezek Ezekiel Obad Obadiah Zeph Zephaniah Dan Daniel Jonah Jonah Hag Haggai Hos Hosea Mic Micah Zech Zechariah Joel Joel Nah Nahum Mal Malachi Amos Amos Hab Habakkuk

New Testament

Matt Matthew Eph Ephesians Heb Hebrews Mark Mark Phil Philippians Jas James Luke Luke Col Colossians 1 Pet 1 Peter John John 1 Thess 1 Thessalonians 2 Pet 2 Peter Acts Acts 2 Thess 2 Thessalonians 1 John 1 John Rom Romans 1 Tim 1 Timothy 2 John 2 John 1 Cor 1 Corinthians 2 Tim 2 Timothy 3 John 3 John 2 Cor 2 Corinthians Titus Titus Jude Jude Gal Galatians Phlm Philemon Rev Revelation

Deuterocanonical

Bar Baruch 1–2 Esdr 1– Pr Man Add Dan Add Esth Additions to Esther Ps 151 Pr Azar Prayer of Azariah Ep Jer of Jeremiah Sir Bel Jdt Judith Tob Tobit Sg Three Song of the Three 1–2 Macc 1– Wis Wisdom of Solomon Children 3–4 Macc 3– Sus

MANUSCRIPTS AND LITERATURE FROM QUMRAN Initial numerals followed by “Q” indicate particular caves at Qumran. For example, the notation 4Q267 indicates text 267 from cave 4 at Qumran. Further, 1QS 4:9-10 indicates column 4, lines 9-10 of the Rule of the Community; and 4Q166 1 ii 2 indicates fragment 1, column ii, line 2 of text 166 from cave 4. More examples of common abbreviations are listed below. CD Cairo Geniza copy 1QIsab Isaiah copy b 4QLama Lamentations of the Damascus 1QM War Scroll 11QPsa Psalms Document 1QpHab Pesher Habakkuk 11QTemplea,b Temple Scroll 1QH Thanksgiving Hymns 1QS Rule of the 11QtgJob of Job 1QIsaa Isaiah copy a Community

IMPORTANT NEW TESTAMENT MANUSCRIPTS (all dates given are AD; ordinal numbers refer to centuries)

Significant Papyri ( = Papyrus) P1 Matt 1; early 3rd P20 James 2-3; 3rd P39 John 8; first half of 3rd P4+P64+P67 Matt 3, 5, 26; P22 John 15-16; mid 3rd P40 Rom 1-4, 6, 9; 3rd Luke 1-6; late 2nd P23 James 1; c. 200 P45 Gospels and Acts; P5 John 1, 16, 20; early 3rd P27 Rom 8-9; 3rd early 3rd P13 Heb 2-5, 10-12; early 3rd P30 1 Thess 4-5; 2 Thess 1; P46 Paul’s Major (less P15+P16 (probably part of early 3rd Pastorals); late 2nd same codex) 1 Cor 7-8, P32 Titus 1-2; late 2nd P47 Rev 9-17; 3rd Phil 3-4; late 3rd P37 Matt 26; late 3rd ABBREVIATIONS xii

P49+P65 Eph 4-5; 1 Thess P74 Acts, General Epistles; 7th P92 Eph 1, 2 Thess 1; c. 300 1-2; 3rd P75 Luke and John; c. 200 P98 Rev 1:13-20; late 2nd P52 John 18; c. 125 P77+P103 (probably part of P100 James 3-5; c. 300 P53 Matt 26, Acts 9-10; same codex) Matt 13-14, 23; P101 Matt 3-4; 3rd middle 3rd late 2nd P104 Matt 21; 2nd P66 John; late 2nd P87 Phlm; late 2nd P106 John 1; 3rd P70 Matt 2-3, 11-12, 24; 3rd P90 John 18-19; late 2nd P115 Rev 2-3, 5-6, 8-15; 3rd P72 1-2 Peter, Jude; c. 300 P91 Acts 2-3; 3rd

Significant Uncials (Sinaiticus) most of NT; 4th H (Coislinianus) Paul’s 038 (Q; Koridethi) Gospels; A (Alexandrinus) most of NT; Epistles; 6th 9th 5th I (Freerianus or Washington) 040 (X; Zacynthius) Luke; 6th B (Vaticanus) most of NT; 4th Paul’s Epistles; 5th 043 (F; Beratinus) Matt, C (Ephraemi Rescriptus) most L (Regius) Gospels; 8th Mark; 6th of NT with many lacunae; Q (Guelferbytanus B) Luke, 044 (Y; Athous Laurae) 5th John; 5th Gospels, Acts, Paul’s D (Bezae) Gospels, Acts; 5th P (Porphyrianus) Acts— Epistles; 9th D (Claromontanus), Paul’s Revelation; 9th 048 Acts, Paul’s Epistles, Epistles; 6th (different MS T (Borgianus) Luke, John; 5th General Epistles; 5th than Bezae) W (Washingtonianus or the 0171 Matt 10, Luke 22; E (Laudianus 35) Acts; 6th Freer Gospels) Gospels; 5th c. 300 F (Augensis) Paul’s Epistles; 9th Z (Dublinensis) Matthew; 6th 0189 Acts 5; c. 200 G (Boernerianus) Paul’s 037 (D; Sangallensis) Gospels; Epistles; 9th 9th

Significant Minuscules 1 Gospels, Acts, Paul’s Epistles; 1424 (or Family 1424—a f1 (a family of manuscripts 12th group of 29 manuscripts including 1, 118, 131, 209) 33 All NT except Rev; 9th sharing nearly the same Gospels; 12th-14th 81 Acts, Paul’s Epistles, text) most of NT; 9th-10th f13 (a family of manuscripts General Epistles; 1044 1739 Acts, Paul’s Epistles; 10th including 13, 69, 124, 174, 565 Gospels; 9th 2053 Rev; 13th 230, 346, 543, 788, 826, 700 Gospels; 11th 2344 Rev; 11th 828, 983, 1689, 1709— known as the Ferrar group) Gospels; 11th-15th

Significant Ancient Versions

SYRIAC (SYR) OLD LATIN (IT) COPTIC (COP) syrc (Syriac Curetonian) ita (Vercellenis) Gospels; 4th copbo (Boharic—north ) Gospels; 5th itb (Veronensis) Gospels; 5th copfay (Fayyumic—central Egypt) syrs (Syriac Sinaiticus) itd (Cantabrigiensis—the Latin copsa (Sahidic—southern Egypt) Gospels; 4th text of Bezae) Gospels, Acts, OTHER VERSIONS h syr (Syriac Harklensis) Entire 3 John; 5th arm (Armenian) e NT; 616 it (Palantinus) Gospels; 5th eth (Ethiopic) k it (Bobiensis) Matthew, Mark; geo (Georgian) c. 400 TRANSLITERATION AND NUMBERING SYSTEM Note: For words and roots from non-biblical languages (e.g., Arabic, Ugaritic), only approximate transliterations are given.

HEBREW/ARAMAIC

Consonants a aleph = ’ m, µ mem = m B, b beth = b n, ÷ nun = n G, g gimel = g s samekh = s D, d daleth = d [ ayin = ‘ h he = h P, p, ¹ pe = p w waw = w x, Å tsadhe = ts z zayin = z q qoph = q j heth = kh r resh = r f teth = t v shin = sh y yodh = y c = s K, k, û kaph = k T, t taw = t, th l lamedh = l (spirant) Vowels

¾ patakh = a ; qamets khatuf = o j¾ furtive patakh = a o holem = o ; qamets = a / full holem = o h ; final qamets he = ah u short qibbuts = u , segol = e u long qibbuts = u e tsere = e W shureq = u y e tsere yod = e } khatef patakh = a i short hireq = i Õ khatef qamets = o i long hireq = i ] vocalic shewa = e y i hireq yod = i y ¾ patakh yodh = a

Greek a alpha = a e epsilon = e b beta = b z zeta = z g gamma = g, n (before h eta = e g, k, x, c) q theta = th d delta = d i iota = i NUMBERING SYSTEM xiv k kappa = k t tau = t l lamda = l u upsilon = u m mu = m f phi = ph n nu = n c chi = ch x ksi = x y psi = ps o omicron = o w omega = o p pi = p J rough = h (with r rho = r (ª = rh) breathing vowel or s, $ sigma = s mark diphthong)

THE TYNDALE-STRONG’S NUMBERING SYSTEM

The Cornerstone Biblical Commentary series uses a word-study numbering system to give both newer and more advanced Bible students alike quicker, more convenient access to helpful original-language tools (e.g., concordances, lexicons, and theological dictionaries). Those who are unfamiliar with the ancient Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek alphabets can quickly find information on a given word by looking up the appropriate index number. Advanced students will find the system helpful because it allows them to quickly find the lexical form of obscure conjugations and inflections. There are two main numbering systems used for biblical words today. The one familiar to most people is the Strong’s numbering system (made popular by the Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance to the Bible). Although the original Strong’s system is still quite useful, the most up-to-date research has shed new light on the biblical languages and allows for more precision than is found in the original Strong’s system. The Cornerstone Biblical Commentary series, therefore, features a newly revised version of the Strong’s system, the Tyndale-Strong’s numbering system. The Tyndale- Strong’s system brings together the familiarity of the Strong’s system and the best of modern scholarship. In most cases, the original Strong’s numbers are preserved. In places where new research dictates, new or related numbers have been added.1 The second major numbering system today is the Goodrick-Kohlenberger system used in a number of study tools published by Zondervan. In order to give students broad access to a number of helpful tools, the Commentary provides index numbers for the Zondervan system as well. The different index systems are designated as follows: TG Tyndale-Strong’s Greek number ZH Zondervan Hebrew number ZG Zondervan Greek number TA Tyndale-Strong’s Aramaic number TH Tyndale-Strong’s Hebrew number ZA Zondervan Aramaic number

So in the example, “love” agape [TG26, ZG27], the first number is the one to use with Greek tools keyed to the Tyndale-Strong’s system, and the second applies to tools that use the Zondervan system.

1. Generally, one may simply use the original four-digit Strong’s number to identify words in tools using Strong’s system. If a Tyndale-Strong’s number is followed by a capital letter (e.g., TG1692A), it generally indicates an added subdivision of meaning for the given term. Whenever a Tyndale-Strong’s number has a number following a decimal point (e.g., TG2013.1), it reflects an instance where new research has yielded a separate, new classification of use for a biblical word. Forthcoming tools from Tyndale House Publishers will include these entries, which were not part of the original Strong’s system.  Hosea RICHARD D. PATTERSON INTRODUCTION TO Hosea

HOSEA PRESENTS A STUDY in God’s love for his own. Despite the fact that God’s people had become self-reliant, God maintained his love and concern for them. Although Hosea warned that God’s judgment on must come, sending them into exile, he assured the people that one day a redeemed and faithful remnant would know God’s forgiveness, restoration, and blessings. Israel’s spiritual journey provides a lesson for believers of all ages: God reserves his best for his faithful servants.

AUTHOR Hosea prophesied during part of the reigns of several eighth-century BC kings of (, Jotham, , and ) and Israel ( II). The son of a man named (1:1), he ministered to the people of the northern kingdom (see “Audience” below). Laetsch (1956:9-10) points out that early Jewish tradition identified his father with the tribe of Reuben, which was carried away into exile by Tiglath-pileser III (cf. 1 Chr 5:6, 26), and that another Jewish legend reports that Hosea died in Babylon but was buried at Safed, northwest of the Sea of Galilee. Laetsch also calls attention to an early Christian tradition which suggests that he came from the tribe of Issachar. All of this, of course, is mere speculation. Hosea, God’s prophet, was ordered to marry a harlot, a situation that would spiritually symbolize God’s own relation with apostate Israel (Hos 1–3). From this union at least three children were born (Hos 1). Hosea was motivated by a genuine concern for God’s person and will, and concern for Israel’s besetting sinfulness. Thus, Wood remarks, “Hosea should be thought of as a hard-working prophet, fully dedicated to the will of God, ministering faithfully to the sinful people of his day in spite of the great sadness of his own marriage” (1985:281). A man of deep spiritual convictions, “Hosea was concerned primarily with moral, religious, and political abominations in the nation” (Harrison 1969:871). While in the past critics have suggested that not all of the book was authored by Hosea, current scholarship tends to acknowledge that a great preponderance of the material stems from Hosea’s messages. Many suggest, however, that the actual writing may have come from Hosea’s disciples or that some of the messages may contain redactional interpolations, such as references to Judah (Emmerson 1984) and hopeful oracles of salvation (1:10–2:1; 2:14-23; 3:5; 11:8-11; 14:4, 7). Nevertheless, all such suggestions are basically aprioriassumptions that reflect theological predisposition rather than demonstrable proof. Dillard and Longman (1994:355) aptly observe, “It must be said that such critical conclusions restrict the future vision of the prophet (judgment and hope) as well as his concern for the whole people of God (north and south).” I concur with Garrett (1997:3), who said, “There is no reason to doubt that [all] the messages of Hosea came from the prophet himself.”

DATE AND OCCASION OF WRITING Given the historical notices of the kings who reigned during his ministry (1:1), Hosea must have delivered his messages across a great deal of the eighth cen- tury BC. While it is difficult to pinpoint the various occasions of his messages with certainty, some of the prophecies appear to reflect particular historical circum- stances in that era (see the Introduction to Joel). For example, the prediction of judgment concerning the house of (1:4) must have taken place in the reign of Jeroboam II (792–752 BC), for Jeroboam’s son was assassinated a scant six months into his reign (2 Kgs 15:8-12). The rapid change of royalty in the following 30 years, which saw five kings elevated in accordance with changing political for- tunes, appears to be considered in 8:4. Moreover, one can sense the prophet’s condemnation of the spiritual indolence and moral complacency of life in the northern kingdom in the early chapters (e.g., ch 2), giving way to growing crises in relations with the Neo-Assyrian empire (e.g., 5:8-13; 8:7-9; 12:1; 14:3; cf. 2 Kgs 15:19-31) and Egypt (7:11;12:1; cf. 2 Kgs 17:3-4) and in relation to internal affairs (7:1-7; 10:1-4; 12:7; 13:10-11).Indeed, in his clos- ing prophecies, the end of the northern kingdom seems assured (13:9-16; 14:1). Accordingly, Stuart (1987:9) appears to be correct in suggesting that Hosea’s proph- ecies “proceed more or less chronologically,” even though some portions of the lat- ter part of the book appear to prove an exception to this rule of thumb (e.g., 12:7-8). Since Hosea does not specifically mention the fall of , an event that would provide a natural setting for expanding on the that occasioned the fall of the northern kingdom (cf. 2 Kgs 17:7-18, 20-23), it would seem that the book was completed before 722 BC. Therefore, since the prophecies reflect the greater portion of the eighth century BC, a date of 760–725 BC for the oral delivery and collection of the messages would seem to be reasonable.1

AUDIENCE Hosea delivered his oracles primarily to the northern kingdom, although a few remarks for Judah are scattered throughout the book (e.g., 5:10-14; 6:4, 11;8:14). At times, he addressed particular groups such as the priests (4:4-9; 5:1) and the royal house (5:1), all Israel/ (5:1; 9:1; 11:8) or Judah (6:4, 11), and even particu- lar cities (8:5; 10:15). Whether or not Hosea delivered his oracles personally to these audiences, his words were obviously intended for them and no doubt ulti- mately reached them. Hosea spoke to a people in need of a word from God. In the early years of his ministry, he addressed a society that had experienced outward success and renewed 5 HOSEA prosperity under the long reign (792–752 BC) of Jeroboam II (2 Kgs 14:23-29). Politically, the relative weakness of their traditional Assyrian enemies allowed the northern kingdom to extend its borders to nearly the same size as that enjoyed in the Solomonic era. Economically, it was a time of renewed commerce, building activities, and the amassing of personal wealth (8:14; 12:7-8). But unfortunately, such wealth was often accrued at the expense of common folk (12:7; cf. Amos 4:1-2; 8:4-6) and was a reflection of an immoral and unjust society that had been loosed from its spiritual moorings. Such conditions only worsened as political disintegra- tion set in, first with the assassinations of Zechariah and Shallum in 752 BC and the bloody contests that followed in the days of , Pekahiah, and Pekah (2 Kgs 15:16-31). The long history of prevailing sin that characterized Israel’s history finally reached its climax during the reign of its last king, Hoshea (732–722 BC). When the spiritual degeneration of the northern kingdom had reached intolerable limits (2 Kgs 17:7-17, 20-23), God brought judgment upon his unfaithful people in the form of the defeat and deportation of its populace at the hands of the Assyrians (2 Kgs 17:1-6). Conditions at this time were not much better in the southern king- dom (2 Kgs 17:18-19); only the rising prominence of Hezekiah stemmed the tide of God’s eventual judgment on Judah. To such an era and such a people, God’s prophet was sent with the message of God’s undying love for them, as well as a declaration of his unwavering standards and conditions for spiritual success. No doubt it was too often a discouraging min- istry. Yet through it all, Hosea, like God himself (11:1), loved his people and held out the consoling prospect of God’s ultimate blessing to his repentant and restored people (14:4-7).

CANONICITY AND TEXTUAL HISTORY The canonicity of Hosea has never been in doubt. It appears as the first of the Minor Prophets in the listing of 2 Esdras 1:39-40 (c. second century AD). It was also accepted as Scripture earlier by the Qumran community, where Hosea was read and a commentary (or pesher) was written about it. Hosea was fully accepted by Jesus himself (Matt 9:13; 12:7) and is cited or alluded to by several of the New Testament writers (e.g., Matt 2:15; Luke 23:30; Rom 9:25-28; 1 Cor 15:55; 1 Pet 2:10; Rev 6:16). Its canonicity was also traditionally received by the Jewish and early Chris- tian communities, being cited in Philo, Josephus, the Talmud (b. Bava Batra 14b), and such early Christian Fathers as Melito of Sardis, Origen, Jerome, and Athanasius. The text of Hosea is another matter. Even so conservative a scholar as Stuart (1987:13) has said, “With the possible exception of the , no other OT book contains as high a proportion of textual problems as does Hosea.” While Andersen and Freedman (1980:66-67) emphasize the many difficulties of the Masoretic Text versions of Hosea, they also note that the early versions are seldom of much help in establishing the text. They go on to point out that “the knowledge of ancient Hebrew gained through epigraphic studies and related disciplines has provided new ways of explaining the text without changing it. . . . As a result, there is less need to alter the text to remove a supposed difficulty.” Moreover, R. K. Harrison (1969:872) demonstrates that “many of the alterations appear to be accidental,” often consisting of such matters as confusion of one consonant for another, or the transposing of consonants, and differing word divisions. Recognizing the long history of the transmission of the Masoretic Text and armed with the cautions and observations of Andersen and Freedman, one can move with cautious optimism in suggesting reconstructions in those places in the text that prove troublesome.2

LITERARY STYLE Hosea used both literary modes, prose and poetry, to deliver his messages. His style in either case, however, is so high that even his prose has been termed elevated (Wolff 1974:xxiv). Scholars have often disagreed as to whether the prophet was writing in prose or poetry. Andersen and Freedman (1980:60-66) concluded from evidence based upon syntactic devices typical of poetry that chapters 4–14 are poetic, while the first three chapters are largely prose narrative (especially 1:2–2:3 and 3:1-5). Although one may not concur in every detail with this estimate, it does nicely demonstrate the soundness of the reader’s natural impression that chapters 1–3 and 4–14 form distinct units in the book. The oracles embedded in the prose narrative of the first three chapters are clustered around the chiastically constructed marriage theme. The oracles of judgment and warning that comprise chapters 4–14 are presented in a collage of divine speeches intertwined with prophetic pro- nouncements.3 It is generally conceded that the most distinctive feature of Hosea’s work is his use of simile and metaphor.4 Dillard and Longman (1994:359) observe that these two literary devices can be viewed with reference to God or Israel, and also as to “whether God’s attitude toward Israel is positive or negative.” Thus, for example, God can be viewed as a jealous (2:2-13) or forgiving husband (3:1-5). On the one hand, he is a dispenser of judgment who comes against his people like a hungry moth or advancing rot (5:12), like a lion (5:14), or a trapper with his net (7:12). On the other hand, he proceeds as a father forgiving his wayward son (11:1-3) or a redeemer who tenderly cares for his liberated people (11:4; 12:9; 13:4).5 Israel, for its part, is portrayed spiritually as an unfaithful wife (chs 1–3) whose love is like a morning cloud or early dew that quickly disappears (6:4). Blithely unaware of their mortal danger, God’s people are likened to a man with gradually graying hair or an unturned pancake over a fire (7:7-9). These figures and images, and others, make the book colorfully picturesque and its messages distinctively poignant—hence Hosea is of high aesthetic as well as theological value.

MAJOR THEMES Hosea’s imagery is incorporated into several important literary themes. Especially significant are those dealing with family relations, such as God being portrayed as a 7 HOSEA loving father longing for his wayward son (11:1-3). The best known of these images is, of course, that of marriage, centered in Hosea’s relation to (chs 1–3). While several interpretations (discussed later in the commentary) have been put forward as to that relationship, the whole marriage scenario is obviously intended to dramatize the relationship between God and Israel. Much as adulterous Gomer was unfaithful to Hosea, so Israel had proven to be unfaithful to God. Closely related to the theme of infidelity is that of prostitution. It is used not only in the case of Gomer but to describe Israel’s own spiritual condition (4:14-15, 18; 5:3-4; 6:10; 7:4; 8:9; 9:1; 11:7; 14:4). Spiritually speaking, Israel was a harlot; God’s people had been untrue to their heavenly husband and gone into pagan idolatry (4:10-17; 8:4-6; 9:10, 15; 10:5; 11:2; 12:11). All of this underscores yet another theme—that of the . Despite the fact that God had redeemed his children by bringing them out of Egyptian bondage (11:4; 12:9; 13:4), they had broken the covenant with their God and become unfaithful to him, no longer meeting his conditions for blessing (6:7; 10:1-3). The people of the northern kingdom persisted in covenant violations (8:1-14; 13:16). Israel’s hope lay solely in God’s redeeming love (3:1-5), through which they could, as a restored people, enter into the blessings of a new covenant born in righteous- ness, justice, love, and compassion (2:18-23). Several of the themes in the book have their origin in the agrarian and animal worlds.6 Hosea spoke of sowing and reaping (2:23; 8:7; 10:12-13), of vine, vine- yard, and wine (2:9, 12, 15; 9:2, 4, 10; 10:1; 14:7), and of threshing and harvest (2:6, 8-9, 11,22; 6:11; 9:2). Although Israel was once a trained heifer that continually fed as she threshed the grain (10:11), she had become stubborn and unruly and was therefore in danger of God’s correction (4:16). In her lust to chase after other nations and their gods, she had become like a wild donkey in heat (8:9-10) or a senseless dove, flitting back and forth to this nation or that (7:11).Accordingly, God would be required by the covenant to bring severe judgment on his people. He would come like a great lion that tears its prey (5:14-15; cf. 13:7-8 where God is compared to a stalking leopard or an angry bear robbed of its cubs). Yet, in a future day the lion would roar and his young would then hear his voice and come trem- bling homeward (cf. 11:10-11 where the exilic returnees are likened to trembling birds—doves seeking their nest). These themes, often woven into the fabric of Hosea’s messages under a variety of figures (see “Literary Style”), provide a vividness that portrays the desperate condi- tion of God’s people. The careful reader will be impressed with the need to apply the truths of Hosea’s prophecies to our own contemporary world. Grammatical, historical, and literary information thus combine with theological data to guide the reader in the interpretative process.

THEOLOGICAL CONCERNS Theologically, Hosea reminds his hearers that God is a God of faithfulness, love, and mercy (2:18-23; 11:1, 3, 8; 14:1-4). He is also a God of redemption (11:4; 12:9;

13:4) who cares for (13:5) and blesses (2:8) his own. Nevertheless, where sin and injustice abound, he is also a God of justice who moves in judgment against sin, even against his own people (8:14; 9:7). For Israel, such could mean desolation of land (4:3), destruction of city and countryside (5:8-9), and exile (9:3, 6; 10:6). Through all of God’s dealings with Israel, his people were challenged to regard the high standards expected of a covenant people (4:1-9; see “Major Themes” above). As such, they were reminded both of the primacy and sufficiency of God’s word and of the binding nature of its precepts. Stuart (1987:6-7) puts it well: “Understanding the message of the depends upon understanding the Sinai covenant. The book contains a series of blessings and curses announced for Israel by God through Hosea. Each blessing or curse is based upon a correspond- ing type in the Mosaic law.” So serious was Israel’s spiritual condition that Hosea used 15 different words for sin in cataloging its crimes. Through Hosea, God called upon his people to repent and pursue genuine righteousness and godliness (10:12; 12:6). He alone can and will restore such a people (6:1-3) and once again pour out his blessings upon them (2:21-23; 14:4-7). In announcing these hoped-for blessings of the end times, Hosea may well have been including a veiled hint of the means of their achievement: One would come who alone is the redeemer and founder of a new and better covenant for all humanity (1:10-11; 2:18-20; 3:5).

OUTLINE A perusal of the many special studies and commentaries on Hosea yields little agreement as to the basic structure and individual segments of the book. The diffi- culties of language and imagery, as well as the author’s often elliptical writing style, make consensus nearly impossible. Accordingly, the outline provided is merely pro- visional and proceeds simply on the basis of perceived textual clues and emphases, as the following data illustrate. The generally agreed-upon division between chapters 1–3 and 4–14 is followed here. The first portion of the book, dealing with Hosea’s marriage to Gomer and its symbolic relevance to God’s relationship to Israel, is understood to be presented by means of a thematic chiasm. After the superscription, the opening section (1:2-9) recounting Hosea’s marriage to Gomer is balanced by the couple’s renewed rela- tionship (3:1-5). Covenantal considerations dominate 1:10–2:1 and 2:14-23 with the rebuke of Israel’s unfaithfulness occupying the center of the chiasm (2:2-13). Chapters 4–14 contain an interplay between divine and prophetic oracles. This section can be subdivided into three segments, each marked by the prophet’s advice to his people (6:1-3; 10:12-15; 14:1-3) coming just before the recording of a divine rhetorical question: “O Israel and Judah, what should I do with you?” (6:4); “Oh, how can I give you up, Israel? How can I let you go?” (11:8);and “O Israel, stay away from idols!” (14:8; lit., “What have I [the Lord] to do with idols?”). The first two major subsections begin with an imperatival heading to the oracle: “Hear the word of the LORD, O people of Israel!” (4:1); “Sound the alarm!” (8:1). The final major 9 HOSEA subsection features an initial consideration of Ephraim (11:12–13:16) before end- ing with an exhortation to repentance (14:1-3) and God’s concluding oracle, which in the Hebrew text contains a penetrating rhetorical question (14:4-8). Although no claim to finality can be made for this arrangement, verbal and thematic stitching links the individual segments, including the smaller units, and does at least suggest its workability.

Superscription (1:1) I. A Prophetic Portrayal of Unfaithful Israel (1:2–3:5) A. Israel’s Rejection—Symbolized by Hosea’s Marriage (1:2-9) B. Israel’s Restoration on the Basis of the Covenant (1:10–2:1) C. God’s Rebuke of Unfaithful Israel (2:2-13) D. Israel’s Renewal on the Basis of the Covenant (2:14-23) E. Israel’s Reconciliation—Symbolized by Hosea’s Marriage (3:1-5) II. Divine and Prophetic Perspectives on Unfaithful Israel (4:1–14:8) A. Opening Complaints against Israel (4:1–7:16) 1. The threefold indictment (4:1-14) 2. Hosea’s condemnation of prostitute Israel (4:15-19) 3. The three guilty parties (5:1-3) 4. Hosea’s charge: God’s people are unfaithful (5:4-7) 5. The threefold alarm (5:8-15) 6. Hosea’s advice: return to the Lord (6:1-3) 7. God’s concern for disloyal Israel (6:4–7:16) B. Further Charges against Israel (8:1–11:11) 1. Israel is a covenant-breaker (8:1-14) 2. Hosea’s reaction: Israel is doomed (9:1-9) 3. Israel is an unprofitable plant (9:10-17) 4. Hosea’s reaction: Israel is a wayward vine (10:1-8) 5. Israel is a perennial sinner (10:9-11) 6. Hosea’s warning: seek God or perish (10:12-15) 7. God’s compassion for disobedient Israel (11:1-11) C. Concluding Considerations concerning Israel (11:12–14:8) 1. The folly of deceitful politics (11:12–12:1) 2. Hosea’s observation: Israel has a history of deceit (12:2-6) 3. The folly of deceitful practices (12:7-11) 4. Hosea’s observation: God will repay Israel’s deceit (12:12-14) 5. The folly of deceitful pride (13:1-16) 6. Hosea’s admonition: repent and confess all sins (14:1-3) 7. God’s consolation for repentant Israel (14:4-8) Subscription (14:9)

ENDNOTES 1. The mention of Hosea’s activity during the reign of Hezekiah has caused many to push the date of the book to 715 BC. Because Hezekiah served as co-regent with his father, Ahaz, from about 729/728 BC, however, and because no context in the book can be positively linked with Samaria’s fall, it is not necessary to postulate so late a date. For details as to the chronology and events of Hezekiah’s reign, see my remarks in Patterson and Austel 1988:253-277. 2. It is refreshing to see commentaries that defend the MT as the best available text (e.g., Garrett, McComiskey), while examining seriously its specific problems. 3. Garrett (1997:177) suggests that this feature is distinctive to chapters 8–11, where “ and Hosea antiphonally speak in lamentation over Israel’s sin,” while the accounts of Hosea’s three children given in chs 1–2 provide shaping for 4:1–7:16, which is dominated by a pattern of repeated threes. Damaging to this thesis, however, is the obvious weaving together of divine speeches and prophetic oracles throughout the whole book and the attested series of threes, which often appear in chapters 8–14 (e.g., 9:16; 10:11, 12). 4. See, for example, R. Johnson, “Hosea 4–10: Pictures at an Exhibition,” Southwestern Journal of Theology 36 (1993):20-26; P. Kruger, “Prophetic Imagery: On Metaphor and Similes in the Book of Hosea,” Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages 14 (1988):143-151. 5. Garrett (1997:63-69) finds in this evidence for Hosea’s unresolved tension between divine judgment and covenant faithfulness the necessity for the proper recognition of an element of paradox both hermeneutically and theologically. 6. For examples of Hosea’s use of the agrarian and animal worlds, see Patterson 1998. COMMENTARY ON Hosea

◆Superscription (1:1) The LORD gave this message to Hosea son Judah, and Jeroboam son of Jehoash* was of Beeri during the years when Uzziah, king of Israel. Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah were kings of 1:1 Hebrew Joash, a variant spelling of Jehoash.

NOTES 1:1 The LORD gave this message. In a manner similar to that of several of the OT prophets, Hosea opened his prophecy with a declaration of the divine source of the words that will follow. kings of Judah . . . king of Israel. Hosea indicated that his prophetic service was during the time of the kings whose reigns spanned the greater part of the eighth century BC (see Introduction). The failure to mention any of Jeroboam II’s successors may indicate some- thing of the conflicting claims for legitimacy of rule in the turbulent closing years of the northern kingdom.

COMMENTARY Hosea made it clear at the onset of his prophecy that what he had to say and record was not of human origin. The opening narrative and succeeding oracles that make up the prophetic collection and lead to the closing piece of prophetic wisdom were not born of mere human experience and observation but came from God. All that Hosea experienced and the messages he received were the Lord’s appointment for him and communication through him (cf. 2 Pet 1:20-21). Hosea’s opening words remind all believers that God is a God of revelation; his person and work are made known in the Scriptures (cf. 2 Tim 3:16). There believers may find strength and direction for life in its divinely inspired words (Ps 119:105; Prov 1:1-7). Accordingly, believers should turn to the Bible and follow its precepts so as to find direction and the true joy of living (Ps 119:111).

◆ I. A Prophetic Portrayal of Unfaithful Israel (1:2–3:5) A. Israel’s Rejection—Symbolized by Hosea’s Marriage (1:2-9) 2When the LORD first began speaking to and marry a prostitute,* so that some of her Israel through Hosea, he said to him, “Go children will be conceived in prostitution. :2-9 12

This will illustrate how Israel has acted like LORD said to Hosea, “Name your daughter a prostitute by turning against the LORD Lo-ruhamah—‘Not loved’—for I will no and worshiping other gods.” longer show love to the people of Israel or 3So Hosea married Gomer, the daughter forgive them. 7But I will show love to the of Diblaim, and she became pregnant and people of Judah. I will free them from gave Hosea a son. 4And the LORD said, their enemies—not with weapons and ar- “Name the child Jezreel, for I am about to mies or horses and charioteers, but by my punish King Jehu’s dynasty to avenge the power as the LORD their God.” murders he committed at Jezreel. In fact, 8After Gomer had weaned Lo-ruhamah, I will bring an end to Israel’s indepen- she again became pregnant and gave dence. 5I will break its military power in birth to a second son. 9And the LORD said, the .” “Name him Lo-ammi—‘Not my people’— 6Soon Gomer became pregnant again for Israel is not my people, and I am not and gave birth to a daughter. And the their God. 1:2 Or a promiscuous woman.

NOTES 1:2 Go and marry a prostitute. Lit., “a wife of harlotry.” Several positions are held as to whether God actually told his prophet to marry an unholy woman: (1) The marriage was merely hypothetical, the account itself being a literary parable or allegory (Calvin). (2) The account is a dream or vision (Ibn Ezra, Maimonides). (3) The whole narrative is simply a stage play (Kaufman). (4) Hosea married a woman with promiscuous tendencies who later committed adultery (Hubbard, Wood), perhaps as a cult prostitute (Andersen and Freed- man, Craigie, Mays). (5) Hosea’s wife was only guilty of spiritual adultery (i.e., of idol worship—Stuart). (6) Hosea married an already adulterous woman (Garrett, McComiskey). Although the NLT text most naturally supports the last view, the accompa- nying textual note leaves open the possibility that Hosea is to marry a woman with promis- cuous tendencies. In keeping with the full context, this appears to be the better choice. Such an understanding provides a clear parallel with God’s own relation to his covenant people as demonstrated throughout Hosea’s prophecies (cf. Jer 2:24-35). This position preserves both the integrity of God’s character and the standards of his word, while allow- ing Hosea’s life situation to serve as a visible spiritual lesson for the people to whom he was called to minister. Several other variations have also been proposed; see Garrett 1997:43-50 and Laetsch 1956:21. Complicating the matter is the problem of whether ch 3 speaks of relations between Hosea and Gomer (whether supplying new details or being a duplicate account of ch 1) or of Hosea’s dealings with a different woman (cf. Stuart 1987:64-65). has acted like a prostitute by . . . worshiping other gods. God’s primary charge against apostate Israel was its failure to worship him alone (cf. Exod 20:3-5; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4, 14-15; Matt 4:10). This theme surfaces repeatedly among the various oracles and undergirds God’s final rhetorical question (represented as an exclamation in the NLT) to his wayward people in 14:8. 1:4 Name the child Jezreel. Jezreel means “may God sow/scatter.” While the meaning inherent in the name will be brought up later, here it calls attention to that place where “Jehu was swept to power over all Israel on a mighty tide of bloodshed” (Hubbard 1989:61). avenge the murders he committed at Jezreel. Details of Jehu’s bloody deeds at Jezreel are found in 2 Kgs 9:17-37; 10:7-8. It was a bloodbath that carried over into Samaria (2 Kgs 10:17-27). 13 HOSEA 1:2-9 bring an end to Israel’s independence. The NLT rendering combines the wording of vv. 4 and 5 in the MT. The end of the northern kingdom was to come nearly 100 years after the of Jehu in 814 BC. His dynasty, however, came to an end in 752 BC, some 30 years before the fall of Samaria. The punishment of Jehu’s dynasty and the end of the northern kingdom are thus telescoped into a single prediction. Such telescoped prophecies are attested elsewhere in the Scriptures (e.g., Isa 61:1-3; cf. Luke 4:16-21). 1:6 Lo-ruhamah. The Hebrew root underlying the name of the second child is located in the noun rekhem [TH7358, ZH8167] (womb), from which come the denominative verb rakham [TH7355, ZH8163] (have compassion/pity) and the related nominal derivatives, which carry the thought of compassion or mercy. A deep emotional concept is thus associated with the second child’s name (cf. NIDOTTE 3.1096-1097). or forgive them. Scholars are divided as to the meaning of the MT. As Garrett (1997:60) observes, “The most obvious meaning of the line is, ‘But I will certainly forgive them.’” This rendering makes a stark contrast between the final phrase and the previous part of the verse, which speaks of God’s lack of compassion for Israel. The interpretation of this phrase will also affect one’s treatment of v. 7. Garrett decides on a positive reading of both, sug- gesting that God intends the reader to hold both Israel’s judgment and its hope of forgive- ness in dynamic paradoxical tension. In contrast, Andersen and Freedman (1980:188-194) take a negative approach, holding that the earlier negative of v. 6 (“I will no longer,” NLT) controls all that follows, so that both Israel and Judah may expect God’s judgment, not his deliverance. Steering a middle course between these two positions, most commentators (e.g., Keil, Laetsch, McComiskey, Stuart, Wood) and translations (e.g., LXX, , and all the standard English versions) opt in some fashion for Israel’s condemnation and God’s assurance of continued support for Judah. Although some scholars (e.g., G. A. Smith, Wolff) have argued that v. 7 is a later interpola- tion, this conjecture is without textual support. Even Emmerson (1984:88-95), who finds several Judean passages in Hosea to be intrusive secondary redactions, hesitates to exclude 1:7 from the primary Hosean corpus. For a critique of Emmerson’s work, see my remarks in Hebrew Studies 29:112-114. 1:9 Lo-ammi. Some have suggested that neither the second nor the third child born to Gomer after her marriage to Hosea was Hosea’s. Nothing in the text makes this certain, however. “Not my people” would remind Israel of the sanctions inherent in the Sinaitic covenant (Exod 6:7; Lev 26:12; Deut 27:9). As indicated in the outline (see Introduction) Hosea’s relationship with Gomer bookends the first section of the book, Hosea’s marriage to Gomer (1:2-9) being balanced by God’s instructions to take back his estranged wife (3:1-5). Woven into the chiastic structure of the first three chapters is an orderly presentation of narrative features. Each chapter is dominated by God’s command, after which further comment or narrative details occur. In chapters 1 and 3 the prophet’s compliance follows God’s command.

COMMENTARY God instructed Hosea to take a wife whose promiscuity would not only cause him heartaches but also bring a separation between them (1:2-3). Having done what God asked him to do (1:4), the subsequent events of the narrative provide divine comment upon Hosea’s tenuous situation with Gomer (1:5-9). The names of the three children born to Gomer reflect the fragile nature of their marriage due to her promiscuity. It is evident that Hosea’s relationship with Gomer and the names of the three children are symbolic. Thus, Gomer depicts God’s relation to the nation, often HOSEA 1:2-9 14 represented metaphorically as his wife (e.g., Isa 54; Jer 2:2-3; 3:1-9). Just as Gomer was to prove unfaithful, so Israel had worshiped other gods and done horrendous deeds. Likewise, the details relative to the three children carry a prophetic signifi- cance, much as Isaiah and his family did (Isa 8:18). The names of the three children represent the people of Israel and warn of God’s judgment upon the nation and its citizenry. God stated through the name Jezreel that he would bring to justice the standing crimes of Jehu and his dynasty. Not only would Israel’s fourth dynasty be brought to an end but the irreversible tide of sin set in motion by Jehu’s bloody deeds would eventuate in the demise of the northern kingdom. Critics have often accused God of inconsistency in first commanding Jehu to extirpate the dynasty of Ahab and then, as here, condemning him for it. Such criticism, however, deals amiss with the facts. For while Jehu did fulfill his divine commission, he exceeded it by exterminating even his remotest rivals. Further, his halfhearted devotion to God and his law became evident in his embracing the apostate state religion instituted by Jerobo- am I (2 Kgs 10:31). His manipulation of events to suit his own selfish ends is illus- trated in the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III of , where his submission, accompanied by heavy tribute to the Assyrian king, is recorded. Nor were his successors any better. Jehu and his dynasty were thus duly con- demned. When people use the name of God as a pretext for their own desires and plans, like Jehu and his dynastic successors, they stand in danger of divine punish- ment. H. Hailey (1971:137) observes, “One may do the command of the Lord and yet be in rebellion against Him, doing the thing commanded because it is what the individual desires and not because it is what God desires.” The names of the second and third children are also instructive. God’s tender compassion for his nation and people would be exchanged for “no pity/no mercy.” The time of divine judgment was fast approaching. The nation and people that he had taken into covenant with himself had violated the conditions of the covenant by disobedience and would suffer the consequences. No longer “my people,” they would suffer many disasters, including defeat and deportation at the hands of their enemies (Deut 28:25-29; cf. 2 Kgs 17:1-23). As Sweeney (2000:21-22) comments, the name of the third child is a virtual reversal of God’s statement at the founding of the nation (cf. Exod 6:6-7; Lev 26:12) and signals “the disruption of the relation- ship between YHWH and Israel.” Oh, that Israel would follow the example of Judah, which (though it would later come in for its share of criticism) was the repository of God’s covenantal future blessings (1:6-7)! As heirs of the promises in the Abrahamic, Sinaitic, and Davidic covenants, Judah could look forward to that era when God’s new covenant would be realized in David’s heir (Ezek 34:20-31; 36:21-28). In Judah was centered the promise that they would be God’s people (Jer 31:33). In that day they would know God and obediently live out God’s precepts as written in their hearts (Jer 31:34). This passage is instructive for the Christian believer. Most significantly it lays stress on the crucial importance of obedience and faithfulness. Hosea was obedient 15 HOSEA 1:10–2:1

to God in taking a wife that he would not have chosen for himself. His nation and people, however, were not obedient, for they had fallen into a dead orthodoxy mixed with the worship of ; these evils had infected Israel’s total life situation. In this they had failed to keep covenant with God (Exod 19:5) and his command- ments (Deut 27:10; Jer 32:23); hence, they became liable to the penalties for dis- obedience (Deut 11:27-28; 28:15-28). The situation of ancient Israel must not be that of today’s believer. Indeed, by the very act of believing, believers have come to enjoy right standing before God. Such has been accomplished through the obedience of Christ who, though he is God’s son (Heb 3:6), “learned obedience from the things he suffered. . . . and he became the source of eternal salvation for all those who obey him” (Heb 5:8-9; cf. Phil 2:8). As those who “belong to his dear Son” (Eph 1:6; 1 Pet 1:2), Christians too must walk in obedience even as he did (1 John 2:6). May we be obedient to God’s claim upon our lives (cf. Acts 26:19ff), serving him not in merely routine, outward service or for our own selfish ends, but out of a pure heart. May we be ever mindful not only of whom we serve (1 Thess 1:9; 2 Tim 1:3), but of Christ’s own example and the price of his provision for us (1 Pet 1:14-15). Although believers may not be God’s symbols to an entire community as were Hosea and his family, they are nonetheless his witnesses (Acts 1:8) and ambassa- dors (2 Cor 5:20). Therefore, they are so to live as not to be detriments to the cause of Christ (Matt 16:19; 1 Cor 8:9; 2 Cor 6:3; Phil 1:27). Rather, they should be those whose consistency and faithfulness are attractive to others so that they too might come into the joy of the obedience of Christ (1 Cor 9:19; Phil 4:5; 1 Pet 2:11-17).

◆ B. Israel’s Restoration on the Basis of the Covenant (1:10–2:1) 10*“Yet the time will come when Israel’s choose one leader for themselves, and they people will be like the sands of the sea- will return from exile together. What a day shore—too many to count! Then, at the that will be—the day of Jezreel*—when God place where they were told, ‘You are not my will again plant his people in his land. people,’ it will be said, ‘You are children of 2:1*“In that day you will call your broth- the living God.’ 11Then the people of Judah ers Ammi—‘My people.’ And you will call and Israel will unite together. They will your sisters Ruhamah—‘The ones I love.’ 1:10 Verses 1:10-11 are numbered 2:1-2 in Hebrew text. 1:11 Jezreel means “God plants.” 2:1 Verses 2:1-23 are numbered 2:3-25 in Hebrew text.

NOTES 1:10 [2:1] like the sands of the seashore. This image often appears as an indication of large numbers (e.g., Josh 11:4; 1 Sam 13:5; Rom 9:27). As here, the simile is applied at times to Israel’s future hope, especially in connection with the Abrahamic covenant as culminating in the new covenant (Gen 22:17-18; Jer 33:22). children of the living God. Those who had been called “not my people” will become God’s acknowledged family. In contrast to Baal and the dead idols, Israel’s God is the true and living God. In him alone are life (Pss 42:2; 84:2) and the hope for success (Josh 3:10). 1:11 [2:2] the day of Jezreel. This speaks of a day when God’s scattered people will be freshly planted (see note on 1:4 on the meaning of “Jezreel”) in the land. The double sense HOSEA 1:10–2:1 16

(cf. 1:4-5; 2:22-23) indicated by the name Jezreel here indicates a future reversal of Israel’s imminent scattering among the nations. As plants sown in the soil come up from earth, so a reinstituted Israelite state will emerge in its land. 2:1 [3] Ammi . . . Ruhamah. Jezreel’s brother(s) and sister(s) will likewise experience a life-transforming name change: “Not my people” (1:9) will become “My people,” and “Not loved” (1:6) will become “The ones I love.” The NLT follows the MT in reading plural nouns here. Although the LXX has smoothed out the problem by reading singular nouns, the difficulty of the MT argues for the retention of the plurals. McComiskey (1992:32) insists that the plural nouns “brothers and sisters” (especially the latter) must refer to children born to Gomer before her marriage to Hosea. However, the plurals may be explained as referring both to the children mentioned previously and what they represent—all the people of restored Judah and Israel now united under one leader. Just as Jezreel represents the nation, so “the brothers to whom the new name ‘Ammi’ is given in v. 3 and the sisters who are now called ‘Ruhama’ equally represent the whole nation” (Andersen and Freedman 1980:213).

COMMENTARY Tempering the gloomy prediction of 1:2-9, God indicated that Israel’s historical judgment and exile would be but a first step in the eventual restoration to the Land of Promise. In accordance with the standing promises to Abraham (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; 17:1-8; 22:15-18) and David (2 Sam 7:11-16; 1 Chr 17:10-14; Ps 89:1-4, 27-37), God will once again restore his people to “his land,” and the place of their inheritance. All of this will be realized in a new relationship between Israel and God. Once judged, they will again be called his children. As faithful members of his family, they will enjoy all the blessings that only a heavenly Father can bestow. Israel had been called to be God’s children, his special treasure (Exod 4:22; 19:5-6; Deut 14:1-2; Jer 2:3). Although he had tenderly cared for them all along, they had repeatedly taken him for granted, even being disobedient and at times unfaithful children (Deut 1:31; 32:5-20; Isa 1:2-4; Jer 3:4). Therefore, despite his great desire to bless his children (Jer 3:19-20), God frequently had to chastise them (Deut 8:1-5). Nevertheless, God’s love for his people remained (11:1, 8-9), as he often pleaded with them to repent and come back to him (e.g., 14:1; Jer 3:22). Then they would know his forgiveness as he purified them and restored them to the land. In that future day, he will make a new covenant with David’s heir on the throne and pour out the blessings he had always intended for them (Jer 31:31-34; 32:40-44; 33:6-8; Ezek 34:13-16, 23-31; 36:22-27; Zeph 3:9-20). Hosea’s message of hope, then, is in harmony with standard Old Testament teaching. Hosea’s prophecy (1:10; cf. 2:23) was cited by Paul (Rom 9:22-29) to illustrate God’s further intentions. The judgment upon Israel’s obdurately unfaithful people will fulfill the latent blessings inherent in God’s promissory covenants. Not only faithful Israelites but Gentiles, too, will make up those who are called God’s people (cf. 1 Pet 2:10). Then a redeemed people, Jew and Gentile alike, will stand together united under one head, David’s heir, the Lord Jesus Christ. Indeed, God’s covenant with Abraham envisioned that Gentiles would eventually be included within the family of God (Gen 12:3; 22:18; 26:4; 28:14; Gal 3:8). The BIBLIOGRAPHY

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