William Ferrel
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Hadley's Principle: Understanding and Misunderstanding the Trade
History of Meteorology 3 (2006) 17 Hadley’s Principle: Understanding and Misunderstanding the Trade Winds Anders O. Persson Department for research and development Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute SE 601 71 Norrköping, Sweden [email protected] Old knowledge will often be rediscovered and presented under new labels, causing much confusion and impeding progress—Tor Bergeron.1 Introduction In May 1735 a fairly unknown Englishman, George Hadley, published a groundbreaking paper, “On the Cause of the General Trade Winds,” in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. His path to fame was long and it took 100 years to have his ideas accepted by the scientific community. But today there is a “Hadley Crater” on the moon, the convectively overturning in the tropics is called “The Hadley Cell,” and the climatological centre of the UK Meteorological Office “The Hadley Centre.” By profession a lawyer, born in London, George Hadley (1685-1768) had in 1735 just became a member of the Royal Society. He was in charge of the Society’s meteorological work which consisted of providing instruments to foreign correspondents and of supervising, collecting and scrutinizing the continental network of meteorological observations2. This made him think about the variations in time and geographical location of the surface pressure and its relation to the winds3. Already in a paper, possibly written before 1735, Hadley carried out an interesting and far-sighted discussion on the winds, which he found “of so uncertain and variable nature”: Hadley’s Principle 18 …concerning the Cause of the Trade-Winds, that for the same Cause the Motion of the Air will not be naturally in a great Circle, for any great Space upon the surface of the Earth anywhere, unless in the Equator itself, but in some other Line, and, in general, all Winds, as they come nearer the Equator will become more easterly, and as they recede from it, more and more westerly, unless some other Cause intervene4. -
Table of Contents. Illustrations Figures. Letter of Transmittal. Officers for 1917-1918
NINETEENTH REPORT Plate VIII. Beech-Maple Hemlock Forest on fixed dunes. .....24 OF Plate IX. Interior view of Border-Zone formation. ..................24 THE MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Plate X. Exterior of relic forest patch on Pt. Betsie Dune Complex. ........................................................................24 Plate XI. Interior of Climax Forest, showing hemlock seedlings PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE on decaying log. .............................................................24 COUNCIL BY G. H. COONS CHAIRMAN, BOARD OF EDITORS FIGURES. Figure 3. Diagram of geological conditions with reference to oil BY AUTHORITY wells sunk in the region studied. ....................................13 LANSING, MICHIGAN Figure 9. Geography of N. W. corner of Benzie County, WYNKOOP HALLENBECK CRAWFORD CO., STATE PRINTERS Michigan.........................................................................19 1917 Figure 10. Geology of Crystal Lake Bar Region....................20 Figure 11. Ecology of Crystal Lake Bar Region.....................22 TABLE OF CONTENTS. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. ................................................... 1 OFFICERS FOR 1917-1918. ................................................. 1 TO HON. ALBERT E. SLEEPER, Governor of the State of PAST PRESIDENTS .............................................................. 1 Michigan: PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS................................................ 2 SIR—I have the honor to submit herewith the XIX Annual The Making Of Scientific Theories, -
Hadley's Principle: Part 2
Hadley’s Principle: Part 2 – Hadley rose to fame thanks to the Germans Anders Persson think of the mechanism himself.1 That was, re-issued his book in 1834 he changed little at least, the opinion of another prominent of its contents and in particular kept his criti- Norrköping, Sweden scientist, the English chemist and natural cal comments about the lack of appreciation philosopher, John Dalton (1766–1844) who of Hadley’s work. My theory has with Hadley’s that in com- credited de Luc as the only person, as far as A few years later, however, on a Sep- mon, or rather borrowed from it, that the I know, who has suggested the idea of the tember day in 1837 when Dalton opened most important moment is the different Earth’s rotation altering the direction of the the newly arrived copy of Philosophical wind, (Dalton, 1793, 1834).2 Magazine he found an article by a German rotation velocities at different latitudes… Although Dalton’s fame today rests on meteorologist H. W. Dove, who in bom- H. W. Dove (1837). his atomic theory, he carried out a wide bastic style, disregarding contributions Weather – February 2009, Vol. 64, No. 2 64, No. Vol. 2009, – February Weather range of research. In 1787 he began keep- from anybody else, claimed to have pro- Résumé ing a meteorological journal which he duced the original explanation of the continued all his life. In his 1793 book Trade Winds. Although the English meteorologist George Meteorological Observations and Essays he Hadley (1685–1768) was the first to point outlined an explanation of how the effect out the importance of the Earth’s rotation Dove’s ‘Law of Turning’ of the Earth’s rotation to produce, or rather for the global atmospheric circulation, in to accelerate, the relative velocity of winds, Heinrich W. -
1 Module 2 Elements of Basic Meteorology and Oceanography
Module 2 Elements of Basic Meteorology and Oceanography 2.1 Understanding weather The atmospheric general circulation and its variance – produced by the embedded movements of moisture laden air masses, constant solar heating, inhomogeneity in the earth’s surface characteristics due to oceans, land, solid water mass distribution (snow and ice pack), forest and deserts – have been thoroughly studied by the scientists and the savants of different epochs who have advanced our knowledge of weather, climate and their changes at various time scales. Clouds, rain and thunderstorms, clear skies, low pressure centres, cyclones in the oceans produce weather conditions that impact our daily life, agriculture, power and industry. In simple terms, weather is a manifestation of changes in air motions and distribution of rains forming from the interaction of water vapour with solar radiation. Rightly, the logo of the India Meteorological Department (IMD) is emblazoned with the Sanskrit Sloka saying “Ädityäya jäyatā vrishtē (Rains emerge from The Sun)”. The humankind has thus always craved for (and successfully accomplished) a deep understanding of the exchange processes (or of the physical laws) that are responsible for such weather events mainly driven by solar heating and dynamical exchanges, which are sometimes devastating to life and property. As explained in the last lecture, the planet earth receives energy from the Sun, and the partition of this energy happens in such a manner that there is a complete balance between the energy received and the energy used up by various terrestrial and atmospheric processes. Moreover, in the budget calculation it is necessary to consider the spherical shape of the planet earth. -
Articles on the Dynamics of Mid-Latitude Surface Westerlies Martin S
Articles On the Dynamics of Mid-Latitude Surface Westerlies Martin S. Singh School of Mathematical Sciences, Monash University, Australia (This essay was the winner of the 2008 AMOS Closely coupled to the meridional circulation Student Essay Competition – Ed.) is that of the pattern of winds. The most striking feature of the mean zonal winds is the 1. Introduction subtropical jets in the upper atmosphere (see The atmosphere is a thin layer of gas figure 3). These regions of strong westerlies surrounding the Earth. Its motions are complex (from the west) are directly driven by the pole- and chaotic – it is not possible to accurately to-equator temperature gradient. However, this predict the weather more than a few days essay is concerned with the prevailing surface ahead. Nevertheless, when large space and winds. While much weaker than the upper time scales are considered there are certain level jets, the surface winds do exhibit some coherent features that can be observed. latitudinal structure. In the tropics and polar Together these features constitute what we call latitudes the low-level winds are easterly, the general circulation. The modern view while in mid-latitudes they are westerly. This regards the general circulation as consisting of essay examines the dynamical processes that three ‘cells’ based on the mean meridional lead to the maintenance of these surface mass transport in the atmosphere. Figure 1 westerly winds in the atmosphere. We will see shows the main features of this cell picture. In that the surface winds are intimately linked to the tropics there exist the Hadley cells. -
Earth and Space Science
Educational Product Teachers Grades 5–12 National Aeronautics and Space Administration Office of Mission to Planet Earth LOOKING AT EARTH FROM SPACE • • • • • TEACHER’S GUIDE WITH ACTIVITIES FOR EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE bout This Publication A The Maryland Pilot Earth Science and Technology Education Network (MAPS-NET) project was sponsored by NASA to enrich teacher preparation and classroom learning in the area of Earth system science. Teachers who participated in MAPS-NET completed a graduate-level course and developed activities that incorporate satellite imagery and encourage the hands-on study of Earth. This publication includes the that replicates much of the material taught during the graduate-level course and developed by the teachers. Both are important elements in the series, Looking at Earth from Space, developed to provide teachers with a comprehensive approach to using satellite imagery to enhance science education. The will enable teachers (and students) to expand their knowledge of the atmosphere, common weather patterns, and remote sensing. Because the Guide is designed to expand teachers’ knowledge, it is divided into topical chapters rather than by grade-level. The are listed by suggested grade level. AC K N O W L E D G M E N T S eacher’s Guide Acknowledgments T The was developed for the MAPS-NET project graduate course, , conducted at the University of Maryland, College Park, Department of Meteorol o g y . It is a collaborative effo r t of NASA’s MAPS-NET project; the Department of Meteorology, University of Maryland, College Park; and Maryland precollege teachers, with additional contributions noted.