Effects of African Chinese Society and Involvement on Subjective Well-Being

Journal of Interdisciplinary Mathematics

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Effects of African Chinese society and involvement on subjective well-being

Kuo-Lung Yu

To cite this article: Kuo-Lung Yu (2015) Effects of African Chinese society and involvement on subjective well-being, Journal of Interdisciplinary Mathematics, 18:6, 841-855, DOI: 10.1080/09720502.2015.1108096

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09720502.2015.1108096

Published online: 14 Dec 2015.

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Download by: [58.23.48.210] Date: 21 June 2016, At: 14:35 Journal of Interdisciplinary Mathematics Vol. 18 (2015), No. 6, pp. 841–855 DOI : 10.1080/09720502.2015.1108096

Effects of African Chinese society and involvement on subjective well-being

Kuo-Lung Yu * College & Institute of International Relations / Institute of Overseas Chinese Huaqiao University Xiamen 361021 China

Abstract In the middle of the 19th century, Chinese people concluded Family Association, Townsmen Association, Guandi Temple, and Chamber of Commerce in Africa for helping each other to survive. According to the properties, such groups were divided into Social Association or Occupational Association, while many of the functions were overlapped. In the late 20th century, new Chinese immigrants still established Townsmen Association and Chamber of Commerce which played critical roles in their life. The functions of such groups were expanded to International Non-Governmental Organization to engage in social public welfare activities in the resident countries as well as Governmental Organization with the function of “consuls” in diplomatic missions. However, Family Association was largely reduced till there was no such religious group as Guandi Temple. Instead, Political Group─Association for Peaceful Unification emerged. The organization of traditional Chinese groups could hardly be formed energetic large organizations, but they could cohere with Chinese people and help them properly survive overseas. The community leaders invited by China Government to join in the Chinese People Society workshop are studied and total 38 valid copies of questionnaires are collected. The results show 1.significant effects of Chinese

Downloaded by [58.23.48.210] at 14:35 21 June 2016 society on cognition in subjective well-being, 2.remarkable effects of Chinese society on emotion in subjective well-being, 3.the best moderating effect of involvement on Chinese society promoting cognition in subjective well-being, and 4.the best moderating effect of involvement on Chinese society promoting emotion in subjective well-being.

Keywords: association, involvement, subjective well-being, overseas Chinese

*E-mail: [email protected]

1. Introduction Since the economic reform in China in early 1980s, the number of Chinese people leaving for Africa was increasing. According to the statistics, there were about 30 thousand Chinese people in Africa in 1950s, while it achieved up to 136 thousand in the mid-90s (Li, 2012). The number kept increasing that it was estimated to reach million by 2012 (Zhou, 2014). Such data did not include technicians in China enterprises. After World War II, China systematically preceded Africa assistance diplomacy; a large number of employees in China enterprises engaging in infrastructure resided locally, but they would return to the country within 1-3 years. The people in this study refer to overseas Chinese and Chinese people who develop and permanently make a living in Africa. A lot of research revealed that Chinese people who left hometowns presented the tradition to conclude family groups bonded with blood relation or regional groups based on phylogenetic relationship and geographical relationship (Freedman, 1958; Hsu, 1971; Hill, 1985). In the middle of Qing Dynasty, Chinese people also established family associations and townsmen associations in Africa to host and take care of new expatriates in Africa. In this case, it was wondered what the characteristics of the groups concluded by new Chinese immigrants in Africa in the late 20th century and the early 21st century were and the different changes from the past. Modern times are a rapidly changing era in China, including New Culture Movement during the period of Republic of China and Cultural Revolution. What are the effects of such social movements on Chinese people’s behavior models? This study intends to compare the effects of the involvement of Chinese people in concluding groups in Africa on

Downloaded by [58.23.48.210] at 14:35 21 June 2016 subjective well-being.

2. Literature review 2.1 Chinese society Freedom of association is a western idea. Hsu (1963), a Chinese psychological anthropologist, indicated that traditional Chinese were lack of the idea of freedom of association; merely Cherishing Council and Heaven and Earth (Triad) deserved to present the western meaning of freedom of association. The former was a society voluntarily concluded by scholars in Hangzhou, advocating to respect Confucius and to cherish paper, while the latter was a secret society aiming to rebel Qing Dynasty and rebuild Ming Dynasty. The major groups in China were family SOCIETY AND INVOLVEMENT 843

associations or townsmen associations generated from clans (Hsu, 1963). Qu indicated that traditional China did not admit people’s freedom of association and not until Law for Assembly and Association promulgated in 1908 were people admitted the legal rights of association, with strict restrictions. Not until Emergency Period Civil Associations Act enacted by ROC Government in 1942 did people really have the freedom of association (Qu, 2002). Groups concluded by Chinese people in Africa could be traced back to the middle of the 19th century, when a lot of poor people along the coast were swindled by “Coolie labor trade” to become coolies in Africa (Campbell, 2013). Some of such people settled down and were willing to develop locally; they helped each other to gradually form some groups. According to Li’s (2012) research on Africa, the early Chinese groups were divided into following groups.

(1) Geographical relationship. A group formed based on common native places and cultural identity. Early Chinese people in Africa (mainly Mauritius, Madagascar, and Réunion) came from Guangdong or Fujian; they presented common habits and cultural background to establish Townsmen Association which stressed on the ancestral home and cultural identity. Nam Shun Fooy Koon was one of the earliest townsmen associations. Cantonese from South China Sea and Shunde of Guangdong established Nam Shun Fooy Company in 1859 (renamed Nam Shun Fooy Koon in 1894), aiming to “unite countrymen and promote relationship”. Chinese people from South China Sea and Shunde in Mauritius, regardless the gender, age, wealth, and status, naturally became the members. It helped those countrymen looking for work and residence in Mauritius and offered Downloaded by [58.23.48.210] at 14:35 21 June 2016 free accommodation and meals for those not being acclimatized and patients (Li, 2012). (2) Blood relation: A group concluded based on common blood relation. Chinese people with same surnames are increasing with increasing immigrants. Such people established groups with same blood because of same ancestors and closer blood relations than other Chinese people. Shih Chang Tong, appeared in 1896, was a family association separated from Nam Shun Fooy Koon, but the purpose was not different from it of Nam Shun Fooy Koon, merely connecting expatriates with the surname Chen from South China Sea and Shunde of Guangdong. Li Si Tong (Temple de la traversée heureuse), established in 1897, was another family association separated from Nam Shun Fooy Koon, connecting expatriates with more surnames, 844 K. L. YU

including Zhou, Liu, Kang, from Tengchong Township, Shunde of Guangdong. It was said that such three surnames presented affinity in the hometown. (3) Religion: A group generated based on same beliefs. Early Chinese people in Africa came from same areas and had common religions. Such people donated to constructing temples and expected to be blessed by the God as they were anxious about the future. The first Guandi Temple built by African expatriates appeared at Les Salines, Port Louis of Mauritius in 1842. The bell and copper seal in the temple were especially casted and shipped from Guangdong; a part of the temple was established ancestors’ spirit tablets of expatriates. Chinese people on the island regularly worshipped Guandi and their ancestors. Guandi Temple were collectively led and managed by Hokkien, Hakka, and Cantonese (Li, 2012), aiming to “do charity and goods and help orphans and widows”. Hakka and Cantonese later built their own Guandi Temples. Total Guandi Temples were built in Africa. (4) Business relationship: A group concluded by Chinese people engaging in same occupation. Chinese people would sometimes induce destructive competition because most of them sold similar goods; a society to coordinate the mutual benefits was therefore necessary. In the early 20th century, Hakka from Meixian of Guangdong established Moi Yean Commercial Association at Port Elizabeth in South Africa, aiming to “enhance the commercial cooperation of local compatriots” (Li, 2012). Although they flaunted the identification of Hakka, Chinese people beyond Hakka were not

Downloaded by [58.23.48.210] at 14:35 21 June 2016 restricted to join in. A lot of Chinese people in South Africa joined in Moi Yean Commercial Association for being protected from the attack of local white people with same businesses. As Chamber of Commerce could connect Chinese people from different areas, it was largely developed.

2.2 Involvement Involvement refers to the degree of an individual being interested in specific objective. Chen et al. (2011) proposed that involvement reflected personal decision-making based on the value, objective, and self-concept. Gibson & Chang (2012) defined involvement as the psychological state of invisible motivation and incentive induced by special situations or stimulation. Lee (2011) considered that involvement could be generally SOCIETY AND INVOLVEMENT 845

explained as individual perceived relevance with subject matters. Overall speaking, involvement was individual perceived concerns about matters and the relevance of individual cognitive things and objects based on personal needs, interests, and value. Most researchers agreed that the essence of involvement lied in consumers’ perceived relevance. In other words, involvement was a psychological state with the intensity being affected by the correlation between certain matters and personal needs, value, and desired objectives under specific situations. The stronger correlation would enhance the perceived self-relevance and the involvement would be deepened to further generate successive behaviors concerning about such matters (Byrne, 2013). Researchers indicated that involvement should be measured by simultaneously containing the levels of behaviors and social psychology (Kim & Wang, 2012). The former could truly reflect personal participation, while the latter could drive the inner psychological process of personal participation. Such two dimensions are used for defining involvement in this study. The individual meanings are described as below.

(1) Behavior level in involvement: Behavioral involvement refers to the time or efforts paid for pursuing a special activity and the specifically and externally performed behavior model. Being used for the evaluation in the field of leisure, it contains participation frequency, spent money, travel miles, ability or skills, possessed equipment or relevant books, and number of membership. The behavioral involvement in specific activities could be measured from participation period, participation times, possessed equipment, and cost for activities. Downloaded by [58.23.48.210] at 14:35 21 June 2016 (2) Psychology level in involvement: Social psychological involvement is the state existing in between an individual and activities to achieve pleasant perception and self-performance through activities. It is a model performed by inner psychological involvement.

2.3 Subjective well-being Basically, well-being is the abstract and general classification. Being an indicator to discuss the quality of life, it examines social changes and promotes social policies (Gamble & Garling, 2010). Research on subjective well-being was greatly concerned by psychologist since 1970, as the research on positive moods and happiness oriented psychology emerged in academia (Hedonic Psychology). Some psychologists proposed that an 846 K. L. YU

individual considering the life being well was the element to construct good life. Such an orientation to define good life was called subjective well-being, or happiness (Im & Ha, 2011). However, Chinese philosophers stressed on regarding well-being as inner spiritual pleasure and comfort (Tsiotsou, 2011) that happiness was often used for explaining well-being. Past research often represented well-being with quality of life, satisfaction with life, subjective well-being, optimist, happiness, and hope. In spite that the meanings were not completely the same, they implied well-being as individual subjective inner feeling that they focused not on reducing psychological social problems, but on evaluating personal positive personality traits and life experiences (Kim, 2012). Val i & Masoumeh (2010) proposed that individual subjective well- being was the overall evaluation of satisfaction with life, positive emotion, and negative emotion, revealing that personal emotion and cognition should be covered in the evaluation of well-being. Yen & Teng (2013) also considered well-being as personal subjective feeling of positive emotion and negative emotion and the three dimensions in satisfaction with life. Currently, the point of view containing both emotion and cognition proposed by Yen & Teng (2013) could better comprehensively discuss well- being and is the broadly adopted definition in the research on well-being that it is applied to this study. That is, well-being is the comprehensive evaluation of the life from the dimensions of cognition and emotion as well as the subjective personal judgment covering satisfaction with life, positive emotion, and negative emotion. It is regarded as the definition of subjective well-being in this study.

2.4 Research hypothesis Downloaded by [58.23.48.210] at 14:35 21 June 2016 Townsmen associations, family associations, Guandi Temple, and Chamber of Commerce were formed by Chinese people in Africa. With different names, a lot of their functions were similar. For example, Ren He Hui Tong, as a townsmen association, aimed to hold the welfare of overseas Chinese and help orphans, widows, and the poor; but, it also coordinated disputes among Chinese businesses. Disputes between Chinese businesses complained to Ren He Hui Tong would be soon solved. It presented high prestige among local overseas Chinese and had the reputation of “upper company” (Li, 2012). Chamber of Commerce aimed to coordinate disputes among Chinese businesses, but would help members with economic difficulties and afford their medical and funeral expenses. In addition to worship, Guandi Temple also functioned to do SOCIETY AND INVOLVEMENT 847

charity and goods, help orphans and widows, gather people for meetings, and hold various social activities related to communities. From above- mentioned research on subjective well-being, individual subjective well- being was the comprehensive evaluation of the life from the dimensions of cognition and emotion as well as a subjective personal judgment of satisfaction with life, positive emotion, and negative emotion. In short, Chinese groups were formed for the survival of Chinese people. For this reason, such groups might offer services of paper translation, identification proof, looking for job, temporary accommodation, assisting in sickness, establishment of Chinese schools, issuing Chinese newspaper, purchasing collective graveyard, coordinating lawsuits and disputes, unemployment subsidies, wedding and funeral, and making friendly contacts. Theoretically, it was the phenomenon of different organizational structures with same functions (Hsu, 1959). It is therefore inferred in this study that Chinese groups aim to hold welfare for overseas Chinese, help orphans, widows, and the poor, but coordinate disputes among Chinese businesses, and provide the members with subjective cognition to promote overall satisfaction with life and positive emotion. The essence of involvement lies in personal perceived self-relevance of the members, i.e. involvement as a psychological state with the intensity being affected by the correlations between matters and personal needs, value, and desired objectives under specific situations.

Accordingly, the following hypotheses are proposed in this study. H1: Chinese society presents significant effects on cognition in subjective well-being.

Downloaded by [58.23.48.210] at 14:35 21 June 2016 H2: Chinese society shows remarkable effects on emotion in subjective well-being. H3: Under the interference of involvement, Chinese society reveals the best promotion of cognition in subjective well-being. H4: Under the interference of involvement, Chinese society appears the best promotion of emotion in subjective well-being.

3. Research structure and subject 3.1 Research structure According to domestic and international research on Chinese society and subjective well-being, the research structure is proposed to discuss the correlation between Chinese society and subjective well-being. 848 K. L. YU

3.2 Research subject and research design To effectively achieve the research objective and test research hypotheses, community leaders, who were invited by China Government for the Chinese People Society workshop, are preceded the questionnaire survey. Some of them are real estate magnates in the resident countries, the others monopolize most share of retail industry, another own large factories with several ten thousands of employees, and the ones control local import/export trade. They are also the excellent representatives of Chinese people invited in important Chinese celebration, such as National Day and Olympic Games. Such community leaders return from Egypt in North Africa, Nigeria, Ghana, Mali, Togo, and Equatorial Guinea in West Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Malawi in East Africa, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Angola in Central Africa, and South Africa, Lesotho, Namibia, Botswana, and Madagascar in southern Africa, with the most Chinese immigrants in Africa. The survey on these people presents certain validity. With questionnaire survey, total 38 valid copies are collected. Downloaded by [58.23.48.210] at 14:35 21 June 2016 4. Analysis 4.1 Difference analysis of Chinese society on subjective well-being Analysis of Variance is utilized for discussing the difference of Chinese society on cognition and emotion in subjective well-being. From Table 1, Chinese society reveals the significant difference on cognition, where the cognition of blood relation and religion is higher than it of business relationship and geographical relationship. H1 is therefore supported. In terms of the remarkable differences of Chinese society on emotion, it appears higher emotion on blood relation and religion than on business relationship and geographical relationship that H2 is supported. SOCIETY AND INVOLVEMENT 849

Table 1 Variance Analysis of Chinese society

Variable F P Scheffe post hoc

Chinese cognition 15.438 0.000** 4>231 society emotion 22.765 0.000** 32>14 * stands for p<0.05, ** for p<0.01

Table 1 Variance Analysis of Chinese society on subjective well-being

Variable Cognition Emotion Scheffe Scheffe post F P F P post hoc hoc Chinese society 15.438 0.000** 4 > 231 22.765 0.000** 23 > 14 Involvement 10.251 0.003** 1 > 2 16.872 0.007** 2 > 1 41 > 22 > 22 > 31 > 21 > Chinese society 21 > 32 > 38.426 0.000** 43.854 0.000** 32 > 41 > 12 > *involvement 31 > 11 > 42 > 11 42 > 12 * stands for p<0.05, ** for p<0.01

4.2 Analysis of the effect of involvement on Chinese society Applying Analysis of Variance to discuss the moderating effects of involvement on Chinese society and subjective well-being as well as Downloaded by [58.23.48.210] at 14:35 21 June 2016 the interaction between involvement and Chinese society to test the promoting effect of involvement, Table 1, the highest cognition appears on the integration of involvement to Chinese society and the highest emotion appears on the interaction of involvement with Chinese society, Figure 2. From Figure 3 Margin mean, notable interaction is shown that H3 and H4 are supported.

5. Conclusion In this study, family associations in overseas Chinese groups present great power. Chinese people used to settle in South Africa, Mauritius, and Réunion. Nowadays; the total quantity of Chinese people is increased now, while they disperse various areas in Africa. In the investigation of small 850 K. L. YU

Figure 2 Margin mean Downloaded by [58.23.48.210] at 14:35 21 June 2016

Figure 3 Margin mean SOCIETY AND INVOLVEMENT 851

groups in societies, there are quite a lot of small groups with the same surnames or townsmen. Although townsmen associations have not been separated from family associations, similar small groups exist in family associations. When more people with the same surnames settle, more family associations might be established. Apparently, Chinese people stress on blood relation. Temples used to be built with Chinese societies, while new immigrants do not build new temples. It might associate with Cultural Revolution, when breaking Four Olds was emphasized. A lot of temples in Mainland China, regarded as feudal superstition, were demolished. It weakened civil belief in religion. After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, which stressed on atheism and opposed feudal superstition, it more or less affected overseas Chinese connecting each other through religious groups. The freedom of association is closely associated with European and American behavior characteristics. Research on mental culture revealed that it was organized based on Contract and showed the features of practicability, calculability, and voluntariness. Practicability referred to parties concerned concluding contracts merely when they could not acquire certain benefits without concluding such relationship. Calculability indicated all contract principles were regulated agreement clauses and conditions as well as the beginning and terminating dates of the relationship. Voluntariness pointed out the activeness of an individual concluding such relationship; besides, an individual also held the tactics to control such relationship when getting involved in the relationship; an individual could decide the time to join in, the degree of joining, and the time to secede from the relationship (Shang, 2013). It could connect lots of people. On the other hand, traditional Chinese groups, as the Downloaded by [58.23.48.210] at 14:35 21 June 2016 example of family associations, were organized by Relatives, presented automatism, blood relation, and difference. Automatism referred to the member qualification being automatic and constant. Blood relation revealed the relationship among members depending on the closeness of blood relation. Sequence difference indicated the unequal status among group members, with the difference in pecking order (Shang, 2013). It could connect fewer people and was strictly limited the qualification. It seemed that townsmen associations and Chamber of Commerce could connect more people with more family associations, but it was not the freedom of association; the members were automatically “joined” because of organizational principles. Hsu indicated that a lively society relied on whether it could rapidly form a lively group. 852 K. L. YU

6. Suggestions 6.1 Expanding the function of societies to International Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) Emerging overseas Chinese groups are suggested to solve various internal problems in Chinese communities and expand the services to local areas in resident countries. Strictly speaking, Chinese groups present the functions of International Non-Governmental Organization. The idea of International Non-Governmental Organization might be comparatively broad, as it sometimes does not belong to any governments and is not established by any countries, but independent of a state government. Sometimes, it refers to non-commercial, legal, and social culture and environment related promotion groups. However, it reveals the characteristics of Private Voluntary Organization, mainly functioning at charity, environmental protection, and supporting the poverty.

6.2 Undertaking the function of consul in diplomatic mission Li (2012) mentioned that early Chinese groups showed various functions and even presented the function as a governmental organization. The Chinese General Chamber of Commerce in Réunion has negotiated with colonial authorities about equity related to Chinese people since the establishment in 1916. As a matter of fact, it has truly become an embassy in Réunion. Nowadays, China still remains diplomatic relations with such African countries and establishes embassies and consulates. Emerging Chinese groups still present the functions of consuls. As most community leaders could help local Chinese people and even solve problems for China Government through the interpersonal networking. Downloaded by [58.23.48.210] at 14:35 21 June 2016 As the example of Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, the functions of Chinese groups involving in consul contained (1)dealing with inheritance of the citizens, (2)enforcing visitation rights and assisting in coordinating with the government of the receiving state when the citizens were arrested and detained, and (3)promoting the development of accrediting state and the receiving state to enhance mutual understanding. Chinese groups functioning as consuls include the following reasons. First, Chinese groups have formed symbiotic relationship with local governments: African countries are late-coming modernization countries whose political systems used to be affected by colonial western countries. Although some countries practice democratic election, the lack of supervision department has the operation appear loopholes. Chinese groups often give presents to the department leaders for opening up opportunities. Second, “business SOCIETY AND INVOLVEMENT 853

is business”, embassies show no leeway on dealing with affairs. Embassies are the overseas representatives of China Government. A normal procedure is required for diplomatic mission negotiating about Chinese affairs. The efficiency is low and the affairs might not be solved as local Chinese people expected. As the example of visa, it could be continued and solved the problem by community leaders simply making a call to the acquainted officials. Having diplomatic missions deal with such an affair might eventually result in Chinese people being repatriated. Third, the shortage of staff has China diplomatic missions be overwhelmed by public affairs: The increasing overseas Chinese in Africa, but the same staff in a diplomatic mission, results in diplomatic mission needs the assistance of Chinese groups in many tasks.

Acknowledgement The author is grateful to the valuable comments made by the reviewers. This paper is supported by the National Social Science Foundation Research Major Project (14ZDA053), An in-depth study of Strengthen the Dissemination of Soft Power of Chinese Culture, 2014.

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Received September, 2015 Downloaded by [58.23.48.210] at 14:35 21 June 2016