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I AGE-GRADED THEORY of SOCIAL CONTROL i AGE-GRADED THEORY OF SOCIAL CONTROL: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE SCHOOL-TO-PRISON PIPELINE A Dissertation Submitted to the Temple University Graduate Board In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY by Megan Forney, MA May 2020 Examining Committee Members: Jeffrey T. Ward, Ph.D., Advisory Chair, Department of Criminal Justice Wayne N. Welsh, Ph.D., Department of Criminal Justice Laurence Steinberg, Ph.D., Department of Psychology Paul J. Hirschfield, Ph.D., External Reader, Department of Sociology, Rutgers University ii ABSTRACT School exclusion during adolescence, namely suspension, expulsion, and drop out, has a number of immediate and long-term consequences for youth. Among these consequences are an increased likelihood of engaging in delinquency and risk of incarceration. Recent research has coined this process the “school-to-prison pipeline,” and while substantial evidence portraying the negative effects of school exclusion exists, much of this evidence overlooks important antecedents to exclusionary school punishment. Employing a developmental life course (DLC) framework, this dissertation applies a social control model across adolescence to evaluate how youths’ bonds to school influence school misbehavior and delinquency and contribute to suspension, expulsion, and drop out. It also expands on prior research that considers the consequences of school exclusion by evaluating this experience’s effects on employment, postsecondary education, and romantic relationships as youth transition into young adulthood, and considers how these age-graded sources of social control contribute to continued offending and incarceration. Importantly, using a diverse sample of 1,216 first- time juvenile offenders, this dissertation explores how these processes differ across race/ethnicity through multi-group structural equation modeling. Findings reveal partial support for the application of a social control model to the school-to-prison pipeline. Bonds formed to mothers in early adolescence are shown to positively influence the formation of a strong bond to school. Strong school bonds, in turn, reduce the likelihood that youth engage in school misbehavior and delinquency. Bonds to school are indirectly related to school exclusion and dropout through school misbehavior and delinquency. These negative events—school exclusion and dropout— iii increase the likelihood that youth offend in young adulthood, with dropout also increasing the risk of incarceration. While support for prosocial bonds in young adulthood acting as turning points is limited, individuals who are employed are less likely to experience incarceration. The multigroup model indicates that these relationships do not vary across race. Examining the school-to-prison pipeline under a unified lens allows for multiple intervention points. Implications for policy are discussed at each stage of the model and include targeting youths’ relationships with parents early in adolescence, engaging youth in school to promote strong bonds and discourage school misbehavior and delinquency, and implementing strategies to reengage youth who are excluded from or drop out of school. iv DEDICATION For Grandmother. Thanks for waiting. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS As any strong academic would do, before I sat down to write these acknowledgements, I turned to my peers to see what approaches they took in acknowledging the individuals that undoubtedly had profound impacts on their lives and future careers. Most acknowledge the many years that they have spent at Temple, which for me, is 12. Between undergrad, working in the Psychology department, and returning as a student for my PhD, Temple has been a part of my life for nearly half of it. I knew that I would eventually end up here—graduating and moving on with my career—but I did not realize how being given the opportunity to reflect on the people and experiences that got me to this point would truly humble me. First, I must thank my dissertation chair and advisor, Jeff Ward. I remember sitting through your job talk and knowing instantly that you were someone who I would want to work with. I am beyond thankful that you chose to come to Temple during my second year, because without you my experience in this program would have been immensely different. Thank you for taking me on as your first student, and for all of the work that you put in with my peers—I tried not to boast how great you were so that other students didn’t take up your time, but word got out! Thank you for being my mentor, my friend, and teaching me all of the things—methods, coding, and that no paper is complete without about 45 footnotes. To my other committee members, Wayne Welsh and Larry Steinberg, I cannot thank you enough for your input and guidance in this process. Wayne, I am so grateful that you agreed to join my committee, knowing that your plate was relatively full when we asked. Thank you for continuing to push me to think more critically about the role my vi work has for policy. Larry, I couldn’t have completed this work without your data, and probably wouldn’t be where I am now if it wasn’t for the Crossroads Study. My dissertation research would not have been possible without the support of the Crossroads team at UCI, for answering my many data questions and requests, and without the support of the Crossroads team at Temple, namely Larry and Michelle Harmon. Michelle—you really started my career in research. While working with you on another study, you asked me if I knew anyone who would be interested in “this new project with first-time juvenile offenders.” I remember saying “uh, me,” and you did not hesitate to get the ball rolling on hiring me post-graduation. After three years of participant recruitment, completing interviews, and obsessively checking my bag for unwanted “friends” after being in the field, I am so happy to have continued my work with Crossroads as a mentor for Honors Psychology undergraduates, and now through my dissertation. In the end, it’s not unsurprising that I chose Crossroads data—I think we all knew how committed I was after being knocked unconscious in a car accident and refusing to let the ambulance leave until they showed me that my laptop bag was on board. To my remaining supports at Temple—the many faculty members and my peers who have influenced my time in this department, I thank you as well. Caterina—thank you for allowing me to work on so many projects, and for supporting me both within and outside of this program. Juwan, Ryan, and Dee—thank you for letting me vent during the hours I spent in the car traveling to and from campus. Now I must turn to pay tribute to the part of my life that happened not in parallel, but in harmonization with my time at Temple. My research interests and career goals vii would not be what they are today without my team at the New Jersey Juvenile Justice Commission. After five years, it’s hard to believe that as I close this chapter in my education, I am also leaving an agency and a position that I couldn’t be more proud of. To my fellow Research and Reform Specialists—may you continue to ask tough questions, push people’s boundaries, and make staff meetings way longer than they need to be. I will miss you all! I would be remiss to not acknowledge the many other experiences that happened over my six years in this program. I continued to pursue my love of travel. I became a homeowner, a wife, and a mother. I lived fully and freely and still accomplished all of my goals. To my large group of friends and family who continue to support my wildest dreams—thank you. To my best friend, Felicia—I don’t know if I would have made it through undergrad, grad, pregnancy, and motherhood without the promise of continued adventures with you. To my daughter, Paige—thank you for bringing light and laughter to my life as I end this journey. And finally, to my husband, Glenn—I’ve been a student for practically our entire relationship, and though you may have questioned why it took this long to finish school, you never stopped supporting me. For that, I owe you my greatest thanks of all. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ ii DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ v LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... xi LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ xii CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................... 7 School Exclusion and Dropout ....................................................................................... 7 Sources of School Exclusion and Dropout ................................................................. 8 Effects of School Exclusion and Dropout ................................................................. 10 Mediators to School Exclusion and Dropout ............................................................ 13 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................
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