Synergy Journal Print Publication 2018

The Journal of Contemporary Asian Studies

Volume 3 Academic Articles and Op-Eds about East, 2018 Southeast, and South Asia

Volume 3 2018

Edited by Gloria Liu Angela Min Yi Hou Jerry Zhu Nabi Dressler Aviva Glassman

Layout and Design by Cathy Nguyen

front cover photo Liu Qian (@imclumsypanda) Synergy: The Journal of Contemporary Asian Studies

If you have any questions regarding the contents, submissions, and or Synergy Journal’s operations, please contact us at:

[email protected]

www.utsynergyjournal.org

Our mailing address is:

Synergy Journal, Asian Institute, Munk School of Global Afairs, University of Toronto

1 Devonshire Place Toronto, ON M5S 3K7 Canada

i Synergy Editorial Committee 2017-2018

Core Editorial Committee Editor-in-Chief Gloria Liu Associate Editor-in-Chief Angela Min Yi Hou

Design and Layout Managing Editor Cathy Nguyen

East Asia Lead Editor Nabi Dressler Event Reporters Daniela Zaks Yurie Kaku Copy-Editors Sally Shim Kelly Leung Clara Hong Contributer Michelle Lee

Southeast Asia Lead Editor Aviva Glassman Event Reporters Julia Tops Tiffany Kao Copy-Editors John Fraser Alexandra Southgate contributer Jamie (Huiyi) Chen

South Asia Lead Editor Jerry Zhu Copy editor Keshini Mahesan contributers Tallal Usman Deepak Jain

ii Table of Contents

Letter from the Editor v

Foreword vii

East Asia 1

1 The Adverse Effects of Rapid Urbanization: A Case Stydy of Ger Districts in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia 3

2 China’s Sovereign Wealth Funds: Rule-Takes, Rule-Makers, Rule- Breakers 19

3 Ethnographic Account of Empowerment, Liberation, and Revolution in the “White-Haired Girl” 43

4 The Transformation of Women in View of Socialist Japan 55

5 [Op-Ed] More Than Skin Deep: South Korea’s Plastic Proliferation 48

South Asia 73

6 Confguring Foreign Policies For Small States: A Case Study of Sri Lanka 75

iii 7 From Encounter to Exodus: History of the Rohingya Muslims of Myanmar 91

8 Navigating Caste Inequality in Kerala: Caste As Present, Hidden, and Denied 129

9 [Op-Ed] India’s Soft Power: Prospects and Limitations 151

10 [Op-Ed] Doklam: Preclude to the Clash in South Asia 159

Southeast Asia 169

11 Resettlement Policy in Hô Chí Minh City, Vietnam and Its Effects On Relocated Individuals 171

12 The Marawi Siege: The Battle Against ISIS Reaches the Philippines 109

13 [Op-Ed] Singapore’s Free Speech 111

iv Letter From the Editor

Dear readers,

I hope this letter finds you well. It is my great honour to present you, on behalf of the Synergy Journal editorial team of the 2017-2018 academic cycle, the third volume of the print edition. Since the beginning of September of 2017, our team consisting of twenty editors, began the operational cycle with excitement and eagerness. I would like to express my greatest gratitude to all Synergy editorial team members for being extremely dedicated and committed to the journal this past year. I would like to especially thank the core executive members who contributed time, energy, and effort during the busy school year on top of their academic workloads.

Based at the Asian Institute, Munk School of Global Affairs, at the University of Toronto, we began working with the supporting administrative and faculty members. Student academic works are on Asia- Pacific affairs have a peripheral stage in the community, it was and still remains our mission to provide a stage for student publications on this ever growing region. Founded in the summer of 2015, the journal has gone through three academic cycles, has published over 120 academic articles, op-eds, and event reports. As a part of our annual agenda, we also held an academic panel of “Chinese-Canadian Connections: Investments in Real Estate” in March, 2018. These accomplishments and tasks cannot be achieved by one person alone, but requires the teamwork of a group of passionate and hardworking students. Although there are still many aspects that we need to improve and strengthen, the journal is slowly but strongly expanding and growing. From being an editor in the East Asia section in the founding year in 2015 to leading the journal this past year, I am extremely proud of the progress we have made as a team.

The print volume of 2018 features brilliant student works on Asian affairs, from historically focused research topics to contemporary political affairs in Asia’s three main geographical areas: East Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. The authors who submitted their works include both undergraduate and graduate students internationally who have a voice in Pan-Asia political, economical, cultural, and societal issues. Selected by the core executive members, these articles represent some of the best works published throughout the past academic cycle. You will find topics that not only focus on one geographical region, but contextualizations with the rest of the world, such as urbanization in Mongolia, caste inequality in Kerala, and resettlement policies in Vietnam.

After finishing this volume, if you would like to read further articles published by Synergy Journal, please visit us at utsynergyjournal.org or facebook.com/synergyjournal. I sincerely hope that you will enjoy the featured articles in this year’s print volume and share our passion and efforts in continuously supporting student works regarding Asia and beyond.

Sincerely,

Gloria Liu Editor-in-Chief 2017-2018 Synergy: The Journal of Contemporary Asian Studies

vi Foreword

In my years at the Asian Institute I have had the pleasure of watching the Institute mature and strengthen. Much credit for the ever-increasing robustness of the AI can be credited to our undergraduates. Their intelligence and unique perspectives are abundantly on display in the pages of Synergy.

Like the Asian Institute itself, Synergy is international in its contributors and outlook. The journal’s students are part of a growing connectedness between North America and Asia, across many diasporas, and amongst persons who call Asia their home.

Instead of isolating, grading, and inserting Asian societies into a teleology of “civilization” or “development,” the authors here trouble those frameworks. By keeping power and ideology at hand in their analyses, and by sometimes flagging the politics of representation, they narrate Asia and Asian in new and important ways.

One of the great strengths on display in our University of Toronto students and here on the pages of Synergy is a strong desire to build a more just and prosperous future for all peoples in Asia. Our students are not content with platitudes about an Asia that is simply a place of growing wealth and global cities. They have rejected myth-making about “miracles,” Tiger economies, the Hindu Mind, or Confucian values: instead, University of Toronto students and Synergy contributors are immersed in more nuanced analyses of this massive region and its peoples.

Like its sponsor, the Asian Institute, Synergy brings different disciplinary optics to bear on Asia. And many of the authors here are interdisciplinary in method, freely drawing inspiration from “outside” of their primary fields of study. These authors are not invested in bowing before disciplinary forefathers, so much as they are eager to draw from a great variety of scholars, who hail from different times and places and methodologies.

vii The essays in these pages very much challenge simple attempts to contain and objectify persons and places in Asia. “Asia” and “Asian” were always-already representations fraught with inequality and coercion. Much the same can be said of many ways of knowing and studying the states, nations, ethnicities, and religions of this so-called continent. “Asia,” then and now, has never been contained within its borders. The students here—in their writing and perhaps their ontology as subjects—refute facile ways of splitting Asia from Others and Asians from one another.

Many of these students—in their backgrounds, travels, and cosmopolitan sentiments—surely are subjects who live, as Paul Gilroy might say, more along routes than according to roots. They are, it seems to me, diasporic not only in their movements, but in their ways of seeing Asia and the world. Rather than knowing the world from a privileged and definitive position of authority, these students are part of an emergent scholarship that is feeling out new epistemologies and new subjectivities.

Indeed, instead of writing about the continent from a detached perspective, many of the essays contend with positionality and evince a deep concern for the well-being of Asian peoples. Correspondingly, the essays here implicitly question the assumption that “modernization” will magically trickle down to the poor of Ho Chi Minh City or Ulaanbaatar; nor will “development” inevitably diminish caste inequalities in Kerala or undo the fetishization of female bodies in South Korea. These authors evoke also the plight of the Rohingya and the armed insurgency in the Philippines: there is no neat “end of history.” Instead of writing of a steady march to wealth, human rights, and democracy, these authors present Asia in a more contingent condition.

We are fortunate, at the University of Toronto and on the pages of Synergy, to bear witness to and learn from these young scholars. Their own motilities are surely well-suited to ways of understanding an object which is perhaps not an object at all.

Dr. Dylan Clark Sessional Lecturer II The Asian Institute, University of Toronto

viii

East Asia

The Adverse Effects of Rapid Urbanization: A Case Study of Ger Districts in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

Deniz Yilmaz is a third year student at the University of Toronto studying Political Science and Diaspora and Transnational Studies.

Abstract

This academic article aims to explain the adverse effects of rapid urbanization in the Ger Districts of Ulaanbaatar Mongolia, rooted in Mongolia’s unique experience with the collapse of socialism, nomadic migration patterns, environmental pressures, and international aid. Gers are traditional nomadic homes that symbolize the rural lifestyle that has recently declined due to harsh climate conditions and Mongolians’ search for better education and work opportunities in the city. Urban sprawl in the global south’s developing cities gives rise to common experiences related to sanitation related health risks, pollution, inadequate infrastructure, and socioeconomic inequality. Using ethnographic research to understand the issues faced by Ger dwellers, this article aims to understand these problems in the Mongolian historical context and recommends community-led initiatives to alleviate the ills caused by urbanization.

3 Introduction studying the city must be employed alongside ethnographic Cities across the world are being research to understand transformed by the undeniable community needs and identify forces of globalization and sustainable solutions and 4 concentration of power in urban infrastructure developments. As centres, resulting in a process Mongolia further integrates itself known as rapid urbanization. In into the global economy, it seeks particular, developing countries to better the lives of its citizens in facing rapid urbanization accordance to global standards by experience common dilemmas cooperating with international such as poor housing, lack of institutions and community-led social services, environmental initiatives. damage, and social inequality. 1 This research paper aims to Causes of Urbanization examine the unique case of in Ulaanbaatar Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, where the recent sprawl of Ger Districts on The urbanization of cities the outskirts of the city have encourages the development of drawn local and international economic, political, and culturally attention to the adverse effects of innovative centres, yet presents a rapid urbanization. When plethora of problems in the urbanization occurs in a city, the context of the developing world.5 city experiences increases in Many cities in the developing density, population, services, world undergoing rapid diversity, and socio-cultural urbanization become primary trends reflecting an increasingly cities of their respective countries, 2 “urban” way of life. where a large percentage of the country’s population, resources, Internal and external factors such and capital are concentrated in as migration, foreign investment, one urban area. 6 Ulaanbaatar is and the collapse of the Soviet Mongolia’s capital city as well as system contribute to a primary city, since it hosts 3 Ulaanbaatar’s urbanization. In nearly half of the country’s the context of Mongolian culture population and acts as the hub of and history, different views of political and economic activity.7

4 Similar to self-constructed the collapse of socialism, as well shantytowns, Ger districts are a as the external pressures of the product of mass rural-urban global economy as catalysts of migration of mostly nomadic rapid urbanization in people seeking better Ulaanbaatar.14 opportunities in and near the city.8 A Ger refers to a portable tent- International Investment, Aid, like structure historically used by and the Collapse of Socialism the nomadic people of Mongolia, often surrounded by a wooden The political economy fence. 9 The explosive growth of perspective asserts that these districts since the 1990s are urbanization is a result of associated with processes such as decisions made by powerful globalization, centralization, and stakeholders regarding issues selective investment patterns.10 such as international trade, investment, and aid. 15 In the Traditionally, Mongols have lived context of Ulaanbaatar, spread apart on the vast steppes as urbanization is associated with nomads and herders leading economic developments driven solitary lifestyles with weak by a recently prospering mining community ties. 11 Mongolian industry supported by core society was not based on mass nations such as Canada and agricultural domestication until China. 16 In this way, Mongolia the Soviet Union introduced new becomes a hinterland for other agricultural technologies. 12 This countries by providing raw pathway to urbanization differs materials, thus further integrating from the European urbanization into the global sphere. According model, which was induced by to world system theory, core permanent settlements and the nations influence urbanization in “agricultural revolution”. 13 peripheral nations such as Therefore, Eurocentric theories of Mongolia by inducing city development that focus on investment, pushing the rural poor agriculture and colonialism into urban areas for employment, cannot be applied to Ulaanbaatar. and promoting an export-oriented This research aims to address the culture. Furthermore, according context-specific internal factors to McKenzie’s ecological such as rural-urban migration and processes, urbanization is a result

5 of centralization of popular exemplifies a dual economy. 20 services and population Ulaanbaatar’s unique city form, concentration.17 The introduction moulded by dynamic internal and of capitalism after the collapse of external factors, is seen in the socialism prompted new cultural clusters of tents juxtaposed and architectural influences, against modern skyscrapers and which shaped the physical form of condominiums.21 Ulaanbaatar. 18 Modern Nomadic Migration and condominiums and high-end Environment Pressures clothing stores were built across from Genghis Khan Square, Ulaanbaatar’s relatively better indicating the increasing role of living standards and economic corporations in shaping urban opportunities act as “pull factors” space.19 for the mass rural-urban migration of countryside The new urban order as a result of nomads. 22 Since the collapse of globalization and external forces the Soviet Union in the 1990s, the seems to be slightly paradoxical, sprawl of Ger districts has as peripheral countries are both occurred rapidly as Mongolia exploited and aided by core makes its transition to the market nations. International economy. 23 Approximately development efforts in Mongolia 30,000 to 40,000 people move to focused on the adverse effects of the capital every year, with many rapid urbanization have been in families arriving from the progress since the 1990s. nomadic grasslands in search of Monetary aid and infrastructure better access to employment and projects have been deployed and education opportunities for their funded by the Asian Development children.24 This rapid population Bank (ADB), Japan International growth has given rise to an Cooperation Agency (JICA), and intense housing shortage the United Nation Development exasperated by insufficient Programme (UNDP) (Lawrence). building materials and skilled Within this new urban order, the construction workers.25 A higher sharp contrast between poorer demand for housing has also lead Ger-dwellers and the inner city to unreasonably high rent prices rich elite employed in sectors like which many families, especially investment and technology those from the countryside,

6 cannot afford, consquently satisfaction survey found that 69 pushing them into peripheral Ger percent of Ger households enjoy districts where land and housing living in a Ger but would want are inexpensive.26 improved infrastructure nonetheless.32 Furthermore, migration to cities can also be explained by the Adverse Consequences push/pull pressures of weather and natural disasters.27 In the case of Urbanization of Mongolia, harsh seven-month long winters are difficult for Ger districts, similar to many countryside dwellers; the most other impoverished shantytowns of the developing world, face the notable winter of 2010 was detrimental effects of known as the “Zud” “white death”), where millions of herder environmental pollution, underdeveloped infrastructure, livestock were killed, pushing health problems, and social issues families to the city, which had 33 relatively milder living as a result of rapid urbanization. conditions.28 However, unlike the More than half of the residents in slums or shantytowns in other cities of the developing world live developing cities, ethnographic in poverty, which is exemplified research indicates the existence of by Ulaanbaatar, where nearly 60 percent of the city’s population somewhat mixed incomes within 34 Ulaanbaatar’s Ger districts. 29 lives in the Ger districts. This occurs due to the significant Understanding the problems cultural attractiveness of Ger life, posed by rapid urbanization with where higher income individuals an ethnographic approach will from the inner city also choose to help policymakers plan and move into Gers in the summer implement projects specific to because they enjoy the space and community needs. lifestyle. 30 The social Environmental constructionist model justifies the popularity of Ger residences, as Mongolian people place great Ger districts, especially in the symbolic meaning behind life in a harsh winter months, experience particular environmental Ger due to its cultural and historical value. 31 A resident problems caused by household

7 dependency on coal burning; away from the Ger households.39 Ulaanbaatar has the second-worst Furthermore, the lack of pollution in the world.35 Due to sustainable and affordable energy Ulaanbaatar’s particular alternatives leads to the heavy geographic topography consumption of fuel and coal, surrounded by mountains, the thus posing detrimental risks to pollution tends to sit over the city the environment. 40 Social and poses a strong public health services such as health services risk as evidenced by increasing and education are often located respiratory illnesses. far from Ger districts, thereby Furthermore, families must dig adversely affecting resident latrines near their Gers due to a access. The lack of infrastructural lack of sewage systems and provisions also poses a plethora of inadequate waste treatment other health risks, such as fires facilities; high traces of bacteria caused by faulty electrical wiring such as E. Coli give rise to and high crime rates due to numerous infectious disease insufficient street lighting.41 cases. 36 Therefore, rapid urbanization “without effective Socioeconomic urban governance” leads to “high levels of risk from natural and The adverse effects of rapid human-induced environmental urbanization on the environment, hazards”. health, and infrastructure give rise to inequality, high Infrastructure unemployment, and low education rates in Ger districts.42 Rapid urbanization also leads to The rural-urban divide seen in shortages or inadequate many regions of the world infrastructure, especially in the prompts high income inequality. cities of the developing world.37 45 percent of Ger district The rapid increase in Ger districts residents are below the poverty has led to a shortage in utilities line as opposed to 16 percent of such as heating, sewage, clean residents in apartment areas. water access, public Despite moving to Ulaanbaatar transportation, and roads. 38 For for better education, many example, the average water families are unable to send their supply is located 3.5 kilometers children to schools in the city.

8 Although crime rates in residents are hopeful for change Ulaanbaatar are very low to be brought on by the compared to those of other cities government’s development in the developing world, they are projects.46 slightly higher in Ger districts.43 Recommendations and Social stratification in Ulaanbaatar can be explained by development attempts certain aspects of the Chicago School theory of urban sociology, Cooperation between which focuses on the physical international bodies, the form of the city and utilizes Mongolian government, and community leaders is necessary to ecological studies to map out achieve and alleviate the adverse social issues. The concentric model within Chicago School effects of rapid urbanization in Ulaanbaatar’s Ger districts. By theory divides a city into a utilizing an ethnographic developed commercialized core, transition zone, and outward approach such as surveys, residential area. 44 This model interviews, and community suits the case of Ulaanbaatar; the mapping, there has been some core of the city consists of mostly improvement in the air quality and waste disposal of Ger built housing, the transition zone 47 consists of both built housing and districts. Many of the indicated Gers, and the outer zone consists issues in Ger districts are also of mostly Gers. 45 Significant targeted by long-term projects socio-economic differences such as the Mongolian between the outer Ger districts government’s 2030 Master Plan involving urban renewal and and the inner-city apartment 48 districts exist, as Ger districts on housing improvements. average tend to be younger, less educated, and more dependent on The World Bank has contributed significantly to Ulaanbaatar by social services. However, despite introducing a greater number of these detrimental consequences of rapid urbanization, Ger district water pipes and energy efficient residents still have a relatively stoves in Ger districts. International donors such as the high level of resident satisfaction, and interviews indicate that ADB, UNDP, and JICA

9 exemplify the global effort to critics view this Master Plan to be alleviate the pressures of unfeasible due to its costliness, urbanization in an increasingly preferring small scale globalized and developing infrastructure redevelopments country. 49 Short-term which are quick and cheap. 56 improvements such as plastic Installing new infrastructure in lining of the latrines allows waste informal settlements like Ger to be picked up by disposal trucks, districts well after their thus providing an increased development is expensive and source of comfort and living time-consuming.57 standards for residents in Ger districts. 50 The Mongolian According to a survey of residents government’s 2030 master plan is in Ger districts, their most a $28 billion attempt to construct favoured approach is to develop 10 regional towns, 3 satellite the countryside by building cities, railway, transit, and other schools and increasing infrastructural improvements. 51 employment opportunities, The ultimate goal is to implement thereby decreasing the need for “well defined land and housing rural populations to move to policies” 52 , to improve resident Ulaanbaatar. 58 Furthermore, the safety, address environmental participation and mobilization of concerns, and to move 70 percent community members in the of families into modern flats.53 development of their own neighbourhoods is essential in However, this approach to finding community-specific development is highly contested resolutions. UN Habitat’s by locals, who must be willing to approach focuses on empowering sell their land and move away communities in dealing with from their traditional lifestyles.54 settlement and sustainable urban Urban renewal focused on “slum development. 59 An example of clearance” arises due to the view community-led processes in that slums impede investment, yet Ulaanbaatar’s Ger districts is the is not always a successful use of community mapping for approach. Post-modernist spatial analysis to identity gaps in urbanists stress incorporating, public services. Mapping helps imitating and reusing traditional prioritize resources and urban forms and structures.55 Yet, investment with community

10 members and is used to find such as environmental optimal locations for destruction, infrastructure developments such as water inadequacy, and social pumps. 60 Smaller scale inequality.62 However, a context- improvement projects such as specific approach is necessary to planting trees, communal understand the unique gardens, and housing upgrades developments of and rapid positively influence physical and urbanization process in social conditions within Ger Ulaanbaatar, including the districts.61 collapse of socialism, the boom of the mining industry, and nomadic Conclusion migrations. An increasingly globalized and developing city Overarching global trends have with the inability to provide basic influenced and are reflected by services for a significant portion the Ger districts of Ulaanbaatar. of its population turns to global Residents of these districts face institutions and ethnographic, issues common to the city- community-led strategies to dwellers of the developing world, alleviate the adverse effects imposed by rapid urbanization.

1 Choongik Choi. 2012. “Inexorable rise of Ger in Mongolia: demolition for redevelopment or conservation for improvement?” International Review of Public Administration, 17 (2): 121-139. 2 Hiller. 3 Choongik Choi. 2012. “Inexorable rise of Ger in Mongolia: demolition for redevelopment or conservation for improvement?” International Review of Public Administration, 17 (2): 121-139; Brian Sinclair. “Ger districts: Chronicles, explorations and considerations of Mongolia’s informal settlements.” 2008.

4 Ariunaa Norovsambuu, et al. “Mapping Ulaanbaatar’s Ger districts.” The Asia Foundation. 2013 http://asiafoundation.org/2013/10/23/mapping-ulaanbaatars-Ger-districts/ 5 Choongik Choi. 2012. “Inexorable rise of Ger in Mongolia: demolition for redevelopment or conservation for improvement?” International Review of Public Administration, 17 (2): 121-139. 6 Hiller. 7 Choi, “Inexorable rise of Ger in Mongolia,” 121-139 8 Hiller. 9 Brian Sinclair. “Ger districts: Chronicles, explorations and considerations of Mongolia’s informal settlements.” 2008 10 Choongik Choi. 2012. “Inexorable rise of Ger in Mongolia: demolition for redevelopment or conservation for improvement?” International Review of Public Administration, 17 (2): 121-139; Hiller. 11 Brian Sinclair. “Ger districts: Chronicles, explorations and considerations of Mongolia’s informal settlements.” 2008. 12 Robert Worden and Andrea Matles Savada,. “Mongolia: A Country Study: Agriculture.” Washington GPO for the Library of Congress. 1989. http://countrystudies.us/mongolia/53.htm 13 Hiller. 14 Choongik Choi. 2012. “Inexorable rise of Ger in Mongolia: demolition for redevelopment or conservation for improvement?” International Review of Public Administration, 17 (2): 121-139; Nicola Davison. “Out of steppe: the $28bn plan to modernise Mongolia’s Ulan Bator”. Financial Times. January 23, 2015. 15 Hiller. 16 Peter Geoghegan. “Life in Ulaanbaatar’s tent city is hard – but Mongolians won’t give up their gers.” The Guardian. September 3, 2014. https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2014/sep/03/mongolia-ulanbaatar- ger-yurt-tent-city; Hiller. 17 Hiller. 18 Choongik Choi. 2012. “Inexorable rise of Ger in Mongolia: demolition for redevelopment or conservation for improvement?” International Review of Public Administration, 17 (2): 121-139. 19 Peter Geoghegan. “Life in Ulaanbaatar’s tent city is hard – but Mongolians won’t give up their gers.” The Guardian. September 3, 2014.

12 https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2014/sep/03/mongolia-ulanbaatar- ger-yurt-tent-city 20 Ibid; Hiller. 21 Carlos Barria,. “Inside Mongolia’s Ger District.” Reuters. August 17, 2013. http://blogs.reuters.com/photographers-blog/2013/08/07/inside- mongolias-ger-district/ 22 David Engel. “Ulaanbaatar’s Ger district issues: Changes and Attitudes.” Independent Study Project Collection. 2015. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/2084/; Hiller. 23 Choi, “Inexorable rise of Ger in Mongolia,” 121-139 24 Carlos Barria, “Inside Mongolia’s Ger District.” Reuters. August 17, 2013 25 David Engel. “Ulaanbaatar’s Ger district issues: Changes and Attitudes.” Independent Study Project Collection. 2015. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/2084/; 26 Ibid. 27 Hiller. 28 David Engel. “Ulaanbaatar’s Ger district issues: Changes and Attitudes.” Independent Study Project Collection. 2015. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/2084/; 29 Ts Enkhbayar,. “Ger district and its development potentials in Mongolia.” Workshop on Integrated Resource Management in Asian Cities: The Urban Nexus. 2014. 30 Peter Geoghegan. “Life in Ulaanbaatar’s tent city is hard – but Mongolians won’t give up their gers.” The Guardian. September 3, 2014. https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2014/sep/03/mongolia-ulanbaatar- ger-yurt-tent-city 31 Ibid; Hiller. 32 David Engel. “Ulaanbaatar’s Ger district issues: Changes and Attitudes.” Independent Study Project Collection. 2015. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/2084/. 33 Choongik Choi. 2012. “Inexorable rise of Ger in Mongolia: demolition for redevelopment or conservation for improvement?” International Review of Public Administration, 17 (2): 121-139. 34 Ibid, 121-139; Carlos Barria, “Inside Mongolia’s Ger District.” Reuters. August 17, 2013. http://blogs.reuters.com/photographers- blog/2013/08/07/inside-mongolias-ger-district/

35 Ts Enkhbayar,. “Ger district and its development potentials in Mongolia.” Workshop on Integrated Resource Management in Asian Cities: The Urban Nexus. 2014; David Engel. “Ulaanbaatar’s Ger district issues: Changes and Attitudes.” Independent Study Project Collection. 2015. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/2084/ 36 David Engel. “Ulaanbaatar’s Ger district issues: Changes and Attitudes.” Independent Study Project Collection. 2015. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/2084/ 37 Enrique Hardoy, Diana Mitlin, and David Satterthwaite. Environment Problems in an Urbanizing World: Finding Solutions in Cities in Africa, Asia and Latin America. (Washington: Earthscan Publications Limited, 2013). 38 David Engel. “Ulaanbaatar’s Ger district issues: Changes and Attitudes.” Independent Study Project Collection. 2015. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/2084/ 39 United Nations Human Settlements Programme. “Urban Poverty Profile: A snapshot of urban poverty in ger areas of Ulaanbaatar City.” Cities Alliance. December 2010. 40 David Engel. “Ulaanbaatar’s Ger district issues: Changes and Attitudes.” Independent Study Project Collection. 2015. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/2084/ 41 United Nations Human Settlements Programme. “Urban Poverty Profile: A snapshot of urban poverty in ger areas of Ulaanbaatar City.” Cities Alliance. December 2010. 42 Hiller. 43 United Nations Human Settlements Programme. “Urban Poverty Profile: A snapshot of urban poverty in ger areas of Ulaanbaatar City.” Cities Alliance. December 2010. 44 Hiller. 45 Choongik Choi. 2012. “Inexorable rise of Ger in Mongolia: demolition for redevelopment or conservation for improvement?” International Review of Public Administration, 17 (2): 121-139. 46 Peter Geoghegan. “Life in Ulaanbaatar’s tent city is hard – but Mongolians won’t give up their gers.” The Guardian. September 3, 2014. https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2014/sep/03/mongolia-ulanbaatar- ger-yurt-tent-city

47 David Engel. “Ulaanbaatar’s Ger district issues: Changes and Attitudes.” Independent Study Project Collection. 2015. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/2084/ 48 Nicola Davison. “Out of steppe: the $28bn plan to modernise Mongolia’s Ulan Bator”. Financial Times. January 23, 2015. 49 David Lawrence. “Mongolia’s growing shantytowns: the cold and toxic ger districts.” The World Bank. 2009. http://blogs.worldbank.org/eastasiapacific/mongolias-growing- shantytowns-the-cold-and-toxic-ger-districts 50 David Engel. “Ulaanbaatar’s Ger district issues: Changes and Attitudes.” Independent Study Project Collection. 2015. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/2084/ 51 Nicola Davison. “Out of steppe: the $28bn plan to modernise Mongolia’s Ulan Bator”. Financial Times. January 23, 2015. 52 David Engel. “Ulaanbaatar’s Ger district issues: Changes and Attitudes.” Independent Study Project Collection. 2015. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/2084/ 53 Nicola Davison. “Out of steppe: the $28bn plan to modernise Mongolia’s Ulan Bator”. Financial Times. January 23, 2015. 54 David Engel. “Ulaanbaatar’s Ger district issues: Changes and Attitudes.” Independent Study Project Collection. 2015. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/2084/ 55 Hiller. 56 Matthew Hung, et al. “Rural urban framework incremental urbanism: Ulaanbaatar’s ger settlements.” Divisare. 2016. https://divisare.com/projects/308791-rural-urban-framework-incremental- urbanism-ulaanbaatar-s-Ger-settlements; Nicola Davison. “Out of steppe: the $28bn plan to modernise Mongolia’s Ulan Bator”. Financial Times. January 23, 2015. 57 Enrique Hardoy, Diana Mitlin, and David Satterthwaite. Environment Problems in an Urbanizing World: Finding Solutions in Cities in Africa, Asia and Latin America. (Washington: Earthscan Publications Limited, 2013). 58 David Engel. “Ulaanbaatar’s Ger district issues: Changes and Attitudes.” Independent Study Project Collection. 2015. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/2084/;

59 Ts Enkhbayar,. “Ger district and its development potentials in Mongolia.” Workshop on Integrated Resource Management in Asian Cities: The Urban Nexus. 2014. http://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/Ger%20districts_Enkhbayar.pd f 60 Ariunaa Norovsambuu, et al. “Mapping Ulaanbaatar’s Ger districts.” The Asia Foundation. 2013 http://asiafoundation.org/2013/10/23/mapping-ulaanbaatars-Ger-districts/ 61 Ts Enkhbayar,. “Ger district and its development potentials in Mongolia.” Workshop on Integrated Resource Management in Asian Cities: The Urban Nexus. 2014. http://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/Ger%20districts_Enkhbayar.pd f 62 Enrique Hardoy, Diana Mitlin, and David Satterthwaite. Environment Problems in an Urbanizing World: Finding Solutions in Cities in Africa, Asia and Latin America. (Washington: Earthscan Publications Limited, 2013). United Nations Human Settlements Programme; "Urban Poverty Profile: A snapshot of urban poverty in ger areas of Ulaanbaatar City.” Cities Alliance. December 2010.

16 References

Barria, Carlos. “Inside Mongolia’s Ger District.” Reuters. 2017. http://blogs.reuters.com/photographers-blog/2013/08/07/inside- mongolias-ger-district/ Choi, Choongik. “Inexorable rise of Ger in Mongolia: demolition for redevelopment or conservation for improvement?” International Review of Public Administration, 17 (2012): 121-139. Davison, Nicola. “Out of steppe: the $28bn plan to modernise Mongolia’s Ulan Bator”. Financial Times. 2015. Engel, David. “Ulaanbaatar’s Ger district issues: Changes and Attitudes.” Independent Study Project Collection. 2015. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/2084/ Enkhbayar, Ts. “Ger district and its development potentials in Mongolia.” [Presentation]. Workshop on Integrated Resource Management in Asian Cities: The Urban Nexus. 2014. http://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/Ger%20districts_Enkh bayar.pdf Geoghegan, Peter. “Life in Ulaanbaatar’s tent city is hard – but Mongolians won’t give up their gers.” The Guardian. 2014. https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2014/sep/03/mongolia- ulanbaatar-ger-yurt-tent-city Hardoy, Jorge Enrique, Mitlin, Diana, and Satterthwaite, David. “Environment Problems in an Urbanizing World: Finding Solutions in Cities in Africa, Asia and Latin America.” Washington: Earthscan Publications Ltd, 2013. Hung, Matthew, Qian, Yan, Harjani, Shivina, and Cullinan, Johnny. “Rural urban framework incremental urbanism: Ulaanbaatar’s ger settlements.” Divisare. 2016. https://divisare.com/projects/308791-rural-urban-framework- incremental-urbanism-ulaanbaatar-s-Ger-settlements Lawrence, David. “Mongolia’s growing shantytowns: the cold and toxic ger districts.” The World Bank. 2009. http://blogs.worldbank.org/eastasiapacific/mongolias-growing- shantytowns-the-cold-and-toxic-ger-districts

17 Norovsambuu, Ariunaa, Ulziikhutag, Munkhtsetseg, and Chuulunbaatar, Enkhtungalag. “Mapping Ulaanbaatar’s Ger districts.” The Asia Foundation. 2013 http://asiafoundation.org/2013/10/23/mapping- ulaanbaatars-Ger-districts/ Sinclair, Brian. “Ger districts: Chronicles, explorations and considerations of Mongolia’s informal settlements.” 2008. http://sinclairstudio.ca/data/documents/Mongol-HICAH09- Sinclair-FINALPAPER-r4-Jan-09-ACRO.pdf United Nations Human Settlements Programme. “Urban Poverty Profile: A snapshot of urban poverty in ger areas of Ulaanbaatar City.” Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. 2010. http://www.citiesalliance.org/sites/citiesalliance.org/files/CAFile s/Projects/GUSIP_Output_1.3_- _Urban_Poverty_Profile_December2010reduced.pdf Worden, Robert and Savada, Andrea Matles. “Mongolia: A Country Study: Agriculture.” Washington GPO for the Library of Congress. 1989. http://countrystudies.us/mongolia/53.htm

China’s Sovereign Wealth Funds: Rule-Takers, Rule- Makers, Rule-Breakers

Cengiz Cemaloglu is a fourth year undergraduate student at Harvard University pursuing a joint concentration in Social Anthropology and Government, a secondary in Philosophy, and a language citation in Mandarin Chinese. He is a Williams/Lodge International Government and Public Affairs Fellow at the Weatherhead Center for International Affairs at Harvard University.

Introduction and contributions to mankind.”1 Later in his speech, President Xi added Outline that even though China does not pose a threat to any states in this At the 19th National Convention “new era”, “no one should expect of the Communist Party of China, … [China] to swallow anything Chinese president Xi Jinping that undermines … [China’s] described his vision of a new era interests”.2 President Xi’s three- for China with the following hour long address left many words: “It will be an era for the Western media outlets observing Chinese people of all ethnic a twofold shift in his narrative, (1) groups to work together and work shifting out of the narrative of hard to create a better life for China as a poor state trying to themselves and ultimately build itself up from its ashes into achieve common prosperity for the narrative of a strong global everyone. It will be an era that player taking part in the making sees China moving closer to of a “new era”, and (2) shifting center stage and making greater

out of the narrative of a leader President Xi’s address, his who is trying to uphold the mention of the “globally-oriented previously developed visions of networks of trade, investment and previous leaders, into the financing” as well as “reform of narrative of introducing a “new the investment and financing era,” ideated and proposed by Xi systems” alluded to these recently Jinping himself, like Mao Zedong established extensions of the and Deng Xiaoping had done Chinese government. Sovereign under their leadership.3 wealth funds are state-owned investment vehicles that invest Outside of this grand vision, globally on behalf of the state that President Xi’s speech also they are operated by. Their outlined specific economic policy purposes range from stabilizing and development goals, such as governments to accumulating “... [to] deepen reform of the savings for future generations, investment and financing from managing the foreign systems, and enable investment to reserves to offsetting the future play a crucial role in improving lack of valuable natural resources the supply structure”4and to such as oil or gold. With more develop “... new ways of making than a hundred active sovereign outbound investments, … form wealth funds worldwide, more globally-oriented networks of and more investment trade, investment and financing, professionals call for the production, and services, and establishment of a more robust build up our strengths for international regulatory international economic framework with the purpose of cooperation and competition”.5 streamlining investment decisions The special focus that of sovereign wealth funds. international trade and investment Currently, the world’s largest ten received in his remarks was seen sovereign wealth funds include as in line with a changing China, three Chinese funds, namely the a China that is globally-oriented China Investment Corporation and develops and implements its (~$813.8 billion) at number three, own policy objectives the State Administration of internationally. While China’s Foreign Exchange [SAFE sovereign wealth funds did not Investment Company] (~$441 receive a specific mention at billion) at number seven, and the

National Social Security Fund However, to what extent the (~$295 billion) at number ten. Chinese sovereign wealth funds While most states have one are a part of China’s sovereign wealth fund, China transformation from being a rule- currently has more than four, each taker to a rule-maker is a question of which serves a different that is still yet to be answered purpose and acts independently within the relevant branches of from the other ones. academic literature. Therefore, in this research paper, I also try to As seen from President Xi’s solve the puzzle around how the address, China is espousing the Chinese sovereign wealth funds emergence of a new era, a new era fit into China’s construction of in which China is no longer a this “new era,” and the passive bystander troubled merely consequential transition from by its own socio-economic being a rule-taker to a rule-maker. development but an era in which In that spirit, I ask the following China is one of the main actors research question: is China taking full charge in the showcasing tendencies of a rule- construction of this new era. taker, rule-maker or a rule- Borrowing the terminology first breaker when it comes to China’s introduced by Hamel, Xi deployment of state capital Jinping’s address reinstates the through its sovereign wealth notion that China is not merely a funds? What does the Chinese rule-taker anymore, but is sovereign wealth funds tell us in transforming itself to become a terms of China’s self-espoused rule-maker instead.6 I argue, in transformation from a rule-taker this paper, that the state- to a rule-maker? This mostly sponsored development and the descriptive analysis is trying to diversified utilization of recognize common and divergent sovereign wealth funds as patterns across Chinese sovereign national investment vehicles is wealth funds to see whether the just another step in the Chinese current policies and practices are economic statecraft, a statecraft best described as conforming to that ultimately aims to stabilize the definition of a rule-taker, a governmental investment and rule-maker, or a rule-breaker. My obligations while responsibly interest is ultimately to get to the managing foreign reserves. core of whether China is a

challenger to a rules-based order purpose of establishment, through its sovereign wealth fund investment practices, and industry, and if that is the case, investment returns, and how they why there may or may not be a are aligned with the international variation in regards to its rules and legislation regarding approach to its sovereign wealth sovereign wealth funds, namely funds. the Santiago Principles. Annual reports of the China Investment To sufficiently respond to the Corporation (CIC), the State questions posed, I first present a Administration of Foreign concise literature review on Exchange (SAFE), and the sovereign wealth funds, Chinese National Social Security Funds political economy, and the rule- (NSSF) from the years of 2015 maker/rule-breaker/rule-taker and 2016, are investigated to framework. A multitude of gather evidence around the ways competing theoretical approaches in which these three Chinese to classifying states like China sovereign wealth funds may be regarding their deployment of using their investments in line or state capital through sovereign outside of the Santiago Principles. wealth funds are explicated and The investigation is concluded contrasted. Through reviewing through reinstating that the the sources of existing secondary evidence that has been analyzed literature, my contribution to the in the previous chapter shows that existing literature is positioned China is predominantly a “rule- appropriately. Following the maker” with occasional literature review, I define the tendencies of a “rule-breaker” concepts of a “rule-maker,” “rule- when it comes to its sovereign taker,” and “rule-breaker,” along wealth funds. The systematic with an explanation of the rules analysis throughout the paper will themselves, in this case the be overlaid with statements from Santiago Principles that are meant Chinese state-employees in terms to be guidelines that sovereign of what they see the role of wealth funds voluntarily choose sovereign wealth funds to be in to follow. Lastly, the three the evolution of modern China. aforementioned major sovereign wealth funds are investigated in It is my hope that the qualitative more detail in terms of their analysis of primary sources

interwoven with international have enough weight in the market relations literature will ensure the to make massive impacts that are inclusion of metrics, which are truly observable, and that they hard to quantify, and produce a seem to be acting as rational significant contribution to the economic agents according to the literature on sovereign wealth present investment summaries funds, and Chinese political and financial data points. economy at a unique cross point that unfortunately has been In his Harvard Business Review repeatedly neglected in the article, Hamel first introduces the present literature. rule-taker, rule-maker, and rule- breaker differentiation, in his attempt to describe the roles Literature Review corporations play in competitive markets. Hamel argues that Alhasel’s literature review of institutions constantly transition sovereign wealth funds conclude between these three categories; that the main investment interests when they start off as being of sovereign wealth funds are merely rule-takers, they may economic rather than political. transition to break those rules Included in that literature review when they find an opportunity to is Balding’s investigation of do so, followed by actually whether the accusations that starting to establish their own sovereign wealth funds are rules.8 Wang argues that China as foreign investment tools that a rising power is no longer a rule- destabilize certain markets, harm taker; it is somewhere between a certain governments, and rule-maker and a rule-breaker, as politically disrupt weaker it supplies incremental reforms to economies hold true.7 He international institutions. His concludes his investigation argument is positioned as an through stating that for the time explanation of increased Chinese being there is not sufficient influence over international evidence to support such claims political and economic that sovereign wealth funds are institutions, but does not purposefully trying to distort particularly focus on sovereign financial markets. He argues that wealth funds.9 sovereign wealth funds do not yet

Similar to the rule-maker/rule- established hierarchies, a later taker/rule-breaker framework in response involved actively business literature, international pushing for the revision of these relations literature includes established hierarchies to bring Organski’s power transition RMB as close as possible to the theory, in which he distinguishes status quo of USD in the global between revisionist states and stage.10 status quo states. According Organski’s analysis, a revisionist Kastner, Pearson, and Rector used state is one that is dissatisfied a similar framework to Hamel and with its status quo in the present Organski, this time to describe international system, and is China’s approach to international working hard to revise that status governance institutions. Under quo. Status quo states in the the framework of invest/hold- meantime are the powerful and up/accept, they question the influential nations who have conditions under which China significantly benefited from the chooses to build its own emergence of western liberalism international governance at a large scale, and view the institutions and actively lobby current international law and free many nation-states to join them in market economics as integral these creations (investing), parts of the international order chooses to accept international that must be upheld. Following governance institutions’ already Organski’s categorization, Chin established regulations and argues China is a revisionist state participate in them (accepting), or when it comes to its approach to chooses to complicate the money in the global financial workings of currently established system. He examines the specifics international governance of China’s call for a global institutions by attempting to systemic reform to establish an leverage its influence to actively “actual multi-centered and reorder existing arrangements diverse monetary system” and (holding-up). Chow exemplifies argues that while China’s first my instances of China choosing to response into its integration to the hold up with the purpose of global financial infrastructure was accelerating its own rise as a to abide by the established system global economic power. He to comprehend its intricacies and emphasizes the policies that

undermine the competitiveness of an argument about how the foreign-owned multinational institution of Chinese sovereign companies operating within wealth funds were aimed at China. 11 The undermining of the instituting a “harmonious society” foreign-owned multinational through economic empowerment companies at homes goes hand- and independence. They argue in-hand with another hold-up that the creation of the CIC, strategy of giving China’s own China’s largest sovereign wealth state-owned enterprises an fund is a direct result of the power advantage when they choose to struggle between the People’s expand their investments abroad, Bank of China and the Ministry of particularly in the developing Finance in asserting more world.12 influence over macroeconomic policy and fiscal affairs. They Outside of theoretical mention that Chinese officials do frameworks, Norris, in his recognize that China’s sovereign investigation of Chinese political wealth funds could easily end up economy, focuses on China’s as an instrument for domestic sovereign wealth funds. He industry support when needed as argues that Chinese sovereign well as an instrument for wealth funds pose strategic investing state savings in concerns for countries like the productive domestic and overseas United States, where the Chinese endeavors. Therefore, both investment goals are investigations of Norris, and Liew implemented. In line with Chow’s and He argue that Chinese observations about China’s “hold- sovereign wealth funds are not up” strategy at limiting the merely following internationally competitiveness of investment at determined implicit norms but are home, Norris argues that China’s utilized to further Chinese investments in the United States strategic interests at home and exploit the absence of robust abroad when needed.13 regulation which typically forbids foreign states from asserting too Having paraphrased a significant much influence in domestic portion of the research that affairs through the governance of investigates the Chinese certain key corporations. Liew sovereign wealth funds, it is clear and He, on the other hand, extend that my research intervenes

within the current literature strengthen the claims of China’s through combining the literature transformation as espoused by Xi around China being a rule-taker, Jinping’s speech in the 19th rule-maker, or a rule-breaker National Convention of the along with the literature around Communist Party of China. China sovereign wealth funds. The rule- is, now, somewhere in between a taker/maker/breaker framework rule-maker and a rule-breaker, has not been used to analyze and its sovereign wealth funds are sovereign wealth funds in no different in that respect. academic publications at this point in time, so I utilize the rule- breaker/maker/taker framework Rule- to (1) highlight that there are Taker/Maker/Breaker written rules around sovereign Framework wealth fund management that

China may explicitly abide by. Before pursuing a fully-fledged However, there also exists an analysis of how Chinese alternative set of ambitions, not in sovereign wealth funds contribute line with these written to China’s economic transition on regulations, that China pursues, the world stage, I will first discuss and (2) that the Chinese sovereign why I chose the rule- wealth funds are able to explain a taker/maker/breaker framework portion of China’s transformation over other similar frameworks from being merely a rule-taker to developed by different scholars. being somewhere in between a Then, I will move on to explain rule-maker and a rule-breaker. It what rule-taker, rule-maker, and is the conviction of this research rule-breaker specifically means, project that the rule- and what evidence from the maker/taker/breaker framework is sovereign wealth funds front able to add a new dimension to the would constitute evidence that a existing literature around particular country is acting in sovereign wealth funds. Also, it is accordance with the definition of implied that a robust discussion of one of these categories. sovereign wealth funds as a case study of rule-maker/taker/breaker The reasons behind why I chose literature surrounding Chinese to construct this investigation political economy is able to

using the rule- taker/maker/breaker framework For the purposes of this are threefold. First and foremost, investigation, we follow Hamel’s when compared to the descriptions of the three invest/hold-up/accept or the categories. Therefore, a rule- revisionist/status quo maker would be defined as an frameworks, the rule- incumbent that built the industry taker/maker/breaker is the most in the first place, a rule-maker is business-appropriate. the creator and protector of the Considering that sovereign wealth industrial orthodoxy, a part of the funds are more similar to established oligarchy.15 A rule- independent business and mutual taker is an institution that follows funds in nature than sovereign the paths that have been charted states in their role and function, by these incumbents that built the this framework seems to be the industry in the first place; a rule- most applicable. Secondly, rule- taker pays homage to the taker/maker/breaker framework incumbents. A rule-taker does not allows for a rather effortless challenge the status quo in any transition between different way besides inserting itself into categories; it is not merely an the status quo, following the action that a state takes, but a incumbent’s strategy, and through rather fluid state that the hard work and diligently institution finds itself at. Thirdly, attempting to outpower it. The unlike the other two theoretical last category, a rule-breaker, is an approaches, the rule- institution that is set on taker/maker/breaker framework overturning the pre-established reaches a normative conclusion order. It does not merely want to that “strategy must be carve a space for itself, but wants revolution”, advocating the most to overturn the entire space so that ideal strategic position for a it can carve a larger space, while company to be at as the spot the incumbents get to cover between a rule-maker and a rule- smaller ones. The rule-breakers breaker.14 This normative are the revolutionaries, the conclusion seems to be more in radicals, and the malcontents.16 It line with China’s ideal way to be, is important to note at this point its own ideated normative that the definitions outlined above conclusion. differ significantly from Wang’s

definition of what a rule-maker categorization of the Chinese and a rule-taker means in his state itself. investigation of China.17 According to the set of definitions that he employs, a rule-maker Generally Accepted promotes global reforms of Principles and Practices existing arrangements, while a - “The Santiago rule-breaker creates its own Principles” arrangements.

Therefore, in this investigation, Upon establishing the definition the evidence of sovereign wealth of a rule-taker, a rule-maker, and funds would be contrasted against a rule-breaker, it is important to the backdrop of the definitions of now define the “rule” that the rule-maker, rule-breaker, and a agent makes, takes or brakes. In rule-taker originally provided by other words, what is the rule that Hamel. If a Chinese sovereign this investigation is testing wealth fund has been among the China’s act of taking, making or ones who have established the breaking against? Considering current status quo, that fund that the emergence of sovereign would be a rule-maker; if the fund wealth funds is a relatively recent has been accepting the status quo phenomenon, even when without having had a contribution considered under the scope of the in its generation, the fund would short history of modern finance, be a rule-taker; and if the fund has there really is not a multitude of been constantly attempting to competing organizations or overturn the pre-established order alliances on the ground. However, through deviating from the there exists a single membership- previously agreed practices and based organization that some regulations, the fund would be a sovereign wealth funds choose to rule-breaker. Considering that the take part in, the International fund is state-owned, and is closely Forum on Sovereign Wealth aligned to the interests and needs Funds (IFSWF). Boasting more of the Chinese state, the than thirty current members, categorization of the sovereign IFSWF was initially founded out wealth fund would provide of an IMF working group in 2009 evidence about the potential with the intention of establishing

a voluntary organization whose iv. To have in place a members are committed to transparent and sound working together and governance structure that strengthening the community provides for adequate through dialogue. The forum operational controls, risk provides a set of guidelines that management, and all members have voluntarily accountability.”18 endorsed, known as the Generally Accepted Principles and Practices While the guiding principles (GAPP) or “the Santiago listed above assign an existential Principles,” which are aimed at purpose to the sovereign wealth providing guidance on funds, the Santiago Principles accountability arrangements, the offer practical advice about the appropriate conduct of investment management, investment style, practices, and the conditions risk analytics, logistical support, necessary for the promotion of and upkeep needs of any cross-border investments and sovereign wealth fund. Some openness. The 24 principles are select examples from the twenty- based on the four following four can be found below: guiding principles of the sovereign wealth funds: “GAPP 7. Principle. The owner should set the objectives of the SWF, i. “To help maintain a appoint the members of its stable global financial governing body(ies) in system and free flow of accordance with clearly capital and investment; defined procedures, and ii. To comply with all exercise oversight over the applicable regulatory and SWF’s operations. disclosure requirements in the countries in which GAPP 11. Principle. An they invest; annual report and iii. To invest on the basis of accompanying financial economic and financial statements on the SWF’s risk and return-related operations and performance considerations; and should be prepared in a timely fashion and in

accordance with recognized purpose of a sovereign wealth international or national fund established through the accounting standards in a principles, is a fund that breaks consistent manner. the rules; a fund that built those purposes in the first place is a fund that can be considered a rule- maker; and a fund that operates GAPP 15. Principle. SWF mostly in line with the operations and activities in expectations of these four host countries should be guidelines is a true rule-taker. conducted in compliance with all applicable regulatory and disclosure CIC and SAFE: Chinese requirements of the Sovereign Wealth Funds countries in which they as Case Studies operate.”19

In this part of the investigation, Considering the rather structural two Chinese sovereign wealth and specific nature of the 24 funds, CIC and SAFE will be principles, the analysis conducted investigated as case studies. The in this paper will concentrate on following discussion will be the alignment of Chinese mostly based on the policies and sovereign wealth funds with the practices outlined in their annual four guiding principles reports, as well as some opinions established as the basis of the and reflections expressed by their Santiago Principles. While management teams. First and Santiago Principles are only foremost, one can claim that the applicable to whether a sovereign Chinese state took on the role of a wealth fund is a rule-maker, a rule-maker, as CIC was not only rule-taker, or a rule-breaker, the one of the founding members of guiding principles that form the the IFSWF, but also one of the co- basis of the Santiago Principles in drafter of the twenty-four the first place carry significations Santiago Principles. As detailed with themselves that are on the 2016 annual report of the transferrable to the Chinese state CIC: itself. A sovereign wealth fund that does not abide with the

“To assure countries and wealth fund industry. It was one markets that sovereign of the major incumbents that wealth funds were well- participated at the literal organized to invest as legislation of the principles that economic and financial will guide the industry in the entities, sovereign wealth many years to come. They, funds with over $500 million establishing the status quo along of assets came together and with other founding members of established the International the IFSWF, worked hard at Working Group on promoting public understanding Sovereign Wealth Funds in of sovereign wealth funds and April 2008. With the support their investment activities, of the International implementing the Santiago Monetary Fund (IMF), they Principles, and buttressing the drafted the Santiago IFSWF. CIC hosted the 3rd Principles. As one of the annual meeting of IFSWF and led drafters, CIC was involved the development of the Beijing in all the discussions and Declaration that was released revisions of the Santiago shortly after the annual meeting. Principles. The Santiago The Beijing Declaration “urged Principles were released in countries to work together for October 2008, and the global economic recovery and International Working stabilization of the financial Group was renamed the market, and to help develop an International Forum of open, fair and non-discriminatory Sovereign Wealth Funds in investment environment for April 2009. CIC was a sovereign wealth funds”.21 At the charter member and then- very same meeting, Mr. Jin Liqun CIC Chairman of the Board from the CIC was elected Chair of of Supervisors Jin Liqun was the IFSWF. In March 2016, CIC elected as the IFSWF’s First continued to support the making Deputy Chair.”20 of regulations about sovereign wealth funds through attending As seen from the passage above, the legislative meeting at Baku. together with other sovereign At the March 2016 meeting, wealth funds, CIC was one of the participants designed working rule-makers in the sovereign guidelines on knowledge-sharing

and on improving the IFSWF’s stronger China-US trade and internal research capability. To investment relationship.” this day, the CIC seems to be continuing to make the rules of The agreement described on the sovereign wealth funds CIC’s is particularly remarkable industry. At the time of the as it is a public-private writing of this article, the home international partnership page of CIC presents the established by a sovereign wealth following news: fund, with the goal of developing stronger connections between “On November 9th, Xi Chinese and American Jinping, the President of the companies. From the remarkable People’s Republic of China, agreement reached with the and Donald Trump, the American bank Goldman Sachs, President of the United one can see the ways in which States of America attended a CIC is stepping beyond the ceremony of utmost established four guidelines of the importance. In this Santiago Principles. CIC, ceremony, Tu Guangshao, showcases through this deal, that President of the CIC, and it is not merely using its Lloyd Blankfein, Chairman investments as a tool to generate and CEO of the Goldman investment income, but also as a Sachs Group, Inc. state-owned vehicle of established the China-US constructing linkages between Industrial Cooperation Chinese and American firms, Partnership, L.P.. This assuming the role of a facilitator partnership is intended to of trade with and investment in establish a fund, funded by China. On this topic, the CIC CIC’s investments with a 2016 Annual Report stated the broad mandate to invest in following priorities: American companies that have developed or can “Focusing on special regions develop material business and industries from the connections to China. CIC’s China angle, we helped website says that the fund’s Chinese companies connect intention is to “develop a with foreign companies and facilitated investment

cooperation. We also solely as investment entities, accelerated CIC’s overseas CIC’s practices depict that what institutional development, CIC sees itself as accomplishing employing foreign is much farther than that. investment and multilateral However, the Former Chairman fund operations to complete and CEO of CIC, Ding Xuedong, high-profile direct argues “First, as a financial investment projects in investor, we should pursue several major countries. reasonable commercial returns as a primary objective”.23 His Also, in 2016, CIC Capital statement seeks to affirm CIC’s increased investments in commitment to the Santiago infrastructure, particularly principles, but also leaves open an high-quality core arena of possibilities for a second infrastructure assets. It and third order of objectives as collaborated with peer well. A further indication of institutions, asset managers, CIC’s trade facilitator, negotiator, sector investors and other and collaborator vision of itself like-minded partners, and can be seen from the commitment carried out landmark below: projects in ports, railway, pipeline and “CIC is committed to telecommunication in mitigating the negative Europe, Oceania, and Latin impact of investment America.”22 protectionism and fostering an open, fair, and The aforementioned priorities nondiscriminatory further confirm CIC’s role as a environment for rule-breaker in the sovereign international investment wealth fund industry, as they through open and honest approach the role of a sovereign dialogues. In 2015, senior wealth fund not solely from an executives of CIC visited investor standpoint, but also as an government agencies and investment cooperation and business partners in many collaborator standpoint. While the countries and regions and Santiago Principles aim to were invited to a series of position sovereign wealth funds important bilateral and

multilateral conferences and and develop the foreign dialogues, including the exchange market; China-US Joint Commission - to provide suggestions to on Commerce and Trade, the and a foundation for the China-UK Business People's Bank of China Summit, the China-Russia - to formulate policy on Investment Cooperation the RMB exchange rate.” Committee, the French Strategic Investment In contrast with SAFE’s variety of Attractiveness Council, and foreign-exchange policy the China-Japan CEO and formation priorities, the Former Senior Officials’ principles that underlie CIC’s Dialogue.”24 investment activities can be seen as distinct yet more parallel to the What about the goals and underlying guidelines of the objectives that the Chinese Santiago Principles. As a non- sovereign wealth funds point on member of IFSWF, and as an explicitly in these reports? In its entity that did not endorse the extensive 2016 annual report, Santiago Principles, SAFE is able SAFE lists a variety of its goals to completely divorce its vision of very clearly. Among them are the itself from the internationally following: accepted regulations. Hence, even - “to study and propose among its two largest sovereign policy suggestions for wealth funds, China could be seen reforming the foreign as playing the role of the rule- exchange administration maker with CIC and the role of system so as to prevent the rule-breaker with SAFE at the balance of payments same time. Four principles that risks and to promote an underlie CIC’s investment equilibrium in the activities are as follows: balance of payments; - to study policy measures - “CIC invests on a to make gradual commercial basis. Its advances in the objective is to seek convertibility of the maximum returns for its RMB under the capital shareholder within account and to cultivate acceptable risk tolerance.

- CIC is a financial phase with new responsibilities investor and does not engendered by the state-owned seek control of the enterprise reform, we succeeded companies in its in overcoming all the tests and portfolio. trials in achieving the goals our - CIC is a responsible Board of Directors set at the start investor, abiding by the of the year.”26 Tu Guangshao laws and regulations of might be seen as implying that China and of recipient CIC has a role to play in this “new countries or regions and normal” that the Chinese political conscientiously fulfilling economy found itself in. its corporate social responsibilities. The 2016 annual report of CIC - CIC pursues investments also includes a special mention of based on in-depth the importance of socially research within an asset conscious investing and green allocation framework to investing. While these ensure a prudent and conversations are starting to be disciplined approach in increasingly popular among both decision-making personal and corporate and investment investment entities, the activities.” 25 conversation has not yet trickled down to the concerns of the One can easily spot the ways in sovereign wealth funds with the which CIC’s principles are same speed. They are largely devised in parallel terms to the absent from the Santiago guidelines underlying the Principles as well. One, however, Santiago Principles. Even before can observe CIC to be positioning the mention of a “new era” by Xi itself as a responsible investor, Jinping, the Vice Chairman and investing at causes that alleviate President of CIC, Tu Guangshao the negative consequences of talked about a “new state of play” climate change, and provide and a “new normal” to describe assistance to the underprivileged the state of China in 2016; and the poor. Taking on the “Despite the new state of play in position of a rule-breaker, CIC the global market, and despite explains its priorities about China entering a ‘new normal’

responsible investing in the explored ways to alleviate following way: poverty, and in doing so, accrued enormous corporate “Combating climate change goodwill.”27 and achieving green and sustainable development are Last but not least, one should take closely linked to the well- notice that Tu Guangshao, Vice being of a country’s people, Chairman and President of CIC, and sovereign wealth funds, chose to conclude his opening including CIC, are paying statement of both 2015 and 2016 more attention to both. As a annual reports through quoting a member of the International Chinese poem. On one occasion, Forum of Sovereign Wealth he quotes “Honing gives a sharp Funds (IFSWF), CIC works edge to the sword, bitter cold adds with other sovereign wealth fragrance to the plum blossom,” funds to find ways to fulfil and in another instance he says, its corporate social “constant dripping wears away a responsibilities. Given its stone, and persistence and concern for global well- hardship are but a way of life.”28 being, CIC has pledged This trend in quoting Chinese support for IFSWF’s climate poetry to conclude a statement, change working group, not only is a long-standing norm contributing as a responsible in many governmental and investor to addressing academic opening statements in climate change. Chinese landscape, but also can be seen as fulfilling the purpose of Based on its business introducing Chinese classical portfolio, CIC capitalizes on poetry into the world of finance. It its resources to work with may be sending the strong the relevant government message that in this “new era” authorities in mobilizing espoused by Xi Jinping, private funding to help the communication norms are also poor and underprivileged. being altered and revised by the Through creative use of Chinese state. Once again, the public-private partnerships, sovereign wealth funds are industry funds, bond issues interlinked and encompassed and public listings, we have within the changing narrative of

China, as the Chinese state slowly China utilized its sovereign moves and constructs the “new wealth funds in line with the ways era” for itself. in which Xi Jinping envisioned the “new era” to look like: ideated and constructed by China in Conclusion collaboration with other nation states, to be partially lead and The analysis conducted above ultimately disrupted by Chinese shows that the actions of Chinese creativity and influence. sovereign wealth funds can be Therefore, the China that used to described as fitting to the rule- be the rule-taker, necessitated by maker and rule-breaker categories its needs to grow and stabilize within the contemporary itself socio-economically at the landscape of the sovereign wealth time, is now both a rule-maker funds industry. The role of and a rule-breaker. Even though Chinese sovereign wealth funds the research question posed at the acting as rule-makers and rule- beginning of the investigation has breakers can further be extended been answered, the research to the Chinese state itself, as it has conducted here could be extended previously been established in the and further analyzed to answer paper; the sovereign wealth funds similar yet unanswered questions. are merely institutional A comparative approach in which extensions of the Chinese state’s China’s sovereign wealth funds monetary ambitions. The palpable were contrasted with American or evidence discussed above that European sovereign wealth funds integrated the annual reports of would be an intriguing addition to CIC and SAFE along with observe the differences of the statements provided by both of Chinese funds when contrasted to their managers showcase the other rule-maker funds and their ways in which China established owner states. Furthermore, a a set of rules for the entire study on a larger number of sovereign wealth fund industry sovereign wealth funds with a and after a certain point in time more in-depth historical analysis started breaking those rules could also be conducted to further explicitly and implicitly as its validate the findings of this foreign policy and economic research and explore the needs necessitated. In that way, particular nuances of each

Chinese sovereign wealth fund inquiry in political economy and its respective contributions to literature. If China succeeds in China’s transformation to a rule- building the promised “new era,” maker and a rule-breaker. the implications of a multi- Ultimately, Xi Jinping’s address centered world would reach far was concrete enough to provide a beyond the confines of the set of general guidelines for the sovereign wealth funds. For now, Communist Party members but however, China is far from fully also vague enough for the realizing that multi-centered “new implemented and to-be- era” in all realms of the political implemented visions to be economic order. predicted by further academic

1Xi Jinping. “Secure a Decisive Victory in Building a Moderately Prosperous Society in All Respects and Strive for the Great Success of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era,” Xinhua. 2015. Web. 2 Ibid 3 Chris Buckley and Keith Bradsher. “Xi Jinping’s Marathon Speech: Five Takeaways.” The New York Times, October 18, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/18/world/asia/china-xi-jinping-party- congress.html?_r=0. 4Xi Jinping. “Secure a Decisive Victory in Building a Moderately Prosperous Society in All Respects and Strive for the Great Success of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era,” Xinhua. 2015. Web. 5Ibid. 6 Gary Hamel. 1996. “Strategy As Revolution.” Harvard Business Review, no. July-August: 69–82. 7 Bader Alhashel. 2015. “Sovereign Wealth Funds: A Literature Review.” Journal of Economics and Business 78: 1–13. 8 Gary Hamel. 1996. “Strategy As Revolution.” Harvard Business Review, no. July-August: 69–82. 9 Zhaohui Wang. 2017. “The Economic Rise of China.” Asian Survey 57 (4). University of California Press Journals: 595–617. 10 Gregory T Chin. 2017. “True Revisionist: China and the Global Monetary System.” In China’s Global Engagement: Cooperation, Competition, and

Influence in the 21st Century, edited by Jacques DeLisle and Avery Goldstein (Washington: Brookings Institution Press), 36. 11 Daniel C. K. Chow. 2017. “Rising Nationalism: China’s Regulation of Investment Trade.” In China’s Global Engagement: Cooperation, Competition, and Influence in the 21st Century, edited by Jacques DeLisle and Avery Goldstein. (Washington: Brookings Institution Press), 67-90. 12 Avery Goldstein. 2017. “A Rising China’s Growing Presence: The Challenges of Global Engagement.” In China’s Global Engagement: Cooperation, Competition, and Influence in the 21st Century, edited by Jacques DeLisle and Avery Goldstein. (Washington: Brookings Institution Press), 1-34. 13 Leong H Liew, and Liping He. 2010. “Contributing to a Harmonious Society: China’s Sovereign Wealth Fund.” In The Political Economy of Sovereign Wealth Funds, edited by Xu Yi-chong and Gawdat Bahgat (London: Palgrave Macmillan), 36. 14 Gary Hamel. 1996. “Strategy As Revolution.” Harvard Business Review, no. July-August: 82 15 Gary Hamel. 1996. “Strategy As Revolution.” Harvard Business Review, no. July-August: 69 16 Gary Hamel. 1996. “Strategy As Revolution.” Harvard Business Review, no. July-August: 70 17 Zhaohui Wang. 2017. “The Economic Rise of China.” Asian Survey 57 (4). University of California Press Journals: 595–617. 18 International Working Group of Sovereign Wealth Funds. 2008. “Sovereign Wealth Funds Generally Accepted Principles and Pratices, ‘Santiago Principles.’” International Working Group of Sovereign Wealth Funds, 4. 19 International Working Group of Sovereign Wealth Funds. 2008. “Sovereign Wealth Funds Generally Accepted Principles and Pratices, ‘Santiago Principles.’” International Working Group of Sovereign Wealth Funds, 7-8. 20 China Investment Corporation. 2016. “CIC Annual Report 2016,” (Beijing), 56. 21 Ibid 59. 22 Ibid, 10; 43 23 Ibid, 3.

24 Ibid, 43. 25 Ibid, 23. 26 Ibid, 5. 27 Ibid, 19. 28 Ibid, 2.

References

Alhashel, Bader. 2015. “Sovereign Wealth Funds: A Literature Review.” Journal of Economics and Business 78: 1–13. doi:10.1016/j.jeconbus.2014.10.001. Brown, Kerry. 2015. “The Great Wall of Money: Power and Politics in China’s International Monetary Relations. Edited by Eric Helleiner and Jonathan Kirshner.” International Affairs 91 (6): 1459–60. doi:10.1111/1468-2346.12489. Buckley, Chris, and Keith Bradsher. 2017. “Xi Jinping’s Marathon Speech: Five Takeaways.” The New York Times, October 18. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/18/world/asia/china-xi-jinping- party-congress.html?_r=0. Chin, Gregory T. 2017. “True Revisionist: China and the Global Monetary System.” In China’s Global Engagement: Cooperation, Competition, and Influence in the 21st Century, edited by Jacques DeLisle and Avery Goldstein. Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 35–66. China Investment Corporation. 2016. “CIC Annual Report 2016.” Beijing. Chow, Daniel C. K. 2017. “Rising Nationalism: China’s Regulation of Investment Trade.” In China’s Global Engagement: Cooperation, Competition, and Influence in the 21st Century, edited by Jacques DeLisle and Avery Goldstein. Washington: Brookings Institution Press,67-90. Corporation, China Investment. 2015. “CIC Annual Report 2015.” Beijing. Garver, John. 2011. “Book Review of ‘China, United States, and the Global Order.’” The China Journal, no. 70: 288–90. Goddard, Stacie E, and Daniel H Nexon. 2016. “The Dynamics of Global Power Politics: A Framework for Analysis.” Journal of Global Security Studies 0 (June 2014): 1–15. doi:10.1093/jogss/ogv007. Goldstein, Avery. 2017. “A Rising China’s Growing Presence: The Challenges of Global Engagement.” In China’s Global Engagement: Cooperation, Competition, and Influence in the 21st Century, edited by Jacques DeLisle and Avery Goldstein. Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 1-34.

Hamel, Gary. 1996. “Strategy As Revolution.” Harvard Business Review, no. July-August: 69–82. Helleiner, Eric, and Jonathan Kirshner, eds. 2014. The Great Wall of Money: Power and Politics in China’s International Monetary Relations. Cornell Studies in Money. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. International Working Group of Sovereign Wealth Funds. 2008. “Sovereign Wealth Funds Generally Accepted Principles and Pratices, ‘Santiago Principles.’” International Working Group of Sovereign Wealth Funds. doi:10.1007/s13398-014-0173-7.2. Liew, Leong H, and Liping He. 2010. “Contributing to a Harmonious Society: China’s Sovereign Wealth Fund.” In The Political Economy of Sovereign Wealth Funds, edited by Xu Yi-chong and Gawdat Bahgat, 26–46. London: Palgrave Macmillan. https://link-springer- com.ezp- prod1.hul.harvard.edu/content/pdf/10.1057%2F9780230290648_2.p df. Phillips, Tom. 2017. “Xi Jinping Heralds ‘New Era’ of Chinese Power at Communist Party Congress.” The Guardian, October 18. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/18/xi-jinping-speech- new-era-chinese-power-party-congress. Suzuki, Shogo. 2012. “China, The United States, and Global Order.” International Relations of the Asia-Pacific 12 (2): 351–54. doi:10.1093/irap/lcs006. Wang, Zhaohui. 2017. “The Economic Rise of China.” Asian Survey 57 (4). University of California Press Journals: 595–617. doi:10.1525/as.2017.57.4.595.

42 3

Ethnographic Account of Empowerment, Liberation, and Revolution in the “White-Haired Girl”

Gloria Liu is a fourth-year undergraduate student from the University of Toronto studying Sociology, East Asian Studies, and History. She is currently serving as the Editor-in-Chief for the academic cycle of 2017- 2018.

Introduction interview. She is a thin and petite Beijing local with large and round “The north wind blows, the eyes, defined cheekbones, and snowflakes whirl. A flurry of grey hair. I chose her as my snow brings in New Year.” Zhao interview subject because of the tearily sings along to the lyrics of drastic effects the Chinese policy “North Wind Blows” from the change of the revolution had on Chinese opera White-Haired her life. The influences of the Girl that was propagated during revolution on her life do not stem the Great Proletarian Cultural materialistically, but instead she Revolution as one of the carries the experience revolutionary “model plays” emotionally with her every day. (yangbanxi). Sitting on her The play White-Haired Girl still kitchen chair, she, a sixty-year- emotionally influences Zhao old Chinese-Canadian, tells her because of her personal and story of experiencing the multidimensional connection to revolution to me during an the main character, Xi’er, in

43 experiencing the Cultural Models of Modern Revolutionary Revolution that empowered, Art” along with the Red liberated, and revolutionized her. Detachment of Women.1 As the These micro influences were model plays were high regulated, caused by the macro structural they told stories to show the forces and the propagated opera drastic difference of China pre- of White-Haired Girl was able to and post-liberation in order to narrate these individual glorify the close connection stories. The play, as one of the between the People’s Liberation only two model plays that Army and the “common people”.2 featured a female lead, carried the These models were played out in same views as Zhao of aspects of all institutions, including schools, family, hardships, symbolic factories, and agriculture.3 materials, and feminism, from the Almost every Chinese man, revolution to today, in which I woman, and child had watched at will discuss in four separate least one of the model plays and sections. I initiated the interview because of the relatability of the for the purpose of a broad picture plays; the commoners were able of the Cultural Revolution; to contextualize their life story to however, her narrative mostly the plots of the plays.4 Through focused on the White-Haired the purposive model play, the Girl and thus led to the synthesis whole society can be mobilized of this profile. This ethnographic and educated in the same account will proceed as the same dimensions. order as the interview chronology; the full name of the Family interviewee will not be used to protect privacy. Paternal Relationship

The White-Haired In the closing scene of the White- Girl Background Haired Girl, Xi’er and the villagers sang “Red Sun is The White-Haired Chairman Mao. Red Sun is the 5 Girl, originally written by Ding Communist Party”. This is to Yi and He Jingzhi, was enforce the hit-home message of incorporated into the “Eight the Communist Party’s positive

44 influence that was able to free the she can view her life villagers from suffering, similar comprehensively, seeing her to the singing of “East is Red” by revolutionary years through the Chen villagers of contemporary lens. The Guangzhou.6 Zhao enjoyed generation has moved on but singing revolutionary songs Zhao’s sentiments toward this because it created a sense of song have not. The play carries closeness to those around her: the the significance of her suffering only time Zhao had heard her across the Atlantic Ocean; the father sing was at Tiananmen new meaning behind the emotions Square when he also sang “East is she feels toward the play does not Red” among the crowd. When the rest on a Cultural Revolution entire country was apprehensive political context anymore but about the future and the overall rather fluctuates with the status atmosphere was tense, music quo around her. allowed people like Zhao to experience some relaxation, as Spousal Relationship “sounds amidst the fury”.7 Musical plays are important tools The White-Haired Girl is also a to “revolutionize, nationalize, and signifier of what spousal relations popularize” the propagandist looked like during the revolution. film, according to Premier Zhou When Xi’er reunited with Dachun Enlai.8 in the mountains near the end of Zhao explains that every time she the play, they maintain an hears the song “North Wind “asexual distance” because they Blows” she will immediately tear are reconciled as neighbours and up since she reflects on the past comrades, not as lovers despite decade of her immigration the fact that he was her process to Canada and connects fiancé.9 The writes did not this period to the time when she provide a love story, and instead watched the White-Haired of being romanticized, the Girl during the revolution. More connection between Xi’er and importantly, with the death of her Dachun resembles that of a family father, she will now reflect the – the big family of the memories she has shared with him revolutionary because of the during the song. The song mutual “class feeling” (jieti provides a tunnel through which ganqing) that bring them closer.10

45 Zhao says she does not call her New Year, allows the audience spouse “husband” (laogong) but members to relate their personal instead they call each other by lives to it, even before the plot their full names and during the introduction. This is Zhao’s most years of revolution, they referred memorable scene from the play. each other by “comrade” Zhao recalls sitting in front the (tongzhi). This term was used grain cabinet in the family commonly regardless of “social courtyard, spending hours standing, status, age, sex, or guarding it to ensure no thieves relation”.11 Although many would take their family’s grain couples a decade younger than rations while waiting for her Zhao and her husband display father to return from work. The signs of affection, Zhao remains nation suffered from severe food emotionally neutral. shortages in the years of 1959- 1961 during the Great Leap Hardships Forward; both rural and urban grain ration declined from 203 kg 14 Hunger and Thriftiness in 1957 to 163.5 in 1960. Hunger was not rare; Zhao valued The hardships Zhao experienced rice and flour the most during due to the revolution led to the these years and “having a full formation of her strong work ethic stomach was world’s best and her thrifty spending habits, feeling”, and was only obtained even with financial stability. The when Zhao’s father returned 15 opera White-Haired Girl opens home with food. This has also with Xi’er’s monologue on New led to her habit of thriftiness today Year’s Eve, as she waits for her in Canada; she despises luxurious father to return.12 As a filial goods and lives a minimalistic life daughter, Xi’er made some flour – her wardrobe was plain and cakes for him to eat when he outdated; her home was not close comes home; she sings that he to lavishly decorated. Although will bring some food back with her family is financially well-off, him and they will enjoy the New her old consumption habits and Year holiday together.13 The play, mentality of saving and by connecting with the sacrificing have not taken a back commoners’ holiday of Chinese seat.

46 Sent-down Youth Years and smooth preparation of dinner Work Ethics ingredients. In the White-Haired Girl, Xi’er did not prioritize Moreover, Zhao’s work ethic education after she returns to the resembles those of Xi’er because community from years spent in of her tireless working habits and the mountain cave. She joins the the pain during the sent-down revolutionary force first. To Zhao, youth years. During the interview, Xi’er was not an educated woman Zhao started to prepare for dinner. but was a “physically competent” She ran to the backyard to extract or nenggan, empowered, and home-grown green onions and revolutionary one. proceeds to explain that most of the knowledge she has on “Eating Bitterness” (chiku) growing food organically came from the sent-down youth period. Although she did not enjoy the Zhao was sent down to the blood, sweat, and tears shed in countryside to “learn from the rural China, she thinks that the peasants” by doing manual younger generations of Chinese labour.16 During the decade of the lack experiences of “eating revolution, 18 million urban bitterness” (chiku), which youths were sent down to “reduce decreases their work efficiency. disparities in opportunities” During the years spent in the between the city and rural countryside, Zhao had to endure areas17 Mao believed that the her severe menstruation cramps future of China were in the hands and stand barefoot in the freezing of young people as they are the water in order to farm. Zhao feels most “active and vital force in a connection to Xi’er as her hair society”.18 Instead of choosing to has all turned grey in less than complete high school education, five years because of high stress Zhao went with her close friend at of settling down in a new country. the time to the countryside to The revolutionary spirit experience class struggle and in Xi’er is parallel to the one Zhao have “close contact with the expresses in her everyday life and masses of workers and particularly in relation to her peasants”.19 The heavy manual immigration experience: Zhao labour she committed herself to moved to Canada with her two was apparent seeing her quick and children by herself in 2008 and

47 has built a “home” in a foreign strength and a spiritual bomb of place. Overcoming language infinite power”, one that barriers, discrimination, and lack imperialists did not have.22 23 of social networks, Zhao has Zhao remembers watching the managed to purchase a house and film in the audience with many lives with stability. She felt others who were all holding a helpless in the first week after she copy of the book in their hand; landed in Toronto and she was sounds of weeping and sobbing determined to move back to were widespread when Xi’er was Beijing because of the liberated. Zhao remembers overwhelming unfamiliarity and the Little Red Book as the only culture shock. The character Xi’er textbook studied in her underwent severe poverty, rape, elementary school; however, she abduction, maltreatment, and cannot recollect the content of humiliation but she persevered Mao’s quotations in the book. until the very end: “There is nothing one cannot overcome”, Similar to peasants in Chen Zhao says.20 Village, both literate and illiterate people around her had a copy of Symbolic Materials the book and “vigorously waved these on cue” during various 24 The Little Red Book political and social events. The significance of the book does not For Zhao, the White Haired exist solely in the meanings Girl is connected with the Little behind Mao’s words, but also Red Book because they were the act of reading it. These introduced to her simultaneously actions are spread from top to and reinforced one another. To down because the central Zhao, the play did not end when authority of the Chinese Xi’er joined the Liberation Army Communist Party during the forces.21 Zhao imagines Xi’er revolution: officials including having children with Dachun and Premier Zhou Enlai and Defense the entire family reading the Little Minister Lin Biao were Red Book. The Little Red photographed pledging loyalty to Book was seen as a weapon of Mao by waving the 25 mass instruction and “a source of book. Especially after the endorsement of the White-Haired

48 Girl play by Chairman Mao and be a working woman actively Premier Zhou in 1967, the taking part in the labour force and connection between the Little Red contributing to the revolution.29 Book and the play became only During the revolution, a large clearer for Zhao since she read the number of urban women entered book and watched the play “heavy industry, including the countless times simultaneously.26 fields of iron and steel, The two are inseparable as the construction, mining…broke the plot of the play demonstrated the traditional employment pattern of perfect example of revolutionary female concentration in light and spirit, which the Little Red Book service industries”, including emphasizes. The meanings and Zhao.30 When Zhao returned to intentions behind the book and the the city of Beijing from being revolution itself not only sent-down, she was allocated to influenced people on the surface, different work units under various but rather “touches people to their industries. Since it was the sole very souls. It also touches the responsibility of the government essence of… deepest point of for “employment and job their world outlook… touches the assignment”, what her work roads one travelled and those one entails and what she would be will experience in the future, and doing ten hours a day completed touches the entire history of depended on the needs of the China’s revolution”.27 Party.31

Female Liberation and It is not coincidental that Mao and Zhou endorsed plays with female the Participation in leading characters, as they Formal Labour Force intended to encourage women to dominate their own lives, as well The Cultural Revolution also as to utilize their labour ability to brought along the liberation of the fullest. The character of women as Mao encouraged Huang Shiren, the cruel landlord, women to “join in productive has said at the beginning of the activity” and that they must musical that “women are cheap as receive equal pay for equal dirt”.32[32] However, he was at work.28[28] Zhao was certain that the end publicly denounced at a if this story was true, Xi’er would mass peasants’ meeting – a subtle

49 message here is that those who do not respect the equality between The “north wind” has sent Zhao men and women will face through numerous Chinese policy negative consequences. Thus, changes as well as overseas to although the musical desexualizes Canada. Despite how severe this Xi’er into a revolutionary hero, flurry of the “north wind” may her status as a woman was blow, Zhao continues to embrace nonetheless empowered due to Xi’er’s revolutionary spirit. Zhao the revolution and Mao’s message has developed a deep connection of gender equality.33[33] Zhao to Xi’er and this play was present knew that she was stratified and in shaping her paternal restrained in society but did not relationship, spousal relationship, understand the full extent of it lifestyle, and work ethic. In until she watched the “feminist” experiencing the Cultural model play of the White-Haired Revolution that empowered, Girl. Understandably, the only liberated, and revolutionized her, other piece of media resource Zhao internalized the macro Zhao mentioned during the structural forces into her personal interview was the Red life. One can speculate that, of Detachment of Women, which is this particular generation, Zhao the other female-led model play. was not the only one so drastically influenced by the White-Haired Conclusion Girl ; there are still many stories that are left untold and unheard.

1 Wilkinson, J. Norman. “The White-Haired Girl: From Yangko to Revolutionary Modern Ballet.” Educational Theatre Journal 26 no. 2 (1974): 164-174. 173. 2 Mittler, Barbara. “Cultural Revolution Model Works and the Politics of Modernization in China: An Analysis of ‘Taking Tiger Mountain by Strategy’.” The World of Music 45 no. 2 (2003): 53-81. 54. 3 Ibid. 4 Ibid. 5 White-Haired Girl (ballet). 1964. Accessed March 21, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mRr60PByNFc.

6 Chan Anita, Richard Madsen, and Jonathan Unger. “A Leftward Lunch and a Solid Footing.” Chen Village: Revolution to Globalization. Berkeley: University of California Press. 7 Mittler, Barbara. “Cultural Revolution Model Works and the Politics of Modernization in China: An Analysis of ‘Taking Tiger Mountain by Strategy’.” The World of Music 45 no. 2 (2003): 53-81. 54. 8 Clark, Paul. “Elaborating Culture: Dance, Music, Stage, and Fine Arts.” The Chinese Cultural Revolution: A History, 157-202. London: Cambridge University Press, 2008. 163. 9 Ibid., 164. 10 Ibid. 11 Yang, Dongping and Yiyuan Li. “Naming.” Streetlife China, 165-171. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 166. 12 Yi, Ding and Jingzhi He. “The White-Haired Girl (An Opera).” Modern Drama from Communist China, 105-180. Translated by Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang. New York: New York University Press and London: university of London Press, 1970. 112. 13 Ibid. 14 Bernstein, Thomas. “Stalinism, famine, and Chinese peasants.” Theory and Society 13, no. 3 (1984): 339-77. 343. 15 Zhao. Interview by Gloria Liu. In-person formal interview. March 10, 2017. 16 Qian, Zhenchao and Randy Hodson. “‘Sent Down’ in China: Stratification challenged but not denied.” Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 29 (2011): 205-219. 205. 17 Ibid. 18 Mao, Zedong. “Serving the People.” Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-Tung. Peking: Foreign Language Press, 1966. 290. 19 Ibid. 312. 20 Zhao. Interview by Gloria Liu. In-person formal interview. March 10, 2017. 21 Donald, Stephanie Hemelryk. “Seeing White – Female Whiteness and the Purity of Children in Australian, Chinese and British Visual Culture.” Social Semiotics 10 no. 2 (2000): 157-171. 159. 22 Cook, Alexander C. “Introduction: The spiritual atom bomb and its global fallout.” In Mao’s Little Red Book: A Global History, 1-22. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.

23 Hinton, Carma, Geremie Barme, and Richard Gordon, Morning Sun. DVD. Directed by Carma Hinton, Geremie Barme, and Richard Gordon. 2003. 24 Chan Anita, Richard Madsen, and Jonathan Unger. “A Leftward Lunch and a Solid Footing.” Chen Village: Revolution to Globalization. Berkeley: University of California Press. 25 Kraus, Richard Curt Kraus. “Politics in Command.” The Cultural Revolution: A Very Short Introduction, 24-43. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. 32. 26 Clark, Paul. “Elaborating Culture: Dance, Music, Stage, and Fine Arts.” The Chinese Cultural Revolution: A History, 157-202. London: Cambridge University Press, 2008. 163. 27 Ibid. 92. 28 Mao, Zedong. “Women.” Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse- Tung. Peking: Foreign Language Press, 1966. 297. 29 Zhao. Interview by Gloria Liu. In-person formal interview. March 10, 2017. 30 Jin, Yihong. “Rethinking the ‘Iron Girls’: Gender and Labour during the Chinese Cultural Revolution.” Gender & History 18 (2006): 613-634. 614. 31 Ibid. 617. 32 Yi, Ding and Jingzhi He. “The White-Haired Girl (An Opera).” Modern Drama from Communist China, 105-180. Translated by Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang. New York: New York University Press and London: university of London Press, 1970. 112. 33 Ibid. 166.

52 References

Bernstein, Thomas. “Stalinism, famine, and Chinese peasants.” Theory and Society 13, no. 3 (1984): 339-77. 343. Chan Anita, Richard Madsen, and Jonathan Unger. “A Leftward Lunch and a Solid Footing.” Chen Village: Revolution to Globalization. Berkeley: University of California Press. Clark, Paul. “Elaborating Culture: Dance, Music, Stage, and Fine Arts.” The Chinese Cultural Revolution: A History, 157- 202. London: Cambridge University Press, 2008. Cook, Alexander C. “Introduction: The spiritual atom bomb and its global fallout.” In Mao’s Little Red Book: A Global History, 1-22. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014. Donald, Stephanie Hemelryk. “Seeing White – Female Whiteness and the Purity of Children in Australian, Chinese and British Visual Culture.” Social Semiotics 10 no. 2 (2000): 157-171. 159. Hinton, Carma, Geremie Barme, and Richard Gordon, Morning Sun. DVD. Directed by Carma Hinton, Geremie Barme, and Richard Gordon. 2003. Jin, Yihong. “Rethinking the ‘Iron Girls’: Gender and Labour during the Chinese Cultural Revolution.” Gender & History 18 (2006): 613- 634. 614. Kraus, Richard Curt Kraus. “Politics in Command.” The Cultural Revolution: A Very Short Introduction, 24-43. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. 32. Mao, Zedong. “Serving the People.” Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-Tung. Peking: Foreign Language Press, 1966. 290. Mittler, Barbara. “Cultural Revolution Model Works and the Politics of Modernization in China: An Analysis of ‘Taking Tiger Mountain by Strategy’.” The World of Music 45 no. 2 (2003): 53-81. Qian, Zhenchao and Randy Hodson. “‘Sent Down’ in China: Stratification challenged but not denied.” Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 29 (2011): 205-219. 205. White Haired Girl (ballet). 1964. Accessed March 21, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mRr60PByNFc.

53 Wilkinson, J. Norman. “The White-Haired Girl: From Yangko to Revolutionary Modern Ballet.” Educational Theatre Journal 26 no. 2 (1974): 164-174. Yang, Dongping and Yiyuan Li. “Naming.” Streetlife China, 165-171. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 166. Yi, Ding and Jingzhi He. “The White-Haired Girl (An Opera).” Modern Drama from Communist China, 105-180. Translated by Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang. New York: New York University Press and London: university of London Press, 1970. 112. Zhao. Interview by Gloria Liu. In-person formal interview. March 10, 2017.

54 4

The Transformation of Women in Views of Socialist Japan

Zhijun Zhou is a fourth year student majoring in History and East Asian Studies at the University of Toronto.

Abstract

The unity of the themes of gender and class have always been a point of friction in Marxist thought but are nevertheless key. This essay examines the social history of women who have been liberated from traditional responsibilities by socialist movements in Japan and discusses the seemingly contradictory point of the mass mobilization of women in the socialist movement with respect to primitive accumulation in capitalist system. In general, the fundamental difference lies in the way that each system defines the responsibility of women.

Keywords: Japan, Marxism, Women, Social Movements, Liberation

Introduction between, a socialist state is the prerequisite for this ultimate blueprint envisioned by Karl The Marxist theory proposes that Marx. Moreover, different crises despite the overthrow of the fermented under the capitalist feudal state by the rise of the bourgeoisie and a transition to system in history seems to capitalist era, in the end, there will confirm the inevitable flaws in such a system, as Marxist theory be a communist epoch dominated by the proletariat. However, in suggests. For instance, the

55 economic development brought scholars. For instance, in by Meiji Restoration left vast “Women: The Longest space for debate on Japanese Revolution,” Juliet Mitchell capitalism. Confronting the crisis discusses the function of women of capitalism, Marxist scholars in capitalist society, as embrace a unique critique of class represented by the bourgeoisie relations under the capitalist family. According to the author, system. This essay focuses on the situation of women is more analysing the transformation of complicated than any other social women’s role in Japanese society group, as they are marginalized in using a Marxist approach, as they economic, social, and political were part of the auxiliary forces aspects but at the same time they of socialist ideas which are also fundamental to human challenged traditional social relations. 1 Based on Marx’s relations in Japan. The socialist preliminary framework, later movement in Japan unfettered scholars often centre on the issue women from their traditional of the oppression of women to responsibilities in feudal or conduct the analysis of the capitalist societies, resetting economy under capitalism. social and gender relations. In the Mitchell uses Engels’ theory as an socialist perspective, the example, as he once declared that transformation of women’s roles the inequality of sexes was from mothers and wives to a parallel to the development of separate structure in the monogamous marriage. 2 This workforce denies their gender-based oppression lies in dependence on men. women’s physiological weakness, and through the development in Women in Socialist View the marriage system, women become private property for men. Engels sees “the ability of work” Women have been portrayed as an as key to bringing about their exploited group throughout liberation, since an equal history. The study of gender and relationship cannot be built if class are not conspicuous in all women are limited to housework aspects of Marxist thought, but instead of socially productive nevertheless appears to be work. 3 That means, in a important to some Marxist traditional sense, women are

56 bound by complicated economic Japanese history. The first is the relations -- only in socialist theory conversion of women from can they be deemed physically peasant family members to and psychologically independent. reform activists through marriage In The Origin of the Family, with Marxist supporters. Japanese Private Property and the State, scholar Mikiso Hane has Engels gives insight into the compiled a book with very problem of women’s oppression, compelling diaries, memoirs, and claiming that the “the first testimonial accounts to show premise for emancipation of what ordinary Japanese people women is the reintroduction of the went through when the country entire female sex into public experienced economic growth industry… [This] demands that due to the development of the quality possessed by the capitalism. Among the figures individual family of being the that appear in her book, most of economic unit of society be them come from lower-class abolished”. 4 It seems that a backgrounds that scatter Rhubarb socialist perspective Shoots), records women’s automatically assumes women in hardships in their lives on a farm capitalist societies are a type of during the prewar period. Tomoe private property, whereas married a Marxist labour socialism equalizes family organizer and had been responsibilities. imprisoned for five years when Marxist over the rural area. For The Transformation of example, Yamashiro Tomoe, the author of Fuki no To (Bog Women in Socialist ideology was considered Japan “dangerous thought”. 5 After the war, she devoted her time to Having opened the discussion of participating in agrarian reform, women as an oppressed group that anti-war movements and writing highlights the problem in stories to reveal the privation of capitalist society, this essay will women based on real experiences. further examine the In the story of Fuki no To, Tomoe transformation of women in depicts a girl who spent her entire socialist Japan by looking at three life as an exploited woman, from different aspects that existed in her early years serving as a maid

57 to her role of being a wife, undertaking the campaign against daughter-in-law, and mother, capitalism, particularly because which exemplifies the hardship of of their marital relationship with women during that time. While supporters of Marxism. Whether such difficulties were not such cases should be deemed restricted only to women, many another patriarchal influence on men also became Marxist women is beyond the scope of this agrarian reformers because there essay. was an overall belief that the peasants were being exploited by Second, the shifting conception of the urban capitalist class. reproduction and contraception Tomoe’s experience is a could be seen as another type of sufficient example to reflect the evidence for the transformation of situation of rural women in this women in Japanese society. As period. Through their marriage Juliet Mitchell states in her book, with supporters of Marxism, these it is fundamental and women also embraced its ideas in revolutionary that a woman can the hopes of liberating bear a child only if she can do so themselves. Given the historical completely voluntarily; it is context, Germaine A. Hoston essential for women to have other examines the rise of the dual options instead of elevating economy and the revolution in the procreation to women’s Japanese countryside. She paramount task. 7 Therefore, the suggests that the period in which contraception policy might have the development of capitalism challenged the traditional was hitting its stride in cities relationship between women and coincided with the remarkably the state in capitalist society. In backward countryside. 6 The her article discussing socialist extreme poverty and hardship women in Taisho and Early created the conditions that fuelled Showa Japan, Vera Mackie peasants’ anger and brought about reveals the struggle of women growing acceptance of Marxist confronting their traditional economic theory among rural feminine responsibilities imposed communities. While men tended by the state and men. She to be the protagonists of the introduces Nakasone Sadayo, a agrarian reform, women in the member from the Sekirankai (Red countryside were also Wave Society), who was arrested

58 due to her participation in a encouragement of conscription political demonstration. Such an during wartime. Both serve the incident demonstrates the interest of the state but are given resistance of socialism to a euphemistical names in different capitalist society, particularly in situations. On the other hand, the relation to childbirth, considered debate over the legalization of by many conservatives to be abortion in Japan demonstrates women’s primary role. While the existence of entrenched there had always been supporters interest groups in the capitalist stressing the importance of society. The social phenomenon motherhood and rejecting described in Christiana A.E. contraception and abortion, many Norgren’s book, the promulgation women during this time argued of legal abortion, implies the that women should not be forced intersection of national and to fulfill such responsibilities, profession interests (Norgren, especially to give birth to children 36).10 It was during the post-war in unplanned situations (Mackie, reconstruction period for Japan in 78). 8 The female socialist Sakai which society was endangered by Magara appeared in Mackie’s a series of economic crises. article, denying the nobility of According to Norgren, the motherhood, which she defined it country experienced a dramatic as a creation of capitalist society: increase in population, eleven “When there is a war and there are million people, from 1945 to not enough soldiers, there are 1950, that resulted from calls to bear children and to repatriation of soldiers and multiply. In such times, mothers civilians from the former colonies with children will be given and the baby boom.11 This placed financial assistance. Does this a great amount of pressure on also come under the name of Japanese society and resulted in respect for motherhood, and the final legislative process of the protection of motherhood?”9 Eugenic Protection Bill. Aside from the national perspective, From the quote above one can see private groups also gained that Sakai Magara reveals an economically from the underlying contradiction between enforcement of laws that allowed the promotion of motherhood in abortions, mostly in the form of pre-war Japan and the private clinics. This example

59 supports my point that Sakai various strategies to organize Magara’s argument on the proletariat women. The first stage relation between motherhood and was through socialist propaganda the state, as the issue of with particular contributions by contraception and abortion in the female intellectuals to bridge the context of Norgren’s book, is gap between women socialists different from what female and uneducated working women. socialists such as Magara are In another book of Vera Mackie, striving to achieve. The case Creating Socialist Women in discussed by Norgren is more Japan: Gender, Labour and about the politics concerning Activism, 1900-1937, she reproduction in postwar Japan, provides the statistic that nearly while the point involved in one third of women were Mitchell and Magara’s comments classified as having a position in are the transformation of women “gainful employment” and most in socialist perspective, which of them engaged in agriculture aims to overcome the obstacles in work. 12 However, Mackie capitalist society. considers another rising problem as the high proportion of women The most important and effective workers in agriculture had not way to achieve transformation of helped carry out socialist women was the mobilization of expectations. The second highest women which turns this group proportion of women were into the auxiliary forces of the factory workers and home socialist camp in Japanese servants, but stereotypes often society. The two aspects applied in gender segmentation discussed in the previous according to industry. 13 The paragraphs are embodiments of mobilization of women in the the third point. Guided by the public workforce with the Marxist scheme of women’s infusion of socialist ideology laid liberation, women in the the foundation for shifting women industrial workforce and their away from their traditional roles, efforts to create organizational though at this stage the ingrained structures give them a greater gender segmentation revealed the participation in social labour and fact that women’s interests were political affairs. Since the 1920s, often neglected by men in Japan’s the socialist movement employed society. Rodger Swearingen

60 explained this in a book co- effort of suffragettes, women had authored with Paul Langer. Even the opportunity to voice their though the communist opinions and demand actions to propaganda in Japan had always improve the well-being of prescribed the “liberation of proletariat women, ranging from women from their feudalistic the abolition of the household bondage,” the percentage of head system to the women in the Japanese implementation of a standard communist party until 1945 was living wage regardless of sex or still small.14 It was partly because race.16 of the inferior social status of Japanese women and the militant While the socialist movement characteristics of the party that liberated women from their prevented women to gain a voice traditional responsibilities, some in an essentially male-dominated also suspect that it is an party. In my opinion, such a case alternative of primitive does not prove that women did accumulation, which forces a not play a role in socialist large group of women to join the movements, as Marx and his workforce, ultimately benefitting disciples all recognized the the capitalists. I think there is a importance of women fundamental difference in the emancipation. Rather, one should starting point of mobilizing look at the problem with respect women into the public workforce. to the setting of Japanese norms Silvia Federici considers and culture. Although many housework under capitalist socialist conservatives did not pay household as “a labour of love” much attention to the struggles of and argues that capital has been women, the enthusiasm of very successful in defining Japanese women has granted housework as an act of them more power to affect the love.17 Although workers receive political discourse. For instance, wages from the capital, Marxist the year of 1946 witnessed the scholars calculate the hidden historical moment in which unpaid work that contributes to Japanese women went to the polls profit. The story written by for the first time and presented a Yamashiro Tomoe in Hane’s surprisingly heavy proportion of book provides us the most votes in the election.15 With the intuitive way to understand the

61 difference. The oppressed woman doing, as they are the socialist in the story was simultaneously upholders and they should choose asked to work hard for the sake of what best serves their interests. their families without any rewards, and for the peasants in Conclusion general; their accumulative discontent has given rise to socialist beliefs. In addition, the In summary, Juliet Mitchell’s socialist movements which work is an inspiring source for me appear attractive to most of the to examine the transformation of proletariats are attractive because women’s role with a Marxist of their utopian vision that denies approach, and my argument is the privatization of property and supported by different cases and favours state-owned enterprises to historical events in the prewar and secure people’s basic living. It is postwar periods. Although many hard to distinguish whether this controversies remain in the study echoes the primitive of gender and class, there is no accumulation in capitalist society, doubt that the issue of women is as it requires further investigation very important to Marxist into the economic structure in thought. The mobilization of Japan during this period. Since, in women into the workforce the current model of socialist enables women to deviate from society the most ideal conditions their traditional, domestic will not be achieved, I think the responsibilities and to form a emphasis should be on the separate work structure which working-class women’s helped them gain their rights. consciousness of what they are

1 Mitchell, Juliet. Women: The Longest Revolution. Detroit, MI: Radical Education Project, 1971. 1. 2 Ibid. 4. 3 Ibid. 4 Engels, Friedrich. The Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State. Marx and Engels Selected Works, Volume II, 1884. 225. 5 Hane, Mikiso. Peasants, Rebels, Women, and Outcastes: The Underside of Modern Japan. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2013. 85. 6 Hoston, Germaine A. Marxism and the Crisis of Development in prewar Japan. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press, 1986. 223. 7 Mitchell. 11. 8 Mackie, Vera. “Socialist Women and the State in Taisho and Early Showa Japan”. In Japanese Studies Bulletin. Vol. 14, No.1, 1994. 78. 9 Ibid. 79. 10 Norgren, Christiana A.E. Abortion before Birth Control: The Politics of Reproduction in Postwar Japan. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001. 36. 11 Ibid. 37. 12 Mackie, Vera. Creating Socialist Women in Japan: Gender, Labour and Activism, 1900-1937. Cambridge University Press, 1997. 100. 13 Ibid. 101. 14 Swearingen, Rodger and Paul Fritz Langer. Red Flag in Japan: International Communism in Action, 1919-1951. Harvard University Press, 1952. 172. 15 Ibid. 171. 16 Mackie, Vera. Creating Socialist Women in Japan: Gender, Labour and Activism, 1900-1937. Cambridge University Press, 1997. 106. 17 Federici, Silvia. Revolution at Point Zero: Housework, Reproduction, and Feminist Struggle. PM Press, 2012. 17.

63 References

Engels, Friedrich. The Origins of the Family, Private Property and the State. Marx and Engels Selected Works, Volume II, 1884. Federici, Silvia. Revolution at Point Zero: Housework, Reproduction, and Feminist Struggle. PM Press, 2012. Hane, Mikiso. Peasants, Rebels, Women, and Outcastes: The Underside of Modern Japan. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2013. Hoston, Germaine A. Marxism and the Crisis of Development in prewar Japan. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press, 1986. Mackie, Vera. Creating Socialist Women in Japan: Gender, Labour and Activism, 1900-1937. Cambridge University Press, 1997. Mackie, Vera. “Socialist Women and the State in Taisho and Early Showa Japan”. In Japanese Studies Bulletin. Vol. 14, No.1, 1994. Mitchell, Juliet. Women: The Longest Revolution. Detroit, MI: Radical Education Project, 1971. Norgren, Christiana A.E. Abortion before Birth Control: The Politics of Reproduction in Postwar Japan. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001. Swearingen, Rodger and Paul Fritz Langer. Red Flag in Japan: International Communism in Action, 1919-1951. Harvard University Press, 1952.

64 5

[Op-Ed] More than Skin Deep: South Korea’s Plastic Proliferation

Rebekah Hwang is an undergraduate student at the University of Toronto. She’s currently serving as a Contributor for Synergy.

In the olden days, being beautiful the country third only to the was like winning a biological United States and Brazil2 - jackpot. Modern technology, countries that exceed South however, has levelled the playing Korea’s population by at least a field: anyone can physically alter factor of 4.3 Some estimates state their body if they are willing to that up to a third of Seoul’s pay the right price. Seoul population has undergone a Touchup estimates that an entire cosmetic procedure, and a BBC face makeover can cost between poll estimates a staggering fifty $25,000-55,000.1 percent of women in their twenties have received plastic South Korea is one of the world’s surgery.4 It is even common for cosmetic capitals. The South Korean parents to give their International Society of Aesthetic children plastic surgery as a high Plastic Surgery (ISAPS) school graduation present.5 estimated that South Korean plastic surgeons performed over People attribute South Korea’s one million surgical and non- heightening beauty standards to surgical cosmetic procedures in several factors. Many point to 2015. This number has decreased plastic surgery proliferation as over the years, but it still places evidence of Western influence on

65 South Korean beauty to minimize soldiers’ discourse. Procedures like scars.9 Beyond history, there is an blepharoplasty (eyelid creasing), economic side to this coin. Many rhinoplasty (nose reshaping), and South Koreans view plastic zygoma reduction (facial surgery as a practical investment. contouring) can be seen as an Physical beauty is an important exchange of common Asian facial asset in both the job and romance features for Westernized ones.6 markets; in a highly competitive Additionally, K-pop plays a major society, plastic surgery is often role in popularizing plastic deemed necessary to increase the surgery. Stars are known not only odds of success in one’s career or for their singing or dancing skills marriage.10 but also for their dazzling facial features and perfect The South Korean plastic physique. Korean actors and proliferation is not without singers set the standards and consequences. Plastic surgery is a trends for physical beauty, and risky procedure that does not very few have opted out of always yield the expected results. cosmetic surgery.7 In a Korea Consumer Agency survey, almost a third of South More nuanced approaches study Korean patients surveyed were the historic contours of South unhappy with the surgery’s Korean beauty. Such scholars results, and approximately 17 point out that some current beauty percent experienced negative side standards - such as flawless, white effects.11 Some patients are going skin - have been around for so far as to sue their cosmetic centuries.8 Some trace high surgeons over undesirable Korean beauty standards back to results.12 Beyond the physical the early twentieth century consequences, there is evidence Japanese occupation of Korea. that raising the beauty bar has After this period of oppression, psychological repercussions. Korean people sought to These rising standards can be physically distinguish themselves linked to eating disorders and from the Japanese. The body dissatisfaction among South opportunity came when, during Korean women.13 Additionally, as the Korean War, American Dr. plastic surgery becomes Millard introduced plastic surgery increasingly common, teenagers

66 may feel pressured into Though people may no longer competing with friends who have link specific physical features to received procedures.14 Though it corresponding character traits, is difficult to deny that beauty many people have an innate standards within the South understanding that a truly Korean community are changing, beautiful person is beautiful both this change is not always positive. without and within. A person’s personality can increase their In the midst of the raging debate, beauty. So maybe a better two important questions come to question is this: if beauty is a mind. Firstly, what is matter of both looks and beauty? And secondly, is beauty character, how is this reflected in detected by the eyes alone? our society today? Are we the kind of people with the courage to A study of history seems to face not only our outward flaws, support the idea that beauty is but our inward ones also? anything but monolithic. Trends that horrify us today - such as Physical appearance is important Chinese foot binding - were once - there's no use denying it. There the hallmarks of beauty. exists plenty of evidence and a However, in past societies there plethora of reasons that beauty was also the sense that a beautiful standards are rising, for better or face should be paired with for worse. Yet in a society where beautiful character. For example, physical standards fuel self- in Korean societies past slanted consciousness and in some cases eyes were viewed as a sign of self-hate, perhaps it is time for a propriety.15 In a sense, I don't deeper look beneath the skin. think this has entirely gone away.

1 “Korean Plastic Surgery Cost.” Seoul Touchup, https://www.seoultouchup.com/korean-plastic-surgery-cost/. 2 “ISAPS International Survey on Aesthetic/Cosmetic Procedures Performed in 2015.” International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery,

2016. https://www.isaps.org/Media/Default/global- statistics/2016%20ISAPS%20Results.pdf. Accessed 10 Oct 2017. 8. 3 “Population, total.” World Bank, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?page=2. 4 Marx, Patricia. “Abuout Face: Why is South Korea the world’s plastic- surgery capital?” The New Yorker, 23 March 2015. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/03/23/about-face. Accessed 10 Oct 2017. 5 Han, Seunghwa Madeleine. “Pretty in Plastic—K-Pop and Korea’s Plastic Surgery Boom.” New America Media, 30 Dec 2012, http://newamericamedia.org/2012/12/pretty-in-plastic----k-pop-and- koreas-plastic-surgery-boom.php. Accessed 10 Oct 2017. 6 Wang, Yuqing. Behind South Korean Cosmetic Surgery: Its Historical Causes and its Intertwined Relationship with Korean Pop Culture. Diss. University of Delaware, 2015. Web. Accessed 10 Oct 2017. 22, 25. 7 Ibid., 40-41. 88 Holliday, Ruth, et al. “Trading faces: The ‘Korean Look’ and medical nationalism in South Korean cosmetic surgery tourism.” Asia Pacific Viewpoint, vol. 58, issue 2, 2017, pp. 190-202, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/doi/10.1111/a pv.12154/full. Accessed 10 Oct 2017. 9 Wang, Yuqing. Behind South Korean Cosmetic Surgery: Its Historical Causes and its Intertwined Relationship with Korean Pop Culture. Diss. University of Delaware, 2015. Web. Accessed 10 Oct 2017. 20-23. 10 Holliday, Ruth, et al. “Trading faces: The ‘Korean Look’ and medical nationalism in South Korean cosmetic surgery tourism.” Asia Pacific Viewpoint, vol. 58, issue 2, 2017, pp. 190-202, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/doi/10.1111/a pv.12154/full. Accessed 10 Oct 2017. 11 Kwaak, Jeyup S. “South Korean Survey on Cosmetci Surgry Raises Eyebrows.” The Wall Street Journal, 4 Dece 2012, https://blogs.wsj.com/korearealtime/2014/12/04/south-korean-survey-on- cosmetic-surgery-raises-eyebrows/. Accessed 10 Oct 2017. 12 Evans, Stephen. “Victims of a craze for cosmetic surgery.” BBC News, 15 Dec 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-30295758. Accessed 10 Oct 2017.

13 Kim, Si Yeon, Young Seok Seo, and Keun Young Baek. “Face consciousness among South Korean women: A culture-specific extension of objectification theory.” Journal of Counseling Psychology, vol. 61, no. 1, 2014, pp. 24-36, https://search-proquest- com.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/docview/1434735768?pq- origsite=summon&accountid=14771. Accessed 10 Oct 2017. 14 Han, Seunghwa Madeleine. “Pretty in Plastic—K-Pop and Korea’s Plastic Surgery Boom.” New America Media, 30 Dec 2012, http://newamericamedia.org/2012/12/pretty-in-plastic----k-pop-and- koreas-plastic-surgery-boom.php. Accessed 10 Oct 2017. 15 Holliday, Ruth, et al. “Trading faces: The ‘Korean Look’ and medical nationalism in South Korean cosmetic surgery tourism.” Asia Pacific Viewpoint, vol. 58, issue 2, 2017, pp. 190-202, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/doi/10.1111/a pv.12154/full. Accessed 10 Oct 2017.

69 References

Evans, Stephen. “Victims of a craze for cosmetic surgery.” BBC News, 15 Dec 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-30295758. Accessed 10 Oct 2017. Han, Seunghwa Madeleine. “Pretty in Plastic—K-Pop and Korea’s Plastic Surgery Boom.” New America Media, 30 Dec 2012, http://newamericamedia.org/2012/12/pretty-in-plastic----k-pop- and-koreas-plastic-surgery-boom.php. Accessed 10 Oct 2017. Holliday, Ruth, et al. “Trading faces: The ‘Korean Look’ and medical nationalism in South Korean cosmetic surgery tourism.” Asia Pacific Viewpoint, vol. 58, issue 2, 2017, pp. 190-202, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/doi/1 0.1111/apv.12154/full. Accessed 10 Oct 2017. “ISAPS International Survey on Aesthetic/Cosmetic Procedures Performed in 2015.” International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 2016. https://www.isaps.org/Media/Default/global- statistics/2016%20ISAPS%20Results.pdf. Accessed 10 Oct 2017. Kim, Si Yeon, Young Seok Seo, and Keun Young Baek. “Face consciousness among South Korean women: A culture-specific extension of objectification theory.” Journal of Counseling Psychology, vol. 61, no. 1, 2014, pp. 24-36, https://search- proquest- com.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/docview/1434735768?pq- origsite=summon&accountid=14771. Accessed 10 Oct 2017. “Korean Plastic Surgery Cost.” Seoul Touchup, https://www.seoultouchup.com/korean-plastic-surgery-cost/. Kwaak, Jeyup S. “South Korean Survey on Cosmetic Surgery Raises Eyebrows.” The Wall Street Journal, 4 Dec 2012, https://blogs.wsj.com/korearealtime/2014/12/04/south-korean- survey-on-cosmetic-surgery-raises-eyebrows/. Accessed 10 Oct 2017. Marx, Patricia. “About Face: Why is South Korea the world’s plastic- surgery capital?” The New Yorker, 23 March 2015,

70 https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/03/23/about-face. Accessed 10 Oct 2017. Park, Carol Eugene. “For many South Koreans, beauty standards represent a cultural struggle.” The Varsity, 5 Mar. 2017, https://thevarsity.ca/2017/03/05/for-many-south-koreans-beauty- standards-represent-a-cultural-struggle/. Accessed 10 Oct 2017. “Population, total.” World Bank, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?page=2. Wang, Yuqing. Behind South Korean Cosmetic Surgery: Its Historical Causes and its Intertwined Relationship with Korean Pop Culture. Diss. University of Delaware, 2015. Web. Accessed 10 Oct 2017.

South Asia

Configuring Foreign Policies For Small States: A Case Study of Sri Lanka

Shakthi De Silva is a fourth year undergraduate of the University of Colombo in Sri Lanka specializing in International Relations with minors in Economics and Sociology. Abstract

Despite a wide array of foreign policy strategies employed by small states, there has been little academic treatment of the subject. This article represents a preliminary attempt to address this lacuna. It traces the rivalry between two Asian giants – India and China – and delineates why navigating the anarchic world in such a climate is challenging for a small state. Summing up concerns and variables that influence Sri Lanka’s foreign policymaking, the paper contextualizes the extant foreign policy under the country’s Unity Government. Following a cumulative linear progression of argument, where different foreign policy options are examined, the paper comes to the conclusion that a balanced approach is the most utilitarian for Sri Lanka in the present milieu.

Keywords: Sri Lanka, Foreign Policy, Small States, Foreign Policy Decision Making, Indo-China rivalry

75 Introduction multi-lateral cooperation is a moot point. Asian states - both big and small - are witnessing the genesis of a Most analysts agree that the global geopolitical highly populated Bay of Bengal transformation. An ‘Asian region carries significant Century’ engineered by the economic promise. It boasts a region’s powerhouses - India, combined Gross Domestic Japan and China - have forced Product approximating USD2.7 small state leaders to recalibrate trillion. South Asia alone is home their foreign policy trajectories. to over 1.7 billion people and by Unsurprisingly, their mutually- 2020 the Asian Continent is exclusive and competing regional expected to account for 35 per visions have led to the rise of cent of world trade. Despite the realpolitik and power balancing region’s potential for macro- 1 dynamics. In this backdrop, as an diplomatic cooperation , island positioned in a critical geo prevailing trust deficits coupled strategic location straddling the with competing Chinese and Indian subcontinent, Sri Lanka is Indian regional visions, make the caught in the epi-center of a IOR a hotbed for geopolitical growing Indo-Chinese strategic rivalry. Beijing and New Delhi’s rivalry. jockeying for bases or logistical support centers in the region and Indian Ocean Region (IOR) states the Doklam crisis is a notable do not savor a multi-lateral cases in point. security order. Bi-lateral security relationships are often favored So then, what must small states do over multi-lateral security in these testing times? A great arrangements. Added to this deal of ink has been spilt over the dynamic is the fact that most IOR foreign policy options open to states impute Non-Alignment as great powers, but the choices their main policy plank. available to small state leaders Prevailing policy discourses in continue to remain understudied, the region are also underpinned particularly those in South Asian by the need for economic states. Undeniably, the success of diplomacy; albeit to what degree a small state’s foreign policy this takes the form of a sustained hinges on its ability to harness

76 geopolitical vicissitudes for its power competition. Existing benefit. This success is also investigations on the subject have contingent on the ability to at a tendency to be deficient and least, preserve sovereignty and often suffer from a fallacy of territorial integrity in times of composition.3 Attempts at a more great power conflict. But what is comprehensive assessment of the approach small states should small states foreign policy options follow to meet these ends? Is in the backdrop of great power there a universal policy or competition, must be taken with strategy that should be applied or due humility given the myriad should states keep their options factors in play. This paper, open? therefore, chooses Neo Classical Realism as the most suitable This is the puzzle undergirding theory to unlock the variables this study. Neo Realism, an often- which determine the selection of a used theoretical perspective in the particular foreign policy option. domain of small state foreign policy, adopts a binary view of Analogous to other East Asian small states foreign policy states, Sri Lanka occupies vital avenues. For example, they sea lanes for global commerce should either balance against a and communication and is threatening hegemon or therefore inherently susceptible to bandwagon with it in the hope of geopolitical changes and security gain. The latter option is preferred challenges. The military buildup when a threatening great power is in East Asia is also comparable to geographically closer to a small that in the IOR. However, state. Not only is this binary literature on East Asian small perspective inherently states generally agree that their reductionist, it also fails to modus operandi is to hedge capture the range of options between the United States and which small states adopt in the China. Does Sri Lanka engage in face of great power rivalries.2 hedging or does it employ a different strategy? This paper attempts to fill a perceived gap in the existing What is the optimal security literature on small state foreign strategy for small states in the policy in the backdrop of great battleground of two great powers?

77 Is it bandwagoning with one, China in South Asia, as the latter balancing against the more increases its footprint in the threatening great power or region. The fourth section takes espousing a neutral position? Are stock of the post-2015 foreign there alternative options in a small policy of Sri Lanka under the state’s foreign policy tool box? Presidency of Sirisena. The This study aims to unpack such subsequent section looks closely options, delineate the current at the varied options Sri Lanka strategy pursued by Sri Lanka, can adopt and the advantages and and outline the best possible drawbacks of each choice. A approach for Sri Lanka, after caveat, however, is that the weighing the pros and cons of options discussed in this final each option. section are not exhaustive, but instead considers only the most In order to tackle these questions, common foreign policy strategies tracing how the island perceives that small states adopt. the two powers is also important. Do Sri Lankan statesmen see New Neo Classical Realism Delhi and Beijing as a source of pivotal support, a source of Neo Classical Realists posit that concern, or both? Moreover, what the policy option selected by a kind of image does the island country is driven first and want to cultivate in the eyes of the foremost by the country’s relative regional powerhouses? Will Sri material power. Neo Classical Lanka be forced to take sides if a realists contend that a state’s conflict erupts? These subsidiary foreign policy making is shaped questions are also raised in this by its power capability because paper. systemic pressures must be translated through intervening The article unfolds as follows. I variables. In that sense, the begin by discussing the theory of anarchic international system Neo Classical Realism, exposing “influences foreign policy, as the varied factors which come states must tailor their policies to into play when a state implements respond to the threats and its foreign policy decisions. Next, opportunities it provides.”4 I study the prevailing strategic Consequently, intervening factors competition between India and play a significant role in the

78 eventual strategy pursued by the large part of society is suspicious state because policy choices are of the FPE’s desires, it will be not conceived as a direct product challenging to carry out a FPE’s of systemic stimuli. decision. This was clearly visible in the case of the proposed Indo- According to this school of Sri Lanka ETCA agreement thought, intervening factors driven by the Prime Minister of include “leader images, strategic Sri Lanka, which was ultimately culture, state- society relations, stonewalled owing to strong and domestic institutions”.5 public opposition. Leader images relate to the beliefs and values of a state’s Foreign The last intervening variable is Policy Executive (FPE). A FPE domestic institutions. The generally comprises the routines and processes followed President, Prime Minister and key by such structures, and the degree cabinet members. FPE’s of power concentration in the personality and character may executive’s hand as against the influence a state’s response to legislature falls under this external stimuli and therefore, category. Sri Lankan policy investigating such factors is makers for the most part do not critical to analyze how systemic have to bargain with the pressures impinge on FPE’s legislature on foreign policy decision. issues and the FPE is therefore; less constrained when taking The strategic culture of a country action on issues pertaining to the is the entrenched beliefs and foreign policy of the country.7 worldviews of the society as a Although a Ministry of whole. Such beliefs and notions Foreign/External Affairs are significant as they have (MFA/MEA) could play a role in bearing on the FPE’s preference. foreign policymaking in some This is also because the final countries, this is not the case in choice of a FPE has to be one that Sri Lanka. The strongest is acceptable for the public at impression the Sri Lankan MFA large. The third factor relates to makes is that of policy the degree to which “society recommendations to the FPE and defers to state leaders on foreign even then, this has a high policy matters”.6 If for example, a tendency to be dismissed if it is

79 contrary to the FPE’s outlook. As This initiative combined with a result, the MFA’s role is others persuaded Pakistan to redundant in this analysis.8 characterize her ties with China with phrases such as “iron- Chinese inroads into brother relationship” and “all- India’s ‘backyard’ weather friends”. By the end of 2016, symbolizing the crystalized South Asia is a fast-emerging bond between the two countries, theatre of Sino-Indian rivalry. close to 30 percent of Pakistan’s Despite moments of conciliation, imports came from China. India’s relations with China remain tense, a trend unlikely to South Asian states are also a reverse anytime soon. Beijing has significant market for China’s not eclipsed New Delhi in South weapons exports. By 2015, Pakistan received 35 per cent of Asia yet, but its influence in areas such as trade and investment China’s arms exports, while cannot be understated. Bangladesh received close to 20 per cent.12 Maldives and Pakistan Between 2005 and 2013, Chinese have already signed Free Trade assistance to Sri Lanka amounted Agreements (FTA) with China, to “US$5.664 billion, out of whilst Sri Lanka is currently which 98 per cent was in the form negotiating a FTA with Beijing. of loans”.9 This prompted Sri This brief synopsis demonstrates Lanka to elevate her ties with China’s inroads in South Asia. China to a “strategic cooperative Without doubt, such partnership” in 2013.10 In developments directly impact Bangladesh, “Chinese firms have New Delhi’s foreign policy invested heavily in power and calculus. infrastructure projects such as in the development of Chittagong In June of 2017, a tense military harbour and in road links to standoff took place between improve connectivity”.11 In 2015, Indian and Chinese troops when China and Pakistan launched the Indian soldiers entered the China Pakistan Economic Doklam plateau, claimed by both Corridor (CPEC), one of the China and Bhutan, to halt the largest projects in South Asia, construction of a road project by costing close to USD46 billion. the Chinese Army in a disputed

80 border area. People’s Liberation of rivalry already underpins Sino- Army Navy’s (PLAN) Indian relations in the 21st modernization schemes along century. with the overseas military base in Djibouti are touted to have direct Sri Lanka’s post 2015 implications on the maritime Foreign Policy security and overall stability of the Indian Ocean. Arguments 2009 ended for President such as China’s ‘tyranny of Rajapakse on a high note. Sri distance’ to the Indian Ocean can Lanka’s Armed Forces routed also be called into question L.T.T.E separatists in the North- ensuing Beijing’s String of Pearls East of the island and despite 13 strategy in South Asia. excessive government spending on defense, a sizeable portion of Do these developments make the public was firmly behind the China a disruptive force in South military offensive. Pressure from Asia? China’s defense budget is the West, however, was estimated to be nearly four times mounting. The 2009 ‘crowning bigger than that of India’s. Indian success’, though hailed by some, officials and security experts tend was mired in controversy. to perceive the expansion of China’s presence in South Asia, Rajapakse was progressively in a strategic rivalry lens. alienated on the international Tensions between the two states stage, most notably, in the 2013 have also been simmering in Commonwealth Heads of recent times. Beijing barred New Government Meeting in Colombo Delhi from becoming a member which the Prime Ministers of of the Nuclear Suppliers Group, Canada, India and Mauritius “blocked India’s attempts to list boycotted. Repeated UNHRC Masood Azhar as a terrorist at the resolutions called on the United Nations, and even routed Rajapakse Government to its energy pipelines through investigate allegations of human disputed territory in Kashmir rights violations and initiate a showcasing scant regard for credible reconciliation India’s calls for the pipelines to be mechanism. The West also cut off 14 re-routed”. Parsing through aid and assistance to the island, these events suggest that a degree including GSP+ facilities Sri

81 Lanka had hitherto enjoyed from Hindustan Times, Prime Minister the European Union. Allegations Wickremesinghe declared, “We of Human Rights violations will improve relations with India. continued to be brushed aside by But that doesn't mean we will be the populist leader as an hostile to China.”19 A former Sri indication of foreign Lankan economic affairs interference.15 spokesperson, Dr. Harsha De Silva, also went on record stating Facing a diplomatic onslaught that the Government intends to from India and the West, have “a balanced approach Rajapakse began to seek comfort between India and China, unlike from Moscow and Beijing. the [previous] regime, which was Having visited China seven times antagonizing India almost by its during his first nine years in office closeness to China.”20 and received a large amount of Chinese loans, elevating Sri The Unity Government consists Lanka’s ties with China was of the Sri Lanka Freedom Party axiomatic to Rajapakse.16 In an (headed by the President) and the obvious tilt towards Beijing, United National Party (led by the Rajapakse began constructing a Prime Minister) which were until motely of projects using Chinese then, the fiercest of rivals. Once loans.17 China’s Export-Import the ‘Unity Government’ came Bank alone is reported to have into being, the United National invested USD1.6 billion in more Party (UNP) gradually took over than 20 projects, mostly involving the task of managing foreign shipping and transportation.18 By relations. The extant foreign 2014, Chinese nuclear policy decision making structure submarines were also making port remains largely unchanged since calls in Sri Lankan harbours, 2015, as the UNP party leadership much to the ire of New Delhi. still guide’s foreign policy, but with a greater input from the Once the Sirisena- President since early 2018. The Wickremesinghe Unity core FPE includes the President, Government came to power in Prime Minister, the Foreign January 2015, promises were Secretary and a few selected made of a more equidistant Ministers, with the ambit of approach. In an interview to the

82 power concentrated around the undertook an official visit to Sri Prime Minister. Lanka. These bilateral exchanges signify the effort taken by the new The post-2015 foreign policy, administration to enhance Sri unlike previous administrations, Lanka’s image as a state that has not been guided by the seeks to be ‘friends with all’; all Government’s ideological the while bearing cognizance of posture.21 This has allowed the the security interests of the two regime to forge stronger ties with Asian giants. For example, unlike New Delhi and Beijing devoid of Rajapakse, deference is now any prejudice or partiality. A given to India’s security concerns. month after the Unity This was displayed when a Government came to power, the Chinese submarine was refused to President undertook a state visit to dock in the Colombo Port in neighboring India. This was 2017; in contrast to the 2014 followed by Prime Minister decision to allow a Chinese Modi’s visit to Sri Lanka in nuclear submarine to dock in the March. President Sirisena then same port. went on a four day state visit to China at the invitation of Chinese As an intervening variable, President Xi Jinping. By Leader images consider the FPE’s September 2015, Prime Minister ideology and the impact this may (PM) Wickremesinghe followed have on foreign policymaking. suit, undertaking an official visit Despite emerging from opposing to India at the invitation of Prime political parties, the Sirisena- Minister Modi and then later Wickremesinghe administration visiting China. is not fixated on a distinct ideological camp.22 The case of The year 2015 also saw PM Wickremesinghe visiting constructive engagement with the China despite his party’s West. The then US Secretary of traditional alignment with the State, John Kerry, came to Sri West is a clear illustration of this. Lanka, followed by Ambassador Thus, leader image comes into Samantha Powers in November. play only in terms of the FPE’s The following year, Hugo Swire, (both the President and PM’s) the Minister of State for Foreign desire to welcome investments Affairs of the United Kingdom

83 and other economic linkages from The Unity Government sees India both India and China. and China more as opportunities that remain to be harnessed, than The government’s conduct on threats that need to be feared. In international affairs has an interview to Bloomberg, Sri traditionally been less central to Lanka’s Foreign Secretary people’s day to day concerns. claimed that “Sri Lanka will Nevertheless, enmeshments with ‘redouble’ efforts to strike a free China are being watched today trade deal with China and with hesitant eyes. Clashes in conclude an expanded trade pact Hambantota in 2017 and the debt with India as part of the island owed by the island to China are nation’s strategy of becoming an causative factors for the public’s Indian Ocean hub”.24 The island, sense of apprehension. Therefore, whilst welcoming and indulging a balanced approach between both, has also sought to remain India and China resonates more disentangled from their bilateral than the previous Pro-China disputes. For example, Colombo policy of Rajapakse. remained mum over the Dokhlam crisis25 and has sought to alleviate Even if equanimity is ubiquitous, Indian and Chinese concerns by this does not imply that the welcoming their investment present day FPE has a free hand in projects with open arms. deciding matters pertaining to foreign policy. The public’s Although geographically tied to outcry against the Indo-Sri Lanka the Indian Subcontinent, Sri ETCA agreement exhibited FPE’s Lanka has not sought a security constraints when it came to alliance with India, nor has she execute a decision not favored by chosen to linkup with China the public.23 The China-Sri Lanka against India. Instead, the FTA currently under discussion administration jumped on board has not drawn similar censure the Chinese BRI while retaining from the masses. Optics has her traditional ‘friends and therefore, become imperative, not neighbours’ like Japan and India. only on the international front, but Engaging with New Delhi and also to garner domestic support Beijing, without availing on either for the regime. for security guarantees has enabled the Sirisena-

84 Wickremesinghe administration abandonment remain high if Sri to chart an independent course in Lanka bandwagons with or the hope that Sri Lanka can rise balances against New Delhi or alongside her regional economic Beijing. Moreover, the trade and powerhouses without being tied economic benefits Sri Lanka down by either. This is not a case hopes to accrue from both powers of balancing, bandwagoning or would also diminish in size if the hedging. Rather, the extant island draws closer to one at the foreign policy denotes an expense of the other. unimpeded and balanced approach to harness the Hedging, as applied to East Asian opportunities presented to the states, typifies an act of enhancing island by both powers without trade opportunities with China being overly acquiescent to either. whilst maintaining a vibrant security relationship with the Strategizing Foreign United States against a possible policy options for the threat from Chinese expansionism. Despite China’s island growing imprint in the IOR, Beijing does not pose any Which foreign policy option for imminent security threat to the Sri Lanka is the best going island. Neither does India, which forward? Balancing or has sought to display itself bandwagoning continue to be (particularly under the Modi unrealistic. “Both options involve administration), as a benevolent choosing one party over the other, regional ‘brother and benefactor’. something Sri Lanka is not in a Hedging, therefore, loses value in position to do. To emphasize this such a permissive environment. point a simple example suffices: Sri Lanka’s largest portion of FDI Neutrality remains ideal only in in 2017 came from China the case of a major confrontation followed closely by India. between the two powers because Conversely, Chinese tourist this avenue limits more robust arrivals account for 13 per cent of forms of engagement in times of total tourist arrivals to the island. peace. David’s theory of Omni- This is second only to India.”26 Balancing is another approach The risks of provocation and/or that can be used to study foreign

85 policy making of third world the island’s contemporary foreign states. His theory assumes that policy is not illustrative of under- decision makers make foreign balancing. Moreover, Sri Lanka policy judgments with an eye on does not wish to remain on the ensuring regime stability. In that sidelines and/or buck-pass when sense, foreign policy is shaped by non-traditional security threats a desire to counter internal and emerge in the IOR. Consequently, external threats to the regime. His under-balancing in the insights help explain why a contemporary milieu lacks merit balanced approach towards India and as a result, is no sensible and China could have positive recourse. ramifications for the Sirisena- Wickremesinghe regime. Thus, Sri Lanka’s foreign policy However, as David ascribes to the is shaped chiefly by the country’s balancing-bandwagoning limited power potential, and the dichotomy in his theory, it falls regime’s desire to maintain a short in explaining the present granular equidistance between administration’s approach India and China. By welcoming towards India and China and the both powers to invest and trade tangible benefits that this policy with the island, the political accrues. administration hopes that Sri Lanka’s economy would grow According to Schweller, under- alongside theirs so that the balancing takes place when a Government’s vision to make Sri state does not balance or does so Lanka into an ‘Indian Ocean hub’ inefficiently in response to a and link up with global dangerous aggressor.27 As the production networks reaches island does not see New Delhi or fruition. Beijing as revisionist in nature,

1 For an explanation on Macro-Diplomatic Cooperation see Sun and Haegeland 170. 2 This is best argued by Cheng-Chwee.

3 A fallacy of composition is to assume that what one actor can do in a given set of circumstances must also be within reach for an indefinite number of actors to do simultaneously. 4 Ripsman, Norrin M., et al. 2 5 Ripsman, Norrin M., et al. 9 6 Ripsman, Norrin M., et al. 71 7 Ripsman, Norrin M., et al. 76 8 The MFA plays a minor, if not inconsequential role in foreign policy decision-making, although most routine operations (or standard operating procedures) are handled by it. This deduction is based on a series of confidential interviews carried out with retired and serving Sri Lankan diplomats. 9 Sultana 246. 10 For more on the Sino – Sri Lanka relationship see Ayres and Anderson. 11Wagner 313. 12 For detailed insight into China’s weapon exports see Mollman. 13 There are two main schools of thought with regard to Chinese activity in the IOR. One idea is that Beijing seeks to “dominate” the Indian Ocean region. Others maintain that China is simply following its growing trading interests and seeking to secure its supply lines against disruption. For more information see Cooper. 14 Silva 15 At the time, atrocities purported to have been committed during the final phase of the military campaign were not the only charge leveled against Rajapakse by the West. The wave of repression directed at political opponents, the lack of willingness to reach out to the Sri Lankan Tamil minority coupled with an implicit support to extremist nationalist groups operating in the island were other reasons for Western political pressure. 16 This can be loosely viewed as a case of balancing against the West and India by allying with their political rival - China. 17 These included among others, the Norochcholai Coal Power Plant, Mattala International Airport, Katunayake Airport Expressway, Moragahakanda Irrigation Development Project, the Southern Expressway, Hambantota Port, the Lotus Pond (Nelum Pokuna) Performing Arts Theatre and the expansion of the Colombo Port. 18 On Chinese loans to Sri Lanka see Feng. 19 As quoted in Sundarji.

20 As quoted in Ellen. 21 Uyangoda was among the first to purport this view. 22 A major challenge to the continuance of this balanced approach lies in the political makeup of the regime. The power struggle brewing between the President and Prime Minister, particularly since March 2018, manifests a personal bitterness which may hinder policy implementation in the coming years. Added to this is the possibility of the PM and President indulging in populism to shore up their positions ahead of the next presidential election. Limited cooperation and consultation, between the two, could make co-habitation within the Unity Government less tenable. If this is the case, it would undoubtedly have major ramifications on the foreign policy of the country notwithstanding the existing consensus for a ‘balanced approach’. 23 Despite opposition, Sri Lanka’s PM has not given up on finalizing this agreement. For more on this see Kleiner. 24 See Marlow and Ondaatjie; For more on the Government’s vision to transform the island to a Maritime/ Global Logistics / Financial Hub see: the Government’s 2025 vision accessible from: http://www.treasury.gov.lk/documents/10181/66400/Vision_2025_Englis h.pdf/8d93e8db-2c3a-4e15-9ab2-fc619817e6fd 25 For a detailed account on the Dokhlam crisis see Usman. 26 Silva 27 See Schweller for more on the theory of Under Balancing.

88 References

Ayres, A. and A. Anderson. “Economics of Influence: China and India in South Asia.” Council on Foreign Relations, 3 Aug. 2015, www.cfr.org/expert-brief/economics-influence-china-and-india- south-asia. Cheng-Chwee, Kuik. “The Essence of Hedging: Malaysia and Singapore´ Response to a Rising China.” Contemporary Southeast Asia, vol. 30, no. 2, 2008, pp. 159–185., doi:10.1355/cs30-2a. Cooper, Zack. “Security Implications of China’s Military Presence in the Indian Ocean.” Center for Strategic International Studies, Mar. 2018, csis-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs- public/publication/180403_Cooper_SecurityImplications.pdf?7st 1090IBycgjjMj3oSIXD8fyzWQ8i3f. Ellen, Barry. “New President in Sri Lanka Puts China's Plans in Check.” The New York Times, 9 Jan. 2015, www.nytimes.com/2015/01/10/world/asia/new-president-in-sri- lanka-puts-chinas-plans-in- check.html?rref=collection/timestopic/Rajapaksa, Mahinda. Feng, Bree. “For China, a New Leader in Sri Lanka May Herald a Change in Ties.” The New York Times, 9 Jan. 2015, sinosphere.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/01/09/for-china-a-new- leader-in-sri-lanka-may-herald-a-change-in- ties/?rref=collection/timestopic/Rajapaksa, Mahinda. Gulbin Sultana. “Sri Lanka after Rajapaksa: Can it Ignore China?” Strategic Analysis, Vol. 40, no. 4, 2016, pp. 245-254, doi: 10.1080/09700161.2016.1184797. Kleiner, Freddie. “Alaco.” Sri Lankans Sceptical of China's Investment Rush Alaco, 17 Jan. 2018, www.alaco.com/our- insight/intelligence/sri-lankans-sceptical-of-chinas-investment- rush. Marlow, Iain, and Anusha Ondaatjie. “Sri Lanka Will 'Redouble' Its Efforts on China, India Free Trade Deals.” Bloomberg, 28 Mar. 2018, www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-03-28/sri-lanka- to-redouble-efforts-on-china-india-free-trade- deals?utm_content=business&utm_source=twitter&utm_campai

89 gn=socialflow-organic&cmpid=socialflow-twitter- business&utm_medium=social. Mollman, Steve. “China Is the World's Fastest-Growing Arms Exporter- Thanks to the Nations Surrounding India.” Quartz, 23 Feb. 2016, qz.com/621884/china-is-the-worldsfastest-growing-arms- exporter-thanks-to-the-nations-surrounding-india/. Ripsman, Norrin M., et al. Neoclassical Realist Theory of International Politics. Oxford University Press, 2016. Schweller, Randall L. “Unanswered Threats: A Neoclassical Realist Theory of Underbalancing.” International Security, vol. 29, no. 2, 2004, pp. 159–201, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4137589. Silva, Shakthi De. “Will Sri Lanka Manage to Perform the Balancing Act between China and India?” South Asia @ LSE, London School of Economics, 19 Feb. 2018, blogs.lse.ac.uk/southasia/2018/01/19/will-sri-lanka-manage-to- perform-the-balancing-act-between-china-and-india/. Sun, Yun, and Hannah Haegeland. “China and Crisis Management in South Asia.” Investigating Crises: South Asia's Lessons, Evolving Dynamics and Trajectories, Stimsons, 2018, www.stimson.org/sites/default/files/InvestigatingCrisesChina.pdf Sundarji, Padma Rao. “We Can't Have a President with Unlimited Powers: Wickremesinghe.” Hindustan Times, 9 Jan. 2015, www.hindustantimes.com/world/we-can-t-have-a-president-with- unlimited-powers-wickremesinghe/story- 0rIrWq8pSngEV9sUrlhJlM.html. Usman, Tallal. “Doklam: Prelude to the Clash in South-Asia.” Synergy: The Journal of Contemporary Asian Studies, 8 Jan. 2018, utsynergyjournal.org/2018/01/08/doklam-prelude-to-the-clash- in-south-asia/. Uyangoda, Jayadeva. “Taking Sri Lankan Foreign Policy to the Post Confrontational Phase.” The Wire, 29 June 2016, thewire.in/46921/taking-sri-lankan-foreign-policy-to-the-post- confrontational-phase/. Wagner, Christian. “The Role of India and China in South Asia”. Strategic Analysis, Vol. 40, no. 4, 2016 pp. 307-320, doi: 10.1080/09700161.2016.1184790

90 7

From Encounter to Exodus: History of the Rohingya Muslims of Myanmar

Sakshi Shetty is a fourth-year student at the University of Toronto double majoring in Health & Disease, and Immunology, with a minor in Spanish.

Kassandra Neranjan is a fourth-year student at the University of Toronto double majoring in International Relations, Peace, Conflict, and Justice Studies, and minoring in French Studies.

Abstract

According to the United Nations, the Rohingya are amongst the most persecuted minorities in the world. The Rohingya Muslims of Burma have been victim to ethnic cleansing and genocide for decades. Although Islam is practiced by four per cent of Myanmar’s population (most of these Muslims identify as Rohingya), the Rohingya Muslims have been deprived of citizenship rights and are denied recognition as a ‘national race’ based on their alleged “immigrant status”. The institutional and systematic discrimination of this population has raised concerns of how to best provide aid to this group. We intend to dig deeper and explore the intricacies of the complex history of this population, and trials that have arisen due to state prejudice. This essay analyzes this political puzzle through examining themes of Western intervention with Burma, processes of democratization, isolationist state practices of Burma, global norms and anti-norms of Islamophobia, and the capitalistic efforts to open Burma’s doors to trade regardless of human rights abuses.

91 In tracing the plight of the Rohingya people, one comes to understand that their presence in Burma came to be due to a number of complex historical trajectories. A key part of the narrative spun by the military, ethnic extremists, and Buddhist fundamentalists amongst others is that the Rohingya are illegal immigrants, and thus have no right to exist in Burma. In almost every Burmese media outlet and official issued statements by the government, they are termed as illegal “Bengali” immigrants and never referred to as “Rohingya”.1 The answer to how this situation came to be partly lies in the history of the Arakan region itself.

The Present till Now: A common practice in this Southeast Asian sub-region.3 Brief History of Discrimination The first wave of exodus occurred after the Burman King According to Human Rights Bodawpaya conquered and Watch, Muslim traders first came incorporated the Arakan region into the Burmese region in the into his kingdom of Ava in central eighth century. 2 Their local Burma in 1784, consequently dynasty was seated at Wesali, not leading to a high influx of far from contemporary Mrohaung refugees pouring into British in Arakan – where the Rohingya controlled Chittagong in East were once counted a part of. Due Bengal. 4 After multiple to the close proximity, Arakan insurgencies and Chin Bya’s saw a greater influx of Muslim failed attempt at recapturing sailors during the twelfth and Arakan back from King thirteenth centuries and migrants Bodawpaya in 1811, many from neighboring Muslim Rohingyas were forced out of Bengal. Looking back at that their homes, and thus settled in period in time, there are records of the area of Cox’s Bazar and Buddhist Mrohaung kings using became integrated with the local Muslim court titles alongside community there.5 traditional ones. Indeed, being inclusive of ethnic minorities and Moving forward in time to the religious officers in courts was a beginning of 1824, the British

92 colonized Burma in a series of illegal immigrants. 9 Since they three wars. The British were denied the right to administered Burma as a province citizenship, the Rohingya were of India, resulting in much fluid also barred from military service migration. Though it was all and other civil jobs. To date, the considered internal movement Burmese government restricts then, the Burmese government Rohingya from traveling from still identifies any migration that within Arakan, to other parts of took place during the British rule the country, and abroad: as illegal.6 It is on this basis that the Rohingya are denied A valid permit allows a citizenship and are considered Rohingya to travel for illegal “Bengali” immigrants up to forty-five days.10 though they had a well- A copy must be established presence dating back submitted to authorities to the twelfth century. upon departure and arrival at the After Japan’s invasion of British destination. Should a controlled Burma, communal Rohingya wish to stay violence erupted targeting those overnight in a village groups that had benefitted from within the township, a British colonial rule. 7 A violent similar permit must be clash between Buddhist villagers procured and then and Rohingya Muslims in Arakan presented to the resulted in some 22,000 Rohingya headmen of the home crossing the border into Bengal.8 village and the village Although some of the displaced visited. Heavy fines of returned after a British offensive up to 10,000 kyat drove out the Japanese in 1945, (twenty-nine US tensions between the Buddhist dollars) and detention individuals and Rohingya have been imposed on Muslims lingered. Immediately those violating the after independence, tensions requirements. escalated to the point where Burmese immigration authorities This set of stringent rules and imposed limitations on movement regulations associated with travel of Muslims, treating them as have only exposed the Rohingya

93 to further systemic exploitation only to be sent back after the by corrupt officials. Furthermore, Bangladeshi government the Burmese government reserves requested repatriation.13 secondary education only for citizens, leaving the Rohingya The years 1991 and 1992 were without access to state run schools when the most outflow occurred beyond primary education. With from Arakan into Bangladesh, little education and limited leaving approximately 250,000 mobility, they are forced into Rohingya refugees displaced. 14 labour by local government Forced labour, limited mobility, authorities with little to no pay rape, and religious persecution at whatsoever. 11 This leaves them the hands of the Burmese army vulnerable to acts of extortion and and Burmese nationalists left the theft, including instances Rohingya no other option but to whereby the army arbitrarily flee to neighbouring Bangladesh. confiscates personal property of Rohingya. 12 They have faced Over the past year, military brutal torture, and inhumane operations against the Rohingya treatment from their own have become so intense and cruel government and military officials. that many protesters warn of an These acts of impunity serve to unfolding genocide. When asked strip the Rohingya away from about the ethnic cleansing everything the own, leaving them brutalities in Burma, Burma’s helpless and vulnerable to further leader and Nobel Peace Prize abuse. winner Aung San Suu Kyi denied any such claims. She too, like the In 1977, Operation Nagamin was military, identifies the Rohingya put into place; a military as illegal immigrants propagating operation attempting to register terrorism in the Arakan region.15 citizens and expel any foreigners prior to a national census, from Local Rohingya insurgent groups which the Rohingya were have existed for decades, fighting excluded. Mass arrests, forced for their rights and protecting evictions, torture, and widespread their people with limited army brutality in the following resources. They often use home- year caused more than 200,000 made weapons such as sharpened Rohingya to flee to Bangladesh, bamboo sticks, machetes, and

94 knives.16 But in 2013, following government sources accused the 2012 Rakhine state riots, their Burmese authorities of laying resistance created the Arakan landmines at border crossing used Rohingya Salvation Army by fleeing Rohingya. 19 20 (ARSA). ARSA is active in the Northern Rakhine state and is With the Rohingya people living declared as a terrorist group by in such dire conditions, a health the Central Committee for crisis is underway. And with their Counter-Terrorrism of own government ostracizing Myanmar. 17 On August 25th, them, turning to international aid about 200 Rohingya ARSA organizations appears to be their militants attacked a police post only option. While Myanmar’s killing nine border officers and consistent rejection of four soldiers. Since then, a international assistance makes it military crackdown has been harder for organizations to enforced causing almost 650,000 interact with this population, Rohingyas to flee from concerns about the best forms of undeveloped and overpopulated aid provision have emerged in the refugee camps from Myanmar past decade. In this essay, we into Bangladesh. 18 Although hope to explore the various there is no firm evidence to obstacles to aid provision for the validate this claim, the Burmese Rohingya Muslims of Burma. In government continuously alleges analysing this complex case of that ARSA is involved with and mass ethnic cleansing, we shine subsidized by foreign Islamists. light upon themes such as This claim was refuted by Ata Burma’s Isolationism and the Ullah, the current leader of motivation for some of its ARSA. Time and again they policies. Furthermore, in reinstate their ideology of an analysing normative international ethno-nationalism and deny being phenomena such as Islamophobia a jihadist group. and Western intervention in Burma, this essay attempts to The capabilities of ARSA question the existing status quo however, do not compare to that and analyse the future of the state of the Burmese military. On and specifically, the Rohingya September 10, 2017, Amnesty Muslims. International and Bangladeshi

95 Burma in Isolation: revolution, when the KMT State Policy (Chinese Nationalist Party) troops fled to Burma after the People’s Liberation Army infiltrated the “Burma was the quintessential Yunnan Province.24 Plagued by neutralist nation” says David 21 two communist insurrections as Steinberg . After studying the well as major ethnic revolts complex interactions and political causing an internal civil war, the manifestations that have been fledgling Burmese nation taking place between states on the struggled to keep its balance world stage, he argues how between survival and political Burma’s actions, in the past two stability. Surreptitiously backed decades, point more towards by the American Central isolationism than taking a 22 Intelligence Agency (CIA), the neutralist stance. Steinberg’s incursion of Chinese Nationalist claim, made in the past tense, forces in north eastern Burma refers to multiple actions taken brought about the banning of all with great care and attention by US aid programs in Burma.25 This Burma to maintain this neutralist act of denying aid still reflects stance. For instance, to ensure its existing sentiments in the sovereign autonomy, Burma Burmese political system and also forfeited its Commonwealth the lack of attention the Rohingya membership in 1948, after Muslims have received. gaining independence from the 23 British. During this time, Burma Steinberg states how following sustained cordial relations with its the coup of 1962, Burma’s Western counterparts, China, and isolationism slowly became more Russia. It was also the object of evident: “The Burmese felt much foreign aid, partly designed insecure. They believed to win friends, and from an foreigners were unsympathetic American vantage point to deny and their views antithetical to the Communist China and the Soviet foils of the society, which were Union a foothold in Southeast both Buddhist and socialist and Asia. Although Burma and China therefore outside of the Western enjoyed good relations for the mainstream”.26 Within a year of most part, one major exception is the coup, the government during China’s cultural drastically restricted international

96 travel, as well as domestic travel. both minorities and foreigners, Gradually, Burma was cut off soon became a central concern for from the outside world as most the government. media outlets were managed by the state; only to be slipped off the The 1988 uprising was another news radar screen.27 turning point for Burma’s political position, another step Soon after independence, Burma closer to becoming a strict had an ongoing civil war crisis. isolationist state. The massacre of The root of that conflict can be thousands of protesters followed best explained in Martin Smith’s by the nullification of the election words “dilemmas of unity in a result were some things that stood land of diversity.”28 This refers to in stark contrast to America’s the backlash the Burmese fundamental diplomatic goals of government faced from its ethnic democracy and human rights. 30 minorities. As Burma became Thus, downgrading the US more isolated from the outside representative in Burma from world, the ethnic minorities in the “ambassador” to “charge “Frontier Areas” came in closer d’affaires” was an occurrence that contact with the outside world. only made the Burmese-US The majority Burmese were diplomatic fallout more evident.31 located well within state The troubles in the relationship boundaries, but Chin, Kachin, were exacerbated by the Shan, Karen, and Mon peoples all imposition of a broad range of had relatives across the arbitrary sanctions imposed by the Clinton boundaries of Burma. The and Bush administrations Rohingya Muslims resided in the respectively. Furthermore, northern Arakan region of Burma, President Obama made sure to which borders Bangladesh. 29 renew these sanctions after he Furthermore, some Christian assumed office in 2009.32 It can minorities were also in touch with be said that through these international Christian sanctions, the US government movements. All these factors intended to pressurize Burma to came into play, increasing the follow the path to isolation and creating a sense of democratisation. 33 A former conflict. The impeding threat Burmese foreign minister against the Burmese military, by chastised this western approach,

97 saying that Myanmar was not a countries, has proven particularly donkey, and that a “carrots and easy for the incumbent regime to sticks” approach to relations was control. Aid restrictions, not appropriate. 34 Some argue restrictions on high level contact that these sanctions have not only and travel by senior Burmese been failed, but are indeed officials, and embargoes on trade counterproductive as they have and investment all had the direct largely neglected the country’s if unintended consequence of multiple ethnic and armed reinforcing the status quo.”37 conflicts as well as its pressing humanitarian challenges. 35 Professor Wang Zichang explains Furthermore, in his testimony that within international relations, Thant Myint-U analysed logically as a policy, sanctions mean why the American sanctions tightening the policy choices of failed. According to him, firstly, the government being sanctioned, sanctions weakened the very to the point where there is no forces that supported the other option for the government democratic reforms “reinforcing except surrendering or isolationist tendencies, impoverishing the people of his constraining moves toward nation to that degree that there is market reforms, and decimating no other choice but to overthrow the position of the Burmese the present government. 38 professional, managerial, and According to Professor Wang entrepreneurial classes. Sanctions Zichang, to achieve this policy and related divestment objective, all other states must campaigns, and campaigns to impose strict sanctions against the minimize tourism, have targeted state. Second, the drastically reduced chances for targeted state has very few the emergence of new and resources. In the case of Burma, outward-looking economic neither of these prerequisites forces.” 36 Second, the sanctions apply. 39 Firstly, Myanmar has strengthened the military forces. abundant national resources such He pointed out that “The political as oil, gas, and jade. Secondly, economy, which has emerged Burma’s neighbouring states, under sanctions, based on a few such as China, India, and other extractive industries and trade ties ASEAN countries have not with a handful of regional imposed sanctions on Burma. In

98 fact, having previously vacillated the allegations and reports of between friendships with US and abuses of the Rohingya Muslims China, the tense relations with in areas of Rakhine. 43 This US America provided an opportunity endorsed EU probe was for Burma to form closer ties with immediately rejected by Ms. Suu China. China, thus, became the Kyi, saying it would “divide prime source of support and communities in the troubled protection in the international western state of Rakhine.” 44 community. 40 Burma being a During the military regime, the nation rich in natural resources censor had control over all media like timber, oil, and precious outlets. 45 It filtered almost all gems, it opened a new possibility important information in the for bilateral trade between Burma media regardless of whether it and China. Soon after that, China was true or not, as long as the became Burma’s major supplier information supported the for military equipment and military leadership, it was training.41 Thus, Burma’s foreign circulated and advertised. trade not only flourished during However, since the new the years of US sanctions, but also government took power in 2011 worked to increase the and the censorship board was then metaphorical distance in the US- abolished, the media landscape Burma relations.42 has been substantially transformed.46 Some may argue With Burma pursuing the goals it even has had a positive impact similar to that of an isolationist on democratization in Burma in state, it was evident that the many ways. All of this is nation’s ongoing ethnic crisis irrelevant when it comes to only exacerbated over time. reporting the mass genocidal Although many may argue this activities taking place in Burma. label, especially after Aung San Leaders and news outlets still Suu Kyi’s rise to power, the disseminate retrograde-sounding intricacies of the Rohingya opinions and sometimes outright Muslims’ plight only reinstates denial of any claims of such Burma’s rejection to Western atrocities. 47 Furthermore, a intervention. In March 2017, the commission appointed by Suu UN Human Rights Council Kyi concluded that “there were no decided to launch a review into cases of genocide and religious

99 persecution in the region”, despite newspaper that MSF’s contract there being copious amounts of would not be extended any further evidence into mass killing of as it hired “Bengalis” and because Rohingya Muslims.48 In an effort it lacked transparency in its to muzzle reporting, Myanmar’s work. 52 This nine-month government has barred suspension of MSF is one of independent journalists from the many examples of the Burmese region, and dismissed reports of government induced restrictions abuses of power as “fake news”.49 to aid provision for the Rohingya To go one step further, the state minority, showcasing an attitude counsellor’s office, Ms. Suu of isolationism that prevents other Kyi’s office, emblazoned the nations from intervening. words “Fake Rape” on its website to discredit reports that troops had There is a lack of summative data committed sexual violence.50 about the Rohingya population in any stream of academic literature. If the human rights abuses are Assessments of health, nutrition, ‘non-existent’, then there’s no and human security provide need to provide aid, and so the insight into the needs of prevention of international aid vulnerable populations. from entering Burma becomes Collection of data about the legitimized. Up until February Rohingya population is made 2014, Médecins Sans Frontières extremely difficult, because the (MSF) had six primary care Myanmar Government does not clinics, 20 malaria clinics, and recognize the concept of the three HIV/AIDS clinics in Rohingya people as a distinct and Rakhine State, until they were legitimate group, let alone as ordered by the government to citizens. With the lack of suspend all activities.51 This left a recognition and acknowledgment large health-care void for those of this issue, it serves to Rohingya dependent on MSF as completely neglect the plight of their sole provider for health care. Rohingya Muslims. Moreover, Only after nine months of government induced restrictions suspension, MSF was allowed to on aid and a lack of data makes it return to Rakhine State. A difficult for aid organizations to presidential spokesman from reach their target audience. These Burma, Ye Htut told a local acts tie together to further

100 deteriorate the conditions of the perception of Burma contorted to Rohingya, while providing an clash against the idyllic image of an unfavourable future international relations the for this ostracized population. democratic West strove to achieve. 54 The United States, Instead of pursuing the identity of specifically, spearheaded a strict isolationist state, sanctions against Myanmar to modernized Burmese neutralism encourage a process of or equilibrium could be the most democratization to ensue.55 This effective policy for Burma, to however, did not gain traction in balance foreign pressures and its early stages. Particularly, in relations. Whether that 1990 Myanmar held its first government will comprehend and elections, in which the National consider the implications of its League for Democracy (NLD) own beliefs and domestic won eighty percent of seats in the policies, however difficult as in Pyithu Hluttaw56 . The military the case of Rohingya, for its junta, the State Law and Order foreign affair is yet to be Restoration Council (SLORC), determined. however, would not cede power.57 With the rise of militaristic A Fatal Myth: Democratisation authoritarianism, and growing as Remedy adoration of Aung San Suu Kyi— leader of the NLD, Nobel Peace Nearing the end of the Prize laureate and political Cold War, this essay suggests that prisoner—Pederson argues that Western intervention in Burma the West began to view Burma’s became core to the West’s politics as a “one-dimensional” promulgation of democracy. issue.58 This one dimension was Burma and the West held fairly thus thought to be absolved with a distant relations until the marked symmetrical one dimensional uprisings and riots that emerged solution: democracy. on August 8, 1988, upsetting the West’s understandings of This perception can be viewed as Burma’s political strife. 53 paternalistic and dismissive of Following the atrocities of human rights abuses in Myanmar. civilians injured and dead at the In pursuing democracy, the hands of military forces, the West’s backing of Aung San Suu

101 Kyi and the NLD overlooked Global South deemed primitive Azeez’s affirmation that in these and ‘backwards’. These elections both the SLORC and perceptions date back to colonial NLD were arguing for the understandings of non-European expulsion of the Rohingya races and cultures, and as Muslims from the north of the Kennedy explains creates a Rakhine province.59 In working to ‘White Man’s Burden’ in the achieve democracy, the West attempt to civilize.61 This is also allowed for the indirect dismissal evident in Huntington’s thesis in of racist views both parties carried his notorious work The Clash of and in doing so, allowed for the Civilizations. He argues that the rights of an ethnic minority to West’s system of democracy is remain unaddressed, further inherently incompatible and at imperilling the population to a odds with systems found in the state of genocide. This mind-set is East. 62 However, when further very much embodied by Senator analysing the work, it becomes Mitch McConnell’s statements of evident that Huntington’s Suu Kyi as follows: assumptions and classification of the East lack nuance and cultural “She could have relativism. Furthermore, the idea chosen the route of of civilization in the West Gandhi and just been dismisses centuries of slavery and an icon...Instead she human rights abuses conveniently chose the route of to form his thesis. In the West, Margaret Thatcher by civilization is suggested to take accepting the route of democracy. Mitch responsibility by McConnell’s opinions, much bringing along a representative of the overarching country that was American congressional view of essentially in the dark Burma at the time, deems a ages”60 symbol of peace and tolerance is not enough like that of the South This description of a country in Asian figurehead of Mohandas the “dark ages” can be suggested Gandhi 63 . Instead, McConnell to denote an ingrained mind-set of draws a distinction between a civilizational standards that is leader many deemed to be the held against countries in the impetus of India’s independence

102 to a Western leader. Margaret Senator McConnell’s Thatcher has a notorious history commentary.66 As a consequence for being on what many would of this mode of thinking, Burma argue as the wrong side of history today is the only country where when speaking to issues of race – the UN’s priority is attaining especially considering her democracy, and thus, receives involvement in pro-South African less international assistance than stances during its era of any other least developed apartheid64. Yet, McConnell finds country.67 Ultimately, the West’s her a stronger leader, which can complicity in exacerbating the be suggested to be rooted in persecuted condition of the Eurocentric understandings of Rohingya peoples lies in its leadership and further emphasize inability to gauge Western the simplistic notion with which society’s altruism in the case of American officials analysed Burma. Burmese politics at the time. Present Western intervention in One may argue that human rights Burma however exists, but this is also a Western norm essay suggests the aid is championed across the world, but insufficient, endangering the lives the West’s ideational of countless Rohingya Muslims commitment to democracy fleeing from Myanmar. During overshadowed the possibility of the Obama administration, with considering a second dimension Secretary Clinton leading the to Burmese politics.65 Assuming agenda for Foreign Affairs, the democracy allows the country was promised reduced promulgation and development of sanctions conditional upon the human rights in the future can be follow-through of argued to diminish the value of democratisation of the state. 68 lives in the Global South as With the extension of Aung San simply ‘part of the process’. This Suu Kyi’s party into the political can be said to be attributed to the sphere, this slowly became a atmosphere of islamophobia, and reality. There still exists tensions orientalist perspectives that between the military and the disregard the rights and freedoms ability to govern, but many of the of those who do not live in the sanctions imposed on Burma have West, as can be analysed above by been reduced.69 According to the

103 2015 United States Bureau of Burma has been subject to Democracy, Human Rights, and economic sanctions since the Labor Report on Religious 1970s and 80s, especially after Freedoms in Burma, the United 1988 as previously mentioned.71 States has officially recognized Transnational boycotts were the injustices the Rohingya enacted against large corporations Muslims of Myanmar have such as Union Oil Company of faced. 70 This action, after California (UNOCAL), an centuries of conflict, is core to American organization that had a advancing human rights in the partnership with the Burmese region. However, the only follow- military regime and used forced up is through one specific labourers to enact their work. 72 sanction restricting arms trades John G. Dale argues in his work with Burmese military forces. In Free Burma that the political contrast to the various sanctions consumer is capable of shedding placed upon the military light on issues of unethical dictatorship that ruled Burma for consumerism through articulating decades when the setting was claims clearly and with a specific conducive to American politics to point and call to action 73 . promulgate ideologies of Furthermore, these messages gain democracy and freedom, the traction when there is a collective action depicts an imbalance of trans local identity acting against action. These choices suggest a transnational corporation. These America’s commitment to protests against UNOCAL democracy can be understood to occurred in Massachusetts be dependent upon its expected showcasing a trans local attempt gain in the American value at solidarity. A few months after dissemination in Burma – these protests, the US Congress whether or not it actually helped authorized the Omnibus minorities as they so believed it Consolidated Appropriations Act would. of 1997 imposing sanctions on Burma “until such time as the With these perspectives in mind, President determines and certifies however, addressing the rights of to Congress that Burma has made the Rohingya Muslims does not measurable and substantial simply categorize itself within the progress in improving human confines of Western altruism. rights practices and implementing

104 democratic government.” 74 This regime to persevere law called for the president to in its develop a “multilateral intransigence.76 strategy”—calling for cooperation of members of With this in mind, Western ASEAN and Burma’s other major governments ensured that trading partners in the region to corporations attempted to mitigate hopefully ensure an improved the exploitation of Burmese state of democracy.75 citizens’ rights. The role of Famously in 1993, Aung San Suu sanctions was to ensure that Kyi herself stated: democracy could be laid as a foundation prior to capitalist In Burma today ventures undermining the ability [,] our real malady is for human rights to establish not economic but themselves in the state. political… Until we have a system that When examining these sanctions, guarantees rule of however, there is an opportunity law and basic cost for American corporations to democratic profit from cheap and forced institutions, no labour. Under the Obama amount of aid or administration, sanctions were investment will reduced against Burma, so long as benefit our people. promises of democratisation were Profits from our achieved.77 Recognition of abuses business enterprises against the Rohingya have been will merely go made, but sanctions to ensure the towards enriching a human rights of this group have small, already very not been pursued. The question privileged elite. poses itself then, as to why this Companies [that corporate loophole emerges – trade in Burma] whereby human rights are still on only serve to the line but now companies can prolong the agony profit from them. For example, of my country by Japan was a former imperial encouraging the power over Burma, but imposed present military various sanctions in conjunction

105 with the United States in a display of partnership. Now, however, These roots in determining a clash with the ostensible rise in of civilisations can also be traced democratisation in the state, Japan to a culture of Islamophobia that has dramatically increased its can be suggested to be present in Official Development Assistance Western nations today. 81 (ODA) to the country78. These ties Presently, the current United have slowly allowed for Japan to States’ President Donald Trump’s gain access to Burma’s markets repeated attempts to enact travel but also their raw materials and bans barring Muslims in Muslim- the ability to compete with “an majority countries from entering economically expansive China79.” the United States for fear of This is deplorable considering terrorism. This is indicative of the that within the Burma’s nature of Islamophobia taking boundaries, only the military and root in international relations. The elite capitalists will benefit. stigmatizing notion that Islam is Furthermore, this splicing of monolithic in representing a Burmese markets will only further population of extremist radicals exacerbate ethnic conflicts in the challenges the ability to create region.80 empathy for any Muslim population—including the There is more at play in the Rohingya. This is crucial to politics of addressing the ethnic determining that aid cannot be conflict in Burma than what meets provided when there is not enough the eye. Sanctions may be public outcry to validate or removed for democratisation, but catalyse aid provision.82 unless this is fully fledged and consistent with protecting the This sentiment can also be found rights of the marginalised in President Barrack Obama’s Rohingya Muslims in the state, actions during his control of the there is no guarantee for an Oval. Although it is often cited improvement in the situation. that Obama inherited the previous administration’s inadequate Muslims on the policies with regards to the Middle East and Asia, Bush was Margins: A Global responsible for 42 predator drone Culture of Islamophobia strikes while Obama initiated over

106 300 in the region.83 Although the terrorism and Islam, the past three Bush administration very much American governmental destabilized the region and caused administrations have contributed many of the disturbances in the to the normalisation of Middle East, the Obama dehumanising Muslims. administration has done little to Ultimately, these policies have quell these tensions. In fact, Rubin shaped the lens through which discusses further that Obama’s Muslims are viewed and thus, policies in the Middle East undermine the role they can play ultimately have redefined politics in norm dissemination for the in the region from being rooted in human rights of Rohingya ‘Arab Nationalism’, which has peoples. This trivializes the been its framing since the 1950s, creation of solidarity, which in to a new conception of roots in turns questions the impetus for Islam and fundamentalism. 84 action to follow to ensure aid Finally, George W. Bush allowed provision for the Rohingya. This for a large misperception of Islam again is a reframing of Islam as which contributed to the the ultimate enemy, clashing marginalization of Muslim people against democratic Western in America. Kumar argues that ideals. This cosequently hurts the since the events of 9/11, the range Rohingya, in lessening the of debate on issues pertaining to opportunity to garner compassion Muslims or Islam has narrowed to and Western altruism, if they are a point where “Orientalist modes deemed part of a primitive group of thought” are dominant once not worth assisting. As a Muslim again. 85 The “Clash of minority, the Rohingya are hurt Civilizations” thesis disdained by not only because of the racial the Bush Sr. and Clinton prejudice they face as “Bengalis” administrations, was adopted by in that they are referred to as non- George W Bush’s government natives to Burma, but that they are which journalists reported upon also of a minority religious with a tone of a political climate background. They are both of fear. This portrayal of Muslims minorities in Burma, and also the acquired the status of "common global stage, where Islam – sense," framing the lives of through these continuously Muslims across the world imperialistic means of framing normatively. 86 In combining minorities – is still very much

107 misunderstood and so, Muslims social services 87 . Without continue to be misunderstood too. citizenship came obstacles to If a population is misunderstood attaining work, food rations, and deemed to be a threat or ‘the access to the legal system and Other’, it is difficult to engender government services. Further compassion without striking fear restrictions were implemented to or prejudice as well. In the context discourage the growth of the of aid, where funding often relies Rohingya population by adding on the compassion of Western taxation measures for masses to donate, the Rohingya foundational social practices, are at odds with the ability to including taxes for marriages and foster empathy for their plight, taxes for each child born into a because of their identity. family88. An investigation by Al Jazeera also uncovered secret It is also further important to note, memoranda passed within the lens of modernity that the government that explicitly stated issue of the Rohingya Muslims is intent to diminish and bar the viewed through. Al Jazeera’s growth of the Rohingya peoples89. extensive journalism in the region These institutional acts have taken has found numerous examples of place alongside years of physical cultural and physical genocide violence and destruction. This against the Rohingya enacted on includes the case of the 2012 behalf of the Burmese uprisings where the Na Sa Ka (or government. The 1982 military forces) were allegedly Citizenship Act that prevented responsible for the burning and Rohingya Muslims from attaining destruction of Rohingya homes, citizenship on the basis of and the rape and murder of identifying them as of Bengali Rohingya Muslims peoples. The ethnicities, was that had far riots displaced thousands and reaching effects on their allowed the government the integration and participation into means to restrict the mobility society and into government rights of many Rohingya by structures and institutions; they placing them in makeshift refugee effectively became a stateless camps. Furthermore, one can population, with limited and compare the acts taking place in differentiated access to Burma with already existing healthcare, education and other

108 international law surrounding there is evidence of state- genocide: sponsored genocide and that nothing is being done to fix it. The Rome Statute and the Genocide Convention outline that When addressing global genocide is: Islamophobia it is important to any of [these]… acts note that Burmese nationalism committed with intent to destroy... that evokes hatred against the a … group…: Rohingya Muslims has (a) Killing members of the Islamophobia at its core. Peter group; Coclanis writes that in all of (b) Causing serious bodily or Burma’s independence struggle, mental harm to members of the there was a strong sentiment of group; Buddhist promulgation that came (c) Deliberately inflicting on with it, especially in seeking the group conditions of life independence from the British91. calculated to bring about its Furthermore, in the era of anti- physical destruction in whole or in government uprisings in the part; 1980s in Burma, much of the (d) Imposing measures protests included what Coclanis intended to prevent births within calls a “Buddhist renewal the group; movement” that combined (e) Forcibly transferring “Buddhist religious fanaticism children of the group to another with intense Burmese nationalism group90 and more than a tinge of ethnic chauvinism.92 ” The antagonisms Considering the circumstances between Muslims and Buddhists outlined above, the killing of the is not simply a military-Rohingya, members of this ethno-religious state-Rohingya, or international group, the trauma caused by relations-Rohingya issue. It is a sexual violence and forcible civil Burmese society-Rohingya displacement, the governmental issue as well. With no support action that made it extraneous to internally due to the religion of the grow the population, and further Rohingya, Islamophobia has been action are all indicative of pertinent to their disappearing genocide. These acts highlight from Burmese society.93 several problems – mainly that

109 Burma has enjoyed the support of rights showcases a structural the West for decades, but this has dismissal of Islamophobia and never helped the Rohingya other factors addressed in this Muslims. With Aung San Suu Kyi essay. now at the helm of government, this complicates the attempt to Institutional Failures address the human rights abuses in the country when a seeming and Counter champion of human rights denies Revolution: What Next the injustices the Rohingya have for the Rohingya? faced. This is ironic, but to assume that Aung San Suu Kyi is not After calls of ‘never again’ post- willingly complicit in the Holocaust were enshrined within genocide of a minority Muslim the Genocide Convention of 1948, population is dismissive of the international law failed to prevent history of Burmese politics and the horrific act in several her role within them. It is arguably circumstances. This is evident ignorant to assume that because after the Rwandan genocide and an individual shares the title of after the massacres at Burmese in the international Srebrenica.96 When legality came community, that they will thus at odds with the politics of the share that title internally is international system, countless dismissive of ethnic tensions in lives were lost. More importantly, the region. The Rohingya these lives were already Muslims for centuries have marginalized and not paid heed to existed on Burmese land, prior to on the international stage to begin British colonisation, but have with. The ongoing case of the repeatedly been labelled persecution of the Rohingya Bengali.94 They have been victim population in Burma is a very real to decades and centuries of and current example of the failure attempts to be forcibly removed of international legislation to from society and the state as a protect vulnerable populations. It whole. 95 The lens of modernity, can be suggested that the that assumes a leader believing in modernist and Orientalist views democracy to spearhead of claiming these populations as government will thus result in the “Other” to the West have perilous inclusion of Rohingya human ramifications throughout history.

110 In drawing these distinctions are core to the ability to advocate between the ‘West’ and the ‘Rest’, for people, and a norm of it is important to distinguish that Islamophobia has been static the international system is failing. within Western society for Ultimately, some populations decades, there is evidence that have been deemed worthier than there is difficulty to engender others in the Western public altruism for this group. In the case sphere of assistance. We see that of Tibet, there is a global network again and again, it is people of of some 170 organizations colour and Muslims, as evidenced providing financial and in the case of Rwanda, Bosnia and diplomatic resources to further the now Burma, that are dismissed cause of independence 99 . More and not worthy of timely aid. This importantly however, the stateless has direct links to the culture of Tibetan people had the support of Islamophobia developed for the the American Whitehouse at the past few decades as mentioned time: earlier in this essay. “Beginning in the 1980s, an The dismissal of the Rohingya effort to raise the profile of Muslims within the sphere of the Tibet issue in congress Western aid and politics can be and the White House was proven when compared to the case taken up by the prominent study of the Free Tibet DC law firm of Wilmer, Movement. Stephen Noakes Cutler and Pickering, which argues that norms “provide a was registered with the US principled basis for advocacy Department of Justice in network formation, aiding in the 1985 as an agent of the creation of identities and Tibetan government-in-exile. preferences” core to transnational Its message found particular advocacy. 97 He goes on to resonance with members of determine that “to the extent … the house of representatives, networks manage to sustain who, already upset with themselves and … influence China over a host of other national priorities, the normative matters ranging from trade commitments underpinning their to arms sales, voted in June formation and mobilization are 1987 to approve an treated as fairly static.”98 If norms amendment to the foreign

111 relations authorization act came to the forefront of global specifically denouncing what politics, shining a spotlight on it called human rights Rakhine State. Sparked by violations in Tibet and the military attacks against the illegal occupation of the Rohingya minority in remote region by the Chinese”100 villages, pleas for help have begun to be recognized. The difference With the common enemy of the at this moment however, in Chinese, the US had strategic and Western recognition of the ideological agendas aligned with atrocities occurring in Burma, are the desire to assist the Tibetan not a direct result of the people. The Rohingya Muslims magnitude and livid horrors of do not have a common enemy to actions that have ensued, but share with America. If anything, rather because they have occurred Aung San Suu Kyi was a proud under the watch of Aung San Suu ally of the United States for Kyi. The Nobel Peace Prize decades. Furthermore, the laureate is facing condemnations Rohingya are a Muslim for her ignorance towards the population. They do not hold any actions of the Buddhist majority power in the world stage that can and her continued assertions that come as a result of their identity. there is fear on both sides.102 In an Noakes argues that these early interview in 2016 that is gaining successes of US support, traction in media today, Suu Kyi alongside other large parties asserts that she will not speak including the British and against the “ethnic cleansing” of Russians, are what allowed the the Rohingya population because Free Tibet Movement such there is not enough violence momentum101. The Rohingya lack enacted against them.103 Sources this expediency or transnational such as The Guardian, the New advocacy due to their existence as York Times, and politically stateless Muslim peoples – satirical television shows such as ultimately holding back the ability the Daily Show with Trevor Noah to assist. have all addressed the recent escalation in violence in relation As of September 2017, further to Aung San Suu Kyi and thus media attention has gained question not the illegitimacy of traction after violent uprisings the human rights violations, but

112 their illegitimacy under the Charlottesville, there are similar watchful eye of a Nobel peace movements attempting to promote prize laureate. a counter perspective. During the Miss America Pageant for 2017, a Distinct within this situation, are nationwide broadcasted event the analyses drawn in relation to with millions watching, Ms. Trump. The left wing of the Texas asserted in relation to right- political spectrum has been of late wing violent protests, that under stressful circumstances due President Trump’s inability to to a communal disbelief of the address domestic terrorism was leader’s policies and subsequent wrong and that the fault being on repercussions worldwide. Social the side of white supremacists was movements have emerged to “obvious”.105 With these clashes challenge Trump’s views and of political viewpoints and political assertions, through the leanings at play, there is Women’s March, the March for understanding that a social wave Science, protests against anti- of altruism is possible to emerge immigration reform, and as well. Finnemore and Sikkink solidarity amongst Black Lives argue that norm entrepreneurs are Matter groups, marginalized and responsible for disseminating an racialized groups. Pride marches idea to be a standard of expected have shown more political behaviour.106 Once this idea has backing due to the circumstances achieved a critical mass of regarding the vulnerability of followers—whether this be in queer populations under a Trump numbers or the power of the few administration. 104 It is in this who follow who are considered to regard, that the left is beginning to be global leaders, this norm step forward and address reaches a norm cascade becoming injustices that are occurring an ingrained standard that slowly worldwide, with a stark distaste comes to be taken for granted.107 for anything remotely reminiscent Anti-islamophobia views stand is of Donald Trump. questionable in terms of this process. However, it is crucial to Although there are movements discern that hope for the Rohingya promulgating views of is not lost. Aung San Suu Kyi, Islamophobia, take for example having been analysed in by the Neo Nazi march in comparison to President Trump in

113 her belief that the there is fear on Time and again, from Rwanda to both sides of the physical violence Srebrenica to Venezuela, the occurring in her country—even bureaucratic nature of though it is proven that the international political agenda- Muslim minority has faced a setting intertwined with capitalist much larger extent of persecution gain has allowed for the loss of in terms of physical, sexual, and life in exorbitant numbers. psychological harm —proves to Genocide continues to be be a target of disdain by the left. committed against those in the As a very politically mobile world with the least political group, this indicates that there is representation, while those with political consciousness among the the most remain idle. Systems left surrounding the human rights such as the United Nations were violations of the Rohingya. Since created for purposes such as these, Aung San Suu Kyi is now but their lack of democracy within questioned as categorically the decision-making process, and similar to Trump, anti-Trump ability to act promptly within sentiment can potentially be used emergencies has served as the to mobilise pro-Rohingya rights organization’s downfall. movements and attitudes. Anti- trump views allow for a lens to In the present situation, analyse global affairs, working to recognition is key. Western media effectively explore the issue of the has begun to cover the story of the Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar. Rohingya as that of ethnic Drawing these parallels is crucial cleansing, although this essay to understanding that there is the goes on to use stronger language possibility of global norm shaping of genocide. It is crucial that Aung processes to ensue. This would San Suu Kyi admit to this allow the protection of the rights circumstance and allow for the of the Rohingya Muslims through United Nations to carry out current reactions to the climate of probes, investigations, and further xenophobia, Islamophobia, and measures to ensure the protection alt-right messaging. of human rights in the region. This includes culturally relativistic In order for the Rohingya crisis to data that analyses the state- be addressed and resolved, sponsored oppression and institutional action is required. violence enacted against the

114 Rohingya and analysing further the circumstances of Western structural violence committed in sanctions being uplifted and the terms of lack of mobility rights, or ability for corporations to further the ability to seek justice for exacerbate the situation in the crimes committed during the civil state. It is the continual dismissal war. of human value for those of broader institutions and The status quo has been upheld for organizations such as the state or far too long. To ensure that this corporations. In this quest, one crisis is ended and to prevent often forgets that the thread that history from repeating itself, it is holds this fabric together is each necessary that the focus of the individual human life. Without human rights and collective rights recognition for such lives, society of the Rohingya are recognized, cannot function. Thus, without the protected, and fought for. active recognition of the Furthermore, these rights must be Rohingya Muslims’ rights, we as mobilized actively in contrast to a global society cannot function.

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32 Kipgen, Nehginpao. Democratisation of Myanmar. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016. p 95 33 Ibid 34 Li, Chenyang, Chaw Chaw Sein, and Xianghui Zhu. Myanmar: Reintegrating into the International Community. New Jersey: World Scientific, 2016. p 12 35 Ibid p 130 36 Ibid 131 37 Ibid 38 Ibid 132 39 Ibid 40 Steinberg, David I. Burma: the state of Myanmar. Washington, D.C: Georgetown University Press, 2002. p 26 41 HAACKE, JURGEN. MYANMARS FOREIGN POLICY: domestic influences and international implications. S.l.: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2017. p 25 42 "China's Relations with Burma." United States Institute of Peace. December 30, 2016. Accessed September 23, 2017. https://www.usip.org/publications/2015/05/chinas-relations-burma. 43 Emmott, Robin. "Burma angered as EU backs UN investigation into plight of Rohingya Muslims." The Independent. May 03, 2017. Accessed September 23, 2017. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/burma-eu-supports-un- human-rights-council-resolution-investigate-rohingya-muslims-aung-san- suu-kyi-a7714471.html. 44 Emmott, Robin. "Burma angered as EU backs UN investigation into plight of Rohingya Muslims." The Independent. May 03, 2017. Accessed September 23, 2017. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/burma-eu-supports-un- human-rights-council-resolution-investigate-rohingya-muslims-aung-san- suu-kyi-a7714471.html. 45 Kipgen, Nehginpao. "Conflict in Rakhine State in Myanmar: Rohingya Muslims Conundrum." Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs33, no. 2 (2013): 298-310. doi:10.1080/13602004.2013.810117. p 66 46 Kipgen, Nehginpao. "Conflict in Rakhine State in Myanmar: Rohingya Muslims Conundrum." Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs33, no. 2 (2013): 298-310. doi:10.1080/13602004.2013.810117. p 66

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128 8

Navigating Caste Inequality in Kerala: Caste as Present, Hidden, and Denied

Amanda Harvey-Sánchez is a fourth-year student at the University of Toronto double majoring in Sociocultural Anthropology and Environmental Studies, with a minor in Equity Studies.

Introduction exhibited creativity and comfort playing a role in front of the class. It was the morning session at the As we all settled back into our Centre for Research and seats after the allotted time, the Education for Social first group got into character and Transformation (CREST) in prepared to begin their skit. Calicut, Kerala. The courtyard Students laughed watching their buzzed with the sound of 30-odd classmates fumble with props and postgraduate students talking talked amongst themselves, but animatedly in small groups. All when the acting began, the room hailing from academic fell quiet. The play recounted the backgrounds in the sciences, the story of an alcoholic man who students were trying something a beats his wife and kids. The wife bit different today. Saima had pleads with her husband to stop given them 30 minutes to put drinking, but each day he goes out together short plays to present to with his friend and comes back the class. 1 The topic could be drunk. In the evenings, the anything, so long as the students children look on from the next room, where they try to do their

129 homework alone while listening CREST is an autonomous to their parents argue. One day, institution launched by the the husband’s friend overdoses government of Kerala in 2008 to and dies. The husband, improve the employability and traumatized by what he has social mobility of Scheduled witnessed, comes home and Caste (SC), Scheduled Tribe (ST), pledges to never drink again. The and other marginalized groups. play concludes with a happy The institution runs a variety of ending. programs that help students “gain confidence, build competence and The play was met with thunderous achieve excellence in all spheres applause from the class. Saima of human endeavour for their commended the students for social, cultural, and economic telling a story with such an development”. 2 Over the course important message. “Alcoholism of seven weeks in July and is a big problem in many tribal August of 2017, I had the communities”, she says. After opportunity to intern at CREST in class in the halls, many students its Post Graduate Certificate come up to Ajit, the student who Course for Professional played the role of the husband, Development (PGCCPD) while and congratulated him for his doing ethnographic research emotional and convincing through the Anthropology performance. One of the other Department at the University of students who was in the play Toronto. explained proudly that Ajit came up with the concept himself. I open with the story above Everyone was very impressed. At because of its usefulness in the end of the day, Ajit and I sat illustrating several themes that on the steps outside the school emerged during my time at and spoke privately. I echoed the CREST, also to be discussed enthusiasm expressed by others throughout this paper. The for his talent. “You wrote the play aforementioned play may be about your family, didn’t you?” I viewed as a snapshot of the enquired. Ajit nodded and said, circumstances familiar to some “yes”. “I like the ending” I said. (though not all) of the students He smiled. who come to CREST. The alcoholism depicted in the play is

130 a result of many intersecting factors such as economic The play also revealed an deprivation, social exclusion, interesting puzzle. Ajit, the caste discrimination, and lack of student playing the lead role, access to education and good- chose to keep his tribal status a paying jobs. Conditions at home secret from his peers at CREST. It also have ramifications for is not surprising that a tribal children who must go through student outside the institution school with little to no assistance would harbor shame over one’s from their parents, while studying identity, but this presents an issue in a poor learning environment. in the context of CREST. While Ajit has achieved many of the The play was also the most markers of social and cultural explicit discussion of caste development that CREST seeks to inequality I observed during my cultivate in its students, he time at CREST. While CREST continues to lack the confidence works with lower-caste students needed to embrace his own tribal its programming, direct identity, even within a school discussion of caste is almost non- intended to build confidence in existent. Instead, CREST follows SC/ST students. Throughout the a deliberately individualized discussion that follows, I will curriculum, promoting personal return to these issues and depict self-improvement over discussion the varying ways in which caste is of systemic casteism. The present and absent in the lives of teachers at CREST seek to the students and in the institution. provide underprivileged students I focus in particular on three them with the “soft skills” needed dimensions of caste: caste as to succeed in a competitive job present, caste as hidden, and caste market. The exercises of writing as denied. First, some background and play performance in English on Kerala and theories of social is one small piece of a broader and cultural capital is warranted. curriculum intended to improve English proficiency, Beyond the “Kerala communication skills, confidence, and self-presentation. Thus, the Model”: Theories of play is symbolic of what CREST Social and Cultural is seeking to transform. Capital

131 theoretical framework with which Kerala is a southern state in India to discuss persistent inequality in known for its impressive social Kerala. Bourdieu expands the development, greatly exceeding traditional notion of economic other parts of the country. The capital to argue that capital, and state of Kerala has drawn interest by extension power, also exists in among social scientists for its social and cultural form. Social relatively low Gross Domestic capital refers to the networks from Product yet simultaneous which an individual can draw, and significant human development one’s membership in particular marked by near universal literacy, groups. Cultural capital is further low infant, and mother mortality, divided into three forms: and life expectancy far beyond embodied, objectified, and that of any other state in India.34 institutionalized. Embodied Commonly known as the “Kerala cultural capital refers to “long- model”, this success has been lasting dispositions of the mind linked to the state’s unique and body”, such as mannerisms, political history of elected conversational style, and other Communist leadership and its seemingly automatic extension of public services. 5 characteristics of thought and While absolute deprivation has behaviour cultivated over time, been eliminated among the vast otherwise known as habitus. 8 majority of the population, Objectified cultural capital refers vulnerable groups in Kerala to “cultural goods” such as books, continue to experience social and musical instruments, or clothing, economic inequality. In particular, which exemplify status. Lastly, SC/ST populations experience institutionalized cultural capital disproportionate poverty and generally refers to educational lower educational achievement.6 qualifications as well. This disparity is tied to colonial processes of land dispossession, Caste as Present: Tribal and has been further intensified Identify and Forms of through neoliberal policies of privatization.7 Capital

Bourdieu’s seminal piece “The Within the SC/ST category, there Forms of Capital” offers a useful is significant diversity among the

132 experiences of CREST students was not taught. Once in high with economic, social, and school, however, English became cultural capital, as evident mandatory in all subjects. Ajit through my interactions. While struggled to keep up with many of some students from wealthier his classmates. Ajit recounted family backgrounds did not view instances of humiliation by caste as a dominant feature teachers who chastised him for his structuring their lives, others “poor learning”. Moreover, Ajit described numerous experiences dreaded writing his surname of both caste-based (which contains his colony name) discrimination and lack of on documents and receiving the opportunity. Ajit is a useful government stipend for SC/ST example worth discussing in students, because these processes detail. unfolded as a public display that made his tribal identity visible, Ajit is ST, falling into the often resulting in ridicule from his minority among the mostly SC peers at school. In the fifth cohort at CREST. He is from the standard, Ajit joined a program in district of Wayanad, known for its Wayanad aimed at empowering dense forests and high tribal tribal students in school. Ajit population. His parents have a credits the resources and guidance limited primary education and he received there for helping him work in agriculture. Ajit and his pursue higher education. Ajit siblings grew up poor. While he explained that his situation was going through primary school, improved significantly once in there was no electricity at home college, because he was living in and often not enough money for a a hostel rather than at home, with nutritious diet, owing to the poor access to college resources such wages his father earned working as computers and libraries. on a plantation. Furthermore, his Moreover, he was better equipped father was an alcoholic and would to present himself socially often beat his mother and siblings. because he was “more balanced While some wealthier families emotionally”, better-dressed, and choose to put their children in more proficient academically and private English medium schools in English communication than for primary education, Ajit went had been the case during his years to a public school where English in primary school. Still, Ajit noted

133 to me that he and his tribal student family also lowered the peers were “not much brilliant” affordability of English medium compared to their “brilliant” school. This multitude of factors upper-caste classmates. resulted in Ajit’s lack of access to cultural capital, placing him at a Bourdieu’s insights on forms of disadvantage when he entered his capital can explain some of the English-speaking high school. disparities Ajit experienced. In While more privileged students the case of education, Bourdieu’s benefited from a conversion of argument articulates the existing economic and cultural capital intersections between all three through investment in private forms of capital. The lack of education, Ajit’s lack of one form economic capital in Ajit’s family of capital blocked access to resulted in a poor learning another. This also had environment at home and may repercussions in the realm of have also contributed to his social capital, as Ajit’s situation father’s alcoholism. The tight resulted in ridicule at school by economic situation also meant both teachers and his peers, that Ajit’s parents did not have the separating him from the social time to help him with school work. network of upper-caste students. Thus, the limited economic capital of his parents resulted in The program Ajit joined in their inability to cultivate Wayanad helped fill some of institutionalized cultural capital in these voids, and granted him new the form of educational opportunities to access and qualifications for Ajit. Even if cultivate forms of capital. Ajit Ajit’s parents had time to assist explained that the program gave him, their own limited primary him access to computers and school education made them ill- libraries, resources not otherwise equipped for this task. Ajit has available due to his family’s lack elder siblings who may have been of economic capital. The centre better suited to this, but their own also gave students opportunities obligations towards their parents to practice “mingling”, thus meant they were often too busy helping tribal youth develop a helping with agricultural work to form of embodied cultural capital mentor or encourage Ajit. The that more privileged youth might lack of economic capital in Ajit’s gain through their families’ social

134 networks. The program staff experiences and lessons of their members themselves also had parents. Upper-caste parents with knowledge pertaining to college diplomas, for instance, are academics, college admissions, able to guide their children and proper etiquette that others through the process of applying to within Ajit’s immediate social college. They are also more network lacked. Thus, the capable of recognizing and connections Ajit made with the cultivating the prerequisite program staff broadened his actions and qualities required to social network to include those gain admission. While Ajit’s who had social and cultural parents’ lack of social, cultural, capital. As Bourdieu notes, the and economic capital meant that volume of social capital held by they were not in a position to offer an individual depends on both the Ajit this navigational guidance for size of the network of connections his college applications, the staff (which Ajit was able to expand), at the Wayanad program were. as well as “the volume of the The program also served to capital (economic, cultural, or disrupt what Smith (2011) calls a symbolic) possessed in his own “transgenerational family script”. right by each of those to whom he Coming from a family where is connected”.9 nobody held a post-secondary degree, the default plan for Ajit’s Ajit also explained that the staff at personal journey did not include this program were instrumental in going to college. The program he his application and acceptance to participated in helped interrupt college. This comment reflects and redirect this “script”. the notion of “capacity to aspire” coined by Appadurai (2004) and While the Wayanad program was closely related to Bourdieu’s hugely beneficial for Ajit, it did discussion on capital. Appadurai not entirely erase the impacts of describes the “capacity to aspire” his lower-caste background. As as a navigational capacity, which Ajit explained, it was evident in “thrives and survives on practice, college that the tribal students repetition, exploration, conjecture, were not as “brilliant” as the and refutation.”10 One dimension upper-caste students. The abilities of this capacity is the access of of upper-caste students are the privileged youth to the result of their previous and

135 current access to various forms of attached to this demographic. As capital. As Bourdieu notes, Shah and Shneiderman (2013) “ability or talent is itself the note, in the eyes of upper-castes, product of an investment of time reservations may be seen as unfair and cultural capital”. 11 Ajit’s or viewed as rewarding typical family did not have the time (as a lower-caste deficiencies. Indeed, result of limited economic capital) this sentiment was expressed by nor the cultural capital to invest in one of the teachers at CREST, him to the extent that upper-caste who claimed that the students families often do, resulting in Ajit only want government jobs and other tribal students because it is an easy route to a appearing and even feeling good salary and little work. He intrinsically less “brilliant” in elaborated on this to me privately, college. explaining that the students are accustomed to being handed A secondary form of caste- things to them through discrimination emerges from reservation, resulting in their efforts aimed at addressing tendency to want “rights but no discrimination. As noted above, duties”. The teacher couched his Ajit was often ridiculed by criticism in the language of classmates for receiving the reservations, but inherently, he government stipend given to was reiterating tropes of lower- SC/ST students. The stipend castes being both lazy and served as a marker of his tribal undeserving. identity, making him an easy target. It also did not help that Caste as Hidden: students at Ajit’s school were called up to the front of the class Invisible Chains of to receive the stipend, making a Capital and Passing spectacle out of something that could have otherwise been done Thus far, I have outlined ways in privately. Thus, the stipend, as which intersecting forms of well as the method of its capital can create deprivation that distribution, makes SC/ST falls along caste lines. For Ajit, identities visible, potentially the presence of caste was visible reinforcing negative stereotypes through his experiences of of laziness and deficiency poverty, discrimination, and lack

136 of opportunity. There are other cases, however, where caste is not The same students that denied the as visible. Sometimes, caste may relevance of caste also noted that be either deliberately hidden as an the most important factors in their identity marker, or its presence as employment prospects are an agentive social structure can be personal connections and self- obscured. I will discuss the latter presentation. One student first as it is tied to the preceding explained that with good discussion on forms of capital. connections, one can get a job without writing the prerequisite Economic capital is the most exam required for most jobs. She visible form of capital. For explained that on several students like Ajit where economic occasions where she had capital was lacking, it was easy to interviewed for a position and did observe and describe processes of not get the job, she later found out inequality. Other students at it went to someone who had not CREST, however, had ample written the exam. Access to economic capital but still lacked “connections” is no accident. It is capital in other realms. When a form of social capital asking these students about their accumulated over time and across experiences with caste, the most generations. Parents of upper- common response was that they caste students who were not were not affected by it. Several working on plantations in the students noted that their parents’ previous generation were generation experienced caste developing important connections discrimination and economic in government and corporate deprivation, giving examples of sectors, which later helped their poor work conditions and low- children bypass steps in a wages as employees of upper- competitive job market - such as caste-owned plantations. They writing an exam. Moreover, “self- insisted, however, that because presentation” is not an innate this was no longer the case, and quality, but rather a form of caste did not apply to them. Such cultural capital. It is taught and comments ignore how the cultivated by parents and others in experiences of their parents have an individual’s immediate social implications on their own network. Good mannerisms, generation. conversational style, etiquette,

137 and knowledge of appropriate to the attributes possessed in interview protocol are all qualities reality. Stigma is the special that upper-caste students are more discrepancy between these two likely to possess due to greater types of identities, an attribute cultural and social capital. The that is “deeply discrediting”.12 In impacts of caste emerging from a some cases, the discrepancy lack of social and cultural capital between virtual and actual social may be difficult to observe, identity is immediately apparent. because they are often manifested For example, an individual with a as a lack of advantage, rather than missing limb or a physical as explicit negative disability is in most situations discrimination or poverty. Thus, clearly identifiable. This person is lower-caste students at CREST thus already “discredited”, and who claim caste does not affect their task in social situations is to them may not have experienced manage the subsequent tensions the same overt discrimination as that inevitably arise. In other Ajit, but these students are still cases, the differentness of the affected by the inaccessibility of individual is not immediately opportunities presented through apparent. This person is not good “connections” or “self- discredited but rather presentation”. “discreditable”, and may live in fear of being “found”. Thus, such Another hidden dimension of individuals do not manage caste is the deliberate obscuring existing tensions, but rather of markers of lower-caste identity, manage the “undisclosed otherwise known as passing. discrediting information” that Erving Goffman’s discussion on could make their social stigma stigma and social identity in his apparent.13 It is this managing of book Stigma: Notes on the information that, when successful, Management of Spoiled Identity, can result in the discreditable Goffman distinguishes virtual individual “passing” as normal. social identity from actual social identity. The former refers to the This latter case of management is character imputed on an what may occur in the case of individual based on assumptions caste as a social stigma. A low- about the category to which he or caste person in a high-standing she belongs, and the latter refers social position (for example,

138 being a top student or having a “unintended passing”, a good job) embodies a tension prerequisite experience that between virtual and actual prompts the stigmatized identity. The virtual identity of individual to learn to “pass” being high-caste is the assumed deliberately, (hopefully) not attribute of anyone in a reputable being quickly discovered of one’s position, while one’s actual identity, as was the case in Ajit’s identity may be of a low-caste. unintended passing. This example Ajit has often found himself in also points to the importance of this situation. By the time he was (in)visibility in passing. In the in college, Ajit was a top student, case of Ajit’s skin colour, this now having obtained two attribute helps make his stigma master’s degrees and intending to less immediately visible. pursue a PhD. He is also fairly light-skinned, making his tribal In high school and college, Ajit identity less obvious based on began making deliberate efforts to appearance. Given these pass. Part of this process involves characteristics, Ajit has hiding what Goffman calls discovered that it is possible for “stigma symbols”, referring to him to pass as upper-caste, or at signs that “[draw] attention to a least not tribal, sometimes even debasing identity discrepancy, without much deliberate effort on fragmenting what would his part. For example, Ajit otherwise be a coherent overall explained that when he was picture”.14 One symbol of stigma growing up, he was sometimes clearly associated with tribal mistaken as not from a tribal individuals is having red-stained background, simply because of teeth from the habitual chewing of his skin colour. Once, he was a plant found in Wayanad. Ajit invited into the home of an upper- was able to easily eliminate this caste person who did not realize symbol from his identity and Ajit’s tribal identity. Later, when further aid the process of passing. the upper-caste lady discovered Another sign that helps an his tribal demographic marker, individual pass is a “disidentifier”. Ajit was not re-invited and was This refers to a sign that tends to instead treated poorly in further “break up an otherwise coherent interactions. This situation is picture but in this case in a described by Goffman as positive direction desired by the

139 actor, not so much establishing a stereotyped way, new claim as throwing severe flamboyantly or doubt on the validity of the virtual pitifully acting out the one”.15 In Ajit’s case, his ability negative attributes to speak English, a quality he imputed to them. This began improving upon through sight may repel him, the program in Wayanad and even since after all he more so at CREST, serves as a supports the norms of useful disidentifier. the wider society, but his social and Passing is not always easily psychological achieved, and can also create identification with negative experiences for the these offenders holds individual who passes. him to what repels Documented identity, for him, transforming example, is much harder to hide. repulsion into shame, As Goffman notes, “biography and then transforming attached to documented identity ashamedness itself can place clear limitations on the into something of way in which an individual can which he is ashamed. elect to present himself”.16 This is In brief, he can the problem Ajit encountered neither embrace his when he wrote his surname on group nor let it go.17 forms. Another possible side effect of passing is ambivalence Ajit exhibited identity towards the group of stigmatized ambivalence when describing his individuals to which the passing own community to me. He individual belongs. As Goffman lamented the fact that many outlines: follow what he considers to be primitive spiritual practices. He [T]he stigmatized also expressed annoyance that individual may tribal people speak a variety of exhibit identity different traditional languages, ambivalence when he rather than simply adopting obtains a close sight Malayalam. Throughout the of his own kind discussion, Ajit conveyed his behaving in a embarrassment and shame over

140 tribal traditions that he felt were Ajit unlearn years of concealment characteristic of “bad culture”, the and exhibit a complete same attributes for which he was transformation. However, the shamed himself. Instead of institution can serve an important disparaging the ways in which role in instigating such processes. upper-castes inflict shame, he Instead, CREST engages in an disparaged the shamed odd denial of caste. I suggest that characteristics themselves. this is tied to CREST’s deliberate approach of tackling caste Ajit has learned methods to help inequality solely through targeted him pass in social situations and individualized processes of involving upper-castes, but he self-improvement. This pedagogy also chose to do this at CREST. as a form of denying caste-based At the school, although all differences is discussed below. students are from lower castes, an inter-caste hierarchy between Caste as Denied: SC/ST students persist. Ajit was very aware of this dynamic, even Curriculum and if it has never manifested itself (to Students my knowledge) as discrimination between the students. It is CREST shares its campus with troubling that an institution another government organization, dedicated to increasing the the Kerala Institute for Research confidence of lower-castes and Training and Development facilitating their social mobility Studies of Scheduled Castes and has not managed to imbue enough Scheduled Tribes (KIRTADS). confidence in Ajit to stop On the premises, KIRTADS runs concealing his tribal identity a small museum with tribal tools, within the school. Goffman notes artifacts, and models on display. that it is not uncommon for The main museum is inside a stigmatized individuals who have building adjacent to CREST, but learned to pass to subsequently some models are on display feel that they are above passing outside. The museum had not and embrace their identity been discussed by anyone I spoke wholeheartedly. It may be overly to at CREST. When I asked one of optimistic to expect five months the staff members about it, his at CREST to help a student like response was to immediately

141 explain emphatically that the of personal dedication, museum is casteist and that I resourcefulness, and hard work. should not go inside. He did not Students are taught that with elaborate on how or why this is enough effort, anything is the case, merely stating that the possible. What students are not existence of such a museum is in taught is how caste inequality is itself casteist. Later that day, I actively produced and reified in was interviewing Ajit and asked society. They are also not taught him for his opinion on the to be critical of the underlying museum. Based on the staff conditions that enable one’s member’s comment, I was attendance at a school like expecting him to find the museum CREST, or the requirements of offensive. To my surprise, he was becoming polished while others not offended by it at all. Instead, appear to simply possess these my question prompted him to start traits, recalling the “brilliant” telling me about tribal huts in his upper-caste students described by colony that were similar to the Ajit. The path to equality outlined models on display. This was a rare by CREST is essentially a denial moment when he seemed proud of caste-related issues. talking about his tribal identity. I did not end up entering the The denial of caste was made museum, but I still found the more explicit in a conversation discrepancy in reactions between with a “Personality Development” the staff member and Ajit my teacher at CREST. When asking question to be telling. her about a lesson on proper table etiquette and interview protocol, In her discussion of a similar she became defensive to my institution for lower-caste questions, quickly noting that it is students in Kerala, Lukose (2006) not casteist to teach this. She went explains how caste is deflected or on to say that she would teach any flattened in an effort to promote student these skills, as everyone an environment of equality. My in Kerala lacks practice with interaction with the staff member Western mannerisms such as about the adjacent museum points handshakes and cutlery. When I to a similar situation at CREST. asked her how she had acquired Throughout its curriculum, these skills, she explained matter- CREST highlights the importance of-factly that her situation was

142 different, having gone to a complete a five-month course prestigious college in Mumbai intended to address the and grown up surrounded by marginalization of lower-castes, it people familiar with proper seems problematic to declare that etiquette. Thus, the teacher’s caste is no longer a problem. default assertion of equality reflects a discrepancy with her This issue is fundamentally tied to own experience, in which she CREST’s pedagogical approach. herself benefited from access to The drawbacks of CREST’s resources not afforded to her pedagogy with regards to caste lower-caste students. Returning to inequality are exacerbated when the example of the contrasted with the benefits of its aforementioned museum, a unofficial approach to gender similar “flattening” of caste helps inequality. While the topic of explain the staff member’s caste is rarely explicitly noted by response. For him, promoting the teachers to the students, caste equality was akin to denying several female teachers did talk caste differentiation. Thus, he openly about gender equality and found the tribal museum casteist women's oppression. It was also simply because of the attention it common for teachers to make draws to tribal differences. explicit reference to how gender roles are taught and socially The denial of caste by teachers at constructed. For example, one CREST also impacts the ways in teacher told the story of which students conceptualize Cinderella, but with the gender caste. Earlier, I noted that some roles reversed. This unfolded into students do not feel that caste a discussion on how the stories to personally affects them. This told young girls raise them to sentiment extends further, as believe they need to be saved. The some students expressed that same teacher who denied the caste is not only irrelevant to them, relevance of caste in her but to everyone in Kerala. In an familiarity with table etiquette online conversation, one of the also frequently talked to the students explained to me that “in students about gender. On one the early times it [caste] was very occasion, she recounted an crucial. But nowadays it is not a experience with a potential male problem”. As a student about to boss who attempted to assault her.

143 She was forthright in discussing forward, especially when the prevalence of gender-based compared to CREST’s approach violence and encouraged the to the issue of caste inequality. students to think critically about Many female students left how harmful views of women are CREST with a sense of pride for reproduced in social interactions, their identity as women and a giving rise to said violence. renewed conviction in their abilities, but students like Ajit The result of these discussions continued to harbor shame over was positive. After the teacher his tribal identity. recounted the story of Cinderella, some male students decided to There are a few factors that may rewrite a play they were creating have influenced the diverging in another class to give the female approaches to gender and caste lead more agency. Moreover, at inequality at CREST. To start, the the end of my time in Kerala, female teachers have a personal many of the female students stake in the issue of gender expressed to me how CREST has inequality but not in caste helped them see that women and inequality, as they are all upper- girls can be strong. Deesha, a caste themselves. To my married student, told me with knowledge, the discussions that confidence how she intended to ensued on gender were not an challenge her mother-in-law’s official part of the CREST sexist views on the role of a wife. curriculum, rather something the Her mother-in-law did not want female teachers chose to include her to leave the home if she themselves. They talked about managed to get a government job gender because it affects them in another district, but Deesha personally, thus making it not explained that if she did get a job, possible for them to deny its she had every intention of relevance. It is also possible that working. “I don’t want to be just this divergence is reflective of and a housewife”, she said. While influenced by trends in broader there are certainly many state-sponsored and media unresolved issues pertaining to discourse. Attention to gender gender, the critical discussions equality is commonly perceived that unfolded on this topic pushed as a sign of development. It is also the conversation about gender often evoked as a key feature of

144 the praised Kerala model. 18 By in the case of gender, would be a contrast, caste is often construed positive addition to CREST’s in Western media as a marker of pedagogy. Still, it is important not backwardness and to place all responsibility of underdevelopment, despite the critiquing casteism on lower-caste presence of similar, though not staff. CREST as an institution institutionalized, hierarchical must also find ways to critically class and race structures in the examine systemic issues of West. CREST’s critical attention casteism among its students, and to gender but not caste follows work to resolve instances where these broader patterns. casteism may be perpetuated by its own staff. I want to be explicit in stating that I am not arguing against a skills- Conclusion based approach to overcoming inequality. Rather, I seek to draw Caste presented itself in varying attention to problems in an ways in the lives of the students at exclusively skill-based CREST, and in their experiences curriculum. As Delpit (1986) at the institution. For students like notes, minority students need to Ajit, caste was clearly manifested be taught skills in order to in experiences of poverty and lack succeed in society, but this must of access to opportunities. be couched “within the context of Economic, social, and cultural critical and creative thinking” if it capital intersect in lower-caste is to bring about meaningful and social positions to create impactful change.19 situations of deprivation that subsequently reproduce A useful starting point in themselves across generations. In addressing this aspect of other cases, where economic CREST’s educational approach capital is ample, chains of social might be to employ teachers who and cultural capital may be less are themselves from lower-caste apparent, making the effects of backgrounds. Their insights from caste hidden. Caste may be also lived experiences with caste deliberately hidden for an inequality, as well as their ability individual to pass and avoid the to help infuse critical discussion humiliation and discrimination on caste as the female teachers did associated with a lower-caste

145 identity. This is the approach that a systemic and structural issue, an Ajit adopted both prior to coming alternative approach that could to CREST and during the program. lead to a more critical It is possible, however, for examination of power relations. stigmatized individuals to There is promise, however, in the eventually discard performative unofficial emergence of critical tactics of passing, and to undergo discussions on gender, the more transformative and spearheaded by female teachers at political journey of embracing CREST. Applying a similar one’s stigmatized identity. This is approach to caste would help not a process encouraged or CREST instill a deeper, more supported at CREST. While political understanding of CREST certainly helps its inequality in its students. This students learn and implement process will help students enact “soft skills” that will aid them in more transformative changes in navigating a competitive job their personal identification and market, the school does not relationship to caste, and in their encourage assessment of caste as future impacts on society.

1 All names are pseudonyms. 2 N.d., Centre for Research and Education for Social Transformation (CREST). http://www.crest.ac.in/about.html. 3 Devika, J. Egalitarian Developmentalism, Communist Mobilization, and the Question of Caste in Kerala State, India, 2010. 4 Steur, Luisa. Adivasi Mobilisation: ‘Identity’ versus ‘Class’ after the Kerala Model of Development?, 2009. 5 Devika, 2010. 6 Isaac, Susamma. Education and Socio-Cultural Reproduction: Development of Tribal People in Wayanad, Kerala, 2011. 7 Mosse, David. A Relational Approach to Durable Poverty, Inequality and Power, 2010. 8 Bourdieu, P. The Forms of Capital, 1986. p.84

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9 Bourdieu. p.89 10 Appadurai. Arjun. The Capacity to Aspire: Culture and the Terms of Recognition, 2004. p.69 11 Bourdieu. p.85 12 Goffman, Erving. Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity, 1963. p.3 13 Goffman. p.42 14 Goffman. p.43-44 15 Goffman. p.44 16 Goffman. p.61 17 Goffman. p.107-108 18 Jeffrey, Robin. Legacies of Matriliny: The Place of Women and the ‘Kerala Model’, 2004. 19 Delpit, Lisa. Skills and Other Dilemmas of a Progressive Black Educator, 1995. p.19

147 References

Appadurai, Arjun. “The Capacity to Aspire: Culture and the Terms of Recognition.” Culture and Public Action, edited by Vijayendra Rao and Michael Wlaton. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004, pp. 59-84. Bourdieu, Pierre. “The Forms of Capital.” Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education, edited by J Richardson. New York: Greenwood, 1986, pp. 83-95. Centre for Research and Education for Social Transformation. About us n.d. http://www.crest.ac.in/about.html. Delpit, Lisa. “Skills and Other Dilemmas of a Progressive Black Educator.” Other people’s children: cultural conflict in the classroom. New York: The New Press, 1995, pp. 11-20. Devika, J. “Egalitarian Developmentalism, Communist Mobilization, and the Question of Caste in Kerala State, India.” The Journal of Asian Studies, vol 69, no 3, 2010, pp. 799-820. Goffman, Erving. Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice Hall, 1963. Isac, Susamma. “Education and Socio-Cultural Reproduction: Development of Tribal People in Wayanad, Kerala.” Rajagiri Journal of Social Development, vol 3, no 1&2, 2011, pp. 1-30. Jeffrey, Robin. “Legacies of Matriliny: The Place of Women and the ‘Kerala Model’.” Pacific Affairs, vol 77, no 4, 2004 pp. 647-664. Lukose, Ritty. “Re(casting) the Secular: Religion and Education in Kerala, India.” Social Analysis: The International Journal of Social and Cultural Practice, vol 50, no 3, 2006, pp. 33-60. Mosse, David. “A Relational Approach to Durable Poverty, Inequality and Power.” Journal of Development Studies, vol 46, no 7, 2010, pp. 1156-1178. Shah, Alpha & Shneiderman, Sara. “Introduction: Toward an anthropology of affirmative action.” vol 65, 2013, pp. 3-12. Smith, Lisa. “Experiential ‘hot’ knowledge and its influence on low-SES students’ capacities to aspire to higher education.” Critical Studies in Education, vol 52, no 2, 2011, pp. 165-177.

148 Steur, Luisa. “Adivasi Mobilisation: ‘Identity’ versus ‘Class’ after the Kerala Model of Development?” Journal of South Asian Development, vol 4, no 1, 2009, pp. 25-44.

149

[Op-Ed] India’s Soft Power: Prospects and limitations

Deepak Jain is currently serving as a contributor for Synergy.

Scholars of International of Harvard University in the Relations define power as a book, Bound to Lead: The state’s ability to influence the Changing Nature of American behaviour of other states to its Power (1990), to describe advantage. Hard power implies inveiglement not overtly based on the use of military and economic force. Since then, the term has means to influence other states or found wide currency in political bodies; it is explicitly international affairs. Joseph Nye coercive and works best when further developed the concept of applied on states with soft power in the book – Soft comparatively less military or Power: The Means to Success in economic power. In contrast, soft World Politics (2004). The power is decidedly non-coercive, current understanding of soft and it works through culture, power is that it is the ability to foreign policies and political influence, change, or control values. States wielding soft power social and public opinion through do not bludgeon their opponents diplomacy, strategic into submission by virtue of their communication, foreign military might, rather, they are assistance, economic able to attract and co-opt their reconstruction, lobbying or competitors. branding.

The concept of soft power was Soft power is not a normative first propounded by Joseph Nye concept but a descriptive term. As

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such, there is no universally natural that attention is paid to its agreed upon method for soft power potential. India’s measuring it. Some observers and demographic evolution – a analysts of international affairs predominantly young population, have attempted to gauge the soft its widespread diaspora, rapid power of various nations through economic growth, and its indices and country rankings. Soft increasing military strength have power is more than simply all been cited as reasons for its influence or persuasion: it is the emergence. India is home to very attraction that leads to diverse cultures, languages, acquiescence. It is partly climates, and landscapes. generated by governmental Moreover, it is one of the oldest policies and public diplomacy. countries in the world and has a Popular culture and mass media rich syncretic religious heritage. are also sources of soft power. All of these factors are potential The success of soft power soft power resources. depends on the state’s reputation. Cultural intangibles like the Post-Independence India enjoys a persuasiveness of brands, reputation of being benign, non- favorable coverage in the violent, and fastidiously international news, and goodwill democratic. In recent times, the are all measures of soft power. Government of India has made The meaning of the term ‘soft concerted efforts to capitalize on power’ has been considerably its reputation to make India an expanded – to the point where it is attractive investment and travel routinely used in a socio-cultural destination. Some of the efforts context to include such diverse that have focused on enhancing elements as cinema, sports, India’s international brand image cuisine, art, and religion. – such as the creation in 2006 of a public diplomacy division within Soft Power in the Indian the Ministry of External Affairs, the worldwide expansion of the Context Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR), the Ministry of India, along with China, is one of Tourism’s ‘Incredible India’ the ascendant economic powers st campaign, and the work of the of the 21 century, so it is only Ministry for Overseas Indians.i

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of mass media penetration with Certain characteristics of Indian innumerable daily and periodical culture, such as yoga and news and literary publications. In Ayurveda, have progressively addition to the state-owned radio gained western attention and the and television services, there are same is now being aggressively thousands of entertainment and marketed by the newly created news channels in virtually every Ministry of AYUSH (Ayurveda, Indian language. All this allows Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, for a unique opportunity to Siddha and Homoeopathy) of the present India to the world in Government of India. New- flattering terms. Still, for all its fangled mega-corporations like plethora of print and television Patanjali Ayurved Limited and programming, hardly anything non-governmental organizations registers outside the country and like the Isha Foundation and the has not anything like the same Art of Living Foundation are also standing as BBC, CNN, or the prominent in this regard. New York Times. Upwardly, mobile India has been experiencing a resurgent, overtly Among the BRICS nations, India militant, consumption-based has the most developed and religiosity for some time, as can globalized film and television be seen from the mushrooming of industry. Increasingly, the millionaire ascetics and sundry Government of India, as well as God-men. In addition to the niche many Indian corporations, deploy markets within India and among the power of Bollywood in their the diaspora, Hindu ‘spirituality’ national and international has become a high-value product interactions. In terms of films primarily aimed at European and produced every year, Bollywood American markets. Due to its outdoes Hollywood by a popularity, it may be considered a considerable margin. To an soft power resource. extent, the rising cultural influence of all things Bollywood India has a large literate has served to change Western population and historically well- perceptions of India as the land of established literary traditions in snake-charmers and it has become English and many Indian a legitimate mode for transporting languages. It also has a fair degree the Indian brand to a global

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audience. However, for most Indian cities also make them international viewers Bollywood particularly unattractive travel is synonymous with Indian destinations. These factors limit cinema. Bollywood’s brand India’s potential for cultural success has had the very negative diffusion through travel. effect of marginalizing the linguistically diverse film-making Actualizing the traditions in Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, and many other Possibility Indian language.ii The usage of ‘soft power’ has India has always been a popular evolved over time and these days one speaks of ‘smart power’. travel destination. As such, the Present usage of the term has country has significant possibilities of cultural diffusion evolved to encompass perception management at an international by way of tourism. In recent level. In this context, given its years, the government has sought to market the so-called Buddhist vast and ancient cultural heritage, circuit and generally play up it stands to reason that India has tremendous soft power India’s tourist potential through iii the ‘Incredible India ‘campaign. potential. However, chronic However, considering most under-investment in tourists that visit India stick to infrastructure, health-care, and certain well-known travel education are severe impediments destinations, the number of to actualizing India’s soft power Western visitors is rather small, potential. and travellers from Africa, South America, and China are almost In the first place, the Indian entirely absent from among the republic is marked by clear and tourists that visit India every year. present strains of anti- Further, most archaeologically intellectualism and sectarianism which endanger the democratic and historically significant ethos of the country. Worse still, monuments have been perpetually neglected. India is also not known these trends find a pride of place for its museums, historical or in the ruling disposition. Far from capitalizing on its cultural wealth, otherwise. The badly planned and haphazardous conditions of governmental encouragement to

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Yoga and Ayurveda follows the virtually unlivable and a most quest to project Hinduism into unattractive destination for history, and to present ancient travelers. The actual living India as the progenitor of modern conditions of most Indian people science and technology.iv It is fair are indeed quite terrible. This to say that India is being makes it very difficult to promote rebranded from a syncretic, a decrepit, poverty-ridden, tolerant melding of cultures and overcrowded, and polluted religions to an exclusively Hindu country as a destination for the nation – one where mythology is people of the world. Thus, substituted for actual history, attempts to portray India as a feel Mughal and Muslim history is good, consumerist utopia, effaced or denigrated, and Bollywood notwithstanding, have secular, pluralistic voices are limited traction at best. suppressed. Needless to say, such ham-fisted methods, which are Unless India invests massively in akin to propaganda initiatives, improving the living conditions of cannot enhance India’s persuasive its people and embraces its rich ability as they depend on multicultural, multi-ethnic, multi- misperception or outright religious heritage and democratic deception for their success. ethos, there is every possibility that not only will it fail to In the second place, chronic efficiently use its soft power neglect of public infrastructure resources; it may even squander and utilities in post-independence them completely. India has made Indian cities

i Dholani, J. International Yoga Day: A hard look at India's soft power. Daily O. June 2017, Retrieved January 23, 2018, from https://www.dailyo.in/politics/international-yoga-day-2017-modi-china- soft-power/story/1/17926.html ii Mukherjee, Rohan. The False Promise of India's Soft Power. International Studies Association Annual Convention, San Francisco, April 3-6, 2013. April 5, 2013. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2246839 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssr n.2246839

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iii Blarel, Nicolas. India: the next superpower? : India's soft power: from potential to reality? IDEAS reports - special reports, Kitchen, Nicholas (ed.) SR010. 2012. LSE IDEAS, London School of Economics and Political Science, London, UK. Available at http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/43445/ iv A number of startling unscientific and ahistorical claims have been made from public platforms and there is a clear tendency to deliberately mix up history with mythology. Possibly the worst instance of this is the Prime Minister endorsing the patently false view that cosmetic surgery and reproductive genetics were practiced in ancient/mythological India.

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References

Dholani, J. International Yoga Day: A hard look at India's soft power. Daily O. June 2017, Retrieved January 23, 2018, from https://www.dailyo.in/politics/international-yoga-day-2017- modi-china-soft-power/story/1/17926.html Mukherjee, Rohan. The False Promise of India's Soft Power. International Studies Association Annual Convention, San Francisco, April 3-6, 2013. April 5, 2013. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2246839 or http://dx.doi.org/10. 2139/ssrn.2246839 Blarel, Nicolas. India: the next superpower? : India's soft power: from potential to reality? IDEAS reports - special reports, Kitchen, Nicholas (ed.) SR010. 2012. LSE IDEAS, London School of Economics and Political Science, London, UK. Available at http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/43445/

157

[Op-Ed] Doklam: Preclude to the Clash in South Asia

Tallal Usman is a third-year student majoring in Economic, Political Science and Public Policy. He is currently serving as a Contributor for Synergy.

India and China are the rising India. This paper will analyse economic and military Chinese-Indian relations within powerhouses of the century. Not the region in hopes of providing only do they have the largest coherent reasons behind the populations in the world, they are drawn out Doklam Standoff. This also nuclear powers possessing article will first provide a great destructive military might. background of Indo-Chinese The Doklam land issue between relations and the Doklam issue, India, Bhutan, and China where before moving to analyze the the borders of the three countries issue and its possible causes. The meet (the tri-junction) was one of article will conclude by showing the tensest moments in Indo- that the Doklam issue and other Chinese relations this century and incidences are parts of the bigger signifies the inevitable clash duel between China and India as between the two countries as each nation attempts to increase China expands itself and maintain their spheres of economically and politically. This influence within South-Asia. paper will attempt to outline the causes behind the Doklam India and China have had a encounter, owing to the rising history of military confrontations, clashes: military, political, and directly and indirectly. The last economic, between China and time the two met in a state of war

159 was close to 50 years ago in the encroachment by the Chinese. Sino-Indian War of 1962 which The result was a standoff lasting lasted for a month. Similar to the close to three months. Through issues causing the 1962 conflict, commendable policies on both the two countries once again sides which prevented firearms to butted heads in Doklam over be carried by soldiers near the territory. 1 However, many border, bloodshed and further factors have also changed since escalation were prevented. Land that time; both countries possess ownership in the region, as in an estimated one million soldier most land disputes, varies on armies and have significantly which government is considered stronger air and naval strengths.2 legitimate. Although numerous Most importantly, they have treaties have been signed, due to developed nuclear warheads the claims that the signatory (China in 1964, India in 1974). governments were illegitimate at Apart from the 1962 conflict, the time, most of these treaties are there have also been two border considered to be invalid by clashes in the 1987 Sino-Indian successor states. However, this skirmish, and the Nathu La and viewpoint is not shared by all, as Cho La clashes. Including the other signatories may still feel Doklam incident, most of these them to be relevant, resulting in a events have transpired on the deadlock in most dialogues.4 As eastern side of the Indo-Chinese such, there is no consensus among border rather than the Aksai Chin the countries in many land region on the Western side of the ownership disputes. The Doklam border.3 issue was resolved in late August, 2017, with neither Bhutan nor The confrontation arose when China giving up its claim to the China extended a road into what land. was considered by Bhutan and India to be Bhutanese territory. It Having provided the reader with is important to note that land sufficient background knowledge disputes in the region, despite to the crisis and its actors, this numerous attempts at dialogue, article will now analyse the have yet to be fully resolved. On possible causes into why the Bhutan’s insistence, Indian troops actions which resulted in the were mobilized to prevent further standoff were taken. The most

160 commonly cited reason for The military advantage Chinese road building near the tri- perspective answers the reasons junction, apart from China’s for road construction but only claimed infrastructure partially explains the elongated improvement, is for military standoff. I will argue that the advantage. The road construction standoff was sustained partly by near the tri-junction of Bhutan, two political aims. It is important India ,and China, which started to note that even if the Doklam the encounter, lies near the issue occurred by coincidental Siliguri corridor (called road construction by Chinese “Chicken’s Neck), a narrow piece authorities without ulterior of Indian Territory between motive, the resulting standoff Bangladesh and Nepal that would still be sustained by connect the rest of the country to Chinese and Indian authorities for its North-East regions. Many close to three months. During this military experts claim that this time neither country chose to back move, as well as ones in the past, off. The situation in the region have been Chinese efforts to get sees two powerful nations facing as close to the corridor as off against each other, possible, thereby allowing them reminiscent of the early Cold to cut off the majority of Indian War, where political capital was soldiers in India’s Eastern an essential tool to determine Command in event of war. 5 In one’s influence, strength, and turn, the Indian government’s image in the world stage. Hence, response to Chinese action has the standoff can be interpreted as been fueled by both its a clash between two countries commitment to Bhutan as well as eager to appear stronger than the denying the opposition any other. Second, throughout the advantage. It is to be noted that entire debacle, the Chinese efforts India similarly has made to negotiate with Bhutan directly organized efforts, through its and its calls for India to stop Militaries Border Roads interfering may be another tactic Organization, to construct roads to disenfranchise the Bhutanese for Military purposes as far back people from their Southern as 2005.6 neighbour and towards the North. According to the New York Times, this effort may be showing

161 promise as many Bhutanese and the Gwadar Port, much to Citizens are reportedly growing Indian opposition. 10 11 China weary of Indian intervention in maintains that these efforts have Bhutanese affairs.7 been commercial efforts to assist the colossal One Belt and One Focusing on the aforementioned Road Initiative launched to possibility which sustained the increase Chinese importance and crisis, it is necessary that we access to Global Markets, and to analyse China’s policy with their credit a majority of regards to South-Asia to provide development commercial. an explanation as to why China However, these developments and India are fighting for together have nonetheless left influence in the region. The short many Indian politicians fearful of answer is the fact that given their the Chinese “String of Pearls,” geographical proximity, their Chinese ports and bases which spheres of influence are likely to many in India feel would clash, especially as they grow and “undermine India’s position in the compete for allies in the region in region.” 12 Furthermore, it is which gains for one power come important to note that even at the cost of the other. China has commercial opportunities hoped already made overtures in to be availed by China represent a Myanmar, Nepal, Bangladesh and threat to Indian economic might, Sri Lanka in addition to East any economic gains in the region Africa and has a great deal of are to come at the cost of Indian influence in the region. 8 It has manufacturers.13 constructed numerous commercial ports in the region Given the evidence and and is actively seeking to create circumstances, Indian opposition operational military bases in the is certainly understandable. As Indian Ocean region. 9 China increases its prominence as Furthermore, its extremely close a Global trading capital and seeks partnership with Pakistan, India’s to expand itself further, it is likely arch nemesis to the West, and its that they will meet opposition construction of the China- from their Southern Neighbour Pakistan Economic Corridor who no doubt has similar designs (CPEC) has granted China of their own. military access to Pakistani soil

162 The Doklam standoff was that it is a sign of. Even as I edit resolved on 28 August 2017. this piece another standoff is However, since then, both arising in the Arunchal Pradesh in countries have built up their the same North-Eastern region of armed forces across from each India where the Doklam standoff other’s borders and have voiced took place over the familiar issue their readiness to face each other of road construction 15 . in combat.14 The aforementioned Concluding, a combination of possibilities, in varying degrees, military and political reasons contributed to the long drawn out resulted in the standoff at conflict. The Doklam issue was Doklam, however, those reasons an important one, but in my are born from the rivalry between opinion, it was made important two rising great powers of the 21st not for the land upon which the Century, who seek to oust one standoff was carried out, but the another for more influence in their bigger picture dance of influence neighbourhood of South-Asia.

1 Das Gupta, Amit, and Lorenz M Luthi. The Sino-Indian War Of 1962: New Perspectives. 1st ed., Routledge, 2016. 2 International Institute for Strategic Studies. The Military balance: 2012. Oxford University Press, 2012. “East-West military gap rapidly shrinking: report.” Edited by Ralph Boulton, Reuters, Thomson Reuters, 8 Mar. 2011, www.reuters.com/article/us-world-military/east-west-military-gap- rapidly-shrinking-report-idUSTRE7273UB20110308. 3 Taylor, Fravel M. . Strong Borders, Secure Nation: Cooperation and Conflict in China's Territorial Dispute. Princeton University Press., 2008. 190-210. 4 "China Says India Violates 1890 Agreement In Border Stand-Off." Reuters, 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-india/china-says- india-violates-1890-agreement-in-border-stand-off-idUSKBN19O109. Barry, Ellen et al. "How India And China Have Come To The Brink Over A Remote Mountain Pass." Nytimes.Com, 2017,

163 https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/26/world/asia/dolam-plateau-china- india-bhutan.html. 5 Panda, Ankit. "What's Driving The India-China Standoff At Doklam?." The Diplomat, 2017, https://thediplomat.com/2017/07/whats-driving-the- india-china-standoff-at-doklam/. 6 "73 Roads Of Operational Significance Being Built Along China Border: Kiren Rijiju." The Economic Times, 2017, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/73-roads-of- operational-significance-being-built-along-china-border-kiren- rijiju/articleshow/59647920.cms. 7 Myers, Steven. "Squeezed By An India-China Standoff, Bhutan Holds Its Breath." New York Times, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/15/world/asia/squeezed-by-an-india- china-standoff-bhutan-holds-its-breath.html. 8 Samaranayake, Nilanthi. "Are Sri Lanka's Relations With China Deepening? An Analysis Of Economic, Military, And Diplomatic Data." Asian Security, vol 7, no. 2, 2011, pp. 119-146. Informa UK Limited. Perlez, Jane. "China To Aid South Sudan, But Pipeline Efforts Stall." Nytimes.Com, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/26/world/asia/china-to-aid-south- sudan-but-pipeline-efforts-stall.html. 9 "China’S Foreign Ports The New Masters And Commanders." Economist, 2017, https://www.economist.com/news/international/21579039-chinas- growing-empire-ports-abroad-mainly-about-trade-not-aggression-new- masters. 10 "PM Modi Told China, Pakistan Economic Corridor Unacceptable: Sushma Swaraj." Zee News, 2017, http://zeenews.india.com/news/india/pm-modi-told-china-pakistan- economic-corridor-unacceptable-sushma-swaraj_1605173.html. 11 Raza, Syed. "China Given Contract To Operate Gwadar Port." DAWN, 2013, https://www.dawn.com/news/786992/china-given-contract-to- operate-gwadar-port. 12 J. Pehrson, Christopher. "String Of Pearls: Meeting The Challenge Of China's Rising Power Across The Asian Littoral." Carlisle Paper In Security Strategy, 2006, http://ssi.armywarcollege.edu/pdffiles/PUB721.pdf.

164

13 Brewster, David. "Beyond The ‘String Of Pearls’: Is There Really A Sino-Indian Security Dilemma In The Indian Ocean?." Journal Of The Indian Ocean Region, Vol 10, No. 2, 2014, 133-149. Informa UK Limited. 14 "Army Totally Ready To Face Any Situation In Doklam: GOC-In-C Lt Gen Abhay Krishna." The Indian Express, 2017, http://indianexpress.com/article/india/doklam-standoff-china-india-army- vijay-diwas-4985842/. Huang, Kristin. "China Starts To Build Up Troops Near Doklam Flashpoint." South China Morning Post, 2017, http://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy- defence/article/2124375/china-building-troop-numbers-near-doklam- after-summer. 15 Prasanta Mazumdar and Sujan Dutta. “After Doklam, India-China faceoff in Arunachal Pradesh.” The New Indian Express, 3 Jan. 2018, www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2018/jan/03/after-doklam-india- china-faceoff-in-arunachal-pradesh-1742996.html.

165 References

"Army Totally Ready To Face Any Situation In Doklam: GOC-In-C Lt Gen Abhay Krishna." The Indian Express, 2017, http://indianexpress.com/article/india/doklam-standoff-china- india-army-vijay-diwas-4985842/. Barry, Ellen et al. "How India And China Have Come To The Brink Over A Remote Mountain Pass." Nytimes.Com, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/26/world/asia/dolam-plateau- china-india-bhutan.html. Brewster, David. "Beyond The ‘String Of Pearls’: Is There Really A Sino-Indian Security Dilemma In The Indian Ocean?." Journal Of The Indian Ocean Region, Vol 10, No. 2, 2014, 133-149. Informa UK Limited. "China’s Foreign Ports The New Masters And Commanders." Economist, 2017, https://www.economist.com/news/international/21579039- chinas-growing-empire-ports-abroad-mainly-about-trade-not- aggression-new-masters. "China Says India Violates 1890 Agreement In Border Stand-Off." Reuters, 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china- india/china-says-india-violates-1890-agreement-in-border-standoff-idUSKBN19O109. Das Gupta, Amit, and Lorenz M Luthi. The Sino-Indian War Of 1962: New Perspectives. 1st ed., Routledge, 2016. Huang, Kristin. "China Starts To Build Up Troops Near Doklam Flashpoint." South China Morning Post, 2017, http://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy- defence/article/2124375/china-building-troop-numbers-near- doklam-after-summer. J. Pehrson, Christopher. "String Of Pearls: Meeting The Challenge Of China's Rising Power Across The Asian Littoral." Carlisle Paper In Security Strategy, 2006, http://ssi.armywarcollege.edu/pdffiles/PUB721.pdf. Myers, Steven. "Squeezed By An India-China Standoff, Bhutan Holds Its Breath." New York Times, 2017,

166 https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/15/world/asia/squeezed-by- an-india-china-standoff-bhutan-holds-its-breath.html. Panda, Ankit. "What's Driving The India-China Standoff At Doklam?." The Diplomat, 2017, https://thediplomat.com/2017/07/whats- driving-the-india-china-standoff-at-doklam/. Perlez, Jane. "China To Aid South Sudan, But Pipeline Efforts Stall." Nytimes.Com, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/26/world/asia/china-to-aid- south-sudan-but-pipeline-efforts-stall.html. "PM Modi Told China, Pakistan Economic Corridor Unacceptable: Sushma Swaraj." Zee News, 2017, http://zeenews.india.com/news/india/pm-modi-told-china- pakistan-economic-corridor-unacceptable-sushma- swaraj_1605173.html. Raza, Syed. "China Given Contract To Operate Gwadar Port." DAWN, 2013, https://www.dawn.com/news/786992/china-given- contract-to-operate-gwadar-port. Samaranayake, Nilanthi. "Are Sri Lanka's Relations With China Deepening? An Analysis Of Economic, Military, And Diplomatic Data." Asian Security, vol 7, no. 2, 2011, pp. 119- 146. Informa UK Limited. "73 Roads Of Operational Significance Being Built Along China Border: Kiren Rijiju." The Economic Times, 2017, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/73-roads-of- operational-significance-being-built-along-china-border-kiren- rijiju/articleshow/59647920.cms. Many statements from the Indian Ministry of External Affairs and the Chinese equivalent were used.

167

Southeast Asia

Resettlement Policy in Hồ Chí Minh City, Vietnam and its Effect on Relocated Individuals

Daniel C. Park is an alumnus from University of Toronto who studied International Relations and Political Science. He served as the Editor- in-Chief for Synergy Journal for the academic cycle of 2016-2017.

Abstract

The Asia-Pacific is currently undergoing a massive rural-to-urban migration, annually adding about fifty million people into the region’s metropolitan cities. This includes Hồ Chí Minh City, the largest urban centre in Vietnam. Boasting a population of eight million and a large commercial and industrial sector, the city is responsible for a quarter of the country’s total GDP. However, the city is also the biggest recipient of rural and foreign migrants. Urban growth in HCMC essentially has far outpaced industrialization in HCMC, placing the city in a housing shortage. Compounded by the ever-increasing price of real estate, migrants resort to subpar forms of housing, settling for makeshift dwellings in outer-district slums. These slums; however, started being cleared to utilize the illegally occupied space more productively to accommodate for the city’s rising upper and middle class. Since then, HCMC has approved of numerous urban redevelopment projects, from the satellite suburb of “Saigon South” in Quản 7 to the Thủ Thiêm New Urban Area project in Quản 2. Displacing thousands of slum dwellers and low-income property owners, HCMC struggles to negotiate a balance between catering for its growing urban middle class and providing adequate housing for the city’s poor.

171 Key Terminology Defined

Đổi mới: economic reforms initiated in Vietnam in 1986 with the goal of creating a “socialist-oriented market economy.”

Modernization: the process of making modern, whether in design or urban planning.

Phường: “Ward.”

Quản: “District.”

Satellite city: a concept in urban planning that refers essentially to smaller metropolitan areas which are located somewhat near to, but are mostly independent of larger metropolitan areas.

Social capital: the network of social connections that exists between people, and their shared values and norms of behaviour which enable and encourage mutually advantageous social cooperation.

Socio-spatial exclusion: exclusion or segregation of people from access to normal urban social life due to spatial bias.

Socio-spatial network: a social network dependent and determined by a specific positional or geographical situation.

Suburbanization: the process of restructuring space on the fringe of the urban centre as a result of urban expansion, population rise, and usually improved socioeconomic conditions.

Urban fragmentation: the phenomenon of increasingly disordering and disconnecting urban society spatially, as a result of economic processes.

Urbanization: the broad process by which an urban centre advances economically and structurally.

172 Vietnamese exodus: refers to refugees who fled Vietnam after the Vietnam War, especially during 1978 and 1979 to escape communist rule and dire economic circumstances.

Introduction Hồ Chí Minh City (formally Saigon) of Vietnam. Metropolitan cities of the Asia- Pacific, especially those of Hồ Chí Minh City (HCMC) is the developing countries, have largest city in Vietnam, boasting a undergone considerable urban population of about eight million 3 growth in the twenty-first century. in 2015. Being the country’s According to a joint report of the largest urban centre, HCMC United Nations Economic and draws a significant number of Social Commission for Asia migrants from the rural areas of (UNESCAP) and Human central and southern Vietnam, as Settlements Programme (UN- well as from its border neighbours HABITAT), by 2018, the total Cambodia and Laos. Two major population of the region is historical events could be expected to be more than fifty attributed to the city’s large urban percent urban.1 At current trends, population. First, throughout the approximately fifty million near century-long French colonial migrants are being added to rule (1887–1954), Vietnam Asia’s urban centres every year. remained predominantly That is the highest growth rate in agricultural as it had been for the world, followed by Africa, much of its precolonial history. At which adds fifteen million the time, a majority of the migrants to urban centres country’s population resided in 4 annually.2 Such a large influx has the countryside. During the early prompted local governments of phases of the French conquest of these Asian cities to reconfigure Vietnam in 1864, what is now their urban space and HCMC had a population of infrastructure to properly eighteen thousand residents. accommodate for the projected However, the population soon population increase. This includes climbed to 244,717 by 1916, a thirteenfold jump in just five

173 decades. Such rapid population reaccelerated with the growth was fueled by the erection introduction of Đổi mới (1986). of colonial administration and Vietnam’s export-led economic military infrastructure, along with reform program referred to as the commercialization of “Đổi mới” aimed to integrate HCMC.5 more capitalist principles into its socialist economy. The program’s This fast-paced growth only push for economic liberalization accelerated during the two and rollback of state intervention Indochina Wars fought against led to a preferential concentration the French (1946–54) and the of capital, investment, and United States (1955–75). Many economic opportunities in the from the central countryside and country’s urban areas, especially North Vietnam were displaced in HCMC. The city indeed has due to heavy fighting and risen as the main commercial and American bombing campaigns, industrial hub of Vietnam. Only a forcing them to seek refuge in few years after Đổi mới in 1992, South Vietnam. In particular, HCMC was responsible for 18.9 HCMC was the go-to destination percent of the total production of for these refugees. The city Vietnam; and now boasts a total remained a safe haven throughout GDP (nominal) of USD44.3 the war due to heavy American billion (2015), nearly a quarter of presence.6 Immediately after the the country’s total GDP (nominal) war in 1975; however, HCMC’s of USD214 billion (2015). The population stagnated at 3.5 city’s GDP (nominal) per capita million primarily due to the income of USD5,538 (2015) is Vietnamese exodus. The also the highest in Vietnam, far stagnation was compounded by exceeding the country’s average the introduction of a population of USD2,321 (2015). 7 As control policy: the government Vietnam’s largest urban centre, restricted migrants from settling HCMC has been the primary in HCMC and dispersed the city’s beneficiary of the country’s new residents to the countryside. wealth, but also the biggest recipient of rural and foreign Second, during the late 1980s, migrants. HCMC’s population growth returned to its historical high and

174 Industrialization in HCMC has Living conditions in these places been outpaced by the city’s urban are dire. A combination of population. At a rate of around crowdedness and an absence of two hundred thousand newcomers toilet plumbing regularly floods every year, low-income migrants slums with waste water, spreading flood the city, compounding diseases found in human feces HCMC’s already drastic housing and waste. In 2002, the HCMC shortage.8 This is partly attributed government estimated that over to Vietnam’s poor population ten percent of its urban population forecasting, HCMC being the lived under such precarious typical case.9 Because of repeated conditions.12 inaccurate projections, HCMC’s urban planning has never In 1990, HCMC began clearing adequately accommodated for the slums to utilize the illegally- city’s real population growth. For occupied space more productively instance, the 1993 urban plan for to accommodate the rising urban HCMC projected the population population and to cater to middle- to reach five million by 2010; the class conveniences; and, in the estimate was surpassed by 1998 rhetoric of urban planners, to and the real population of 2010 improve slum dwellers’ standard ended up being 7.4 million.10 of living. Toward this objective, the city has authorized more real Making matters worse, HCMC estate and construction ventures, has the largest gap between starting a trend of suburbanization average household income and in HCMC. A prime example of the price of real estate in Vietnam. such a venture is a satellite suburb Because of this, without the referred to as “Saigon South” or ability to afford housing upon “Phú Mỹ Hưng” in Quản 7, which arrival, many migrants resort to consists of more open space, large poor forms of housing—settling shopping malls, international in outer-district slums, often set schools, and even factory outlets. up illegally along heavily polluted The Department of Construction canals and rivers.11 A slum is a has already proposed adding six high density informal settlement more of these suburbs by 2020.13 in an urban area; it is The Thủ Thiêm New Urban Area characterized by squalor and in Quản 2 is another ongoing substandard makeshift dwellings. redevelopment project, aspiring

175 to become the new financial previous residence. The rapidly- district of HCMC—much like the rising real estate market of Pudong financial district of HCMC also quickly diminishes Shanghai. the purchasing power of their compensation. These However, these billion-dollar circumstances force the projects, requiring hundreds of households to relocate to outer- hectares of land, have urban districts that are systematically displaced and underdeveloped and sometimes relocated the illegally-occupying even lacking access to electrical slum dwellers and poor grids or a functioning sewage households to new areas far from system. 15 Concerning the latter, their original place of residence. there are an array of reasons why Although the Thủ Thiêm project Vietnamese households prefer not expects to accommodate 130,000 to reside in a high-rise permanent residents and to resettlement complex. Those who service about one million people, previously owned either a 14,600 households have already detached or semi-detached been displaced.14 To compensate property consider moving into a for their loss, a form high-rise building a downgrade. compensation is handed out in This thought is reinforced by the return: Although the selection of fact that the quality of these compensation packages varies complexes tends to be poor: They from project to project, the are constructed cheaply in package typically consists of a undesireable locations. In government-decided value of addition, many low-income their property or the right to buy a Vietnamese people operate a shop unit in a resettlement complex. on the ground level of their flats, These options; however, are far but such operation cannot exist in from adequate. Regarding the a multi-storey building because former, while households can there is not enough space to relocate elsewhere, the accommodate all residents that compensation value received might want to set up a shop. 16 tends to be far below the market Further, the relocatees’ frustration price of their property— over the inadequacy of their preventing them from purchasing compensation is compounded by a similar-sized property near their the local authorities deliberately

176 mismeasuring their plots of land, most socioeconomic impact on pocketing what was officially relocated individuals, and how paid out to them, evicting them these factors are manifested in with the threat of violence, real economic and social terms in making false promises or the relocatees’ daily life intentionally delaying their experiences. I should emphasize promised compensation, as well that in this paper, the term as the additional fact that some “impact” implies neither relocatees fail to receive any detrimental nor beneficial change. compensation because they do not My research hypothesis is as possess the complete paperwork follows: documenting their land-use rights or long-term residence. 17 The When the precise socio-spatial resettlement policy of HCMC; needs of relocated individuals therefore, fails to productively and their previous sources of cater to the low-income relocatees’ income are not taken into income-generating activities and consideration in the resettlement spatial positioning needs, and compensation process, the deteriorating their socio-spatial result is the disordering of their network and potentially leading previously established socio- them to a state of socio-spatial spatial network. The factor exclusion. exerting the most impact on the level of intensity of the Research Hypothesis disordering of the relocatees’ socio-spatial network is distance. The prime goal of this research More specifically, the distance project aims to examine how between the relocated individuals’ HCMC’s resettlement apparatus previous and new place of and its displacement, relocation, residence. Therefore, the greater and compensation policy affected the distance the relocatees are the relocatees socioeconomically, repositioned from their previous and in particular, their socio- place of residence, the greater spatial network. More specifically, level of socio-spatial exclusion I wanted to evaluate what factors experienced by relocated produced by the city’s individuals. resettlement policy exerted the

177 I repeatedly emphasize the terms further because I was prohibited “socio-spatial network” and from using an audio recorder. “socio-spatial exclusion” This was because my research considering Vietnam’s cultural project required a low-level group emphasis on social capital—as do vulnerability and research risk. To many other neighbouring Asia- avoid confusion, the Pacific countries. Social capital is questionnaire (Figure A.2) was a social network sustained via formulated after the February trip. reciprocity, trust, and shared Therefore, the interviewee values and norms, which enables answers from February may not mutually advantageous necessarily reflect the interactions among those parts of questionnaire. the network. A deterioration of social capital therefore can have Regarding the ten questions listed real socioeconomic consequences in the questionnaire, they are in Vietnamese culture. divided into two different sections. The former is oriented towards Research Background inquiring about the relocatees’ displacement experiences, and The data presented in this paper what choice of compensation they were collected during the two opted for. These questions trips I made to HCMC in maintain a uniform theme of February and July, 2016. Before uncovering what approach the providing further details, I must district governments took, and emphasize a few points. During how much integrity they had, and both trips, I was accompanied by what responsibility they were the same Vietnamese-to-English willing to take regarding their translator studying at the Hồ Chí relocatees’ displacement and Minh City University of Social relocation. I also inquired about Sciences. However, he did not whether or not the interviewees’ have native or bilingual neighbours shared a similar proficiency in English, but only experience to rule out any unique professional working proficiency. cases. The latter part of the The translations I received; questionnaire focused on the therefore, may not be entirely interviewees’ daily life accurate. The accuracy suffered experiences after their

178 relocation—that is, what is their socioeconomic change the life like now, after repositioning? relocatees experienced after their resettlement. As well, the family None of the interviews conducted criteria was established because it with relocatees were previously- was the only easily-identifiable scheduled and were entirely factor that could be used to spontaneous. However, there maintain consistency across the were two sites I visited that relocatees I interviewed. required a research permit from their respective district Boards of Case Studies Clearance and Compensation. These two sites were a) Chung Cư First Case Study (Quận 1 near An Sương, QL1A, Trung Mỹ Tây, the Saigon River) Quận 12, and b) Vinh Loc B

Residential Area, Vinh Loc B The first resettlement complex I Ward, Bình Chánh Quận. In both visited in HCMC was in Quận 1, cases, I was accompanied by a adjacent to the Saigon River. The security officer, who looked for exact address could not be and introduced me to the obtained at the time. I conducted relocatees. Again, in both cases, interviews with three women: a the officers remained close by Bánh mì vendor, a nail polish when I conducted the interviews. artist/seller, and an unemployed Although I did not think the elderly woman. The three had interviewees’ answers were moved into the complex two affected by their presence, it is decades ago (1990s), displaced worth a mention. and relocated from a slum very

close by the complex. After many I also made sure the relocatees’ I inquiries, they appeared to have interviewed met certain criteria: had similar experiences. Their they had to be of an adult age in main problem was their unit’s size. Vietnam, they had to have lived in A family of five typically their current place of residence for received a unit of twenty-four m2, at least three months, and they had while a family of more than five to have a family. The three-month received a unit of thirty-two m2. criterion was established because However, due to a shortage of any period shorter than that was thirty-two m2 units, the elderly not sufficient to fully identify the

179 woman who had a family of nine is primarily owed to the fact that had to settle for the smaller distance has a large spillover twenty-four m2 unit. Other effect on other socioeconomic complaints included deteriorating factors. Notwithstanding the building conditions (as visible in hurdles they may have Figure B.1/Figure B.2), thin walls experienced during the relocation between units, noise pollution, process, their livelihood and robberies. Although the poor underwent no significant change maintenance of the complex is a because they were repositioned valid problem, the rest is within the same district they had attributed to the mere fact that lived and worked previously. they reside in the most urbanized centre of HCMC. Overall, they Second Case Study (Chung Cư were satisfied with their An Sương, QL1A, Trung Mỹ relocation, but most notably, none Tây, Quận 12) of their and their husbands’ jobs had to change. If they had, the At the An Sung apartment in relocatees explained that it would Quận 12, I conducted four not have been due to the interviews with household relocation. breadwinners (Figure B.3). I was told that every resident in this An interview with three relocated complex, including the four, were individuals in a complex housing originally from Quận Gò Vấp, hundreds is not a large enough and were displaced due to the sample size to draw conclusions “Tham Luong – Ben Cat – Vam on what the overall livelihood is Thuat River – Nuoc Len Canal like for the rest of the relocatees Waterway Improvement Project.” residing in this complex. According to Google Maps, Quận However, these accounts Gò Vấp is about a seventeen- reinforce the notion that the minute drive from Quận 12. This distance between the previous and distance indeed has a new place of residence and considerable spillover effect on overall satisfaction about the the relocatees. A family man with relocation share an inverse one child complained to me that relationship: the shorter the since he works in Chinatown in distance repositioned, the greater Quận 11, his commute time the relocatees’ satisfaction. This nearly doubled. He preferred

180 relocating closer to Chinatown, interviewees’ complaints further but could not due to the expensive validate the inverse relationship real estate price in Quận 11. He between the distance between the also complained that his cost of previous and new place of living has risen because goods residence and overall satisfaction and services in Quận 12 are more with the relocation. expensive than that of Quận Gò Vấp. The longer-commute Third Case Study (Vinh Loc B complaint was voiced by the other Residential Area, Vinh Loc B interviewees as well. A staff Ward, Bình Chánh Quận) member at the local government of Phường 14 of Quận Gò Vấp The same trend was observed kept his post after relocation, but with residents at a complex in he, too, suffered a longer Bình Chánh Quận, an outer-city commute time. A mid-aged district far from the urban centre woman gave me a similar account: (Figure B.4). All of the residents I She continued her post as a bank interviewed did not originate teller in Quận Gò Vấp. In from one district. This is unique particular, she complained that since HCMC’s resettlement the quality of education in Quận policy tends to relocate all 12 was inferior to that of Quận Gò residents from one redevelopment Vấp. Because of this, she zone to the same resettlement continues to send her daughter to complex. My first interviewee a school in Quận Gò Vấp, but the had been displaced due to the commute cost has financially “Tan Hoa Lo Gom Waterway burdened them. What was Improvement Project” and was intriguing was that all four originally from Quận 6. She interviewees continued to travel complained that the relocation back to Quận Gò Vấp on a weekly had added about thirty minutes to or a monthly basis—for grocery her husband’s commute who shopping, haircuts, or to visit their works at the city centre. More old friends. The interviewees notably; however, her income had expressed mediocre satisfaction taken a hit. In the past, she sold about their new area. They beverages by a busy riverside, but wanted to return to Quận Gò Vấp, Bình Chánh Quận was too rural but did not possess the financial and not densely populated. means to do so. Again, these Another lady I interviewed was

181 from Quận 1. She was displaced more-intensely affected the due to the Nancy Market relocatees’ dissatisfaction. Clearance Project. Her case was peculiar because she was from Concluding Remarks Quận 1. It was uncommon to see an individual relocated so distant Each of the three case studies from their previous place of primarily differed in terms of the residence; Quận 1 is a forty-five distance between their relocatees’ minute commute from Bình current and old place of residence. Chánh Quận. She complained that As demonstrated in the accounts she was cheated out of proper of the interviewees, as the compensation because of her KT2 distance increased, I was able to residency status. Consequently, observe an increase in the she was forced to abandon her old complaints about their relocation grocery and beverage business. and current standard of living. As noted by my first interviewee, Although distance appeared to she also shared the sentiment that have exerted the most Bình Chánh Quận had not enough socioeconomic impact on the foot traffic for businesses to turn relocatees’ daily livelihood, there a profit. Another problem was were other factors. Among those that her daughter still attended her with an underage child, they old school in Quận 1 because of prioritized sending their child to Bình Chánh’s poor quality of the best school available, even if education. She now had to wake it meant commuting to their up at five o’clock in the morning previous district. Considering that to drive her daughter to Quận 1 the interviewees were low- and then commute to another income people, this placed a district for work. These case considerable time and financial studies demonstrated the inverse burden on the interviewees. relationship between the distance Another factor with a large between the previous and new spillover effect was being place of residence and overall repositioned to an outer-city satisfaction about the relocation. district. Such repositioning This case does so as well, but the severely deterred relocatees’ from Bình Chánh Quận’s desertedness continuing their previous job due and long distance from the city’s to the unmanageable commute. urban centre appears to have

182 As well, these districts provided unemployment/underemploymen far-from-optimal conditions to t or even increasing the city’s start a profitable business, income disparity. Nevertheless, primarily due to the low foot what is clear is that the greater the traffic. These problems have yet distance the relocatees are to be properly addressed in repositioned from their previous HCMC’s resettlement policy, and place of residence, the greater may backfire on the government level of socio-spatial exclusion in the long term. These problems experienced by relocated could later manifest in the form of individuals. higher

1 “The State of Asian and Pacific Cities 2015: Urban Transformations, Shifting from Quantity to Quality.” United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia (UNESCAP), United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT), 2015, p. 10. Web. 2 Tacoli, Cecilia, Gordon McGranahan, and David Satterthwaite. “World Migration Report 2015: Urbanization, Rural–Urban Migration and Urban Poverty.” International Organization for Migration (IOM), Human Settlements Group, International Institute for Environment and Development London, International Organization for Migration (IOM), 2015, p. 7. Web. Accessed 15 Dec. 2016. 3 “Ho Chi Minh City now has 7.4 Million Motorbikes, and Counting.” Thanh Nien Daily. N.p., 6 Jan. 2016, www.thanhniennews.com/society/ho-chi-minh-city-now-has-74-million- motorbikes-and-counting-57787.html. Accessed 16 Dec. 2016. 4 Coit, Katharine. “Housing Policy and Slum Upgrading in Ho Chi Minh City.” Habitat International, 1998, p. 274. 5 Luong, Hy Van. “Ho Chi Minh City: Economic Growth, Migration, and Urbanization.” Urbanization, Migration and Poverty in a Vietnamese Metropolis: Ho Chi Minh in Comparative Perspective. N.p.: NUS Press, 2009.

183

6 Coit, Katherine. “Housing Policy and Slum Upgrading in Ho Chi Minh City.” Habitat International, 1998, p. 274. 7 Folkmanis , Jason, and Nguyen Dieu Tu Uyen. “Saigon Beating Hanoi Four Decades After Vietnam War.” Bloomberg, 3 Sept. 2014, www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-09-03/saigon-beating-hanoi- four-decades-after-vietnam-war. Accessed 16 Dec. 2016. 8 Stumpf, Michael J. “Housing and Urbanization: A Socio-Spatial Analysis of Resettlement Projects in Hồ Chí Minh City.” Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection, 1284, 2012, p. 7. 9 Huynh, Du. “The Misuse of Urban Planning in Ho Chi Minh City.” Habitat International, 2015, p. 12. 10 Huynh, Du. “The Misuse of Urban Planning in Ho Chi Minh City.” Habitat International, 2015, p. 14. 11 Stumpf, Michael J., “Housing and Urbanization: A Socio-Spatial Analysis of Resettlement Projects in Hồ Chí Minh City.” Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection, 1284, 2012, p. 7. 12 Wust, Sebastien, Jean-Claude Bolay and Thai Thi Ngoc Du. “Metropolization and the ecological crisis: precarious settlements in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.” Environment & Urbanization, 2002, p. 216. 13 Stumpf, Michael J., “Housing and Urbanization: A Socio-Spatial Analysis of Resettlement Projects in Hồ Chí Minh City.” Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection, 1284, 2012, p. 8. 14 Harms, Erik. “Beauty as Control in the New Saigon: Eviction, New Urban Zones, and Atomized Dissent in a Southeast Asian City.” American Ethnologist: Journal of the American Ethnological Society 39.4, 2012, p. 736. Web. 15 Stumpf, Michael J., “Housing and Urbanization: A Socio-Spatial Analysis of Resettlement Projects in Hồ Chí Minh City.” Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection, 1284, 2012, p. 9. 16 Stumpf, Michael J., “Housing and Urbanization: A Socio-Spatial Analysis of Resettlement Projects in Hồ Chí Minh City.” Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection, 1284, 2012, p. 11. 17 Harms, Erik. “Beauty as Control in the New Saigon: Eviction, New Urban Zones, and Atomized Dissent in a Southeast Asian City.” American Ethnologist: Journal of the American Ethnological Society 39.4, 2012, p. 739.

184 References

Coit, Katharine. “Housing Policy and Slum Upgrading in Ho Chi Minh City.” Habitat International, 1998, pp. 273-280. Folkmanis , Jason, and Nguyen Dieu Tu Uyen. “Saigon Beating Hanoi Four Decades After Vietnam War.” Bloomberg, 32 Sept. 2014 www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-09-03/saigon-beating- hanoi-four-decades-after-vietnam-war. Accessed 16 Dec. 2016. Harms, Erik. “Beauty as Control in the New Saigon: Eviction, New Urban Zones, and Atomized Dissent in a Southeast Asian City.” American Ethnologist: Journal of the American Ethnological Society 39.4, 2012, pp. 735-50. Web. “Ho Chi Minh City now has 7.4 million motorbikes, and counting.” Thanh Nien Daily, 6 Jan. 2016, www.thanhniennews.com/society/ho-chi-minh-city-now-has-74- million-motorbikes-and-counting-57787.html. Accessed 16 Dec. 2016. Huynh, Du. “The Misuse of Urban Planning in Ho Chi Minh City.” Habitat International, 2015, pp. 11-19. Kim, Annette M. “Talking Back: The Role of Narrative in Vietnam's Recent Land Compensation Changes.” Urban Studies, 2011, pp. 493-508. Low-Cost Housing in Ho Chi Minh City: Are Current Official Housing Design and Construction Standards Appropriate to Massive Low- Cost Housing Production? Republique Francaise. Print. Guidebooks to French Co-operation in Vietnam. Tacoli, Cecilia, Gordon McGranahan, and David Satterthwaite. “World Migration Report 2015: Urbanization, Rural–urban Migration and Urban Poverty.” International Organization for Migration (IOM). Human Settlements Group, International Institute for Environment and Development London, International Organization for Migration (IOM), 2015, pp. 1-32, www.iom.int/sites/default/files/our_work/ICP/MPR/WMR-2015- Background-Paper-CTacoli-GMcGranahan-DSatterthwaite.pdf. Accessed 15 Dec. 2016.

185 “The State of Asian and Pacific Cities 2015: Urban transformations, Shifting from quantity to quality.” United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia, United Nations Human Settlements Programme, 2015, pp. 1-204. www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/The%20State%20of%20Asian %20and%20Pacific%20Cities%202015.pdf. Stumpf, Michael J., “Housing and Urbanization: A Socio-Spatial Analysis of Resettlement Projects in Hồ Chí Minh City.” Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection, 1284, 2012. Waibel, Michael, Ronald Eckert, Michael Bose, and Volker Martin. “Housing for Low-income Groups in Ho Chi Minh City between Re-Integration and Fragmentation: Approaches to Adequate Urban Typologies and Spatial Strategies.” ASIEN 103, 2007, pp. 59-78. Print. Wust, Sebastien, Jean-Claude Bolay and Thai Thi Ngoc Du. “Metropolization and the ecological crisis: precarious settlements in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.” Environment & Urbanization, 2002, pp. 211-224.

186 12

The Marawi Siege: The Battle Against ISIS Reaches the Philippines Jamie (Huiyi) Chen is a third year student studying International Relations, Political Science and Contemporary Asia Studies at the University of Toronto. She is currently serving as a Contributor for Synergy.

On 17 October 2017, Philippines uninhabitable and rebuilding will President Rodrigo Duterte take several years to complete.iii declared Marawi “liberated from Despite Marawi’s liberation, the the terrorists’ influence” looming threat of future conflict following the deaths of the leaders with extremist forces remains. of the ISIS-affiliated militant The combat tactics and groups Maute and Abu Sayyaf recruitment strategies used by Salafi.i The urban battle which Philippines-based groups mirror began on 23 May 2017 in the those used in the Middle East; in southern city of Marawi (the fact, ISIS has even released Islamic capital of the majority propaganda videos directly Catholic Philippines) lasted five inciting Southeast Asian Muslims months—the longest urban battle to strike against their in the modern history of the governments. As in the Middle country.ii Residents who had fled East, economic incentives have their homes began to return on 24 played a significant role in luring October 2017, while the military citizens of poverty-stricken areas continued to search for remaining to join extremist groups: new militants. The prolonged battle recruits of the Maute Group in left large parts of the city Butig can receive a bonus of up to

187 $600 USD, a small fortune.iv In only hindered counter-terrorism the Autonomous Region in efforts.v Muslim Mindanao (ARMM)— where Marawi is located— While security and counter- poverty, weak rule of law, terrorism are nation-wide rampant corruption, and the projects, the central government’s persecution of Muslim minorities policies towards Muslim have provided fertile ground for communities must be more terrorist recruitment. prudent to prevent the type of resentment that has can lead to That it took five months to end the radicalization and violence. The insurgency in Marawi is also challenge is not just internal, explained by the weakness of the however. Neighboring states like Philippines’ military. Their Malaysia and Indonesia share personnel lack effective training, porous maritime borders with the and they are over-reliant on Philippines, which makes it easier weapons and intelligence support for extremist forces to move from other countries. between them.vi Given this Furthermore, problems including common threat, a promising limited financial resources, poor opportunity exists for these salaries, corruption, low morale, countries to enhance cooperation limited cooperation between on fighting terrorist networks, and police and prosecutors, and the transnational movement of inadequate law enforcement have extremists should be a priority on their agendas.

iMorella, C. “Duterte Declares Mission Accomplished in Marawi.” Jakarta Post, 17 Oct. 2017, www.thejakartapost.com/seasia/2017/10/17/duterte- declares-mission-accomplished-in-marawi.html. Accessed 15 Nov. 2017. ii France-Presse, A. “Marawi: City Destroyed in Philippines’ Longest Urban War.” Inquirer.net, 19 Oct. 2017, www.newsinfo.inquirer.net/939202/marawi-war-maute-terrorism-duterte- isnilon-hapilon-is-islamic-state. Accessed 15 Nov. 2017.

188 iii “Marawi Residents Return to Homes, as Soldiers Search for Last Militants.” South China Morning Post, 24 October 2017, www.scmp.com/news/asia/southeast-asia/article/2116773/marawi-residents- return-ruined-homes-greeted-gunfire. Accessed 15 Nov. 2017. iv Neuhof, F. “Siege of Marawi: How Philippines Insurgency Provided Fertile Recruiting Ground for Extremists.” The National, 10 Oct. 2017, www.thenational.ae/world/asia/siege-of-marawi-how-philippines- insurgency-provided-fertile-recruiting-ground-for-extremists-1.665738. Accessed 15 Nov. 2017. v Bhattachargi, P. “Terrorism Havens: Philippines.” Council on Foreign Relations, 1 Jun. 2009, www.cfr.org/backgrounder/terrorism-havens- philippines. Accessed 15 Nov. 2017. vi Griffiths, J. “ISIS in Southeast Asia: Philippines Battles Growing Threat.” Cable News Network, 29 May 2017, www.cnn.com/2017/05/28/asia/isis- threat-southeast-asia/index.html. Accessed 15 Nov. 2017.

189

[Op-Ed] Singapore’s Free Speech

Michelle Lee is a third-year student at the University of Toronto, studying Contemporary Asian Studies, East Asian Studies, and Sociology. She is currently serving as a Contributor for Synergy Journal.

Global media outlets have been Yew left behind in his will. While quick to report the ongoing the will states that the family internal feud occurring at the home should be demolished after highest levels of Singapore’s his death, Lee Hsien Loong – government. After making a current prime minister and eldest Facebook post condemning the child of Yew – has been accused highly restrictive conditions that by his siblings Lee Wei Ling and have historically constrained Lee Hsien Yang of attempting to people’s ability to exercise free milk their father’s legacy for speech in Singapore, Li political gain through his Shengwu—former prime minister obstructing of the house’s Lee Kuan Yew’s grandson who is demolition.i Such scrutiny a current academic at Harvard generates fears of the potential University—now faces legal nepotistic personality cult action by the Singaporean State. emerging from Yew’s family, Amidst this is what many with some commentators even commentators believe is a spat comparing the current feud to the amongst the former prime ruling sibling rivalries of former minister’s children, who argue Chinese dynasties.ii over the future of the family home

191 Singapore is often noted as an inability to continue unusual case of rapid economic campaigning. Examples of this development without the same include the Worker’s Party J.B. level of political democratization Jeyaretnam in 1979 and the that normally supports such Singapore United Front Party’s processes. Many argue this is Seow Khee Leng in 1989.iv largely due to the single-party structure of the state, whereby the Human Rights Watch has called ruling People’s Action Party on Singapore’s Government to (PAP) has retained largely amend such policies, including unopposed control of Singapore’s the additional Sedition and Public leadership since its first electoral Order Acts, that have arguably win in 1959, legitimizing its rule silenced political opponents on the premise of the state’s through threats of arrest, economic stability and harassment and further performance. prosecution.v Considering Singapore’s recent treatment of Others have pointed out the many public voices of opposition, legal apparatuses that have helped including the controversial PAP rule without fear of persecution of teenage blogger opposition, such as the infamous Amos Yee, who had criminal Article 14 enshrined in charges laid against him after Singapore’s Constitution. This posting a video derogatorily piece of legislature—though celebrating the former prime explicitly states a “fundamental minister’s passing that forced the right” to “guaranteed free teen to seek asylum in America, speech”—permits Parliament to international criticism against the impose restrictions on such rights island state’s high levels of as laid out in the Defamation political censorship has been Act.iii Critics have argued that mounting steadily.vi Only time such legislation gives will tell whether the state will disproportional power and respond to such reproach through advantage to PAP, who open recognition of the state’s repeatedly use such policies to sue shortcomings in free speech and political opponents, citing slander attempt to liberalize the nation’s and dissidence, which has at times currently “litigious” political led to their bankruptcy and

192 system, as Li Shengwu has publicly argued.

i “Singapore PM Lee Hsien Loong.” The Guardian, 19 June 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jun/19/singapore-pm-lee-hsein- loong-apologises-for-public-family-feud. Accessed 18 Dec. 2017. ii “A history lesson for Lee Kuan Yew’s feuding offspring from the war of the eight princes in first-century China.” South China Morning Post, 30 June 2017. http://www.scmp.com/magazines/post- magazine/article/2100352/history-lesson-lee-kuan-yews-feuding- offspring-war-eight. Accessed 18 Dec. 2017. iii Chan, Cassandra. “Breaking Singapore’s Regrettable Tradition of Chilling Free Speech with Defamation Laws.” Winter 2003. 26 Loy. L.A. Int’l & Comp. L. Rev. 315-340. iv Chan, Cassandra. “Breaking Singapore’s Regrettable Tradition of Chilling Free Speech with Defamation Laws.” Winter 2003. 26 Loy. L.A. Int’l & Comp. L. Rev. 315-340. v Ungku, Fathin. “Human Rights Watch calls on Singapore to relax free speech, assembly laws“ 12 December 2017. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-singapore-politics/human-rights- watch-calls-on-singapore-to-relax-free-speech-assembly-laws- idUSKBN1E70A9. Accessed 18 December 2017. vi Chappell, Bill. “U.S. Grants Asylum To Amos Yee, Young Blogger From Singapore.” 27 September 2017. National Public Radio. https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2017/09/27/553976738/u-s- grants-asylum-to-amos-yee-young-blogger-from-singapore. Accessed 18 Dec. 2017.

193 References

“A history lesson for Lee Kuan Yew’s feuding offspring from the war of the eight princes in first-century China.” South China Morning Post, 30 June 2017. https://www.dailyo.in/politics/international- yoga-day-2017-modi-china-soft-power/story/1/17926.html. Accessed 18 Dec. 2017. Chan, Cassandra. “Breaking Singapore’s Regrettable Tradition of Chilling Free Speech with Defamation Laws.” Winter 2003. 26 Loy. L.A. Int’l & Comp. L. Rev. 315-340. Chappell, Bill. “U.S. Grants Asylum To Amos Yee, Young Blogger From Singapore.” 27 September 2017. National Public Radio. https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo- way/2017/09/27/553976738/u-s-grants-asylum-to-amos-yee- young-blogger-from-singapore. Accessed 18 Dec. 2017. “Singapore PM Lee Hsien Loong.” The Guardian, 19 June 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jun/19/singapore-pm- lee-hsein-loong-apologises-for-public-family-feud. Accessed 18 Dec. 2017. Ungku, Fathin. “Human Rights Watch calls on Singapore to relax free speech, assembly laws“ 12 December 2017. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-singapore-politics/human- rights-watch-calls-on-singapore-to-relax-free-speech-assembly- laws-idUSKBN1E70A9. Accessed 18 December 2017.

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The Journal of Contemporary Asian Studies

Synergy: The Journal of Contemporary Asian Studies is an academic journal with a regional focus on Asia. Founded at the Asian Institute of the University of Toronto, the Journal is envisioned as a platform for the celebration of Asia in both its collecitonvist historical past as well as current geopolitical cooperation within the reagion.

The goal of the Journal is to stimulate and generate vibrant academic discussions on the current political, historical, societal, and economic developments in the Asia region.

The Synergy Journal is currently listed with Library and Archives Canada. The ISSN numbers for both print and online editions of the journal are as follows:

ISSN 2369-8209

Key title: Synergy (Toronto. 2018. Print) Variant title: Journal of Contemporary Asian Studies

ISSN 2369-8217

Key title: Synergy (Toronto. 2018. Online) Variant title: Journal of Contemporary Asian Studies