sign in sign up
<<
Home , Biate language, Manipur University, Mara people, Mizoram University, Nagaland University, Ranglong

GEOGRAPHIC

Editorial Board Editor : Dr. Rintluanga Pachuau Members : Dr. K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva Mr. Benjamin L. Saitluanga Prof. V.P. Sati Dr. James LT Thanga Dr. R.K. Lallianthanga Patron Prof. R. Lalthantluanga Prof. Surendra Singh Prof. B.S. Butola Mr. J.L. Singh Mr. Vabeiha Hlychho Cir. Manager Mr. Vanlalhmuaka

Geographic is the official Journal of the GAM. It is published annually in July. Life members of the Association will receive the Geographic free of cost. Others can subscribe at the following rates. Subscription Rate Inland Other Countries Single Copy Rs. 100.00 $20 2 Years Rs. 190.00 $35 3 Year Rs. 250.00 $55 The requisite Draft/Bankers Cheque/Money Orders should be made in favour of the Association of payable at or directly at Geography Association Mizoram, UBI Account No. 1548050000727. Correspondence for publication in Geographic and Book Reviews should be mailed to the editor Dr. Rintluanga Pachuau, Editor, Geographic, Department of Geography & RM., Post Box- 190, - 796004, Email:[email protected]

The views contained in the papers of the journal are of the con- tributors and not necessarily of the Editors or the Office Bearers of the Association

Edited by Rintluanga Pachuau, Published by The Department of Geography & RM, Mizoram University.

Printed at Standard Laser Print, Treasury Square, Aizawl GEOGRAPHIC ISSN 0975-4121

Peer Reviewed

V o l . 9. JU LY, 2 0 14

PUBLISHED BY DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND RESOURCE , MIZORAM UNIVERSITY GEOGRAPHY ASSOCIATION OF MIZORAM (GAM) ( Regn . No. SR/ MZ - 7 of 1983 – 84 ) Office: Department of Geography, Mizoram University, Aizawl - 796004

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE (2013-2016)

OFFICE BEARER President : Dr. Rintluanga Pachuau Vice President : Dr. R. Ramthara General Secretary : Dr. K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva Asst. Secretary : Dr. Lalrinmawia Fin. Secretary : Mr. Lalrammawia Khiangte Treasurer : Benjamin L. Saitluanga

EXECUTIVE MEMBER Prof. G. Kumar Prof. P. Rinawma Prof. V.P. Sati Dr. Zarzoliana Mr. V. Lalnunmawia Dr. Bobby Beingachhi Mr. B. Lalrawngbawla Mr. R. Zonunsanga Mr. S. Lallawmzuala Mr. H. Lalchamreia Mr. Ghanashyam Deka

The membership of GAM is open to geographers and all scholars from allied discipline .The membership fee is as follows:

Membership Fee

Life Membership (Individual) - Rs. 1000 Institutional (Life) - Rs. 2000

Correspondence for membership of the Association should be directed to General Secretary, GAM, email : [email protected]/Phone No. 8974319488, Subscription of the Geographic should be directed to Mr. Vanlalhmuaka, Circulation Manager, Department of Geography and Resource Management, email : [email protected], Mizoram University, Aizawl-796004. 73 GEOGRAPHY ASSOCIATION OF MIZORAM LIST OF LIFE MEMBERS

Member- Name & Address ship No. Designation

001 Dr. Rualkhuma Colney Mizoram Law College, Aizawl Principal 002 Prof. P. Rinawma Dept. of Geography, MZU Professor 003 Dr. G. Kumar Dept. of Geography, MZU Associate Professor 004 Dr. Rintluanga Pachuau Dept. of Geography, MZU Asscociate Professor 005 Dr. R. Ramthara Dept. of Geography, PU College, Assistant Professor Aizawl 006 Mr. C. Lungmuana Gov’t Hrangbana College, Aizawl Associate Professor. 007 Mr. Lalrammawia Khiangte Gov’t Hrangbana College, Aizawl Associate Professor 008 Mr. PL. Chhuanthanga Gov't College, Champhai Associate Professor 009 Dr. Charles Romalsawma GHSS, Champhai Lecturer 010 Mrs. Lalrosangi Ralte GKMHSS, Aizawl Lecturer 011 Mrs. C. Laltani GGMHSS, Champhai Lecturer 012 Mr. Lalsangthanga Gov't Champhai College, Champhai Associate Professor 013 Dr. Ch. Udaya Bhaskara Rao Dept. of Geography, MZU Assistant Professor 014 Mr. F. Lalromawia Gov’t J.Buana College, Assistant Professor 015 Mr. R. Lalsawmliana Mini DIET Lecturer 016 Mr. V. Lalnunmawia Gov't Aizawl North College, Aizawl Assistant Professor 017 Dr. S. Sharma Dept. of Geography, NEHU Sr. Cartographer 018 Mr. R. Lalruatkima Gov't College, Saitual Assistant Professor 019 Mr. H. Lalchamreia Dept. of Geography, MZU Research Scholar 020 Mr. C. Lalhumbika Gov't Saitual College, Saitual Assistant Professor 021 Mrs. Lalliankimi Dept. of Geography, MZU Technical Assistant 74 022 Mr. R. Lalmuankima Chhingchhip 023 Ms. Lalramnunmawii Gov’t College, Lawngtlai Assistant Professor 024 Mr. S. Lallawmzuala Gov't Chaltlang HSS, Aizawl Lecturer 025 Dr. T. John Chinliankap Zou St. John HSS, Lecturer 026 Mr. K. Lalkroschhuanga PWD, Saitual Division, Saitual Head Assistant 027 Jacinta Vanlalrinzuali Gov't Lunglei College, Lunglei Assistant Professor 028 Dr. Elangbam Nixon Singh Dept. of Management, MZU Associate Professor 029 Mrs. Bismita Bora ADP COllege, Nagaon Assistant Professor 030 Prof. B.S. Mipun Dept. of Geography, NEHU Professor 031 Dr. H.J. Syemlieh Dept. of Geography, NEHU Associate Professor 032 Benjamin L. Saitluanga Dept. of Geography, MZU Assistant Professor 033 RKPG Singh Dept. of Commerce, PU College, Associate Professor Aizawl 034 G. Deka Dept. of Geography, PU College, Assistant Professor Aizawl 035 Dr. James LT Thanga Dept. of , MZU Assistant Professor 036 Mr. B. Lalrawngbawla Gov’t Hrangbana College, Aizawl Assistant Professor 037 Mr. K. Vungzamawi Dept. of Geography, Associate Professor Churachanpur, 038 Dr. Bobby Beingachhi Dept. of Geography, PU College, Assistant Professor Aizawl 039 Mr. R. Zonunsanga ASC, MZU Assistant Professor 040 Dr. Lalhriatpuii Dept. of Economics, MZU Assistant Professor 041 Mrs. Lalhlimpuii Dept. of Geography, PUC Associate Professor 042 Mr. Ricky L. Sailo Gov't College, Serchhip Associate Professor 043 Mrs. R. Lalthakimi Gov't Kolasib College, Kolasib Associate Professor 044 Mr. Lalrammuana Chawngthu Gov't Lunglei College, Lunglei Associate Professor 045 Mr. H.L. Lawmzuala Dept. of Geography, PUC Associate Professor 75 046 Mr. Laltanpuia Rengsi Gov't Kolasib College, Kolasib Associate Professor 047 Mr. K. Vanlalthaa Gov’t Aizawl North College, Aizawl Associate Professor 048 Mr. C. Lalawmpuia Gov’t J. Buana College, Lunglei Assistant Professor 049 Dr. K. Laldailova Dept. of Economics, PU College Associate Professor Aizawl 050 Dr. Zarzoliana Gov’t Hrangbana College, Aizawl Assistant Professor 051 Mr. Saithangpuia Gov't Saitual College, Saitual Assistant Professor 052 Dr. Lalrinmawia Gov’t Aizawl North College, Aizawl Assistant Professor 053 Mr. KC. Lalruatkima Lunglei Gov’t College, Lunglei Assistant Professor 054 Dr. KC. Lalmalsawmzauva Dept. of Geography, MZU Assistant Professor 055 Mr. Lalnunsiama Colney MIRSAC, Aizawl Sr. Scientist 056 Dr. K. Srinivasa Rao Dept. of , MZU Assistant Professor 057 Mr. Fuzal Ahmed Dept. of Geology, MZU Research Scholar 058 Mr. L. Khuma Varte Gov't Champhai College, Champhai Associate Professor 059 Mr. PC Zohmingliana Gov't Serchhip College, Serchhip Associate Professor 060 Dr. Sujata Deori Dept. of Geography, Assistant Professor North Gauhati College 061 Dr. Niranjan Das Murhateteli, Tezpur, 062 Mr. Darrothanga Dept. of Geogaphy, PU College Sr. Lab. Assistant Aizawl 063 Mrs. Jimmi Debbarma Dept. of Geography & Disaster Assistant Professor Managment, University 064 Mr. Selie Puro Dept. of Geography, Assistant Professor College Jatsoma 065 Dr. Wangshimenla Jamir Dept. of Geography Assistant Professor University 067 Mr. Lalnunsiama Colney MIRSAC, Mizoram Sr. Scientist 068 Dr. K.Srinavasa Rao Dept. of Geology, MZU Assistant Professor 069 Mr. Fuzal Ahmed Dept. of Geology, MZU Research Scholar 070 Dr Bikul Barman Bajali College, Assam Associate Professor 072 Mrs. S. Thangrimawii Dept. of Zoology, Associate Professor Gov’t Zirtiri College, Aizawl 073 Dr Amit Kumar Singh Dept. of Management, MZU Asst. Professor 074 Mrs. Temjensangla Pongener Assistant Professor Mokokchung 76 075 Dr .C. Ramhnehzauva Gov’t Lawngtlai College, Lawngtlai Assistant Professor 076 Prof. VP Sati Dept. of Geography, MZU Professor 077 Mr. David B. Lalhruaitluanga Dept. of Geography, MZU Research Scholar 078 Mr. Naorem Bobby Singh Dept. of Geography, MZU Asst Professor 079 Mr.P.C. Lalmuanawma Dept. of Geography, MZU Research Scholar 080 Mr.Samuel R. Vanlalruata Dept. of Geography, MZU Research Scholar 081 Ms.Lalrinzuali Dept. of Geography, MZU Research Scholar 082 Mr. Luckyson R. Panmei , Research Scholar 083 Dr. R.K. Lallianthanga MIRSAC, Mizoram Principal Scientific Officer 084 Mr.Robert Lalchhanhima Sailo MIRSAC, Mizoram Scientist 085 Mr. Daniel Vanlalnghaka Gov’t JL HSS, Aizawl 086 Dr. R. Lalnuntluanga Dept. of Economics Associate Professor Gov’t Aizawl North College 087 Ms.Lancy Zodinpuii Chawhte Dept. of Geography, MZU Research Scholar 088 Dr. G. Jadumani Sharma Dept. of Geography Assistant Professor D.M. College of Arts, Imphal 089 Mr.Raghwendra Kumar Dept. of Geography, Jawahar PG Teacher Navodaya Vidhyalaya, Diphu 090 Mr.Prakash Ray Syamsundan College Assistant Professor Burdwan, W. Bengal 091 Dr. Vinod Kumar Bharati Dept. of , Associate Professor Gov’t Kolasib College, Kolasib 092 Mr.C. Hmingsangzuala Dept. of Geography, MZU Research Scholar 093 Mr.Lalrinpuia Dept. of Geography, MZU Research Scholar 094 Mr.Saswati Roy Dept. of Geography Senior Research Fellow Viswa Bharati University 095 Mr.K. Lalduhawma Dept. of Geology, MZU Research Scholar 096 Ms.Lalfakawmi Dept. of Economics Assistant professor Gov’t College 097 Mr.K. Vanrammawia Dept. of Economic Assistant Professor Gov’t Lunglei College To

The Secretary Geography Association of Mizoram Department of Geography & RM Mizoram University Aizawl - 796004

Sub : Life Membership

Sir,

I am seeking a Life Membership to the Geography Association of Mizoram with immediate effect.

I am sending Cash Amount/Demand Draft/Bank Cheque of Rs. 1000/- (Rupees One Thousand only) in favour of Secratary, GAM, Aizawl.

I deposited Rs. 1000/- (Rupees One Thousand only) in favour of Geography Association of Mizoram at Account No. 1548050000727 of United Bank of , Mizoram University Branch, Tanhril, Aizawl, vide receipt/counterfoil no...... (enclosed herewith).

I promised to abide with the constitution of the Association.

Place : Yours faithfully,

Date : GUIDE TO THE CONTRIBUTORS Geographic welcomes contributors from scholars of various branches of geography and allied disciplines, which have interface with geography. However, author(s) must be a life member of Geography Association of Mizoram. Papers sent for publication in the journal must have originality in one form or the other. If the paper sent for publication is recommended by the referee(s), the author(s) have to pay an amount of Rs. 2000/- as publication charge. which should be credited to United Bank of India, Mizoram University Branch, Aizawl in the name of the Secretary, Geography Association of Mizoram by Account No. 1548050000727. The counterfoil then be sent to the Editor. Submission of Manuscript : Authors should submit two copies of their papers (one hard copy and one soft copy by CD) with original artwork and abstract to the Editor - Dr Rintluanga Pachuau, Department of Geography & RM., Mizoram University, Post Box 190., Aizawl - 796004, Mizoram or email at [email protected]. Typing : The Manuscript should be typed doubled spaced throughout on one side only of a quarter size(A4) paper. The papers should be numbered consecutively. If possible, the manuscript should be divided into appropriately headed section and sub-sections. The lenght of the paper should not exceed 3,000 words. Title Page : The tiltle page of the papers should contain the full title, name(s) of the author(s), designation and their full address. Abstract : The paper should contain abstract of 50 - 150 words which should be kept in the opening of the paper. Illustration : Illustration should be properly kept at appropriate places in the manu- script in their final forms. They should be numbered in order in which they are re- ferred to in the text. Scale of the maps (if any) should be drawn by graphical scale. Thematic map (shading by colour) is not accepted that any map requiring indexing should be choroplethed. The margin of the map should be ideally be 15x12 centimetres. Tables : Tables should be numbered and headed with short titles. Consecutive num- bers in brackets should indicate them in the text. They should also be properly kept at appropriate places in their final forms. Reference : Reference should be indicated in the text in brackets by last name, i.e. author’s last name and year of publication within the bracket, printing title the book, journal etc. in italics, title of the paper in normal fonts. Only sources directly refered should be given at the end, not by bibliography. Details of references should be listed at the end of the text in alphabetic order, using the following styles : For books : Worcester, Philip G., (1961) : A Textbook of Geomorphology., second edition, Van Nostrad Reinhold Company.,New York.,p.178. For articles : Kumar, Girindra (2007) : Process of Urbanization in Developing Regions : A Case Study, Geographic., Jl. of GAM., Vol 2, July 2007., Dept. of Geography & RM, Mizoram University., pp4-10. The Editorial Board has the whole right to accept or reject the papers for publica- tion as per the recommendation of the referees. ISSN 0975-4121 GEOGRAPHIC

Volume 9 July 2014

CONTENTS Articles

1. The Cognate Tribes of Mizos in North East India 1-8 - T. John Chinliankap Zou and P. Rinawma

2. Growth and Trend of Public Eexpenditure And its 9-18 Impact on the - R. Lalnuntluanga

3. Topographic Changes in Aizawl City and its 19-26 Surroundings during 1973 - 2013 : A Digital Terrain Analysis Through Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques - Ch.Udaya Bhaskara Rao

4. Morphometric Aspects of the Tut Watershed, Mizoram 27-36 - K. Srinivasa Rao and Lalduhawma

5. Changing Pattern of Agricultural Productivity in North 37-44 East India : A Regional Interpretation - Zoramkhuma and R. Ramthara

6. Pre-Marital Sex Attitude among Students of 45-54 Mizoram University - K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva 7. Geopolitical Situation in Manipur : An Appraisal 55-64 - N. Kishorchand Singh and N. Deva Singh

8. Marketing Pattern of Squash and the Role of Growers 65-71 Association in Mizoram - K. Vanrammawia and James LT Thanga Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 1

The Cognate Tribes of Mizos in North East India T. John Chinliankap P. Rinawma Abstract : The term Mizo is a generic name given to a particular group of people inhabiting north eastern part of the Indian sub-continent. The area includes parts of India's North East, extreme east of and western part of . In India these groups of people are concentrating mainly in Mizoram, Manipur, Assam and Tripura. The term 'Zo' commonly appears as an inclusive name among these peoples. With this consciousness of commonness, the majority of the people call themselves 'Zo', ‘Yo’, ‘Sho’ 'Zomi', or 'Mizo'. According to general understanding ‘Mi’ simply mean people, and Zo mean hill. Thus it could mean either Mizo (ethnic-base name) or Zomi (geographical-base name). However, in this study, the term 'Mizo' is taken as a generic name by which all the tribes variously known as Kuki/Chin/Mizo/Zomi are known all over the world. The authors have classified these groups of people based on field survey, geographical locations, languages and the lists of scheduled tribes of India recognized under various State Governments. Introduction Raja Chachag who flourished about A.D. The term Zo or Jo was mentioned as 1512. The name Kuki is given to the name of a people in a few historical hill men by the Bengalis literally meant publications of the Indo-Burman 'Wild hill people'.5 "Chin" is another term peoples. Fanch'1 a diplomat of the Tang by which the Mizos were known in dynasty of China mentioned in 862 A.D. Burma (now Myanmar). It is believed to a kingdom in the Chindwind Valley be a corruption of the Chinese word of whose princes and chiefs were called Jin or yen meaning "Man". Grierson says 'Zo'. In 1783, Father Sangermo 2 that 'Chin' in Burmese denotes all hill mentioned in his book titled "A tribes living in the bordering region Descriptive of the Burmese Empire" the between Burma and Assam.6 Finally, petty nation called 'Jo'. G.A. Grierson when the British intensified their recorded in 1904 "The name is not used intervention in Mizoram; they were by the tribes themselves, who used titles called "Lushai". The word "Luchye" a such as Zo, Yo or Sho''.3 Vanchhunga variant of Lushai, first occurs in a who had intensive investigations on all "Report of 1853" by Colonel Lister.7 the Mizos in Burma, claims that the The people of Mizoram disliked being forefathers of the Mizos used the phrase called "Kukis", or "Chin" and called Keini Mizote chuan meaning, "We the themselves "Mizo". Similarly, the 4 people of Mizos". northen Zos in the northern part of Chin However, the Mizos were known in Hills and southern part of Manipur called early times to the British and others by themselves "Zo, Zou or Zomi". However, various names such as "Kuki", "Chin" there is an exception to this acceptance and "Lushai". Mizos were first known as and variations in the generic name of "Kuki" because they were the first batch the people. For instance, the Thado to have arrived in Mizoram. They were speaking group of Manipur accepted found during the reign of the Tipeperah "Kuki" as their nomenclature probably

Dr. T. John Chinliankap is a Lecturer at St. John's HSS, Kolasib. Dr. P. Rinawma is a Professor in the Department of Geography & Resource Management, MZU

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 2 due to political advantages they are similar language, culture, cult and way entitled by the governments. of life, then the name bears Whatever may be the case, the term significance. It is therefore concluded "Kuki" or "Chin" is a word unknown to that the word, 'Mizo' is chosen in the the people until recent times. These restricted sense to mean the identity of words are alien to the people the race". themselves. T. Gougin rightly observes: In this study, the term 'Mizos' is "the words like Kuki, Chin and Lushai taken and used as a generic name of are foreign words for the express reasons the people who belonged to the Tibeto- that these words are completely alien Burman race and speaking Tibeto- to the language of the Zomis(Mizos).8 Burman Languages variously known as Racial Stock Kuki/Chin/Mizo/Zomi in various part of North Eastern Indian Sub-Continent. Racially the Mizos belong to the Thus, in a nutshell, the people Tibeto-Chinese race. Lalthangliana considered 'Mizos' exclusively include (2000)9 claims that, "the Mizos are the the ethnic tribes who are commonly Assam-Burman sub-groups of the called 'Chin' in Myanmar, Kuki, Zomi Tibeto-Chinese race. MIZOS are of the and Lushai in Manipur, Kukis under Assam-Burman sub-group that else while Tripura Halam-Kuki Socio- branches from the Tibeto- Burman group Culture and Linguistic Organization of the main Tibeto-Chinese race. The (THKSCALO) in Tripura, Kuki and Mizo following diagram would make this point in Assam, and Nagaland and more clear.10 'Lusei, Ralte, Mara, Hmar, Pawi, Paite,

Tibeto-Chinese Thado, Vaiphei as Mizo' in Mizoram.

Man Karen Tibeto-Burman Tai- Chinese The above descriptions of identifying

the Kuki/Chin/Mizo/Zomi group of Tibeto-Himalayan Assam- Burman North Assam proved beyond doubt that these

groups of people belong to one family

Naga Sak Burmese Mizos Kachin(Jinphaw) Lolo tracing to one origin. They share many

things in common which make them They belong to the Chin/Kuki family inseparable as one people having the according to many scholars. 11 same traditions and cultures in all Kunsstadter, (1967) Mizos are grouped aspects of life. These groups of people as part of the Tibeto-Burman family. are also closely connected linguistically. They speak the Tibeto-Burman 12 The general classification of the Mizos language. is highly complex and no all scholars Classification of Mizos agreed to the different principles of According to Nag (1993)13, "The word classifying them. 'Mizo', if taken liberally, will include all The authors have classified this the hill people, but it still does not identify group of people based on field survey, a particular race. But, if the word 'Mizo', geographical locations, languages and is used in the restricted sense to cover the lists of scheduled tribes of India only those hill people who came together recognized under various States' to this land and have same origin, governments. This classification is A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 3 most acceptable by the different than half belongs to the Chin-Kuki-Mizo linguistic groups from various groups. The Northern Groups of the geographical locations. So, the Mizos are mainly known by the term researcher has classified the 'Mizos' on Kukis since time immemorial. They the basis of geographical locations and were indeed identified by this generic Linguistic similarities based on his name since the time they came into experiences and field visits to the length contact with other more advanced form and breadth of their occupied territory. of civilizations in North Eastern part of Moreover, this classification is also India. The Kuki groups are classified done taking into consideration their and identified on the basis of the name migration pattern, language affinity and they bear from the time they have settled their distribution over space and time; in this part of their settlement. It would and the generic term 'Mizos' is used in not be wrong to say that they were called a restricted sense. The following are Kukis from the very beginning they four groups of Mizos on regional basis; came in contact with the Princely 1. The Northern Groups Monarch of Bengal, Cachar, Tripura and Manipur. It is this reason, the name The Northern Groups of the Mizos bears significance. The Kuki groups can belong to various tribes and clans of the be divided into two main branches on Chin/Kuki/Mizo racial group of Tibeto- the basis of their migration pattern and Burman, speaking Assam-Burman present site of their settlements. They languages. These groups of people are are the old Kukis and the new Kukis. scattered in all the districts of different The old Kukis includes the following states, north of Mizoram. They are main tribes; mostly concentrated in the southern districts of Manipur. The state of (i) Anal. (ii) Aimol. (iii) Kom. (iv) Chothe. Manipur is their main concentration (v) Lamkang. (vi) Monsang. (vii) Chiru. areas and spread in all neighbouring (viii) Purum (ix) Mirawng or Milawng. districts of Assam and Nagaland. The (x) Maring. Chin-Kuki-Mizo groups of people of Most of tribes and clans of the old Manipur and adjoining regions are the Kukis,(excepting some clans of Aimol, most diverse groups known and Kom and Chiru) have accepted the recognized under various Scheduled nomenclature of Naga as their new Tribes of India among the Mizos. They racial identity. They joined the Nagafold depict the highest diversity due to many in recent times due to political and reasons. The most notable reasons may economic reasons only. They had be attributed to their entry into their accepted their new identity with a sense present settlements in the long process of pride and dignity. of their migration pattern. It is also The New Kukis: The new Kukis includes highly attributed to the policy of mainly the Thadou-Speaking groups successive governments in Manipur accepting the nomenclature of Kuki as from the very beginning of princely their generic name. They are recognized Monarch and Kings. According to the under the Thado-Kuki tribes in Manipur Scheduled Tribe lists of Manipur, there and Kuki elsewhere in North East India. are 35 recognized tribes of which more It includes the following tribes, sub A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 4 tribes and clans; are also known as Mila Kuki and are (i) Baite/Biete (ii) Chansan (iii) Chongloi divided into several sub-clans which is (iv) Doungel (v) Guite(vuite) (vi) Hanneng refered as "Barki Hallam". The Major (vii)Houkip/Haupit (viii) Haulai sub-clans of Hallams are; Kaloi. Kov- (ix)Hengen (x) Hongsung (xi) Hrangkhol/ Bong, kaipeng, bong, Sakachep, Rangkhol (xii) Jongte (xiii) Khawchung Thangachep, Dab, Bongser, Molsum, (xiv) Khawthlang (xv) Khothalong (xvi) Rupini, Rangkhawr, Chorai, Langai, Khelma (xvii) Kholhou (xviii) Kipgen (xix) Kaireng, , Naveen and Lengthang (xx) Thlangawm (xxi) Murasing. Among Hallams Kolai, Lhoujem (xxii) Lhouvum (xxiii) Lupheng Murasing and Rupini speak in Kok- (xxiv) Mangjel (xxv) Missao (xxvi) Borok and their social and religious Saihrem (xxvii) Selnam (xxviii) Singson culture also similar with Tripuri. They (xxix) Sitlhou (xxx) Thadau (xxxi) can be excluded from the Hallam Kuki Thangngeu (xxxii) UIbuh (xxxiii) Mate groups. The kukis of Tripura includes (xxxiv) Lhungdim (xxxv) Khongsai (xxxvi) the following twenty six sub-clans; Paitu, Gangte (xxxvii) Vaiphei (xxxviii) Simte Chotlang, Khareng, Baibek, Amrai, etc. Chamlen, Batle, Riyete, Balta, Rangchon, Rangchia, Chhailoi, Jangtei, Among the new Kukis whom people Pailai, Beltu, Paite, Phun, Phuntei, have known them as Kukis are few Lentai, Hraltei, Sowailai, Powaktu, tribes who do not want to be called and Dhum,Burdoia, Chhaljen and Rangte. identified as Kukis. These groups of Thirdly, Lushais are another tribe under people are known by their brethren Kuki-Chin groups of tribes in Tripura. Lushai (Mizo) as 'the Hmar and the They live in the Jampui range of the Paite'. They include; (i) Hmar and their State. The Lushai groups or the Mizo many clans. (ii) Paite and their many will be included in the Central Groups clans. (iii) Vaiphei and their many owing to their language and distribution clans. (iv) Simte and their many clans. over space and time. Thus, the North (v) -Chin and their many clans. Western Groups include the tribes and (vi) Zo/Zou and their many clans. sub-tribes of Hallam and Kuki origin. They belong to the old kuki tribes 2. The North Western Groups according to many scholars in India. The North Western groups mainly The Hallam-Kukis of Tripura includes comprise of Hallam-Kuki groups the following tribes and sub-tribes; linguistically belonging to the Kuki- 1. (i) Molson (ii) Kaipeng (iii) Hrangkhawl Chin . The Chin-Kuki- (iv) Bongcher (v) Darlong (vi) Ranglong Mizo groups are numerically (vii) Dab (viii) Halam (Khoknu/Nabin) insignificant but depict the largest (ix) Cholai (x) Longhai (xi) Morsophang variations in dialects and languages. (xii) Korbong (xiii) Saihmar (xiv) According to scheduled tribe list of Sahkachep (xv) Thangachep (xvi) Bong Tripura, there are three main tribes of 2. 3. Langrawng 4. Bawng 5. Bawm the Kuki-Chin origin and their sub- 6. Pangkhaw 7. Mawk. clans. They can be classified on these three main groups namely, the Hallams, In Tripura, there has been a the Kukis and the Lushais. The Hallams conscious effort by the various Kuki A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 5 tribes/sub-tribes to mould unity homogenous. They consist of five through an acceptable language of principle sub-groups or clans. These are common usage and, to this effect, they the Tlosaih-, Zyhno, Hawthai, are organized under the umbrella of the Chapi and Vytu. All these sub-clans of Tripura Halam-Kuki Socio-Culture and the Maras occupied separate territory Linguistic Organization (THKSCALO). of their own right from the very Under the aegis of THKSCALO, the beginning of occupying the present constitution Drafting Committee, with Maraland. Each and every group speaks Pu. B.K. Hrangkhawl as its Chairman a dialect of their own with slight variant and Pu. H.T. Kluma Darlomg and Pu. S.K. from other sub-groups. But all of them Darlong as members, drafted a booklet can understand each other. The Tlosaih, entitled 'Constitution / By -Law of the one among the languages is the official Tripura Halam-Kuki Socio-Culture and language among the Maras. It is the Linguistic Organization'. This booklet language which unites the Maras as one was approved and adopted on the 31st May people having one ethnic identity. 1992 by the Central Executive : The district of Committee of THKSCALO.14 Lawngtlai is inhabited by two major The Kuki tribes of Tripura organized tribes. These two tribes inhabit their under THKSCALO are as under; own land and having distinct traditions (i) Molson (ii) Kaipeng (iii) Hrangkhawl and cultures. They are the Pawis or the (iv) Bongcher (v) Darlong (vi) Ranglong Lais in the east and the North East and (vii) Dab (viii) Halam (Khoknu/Nabin) the Chakmas in the western fringe of (ix) Cholai (x) Longhai (xi) Morsophang the district. The respective lands of the (xii) Korbong (xiii) Saihmar (xiv) Pawis and the Chakmas are indeed an Sahkachep (xv) Thangachep (xvi) Bong autonomous region under Mizoram. The 3. The Southern Groups Pawis as they called themselves consist of various clans having distinct way of The southern region comprises of two life. They were largely concentrated in districts namely, Saiha and Lawngtlai and around two big towns of Lawngtlai districts. These two districts are and Sangou in the North East, north of inhabited by distinctive tribes Kolodyne River. They were originally originated from the east and the west. from the and known to be one The district of Saiha is inhabited by of the strongest as well as ferocious tribe mostly of the popularly of the Mizos. They had originated from known as the Lakhers. On the other Chin Hills in Myanmar somewhere in hand, the district of Lawngtlai is the later part of the seventeenth inhabited by mostly of two big tribes century. namely, the Pawis and the Chakmas. Both of these two districts are in fact an 4. The Central Groups autonomous districts council of the state The Central groups include a of Mizoram. homogeneous groups belonging to : The district of Saiha is various tribe and clan groups of the an autonomous district Council of the Chin/Kuki stock. This region is taken Mara people. The Maras are largely as the Central and core region because these districts are more or less A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 6 inhabited by numerous clan groups who breadth of their Land. This also became are identifying themselves by a common a living testimony to prove that they nomenclature 'Mizo' which is a unifying belong to one people having similar entity for all the Mizos in the world. This traditions and cultures. It can also be region also can be identified as one seen by the presence of common clan linguistic region speaking in Duhlian groups among the Mizos of the present dialect popularly known as the Mizo. with their brethren outside Mizoram. They are the most numerous among all They are in fact, who originated from other tribes. They are indeed belonging Chin Hills in Myanmar at around 1700 to all tribes and clans included under A.D. This points out that, these groups various Chin/Kuki Clans in the distant of migrants belong to the third wave of past. But at present, these various the Mizos to the present settlement in groups of Chin/Kuki clans accepted and India's North East. As has been identified themselves as 'Mizo' which mentioned at the outset, they belong to becomes a national symbol of pride for the Lushai groups who pushed westward all people alike in Mizoram and and northward to the old and new kukis elsewhere. Among these various groups, as they were known. The Mizo/Duhlian the Lushai groups owing to their big speaking group of people originated from numbers, diplomacy and power exerted Seipui Village in Chin Hills of Myanmar their influence over other smaller tribes in the beginning of 17th century. in the then Mizoram. Some of the tribes The Mizos in the Central Groups and clans belonging to Kukis were comprise of a number of tribes which pushed westward and northward by the may be broadly divided into five major powerful Sailo's Chiefs. Many of them and eleven minor sub-tribes. This were conquered and subjugated by them classification of the Tribes, Sub-Tribes and became one with them. It would not and Clans are based entirely on be out of text to mention that the Liangkhai's " of Lushai" (2002 ), smaller tribes and clans subjugated Vanchhunga's "Lusei leh a vela Hnam under the Sailo's Chiefs were dangte Chanchin" (1955) and assimilated and their dialects went to Zatluanga's "Mizo Channchin" is as oblivion due to disuse for a very long under;15 time. But, these groups of people maintained their distinct traditions and The five major tribes are; cultures in one form or the other. 1. LUSEI 2. RALTE 3. HMAR However, at present, all the good 4. PAITE 5. PAWI traditions and cultures of all the tribes and clans are interwoven as the cultures The eleven minor sub-tribes are of the Mizos. The intermingling of known under a common name of AWZIA. traditions and cultures became a potent Lusei force of transformation within the Mizo The Lusei consists of ten commoners society. In fact, the Northern and North and six chiefs' clans. These are Western groups are highly influenced by Pachuau, Chhangte, Chawngte, the Lushai Chiefs in the past. This has Hauhnar, Chuaungo, Chuauhang, led to the evolution of similar traditions Hrahsel, Tochhawng, Vanchhawng and and cultures throughout the length and

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 7

Chhakchhuak. The chiefs' clans are forgotten them as a result of disuse Zadeng, Palian, Thangluah, Rivung, when they mingled with the larger Rokhum and Sailo. groups. They have not, however, lost Ralte their separate identities. Some of the most notable characters in the ancient This is the sub-tribe, which according history of the belonged to to the legend produced a couple who some of these minor sub-tribes. These made such loud noise that the guardian- sub-tribes are Chawngthu, Chawhte, god of the cave closed the cave stopping Ngente, Khawlhring, Khiangte, Pautu, all further exit of human beings to the Rawite, Renthlei, Tlau, Vangchhia and surface from under the earth. The clans Zawngte. under Ralte are Khelte, Siakeng, Relhchhun and Kawlni. Conclusion Hmar The above classification by famous Mizo Historians are accepted and Hmars are one of the most numerous. authenticated by the researcher and They are as many as thirteen clans. taken as a basis of classification of the These are Lawitlang (Hrangchal), Zote, Mizos in Central Regions. The Khawbung, Ngurte, Thiak, Leiri, classification in the Central Regions is Lungtau, Banzang, Pakhuang, all encompassing and inclusive of all Darngawn, Biate, Hrangkhawl and various cognate tribes of the Mizos all Hmar-Lusei. The last one is so named over the world. Indeed, it was this reason because they are the descendents of the need for a common nomenclature Chuauhanga Lusei who lost his way and was felt first in the present Mizoram as joined hands with the Hmars. early as the 1950s. The people of Paite Mizoram at this time were simply known as the Lushai and the The Paites trace their descent from wanted to recognize the sun. The Legendary Liandova and them as 'Lushai Tribe'. But, it would not his brother are said to be their fore- represent all the clans belonging to fathers. The most powerful clan amongst various tribes at that time. Thus, the them is the Suktes who had been word 'Mizo' was chosen and preferred by upholding the chieftainship among the people to represent all cognate tribes them. in Mizoram. Pawi Finally, the movement for changing There are three main divisions the name from 'Lushai' to Mizo as the among them. The first are those racial identity took its stand in the descended from Hringluma; the second and in consequence, are those who stayed back at Falam area the name 'Mizo' rather than 'Lushai' as of Burma and the third are the Fanais. the racial identity came into force with Awzia effect from 1.9.1954 by the Act 18 of 1954 16. The term 'Mizo' by the Act 18 of 1954 Under this common name, there are is most inclusive and applied to all as many as eleven sub-tribes. They had tribes, sub-tribes and clans of the Chin/ either lost their distinctive dialects or Kuki/Mizo/Zomi groups of people. Thus, A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 8 the racial identity 'Mizo' recognized by 6G.A. Gierson; op. cit, p.2 the Government of India stands for all 7Alexander Mackenzie, The North-East tribes of Mizoram belonging to various Frontier of India, Mittal clans of the so called Chin/Kuki/Mizo/ Publications (Reprint) Delhi, 1979, p.292 Zomi family. It should also be mentioned 8T. Gougin, The Disovery of Zoland, Zomi that the sub-groups of different regions Press, Churachanpur, 1980, pp.2- are the branches of the main tree. These 3. groups and sub-groups is regarded and 9B. Lalthangliana; History of Mizo in Burma, addressed as Mizos in this study. Thus, edited by R.L. Rina, Published by the study relates to the Mizos of the Zawlbuk Agencies, Aizawl, above four geographical locations which (Mandaly, 1977), pp. 1&2. nearly fit Linguistic Regions of all the 10B. Lalthangliana; op. cit, pp. 1&2. 11 Mizo Tribes. Peter Kunstadter; (Editor), South-East Asian Tribes, Minorities and The above description of classifying Nations, Vol.1. Princton, 1967, the Mizos is only a view of the authors Pp.79-84. which needs to be studied and 12A.H. Keane; Man- Past and Present, researched more closely. This does not Cambridge, 1900, p. 193 cf. and necessarily express the view of others also A.G. McCall; Lushai Chrysalis, London, 1949, Pp.25- or contradicts other scholars of other 26. Reprint, 2004, Spectrum allied disciplines. It is an attempt to Publications, Guwahati/Delhi. highlight the Mizos as one people having 13Chitta Rajan Nag, The Mizo Society in same, similar or common cultures and Transitio Vikas Publishing House traditions occupying one contiguous Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 1993, Pp. 6- territory in the Indian Sub-Continent. 7. 14P.S. Haokip.; Zalengam the Kuki Nation KNO References Publication, Zalengam, 1998, Pp.60-61. 1Fanch'o was the diplomat of the Tan 15As quoted byL.B Thanga; The Mizos: A Study Dynasty and the book was in Racial Personality, United written in A.D 862. Vumson; Zo Publishers, Guwahati, 1978, History, Venghlui, Aizawl, 1986, pp.5-7. p.1. 16Census of India, 1961, Assam, District and 2Fr. Sangermano was an Italian Ctholic Census Handbook, Mizo Hills, Missionary who worked in Burma p.5. from A.D. 1783 to 1807 during the reign of King Bodaw - Paya ( A.D. 1782 - 1819), He wrote a number of books on Burma. A Descriptive of the Burmese Empire' is one of them. Vumson Ibid 3G.A. Gierson; Linguistic Survey of India, Vol. III, Part III, Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi (Reprint), 1967, p.2. 4Vanchhunga; Lusei leh a vel a Hnam dangte, Zoram Printing Press, Aizawl, 1955, p.1. 5G.A. Gierson; op. cit., p.1.

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 9

Growth and Trend of Public Eexpenditure And its Impact on the Economy of Mizoram R. Lalnuntluanga

Abstract : Public expenditure refers to the expenses incurred by the government for its own maintenance, the society and the economy as a whole. Public expenditure lies at the root of economic uplift in a backward economy like Mizoram and its behavior is a conditioning factor of economic development. Through the analysis of public expenditure in its proper perspective, one can measure the course of economic development as well as the administrative skill of the government. On the other hand, lack of proper planning of expenditure, its magnitude and of productive directions may cause a serious setback on the efforts of economic development. Public expenditure on both revenue and capital accounts have increased tremendously during the plan periods in Mizoram. The examination of the growth trend and pattern of expenditure shows that increase in expenditure on Economic Services has been comparatively lower than that of the increase in General and Social Services. This has clearly indicated that the has put more importance to welfare programme with immediate result than to long-term development programme. Besides, non-development expenditure has increased enormously over the years. The state's own revenue plus the share in central taxes taken together have fallen short of the growing expenditure. Even the grant from central government has left a wide gap between the state's receipts and expenditure. Though expenditure on capital head has been rising gradually, the state's capacity to enhance income generation has not increased correspondingly. While the state's liability on interest payment has come to one-third of the total non-development expenditure, it would be certainly impossible for the state to save for net capital formation. Consequently, the state has resorted to massive borrowings from various sources. This has led to a huge increase in public debt of the state government. This rapid increase in debt service has become a serious problem and a loathsome drag to the process of economic development of a poor state like Mizoram. It is now clear that if this trend continues any further, the state will be bankrupt in the near future. Keywords : Backward economy, revenue and capital accounts, public debt, borrowing, capital formation, bankrupt.

Introduction developing countries including India to overcome the problems of mass poverty, The significance of Public unemployment, social and economic expenditure as an instrument of backwardness, illiteracy etc. promoting the socio-economic development of a country is now well A phenomenal increase in the level accepted by the development economists of public expenditure in relation to the all over the world, particularly in the national income has aroused interest developing countries which shelters in the study of the growth trend and roughly two-thirds of the world's poverty pattern of government expenditure. ridden people. The growing concern over Scholars and researchers are starting the necessity of improving the future to analyse the growth of public well-being of these people is of expenditures in an attempt to paramount importance, and therefore, understand the root causes of such has impelled the governments of the growth and predict future trends. Dr. R. Lalnuntluanga is an Associate Professor in the Department of Economics, Gov’t Aizawl North College, Aizawl.

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 10

Everyone argues for the effective To overcome these difficulties of utilization of government funds. underdeveloped countries, the state has Therefore, during the last few decades, to initiate and sustain the programme attempts have been made to study the of development. A backward state like behaviour of public expenditure on the Mizoram is characterized by severe basis of empirical data and historical shortage of infrastructural facilities facts. These studies examined the level which in turn, paralyzed market of economic development after heavy functions. This situation calls for the allotment of funds to be incurred on active intervention of public authority public welfare programmes and observed and the public expenditure has to play a the structural changes in government positive and dynamic role for expenditure as a proportion of national accelerating the tempo of economic income. But the irony of the fate is that development. there has been a general tendency Need for the study among the economists to think and write only on the problems of all-India scaling Public expenditure lies at the root of and ignore the importance of the study economic uplift in a backward economy of regional development. It is true that like Mizoram and its behaviour is a macro-studies are essential but it is conditioning factor of economic equally desirable to study the economic development. Through the analysis of changes of the country on micro level public expenditure in its proper so as to remove the problem of regional perspective, one can measure the disparities. course of economic development as well as the administrative skill of the The rapid growth in the volume of government. On the other hand, lack of public expenditure has been one of the proper planning of public expenditure, most remarkable features of economic its magnitude and lack of productive development in the past few years in directions may cause a serious setback Mizoram. This is primarily because new on the efforts of economic development. functions are being performed by the state and the administrative machinery While the role of public expenditure has continued to expand at a fast pace appears to be the central issue of with its inevitable consequence of huge Mizoram economy, there has not been increase in public expenditure. any systematic and scholarly attempt in Economic development requires that studying public expenditure in the state. there is an increase in the stock of Many scholars who have conducted capital with which to produce more research works in this field paid little output. Such a required investment attention to the behaviour of public expenditure is not likely to come out of expenditure despite knowing well that the saving of individuals in poor it is a conditioning factor of economic countries. Moreover, the opportunity of wellbeing of the poverty ridden investment is also limited and whatever population. This has called for an small amount of saving exists is indepth study in this field. directed into unproductive channel of Objectives investment as there is no other outlet. * To study how public expenditures

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 11

have effected structural changes in programmes, irrigation and flood the government expenditure as a control, energy, industry and minerals, proportion of the state's gross transport and other general economic domestic products. services on the one hand, and on the * To measure the course of economic other, expenditure on social & development and the administrative community services such as , skill of the government through the health and family welfare, water supply, analysis of its expenditure patterns. sanitation, housing and urban * To appraise the progressive and development, information and regressive value of fiscal operations broadcasting, welfare of SC / ST and at various levels of government other backward classes, labour and functionaries. employment, social welfare and * To examine the efficiency of nutrition and other secretariat social resource allocations through the use services. Non-development expenditure of public expenditure in the state. consists of expenditure on organs of Methodology state. fiscal services, interest payment and servicing of debts, civil The study is in the nature of administration, pension and descriptive analysis. Transactions of all miscellaneous general services. Tables agencies whose finances are are arranged to show the behavior, administered through the general pattern and growth trend of expenditure budget of the state have been taken as in term of annual and five year plan. public expenditure. In attempting a functional classification of expenditure, Sources of Data the broad approach suggested by the The study covers a period of 38 years Department of Economic and Social from 1974 - 75 to 2011 - 12. This period Affairs of the United Nations in their exactly falls between the Fifth Five Year Manual on the subject which was latter Plan and the Eleventh Five Year Plan reclassified by an expert team appointed including the Annual Plans. The work by the Government of India adopted from is mainly based on secondary sources 1974 - 75 has been followed. The details of data, collected mostly from the of expenditure figures have been first Financial Statement of the Government grouped under two heads : (i) of Mizoram (Budget) for various years, development expenditure and (ii) non- published and unpublished reports, development expenditure. Again, the documents of government of Mizoram, category of development expenditure has audit reports of the CAG, reports of the been sub-grouped under Social & state Assembly and standard works done Community Services and Economic by different scholars on the subject. Services. Non-development expenditure Unpublished government's information consists of General Services. The has been obtained by personal present study defines development interviews and discussions with the expenditure to consist of expenditures senior officials of Finance Department on economic services such as of the government of Mizoram. In order agriculture and allied activities, rural to make the work realistic and useful development, special areas for restricting infructous and nugatory

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 12 expenditure we have studied intensively folds during the same period. Plan-wise a large number of cases reported by the analysis shows a different result. The Accountant General in his audit reports increase in expenditure on Revenue and the consequent follow up enquiries accounts during the 11th Plan over the and reports made by the three legislative 5th Plan was 80 fold, Capital accounts committees such as Estimate recorded an increase of over 83 folds Committee, Public Accounts Committee during the same period. and the Committee on Public Revenue Expenditure Undertaking. Expenditure on Revenue Account Growth Trend of Public Expenditure has been appended in Appendix Table - Public expenditure has increased 2. tremendously during the plan periods in A study on the growth trend of Mizoram as shown in the Appendix expenditure on different services such Table-1. Examination of the growth trend as General, Social and Economic of expenditure during the last four Services on revenue accounts highlights decades shows that total public that expenditure increased by a multiple expenditure increased many folds at a of 208 on General Services, 218 on multiple of 156 folds. Expenditure both Social Services and 98 on Economic on revenue and capital accounts in 1974 Services during the 38 years of this was Rs. 31.09 crores which increased study period. The total expenditure to Rs. 4803.72 crores in 2011-12 revised incurred on General Services in 1974 - estimate. However, the analysis of 75 was Rs. 5.94 crores which increased expenditure based on Five Year Plan to Rs. 1238.16 crores in 2011-12. The showed an increase over 80 times increased express in percentage term during the same period. While total was as high as 20744 per cent. On Social expenditure during the Fifth Five Year Services Rs. 6.54 crores was spent in Plan was Rs. 216.02 crores, the Eleventh 1974-75, the expenditure shot up to Rs. Five Year Plan recorded an expenditure 1427.35 crores in 2011-12, showing an of Rs. 17333.70 crores. In other words, increase of 21725 per cent. The public expenditure increased by 15352 increase in expenditure on Economic per cent within 38 years. This shows the Services was relatively lower than that increase in the Eleventh Plan over the of the other two services which recorded Fifth Plan was 7924 per cent. a total expenditure of Rs. 12.46 crores The analysis of expenditure between in 1974-75 and Rs. 1221.34 crores in revenue and capital accounts exhibits 2011-12. If we calculate the increase in that expenditure on both the accounts percentage term, it amounted to 9702 have been continuously increasing over per cent only. Plan-wise analysis also the year. This study points out that year- shows the same trend of expenditure on wise increase on revenue accounts is different services. While expenditure on higher than that of capital accounts. General Services increased by 109 folds While the increase in expenditure on between the 5th Plan and the 11th Plan, revenue accounts in 2011-12 over 1974- expenditure on Social and Economic 75 was 156 folds, the increase in Services increased by 113 folds and 48 expenditure on capital accounts was 149 folds respectively. A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 13

A close look at the trend and pattern to entangle in secular stagnation and of the annual and plan-wise expenditure be capsized in a vicious circle of poverty. on revenue account of the State reveals This study further reveals that that increase in expenditure on expenditure on non-development Economic Services was comparatively revenue head not only increased in lower than that of the increase in rupee terms, but also in real terms. Non- expenditure on General and Social development revenue expenditure Services. Expenditure on Economic increased by a multiple of 208 in a span Services always promotes productive of 38 years. While the total expenditure activity within the economy. It enhances on this head was Rs. 5.94 crores in 1974 benefits to individuals as producers. A -75, it soared up to Rs. 1238.16 crores study of development expenditure also in 2011-12, showing an increase of indicates that expenditure on Social and 20744 per cent. Expenditure on this Economic Services were in the ratio of head exhibited a continuous upward 36:64 per cent of the total development movement at a rather fast pace during expenditure in the 5 th Plan which th the plan periods. While total expenditure changed to 57:43 per cent in the 11 during the 5th Plan stood at Rs. 42.55 Plan. In other words, expenditure on th crores, it increased to Rs. 4646.35 crores Economic Services in the 5 Five Year in the 11th Plan. In percentage terms, Plan was nearly two times more than the share of non-development the expenditure on Social Services, but expenditure to total revenue the ratio was reversed in the ensuing expenditure recorded 24.24 per cent in plan periods such that the expenditure the 5th Plan, it shot up to 33.03 per cent on Social Services was greater than that th th in the 11 Plan. Notwithstanding the of Economic Service in the 11 Plan. fact that huge expenditures are required This changing trend of expenditure for a new state like Mizoram where between Social Services and Economic expansion of the administrative Services clearly indicates that The machinery was inevitable in the wake Government of Mizoram has put more of restructuring political status of the importance to welfare programme with state in the recent past. However, it is immediate result than to long-term essential to contain expenditure within development programme. It is now of a certain limit. utmost importance for the planners and policy makers to seriously look into the Debt Servicing pattern of public expenditure in the In 1974-75, total expenditure on State. A backward state like Mizoram debt service was to the tune of only Rs. cannot afford to enhance too much 0.46 crores, constituting 7.75 per cent welfare programmes at the cost of long- of total non-development expenditure term development programmes. This is and 1.84 per cent of total revenue the reason why even after 40 years when expenditure. But this has increased to the State joined the ambit of planned Rs. 294.45 crores accounting for 22.89 development programme, Mizoram has per cent of total non-development poor infrastructural facilities and no expenditure and 7.58 per cent of total industrial base. If the trend goes on like revenue expenditure in a span of 38 this, the economy of the State is bound years of this study. This indicated an A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 14 increase of over 640.11 times. In 1986 Central Government and other - 87, more than 50% of the total non- autonomous bodies, discharge of development expenditure was spent for internal debt and State Government's debt servicing. This is a clear indication own loan assistance to third parties have of the unhealthy trend of state financing shown a tremendous increase over the which runs into serious deficit year after years. The share of expenditure on year. (Appendix Table - 3) settlement of debt to the aggregate capital outlay during the 5th Five Year Expenditure on Capital Account Plan was only 2.15 per cent which increased to 8.13 per cent in the 6th Expenditure incurred by the State Plan. However, the 7th Plan recorded a Government on Capital Accounts has fall from the previous Plan at 7.26 per witnessed an increasing trend during cent. During the following two Annual the planning periods. The total Plans a little over 42 per cent was spent expenditure on development and non- for debt settlement. In 8th Plan, an development heads was Rs. 40.46 crores exorbitant amount was spent for the in the 5th Five Year Plan. Expenditure same purpose with a record of 46.68 per has continuously been increasing cent but it fell to 35.77 per cent in the during the ensuing Plans. In the 11th 9th Plan. In the ensuing 10th Plan, it Plan the total expenditure on both heads again soared up to 44.29 per cent but shot up to Rs. 3365.80 crores recording reduced to a level of 33.53 per cent in an increase by a multiple of over 83. In the 11th Five Year Plan. percentage terms, the increase in expenditure in the 11th Plan over the Findings and Conclusion : 5th Plan was as high as 8218.89 per cent. This study reveals that the government First of all, it is necessary to make of Mizoram has been able to contain its huge investment on the development of expenditure on development head economic overheads such as within the range of 96.43 per cent. As construction of rail and roadways, expenditure on development head communications, power installations, results to the creation of assets directly marketing facilities, soil improvement or indirectly, the performance of the etc., which require a large expenditure state government on this account has but a long waiting period for the return been so far commendable. Regarding to come forth. Besides, there is a high selection of priority, agriculture and risk of losing the fund invested for the allied services shared the highest distant future is uncertain. For this expenditure, transport and energy reason, the private investors are not occupied the second and the third place always willing to lock in their money for respectively. a long period in an uncertain outcome of business venture. In a hilly terrain However, this study clearly shows that like Mizoram, roadway is the only means capital expenditure other than of conveyance. As the cost of development and non-development transportation constitutes the cost of heads such as repayment of loans to the production, firms are at disadvantageous position in competitive

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 15 strength. Moreover, because of its any financial matters are generally mountainous physical feature, lands are ignored. The present system of not easily manageable to large-scale administrative sanction is highly operation to get advantage of scale- complex and dilatory. The process of economies. judging the efficiency of executive officers on the basis of achieving the Secondly, in Mizoram, it is found targets for a particular year seems to that there is a sharp difference in living have been confused by the present standard between the urban and the bureaucratic organism of the rural areas. Owing to the neglect of administration. The rise in the number applying scientific methods of farming of idle investment of government funds, and the absence of marketing facilities, incurring of wasteful and infractuous the agriculture sector remain expenditure, inordinate delay in depressed, and is deteriorating due to expediting the files, and the delay in the population pressure. Because of this completion of projects due to lack of worsening condition, many rural work experience and sense of responsibility, force have been migrating to urban faulty planning, misappropriation of centres in search of wage-employment. government money and material, It is observed that urban population has negligence of normal verification of been increasing at a rapid rate which works, lack of imagination and initiative is indicated by a concentration of nearly in execution of plans and the like are a quarter of the state population in the glaring examples of ineffective Aizawl city alone. This is because the government control over public investment in rural development is expenditure in Mizoram. The either inadequate or does not reach the extraordinary delay in the disposal of people for whom the money is invested. disciplinary cases under the cloak of Here the public authority will be well departmental enquiries and advised to invest for equitable allocation investigations has an adverse impact of resources. The government should upon the efficiency of the deliberately attempt to set up new administration, as corruption breeds industries in backward areas where corruption. resources remain unutilized. Developing rural area is essential to Fourthly, so far as the Legislative ease urban congestion and squalor. It control over expenditure is concerned, is irrational to spend too much on the it is far from effective. The deliberations luxury and comfort of the elite groups of Public Accounts Committee have had and to allow the mass of the poor people little impact on the spending of the State to drift to greater poverty. Government. Their advices regarding the cases of irregularities and lapses Thirdly, the study of the have not been timely responded to, and effectiveness of control of public as a result, the standard of fiscal expenditure in Mizoram reveals that the discipline has deteriorated. administrative control of public Nevertheless the Public Account expenditure is insufficient in several Committee of Mizoram has made a respects. Urgent instructions regarding modest attempt to make its presence

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 16 felt in the field of control of public and asset creation, the state has created expenditure in the State. Not only this, a plump sector of the government which proceedings of the Estimate Committee consumed all the flows of fund for have also highlighted the same unproductive purposes. It is now clear deficiencies. Though the role of audit that if this trend continues any further, has been felt by the administrative the state will be bankrupt in the near departments, the study observes that future. even the senior officers of first class And lastly, in the light of the cadre very often ignore the mandatory foregoing analysis, the financial position orders and consequently the number of has deteriorated with a successive five cases of major irregularities and lapses year plan, and the state is heavily under continue to increase unabated despite pressure to correct its fiscal deficit. repeated warnings by the Accountant Since, even the last money have always General in his reports. The above been used for unproductive conspicuous circumstances show that the legislative consumption and borrowed funds are control over the expenditure of the State being used either for paying interest or has not been quite satisfactory and invested on government companies effective. which yield no return, it will not be Fifthly, over the past few decades, wrong to say that Mizoram is under debt there has been an enormous increase trap. in non-development expenditure. The References state's own revenue plus the share in central taxes taken together have fallen Sarma, Atul and Tulasidhar, V.B. (1984) : Economic Impact of Government short of the growing expenditure. Even Expenditure, Concept Publishing the grant from the Central Government Company, New Delhi. has left a wide gap between the state's Singh, B.P. (1982) : Public Expenditure and receipts and expenditures. Economic Development in India, Capital Consequently, the state has resorted to Publishing House, Delhi. massive borrowings from various Surry, M. M. (1990) : Government Budgeting sources. This has led to a huge increase in India, Commonwealth Publishers, in the public debt of the state New Delhi. government. Though expenditure on Government of Mizoram, Annual Financial Statement (Budget; Finance capital head has been rising gradually, Department, Aizawl from 1974 - 75 the state's capacity to enhance income to 2011 - 12. generation has not increased Government of Mizoram, Demand for Grants correspondingly. While the state's for the years 1974 - 75 to 2011 - 12. liability on interest payment has Government of Mizoram, Report of the increased at a fast pace, it would be Comptroller and Auditor General of certainly impossible for the state to save India, various years for net capital formation. The rapid Government of Mizoram, Reports of the Public increase in debt service has become a Account Committee, Estimate Committee, Committee on Public Undertakings. serious problem and a loathsome drag Government of Mizoram, Budget Speeches to the process of economic development of Finance Ministers; Mizoram of a poor state like Mizoram. In spite of Legislative Assembly, Aizawl. its little effort to enhance tax collection A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 17

Economic Surveys of Mizoram, Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Government of Mizoram, Aizawl. Statistical Handbooks of Mizoram, Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Government of Mizoram, Aizawl.

Table-1. Growth and Pattern of Public Expenditure During the Plan Period Table-2. Growth of Expenditure on Revenue Account

Rupees in crores Rs. In crores Total Revenue Total Capital General Social Economic Year Total Year TOTAL Expenditure Expenditure Services Services Services 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 1974 - 75 24.94 6.15 31.09 1974 - 75 5.94 6.54 12.46 24.94 1975 - 76 33.39 6.7 40.09 1975 - 76 8.88 7.94 16.57 33.39 1976 - 77 39.88 6.45 46.33 1976 - 77 8.43 10.08 21.37 39.88 1977 -78 32.89 8.63 41.52 1977 -78 8.56 10.73 13.6 32.89 1978 - 79 44.51 12.59 57.1 1978 - 79 10.85 12.33 21.33 44.51 5th Plan 175.5 40.52 216.02 5th Plan 42.55 47.62 85.33 175.5 1979 - 80 (A.P.) 52.41 13.85 66.26 1979 - 80 (A.P.) 11.91 15.74 24.76 52.41 1980 - 81 58.01 18.56 76.57 1980 - 81 14.23 17.87 25.91 58.01 1981 - 82 71.42 24.31 95.73 1981 - 82 17.73 21.19 32.5 71.42 1982 - 83 85.24 30.1 115.34 1982 - 83 24.07 27.49 33.68 85.24 1983 - 84 95.35 35.78 131.13 1983 - 84 28.85 33.77 32.73 95.35 1984 - 85 33.33 40.54 46.79 120.66 1984 - 85 120.66 33.36 154.02 6th Plan 120.43 140.86 171.61 432.9 6th Plan 432.9 142.11 575.01 1985 - 86 39.12 50.49 53.83 143.44 1985 - 86 143.44 45.77 189.21 1986 - 87 15.28 13.86 17.17 46.31 1986 - 87 46.31 3.7 50.01 1987 - 88 63.62 98.02 106.37 268.01 1987 - 88 268.01 59.44 327.45 1988 - 89 58.43 91.79 103.84 254.06 1988 - 89 254.06 67.47 321.53 1989 - 90 58.16 95.99 106.29 260.44 1989 - 90 260.44 85.67 346.11 7th Plan 234.62 350.15 387.5 972.27 7th Plan 972.27 262.05 1234.32 1990 - 91 88.08 99.43 120.27 307.78 1990 - 91 307.78 58.07 365.85 1991 - 92 87.82 116.24 145.32 349.38 1991 - 92 349.38 113.8 463.18 Annual Plan 175.9 215.67 265.59 657.16 Annual Plan 657.16 171.87 829.03 1992 - 93 85.31 109.59 137.26 332.16 1992 - 93 332.16 116.86 449.02 1993 - 94 111.4 153.85 135.35 400.6 1993 - 94 400.6 87.32 487.92 1994 - 95 128.07 158.67 163.25 449.99 1994 - 95 449.99 97.97 547.96 1995 - 96 165 200.64 188.06 553.7 1995 - 96 553.7 123.72 677.42 1996 - 97 185.62 251.09 196.65 633.36 1996 - 97 633.36 158.42 791.78 8th Plan 675.4 873.84 820.57 2369.81 8th Plan 2369.81 584.29 2954.1 1997 - 98 216.51 227.46 217.6 661.57 1997 - 98 661.57 247.76 909.33 1998 - 99 224.99 256.14 209.7 690.83 1998 - 99 690.83 236.97 927.8 1999 - 00 294.02 336.31 263.95 894.28 2000 - 01 334.85 371.03 315.73 1021.61 1999 - 00 894.28 251.17 1145.45 2001 - 02 392.37 417.93 317.93 1128.23 2000 - 01 1021.61 227.94 1249.55 9th Plan 1462.74 1608.87 1324.91 4396.52 2001 - 02 1128.23 186.42 1314.65 2002 - 03 405.63 406.53 318.8 1130.96 9th Plan 4396.53 1150.26 5546.79 2003 - 04 462.54 435.5 368.93 1266.97 2002 - 03 1128.96 246.84 1375.8 2004 - 05 514.65 476.5 304.36 1295.51 2003 - 04 1266.97 402.7 1669.67 2005 - 06 541.63 547.57 498.78 1587.98 2004 - 05 1295.51 396.41 1691.92 2006 - 07 616.92 592.89 507.48 1717.29 2005 - 06 1587.98 451.37 2039.35 10th Plan 2541.37 2458.99 1998.35 6998.71 2006 - 07 1717.29 466.45 2183.74 2007 - 08 645.88 696.78 565.96 1908.62 10th Plan 6996.71 1963.77 8960.48 2008 - 09 803.74 898.19 611.86 2313.79 2007 - 08 1908.62 544.25 2452.87 2009 - 10 947.75 1105.69 649.37 2702.81 2008 - 09 2313.62 578.28 2891.9 2010 - 11 1010.82 1137.34 1007.67 3155.83 2009 - 10 2702.81 572.79 3275.6 2011 - 12 1238.16 1427.35 1221.34 3886.85 2010 - 11 3155.83 753.61 3909.44 11th Plan 4646.35 5265.35 4056.2 13967.9 2011 - 12 3886.85 916.87 4803.72 Source : Computed and arranged from Financial Statements, Government of Mizoram 11th Plan 13967.73 3365.8 17333.53

Source : Computed and arranged from Financial Statements, Government of Mizoram

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 18

Table-3 . Percentage Growth of Revenue Expenditure on Interest Payment & Serving of Debt Table-4. Growth and Pattern of Capital Expenditure During the Plan Period

Rupees in crores Rupees in crores Interest Non- Total 2 as a 2 as a Development Non-development Year TOTAL Year Payment & Development Revenue per cent per cent Expenditure Expenditure Debt Servicing Expenditure Expenditure of 3 of 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 1974 - 75 6.15 6.15 1974 - 75 0.46 5.94 24.94 7.75 1.84 1975 - 76 6.7 6.7 1975 - 76 0.8 8.88 33.39 9.01 2.4 1976 - 77 6.45 6.45 1976 - 77 1.05 8.43 39.88 12.46 2.63 1977 -78 8.62 0.01 8.63 1977 -78 1.27 8.56 32.89 14.84 3.86 1978 - 79 12.39 0.2 12.59 1978 - 79 1.69 10.85 44.51 15.58 3.8 5th Plan 40.31 0.21 40.52 5th Plan 5.27 42.55 175.5 12.39 3 1979 - 80 (A.P.) 13.62 0.23 13.85 1979 - 80 (A.P.) 2.23 11.91 52.41 18.72 4.25 1980 - 81 18.46 0.1 18.56 1980 - 81 2.83 14.23 58.01 19.89 4.88 1981 - 82 24.17 0.14 24.31 1981 - 82 3.85 17.73 71.42 21.72 5.39 1982 - 83 29.44 0.66 30.1 1982 - 83 4.44 24.07 85.24 18.45 5.21 1983 - 84 33.69 2.09 35.78 1983 - 84 6.2 28.85 95.35 21.49 6.5 1984 - 85 32.35 1.01 33.36 1984 - 85 7.92 33.33 120.66 23.76 6.56 6th Plan 138.11 4 142.11 6th Plan 27.47 120.43 432.9 22.81 6.35 1985 - 86 44.7 1.07 45.77 1985 - 86 9.51 39.12 143.44 24.31 6.63 1986 - 87 3.25 0.45 3.7 1986 - 87 7.77 15.28 46.31 50.86 16.78 1987 - 88 57.7 1.74 59.44 1987 - 88 13.09 63.62 268.01 20.57 4.88 1988 - 89 64.16 3.31 67.47 1988 - 89 2.11 58.43 254.06 3.61 0.83 1989 - 90 0.85 58.16 260.44 1.46 0.33 1989 - 90 82.9 2.77 85.67 7th Plan 33.33 234.62 972.27 14.21 3.43 7th Plan 252.71 9.34 262.05 1990 - 91 56.47 1.6 58.07 1990 - 91 33.2 88.08 307.78 37.69 10.79 1991 - 92 112.04 1.76 113.8 1991 - 92 14.25 87.82 349.38 16.23 4.08 Annual Plan 168.51 3.36 171.87 Annual Plan 47.45 175.9 657.16 26.98 7.22 1992 - 93 14.02 85.31 332.16 16.43 4.22 1992 - 93 114.07 2.79 116.86 1993 - 94 84.21 3.11 87.32 1993 - 94 22.51 111.4 400.6 20.21 5.62 1994 - 95 29.77 128.07 449.99 23.24 6.62 1994 - 95 95.06 2.91 97.97 1995 - 96 34.88 165 553.7 21.14 6.3 1995 - 96 118.82 4.9 123.72 1996 - 97 155.06 3.36 158.42 1996 - 97 47.73 185.62 633.36 25.71 7.54 8th Plan 148.91 675.4 2369.81 22.05 6.28 8th Plan 567.22 17.07 584.29 1997 - 98 65.79 216.51 661.57 30.39 9.94 1997 - 98 241.52 6.24 247.76 1998 - 99 73.68 224.99 690.83 32.75 10.67 1998 - 99 232.6 4.37 236.97 1999 - 00 93.72 294.02 894.28 31.88 10.48 1999 - 00 243.16 8.01 251.17 2000 - 01 103.45 334.85 1021.61 30.89 10.13 2000 - 01 221.97 5.97 227.94 2001 - 02 148.18 392.37 1128.23 37.77 13.13 2001 - 02 177.49 8.93 186.42 9th Plan 484.82 1462.75 4396.52 33.14 11.03 9th Plan 1116.74 33.52 0 2002 - 03 136.06 405.63 1130.96 33.54 12.03 2002 - 03 238.31 8.53 246.84 2003 - 04 170.62 462.54 1266.97 36.89 13.47 2003 - 04 386.68 16.72 403.4 2004 - 05 186.5 514.65 1295.51 36.24 14.4 2004 - 05 385.46 10.95 396.41 2005 - 06 190.64 541.63 1587.98 35.2 12.01 2005 - 06 437.91 13.46 451.37 2006 - 07 235.75 616.92 1717.29 38.21 13.73 2006 - 07 442.01 24.44 466.45 10th Plan 919.57 2541.37 6998.71 36.18 13.14 10th Plan 1890.37 74.1 1964.47 2007 - 08 222.01 645.88 1908.62 34.37 11.63 2007 - 08 530.75 13.5 544.25 2008 - 09 240.61 803.74 2313.79 29.94 10.4 2008 - 09 558.49 19.79 578.28 2009 - 10 270.85 947.75 2702.81 28.58 10.02 2009 - 10 546.8 25.99 572.79 2010 - 11 122.08 1010.82 3255.73 12.08 3.75 2010 - 11 730.25 23.36 753.61 2011 - 12 294.45 1238.16 3886.85 23.78 7.58 2011 - 12 886.02 30.8 916.82 11th Plan 1150 4646.35 14067.8 24.75 8.17 11th Plan 3252.31 113.44 3365.8 Source : Computed and arranged from Financial Statements, Government of Source : Annual Financial Statement, Government of Mizoram Mizoram

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 19

Topographic changes in Aizawl city and its surroundings during 1973 - 2013 : A digital terrain analysis through Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques Ch.Udaya Bhaskara Rao Abstract : The mountainous terrain of Aizawl the capital city of Mizoram and its surrounding areas have undergone large-scale topographic changes due to various natural and human- induced causes. The human intervention in the form rapid unplanned urbanization over the precipitous slopes appears to be the major cause along with the natural factors like soil erosion and landslides in this tectonically active young sedimentary terrain. The total loss of sediment in this area due to landscape changes is estimated to be 60054352 m3 during the last 40 years with an average rate of 1501359 m3/year. An attempt has been made in this study to analyze spatio-temporal changes in the topography of Aizawl and its surroundings by analyzing multi- date digital elevation models using ArcGIS software tools. Introduction the topography that occurred during Topographic changes are quite 1973-2013 using multi-date digital common in a fragile sedimentary hilly elevation models generated from 1973 terrain like Mizoram. Aizawl, the survey of India toposheets and the data capacity of Mizoram has witnessed high of digital elevation models acquired by population growth in recent decades. Shuttle Radar Topography Mission The city and its suburbs are prone to (SRTM) of United States Geological frequent topographic changes due to Survey of the year 2013 with the help of several endogenic forces and exogenic advanced ArcGIS software tools and erosional processes owing to its tropical techniques. location in addition to tectonically active Materials and Methods zone. Basically the area exhibits highly Survey of India topographic maps undulating topography with young 84A/9 and 84A/10 of the year 1973 on sedimentary formations belonging to 1:50,000 scale have been used to extract Tertiary age (Ganju, 1975). The Aizawl contours and other relevant topographic city and its adjoining areas are information. Contours at 20 metres subjected to landslides to the maximum interval have been digitized using magnitude due to slope instability. In ArcGIS 9.1 workstation edit tools from fact, the whole urban complex is directly the scanned topo-sheets. The digitized resting over these steeply sloping contour data has been processed for unconsolidated sedimentary formations label errors. A new tic coverage has been as the limited availability of nearly created and updated the tics with leveled or gently sloping lands. The geographic coordinates. Later, the cumulative effect of natural and human- coverage has been projected to polyconic induced factors appears to be responsible coordinate system. A triangulated for large scale landscape changes in this irregular network has been generated area. using contour data with the help of The present study is an attempt to Spatial analyst module tools in ArcMap find out temporal changes and to analyze 9.1. Similarly, digital elevation model, possible cause for frequent changes in slope, flow direction and flow Dr. Ch. Udaya Bhaskara Rao is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Geography & Resource Management, Mizoram University, Aizawl.

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 20 accumulation layers have been slope, flow direction and flow generated sequentially from accumulation have revealed several triangulated irregular network using significant spatial changes in the Spatial analyst module tools in ArcMap surface topography. 9.1. A digital elevation model of the year TIN is an alternative two 2013 has been downloaded from the dimensional vector data model to DEM United States Geological Survey website to represent a network of irregularly (www.cgiar.csi.org) to find out temporal spaced surface elevation points changes in the landscape between 1973 arranged in a triangular facet form of and 2013. continuous sheet (Burrough, 1998). As Study area TINs have an advantage to represent The area is located in the Aizawl variations particularly, in the areas of district between 92o24'51"- 92o26'34" complex relief and also the best model east longitudes and 23o25'11"- 23o27' 25" to avoid redundant data in regions where north latitudes (Fig.1). The total areal the terrain is even (Bhatia, 2008), TINs extent of the area under study is about are widely used in various terrain 448 hectares. The area experiences studies. Topographic changes are moist tropical to sub-tropical climate apparent on TIN due to simplicity and with an average rainfall of about 210 cm. accurate representation of the elevation Topographically, the prominent data in the form of facets. Similarly, geomorphic features seen in this area DEM is the best model to represent are linear to curvi-linear structural hill surface topography in a three ranges with alternate deep valleys and dimensional raster format due to occasional valley plains. The major representation of evenly spaced values perennial river flows in the western part of topographic elevations in a of the area is river . Several continuous surface form. major and un-named streams also flow The multi-date TIN layers generated in the eastern and also western parts of from Survey of India topographic maps the area. Most of the rivers and streams of the year 1973 and direct digital which flow in this area are largely elevation models generated from the controlled by faults and fractures as the data acquired by Shuttle Radar area falls in tectonically active zone. In Topographic Mission of United States addition, the landscape is also criss- Geological Survey of the year 2013, crossed by a number faults and fractures clearly depict changes in the topography which shows the intensity of on-going as seen in figure 2. Based on the tectonic activity in the area. Tropical analysis of both TIN and DEM models it wet-ever green forest covers the is revealed that the existing topographic adjoining areas of the city. elevation of the study area ranges between 480 and 1180 metres while it Results and Discussion was between 520 and 1200 metres in Analysis of multi-date thematic layers the year 1973 (Fig.2). The analysis of multi-date layers It has been observed that drastic such as triangulated irregular network changes have occurred comparatively, (TIN), digital elevation model (DEM), in the eastern parts of the city rather A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 21

Fig.1 Location map of Aizawl city and its environs.

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 22 than the western parts. It is apparent the city is found to be much faster on from the maximum and minimum the eastern flank of the main ridge due elevations of the topography of the two- to availability of gently sloping lands than date TIN models, a decrease in elevation along western flank of the city as of about 40 metres. It has been observed evidenced from the slope maps (Fig.4). that on an average there is a 40 metres Similarly, flow direction is also found decrease in elevation at the lower level to be one of the advanced aspects in and about 20 metres decrease at higher understanding the terrain condition at levels particularly along the main ridge different time intervals. Flow direction at a majority of the places. indicates the direction of surface flow Slope is found to be the most in eight possible prominent directions significant terrain properties such as north, northeast, east, particularly in understanding surface southeast, south, southwest and west topography. Slope is measured in an beginning from north in clock-wise elevation raster by identification of direction (Fig.5). In fact, flow direction maximum rate of change in value from is an integer value which ranges each cell to neighbouring cells (DeBarry, between 1 and 255. The flow direction 2004). As seen on the slope maps of 1973 is determined by the minimum cell and 2013, the changes area quite value than the neighbouring cells while discernible along the main ridge and when multiple neighbours have the also along its flanks. The expansion of same value then the resultant flow will

Fig.2 Triangulated irregular network (Left -1973, Right-2013).

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 23 be defined by filtering out one cell sinks Further, analysis of multi-date thematic (DeBarry, 2004). Similarly, flow layers has revealed that the total volume accumulation appears to be the most of the sediment above the base plane at significant in assessing the overall 480 metres in the year 1973 was changes in the landscape. Flow direction estimated to be about 3455833399m3 and flow accumulation are useful to while in the year 2013 it is about detect changes in terrain of an area. 3395779047m3. It is estimated that The changes in topography reflect in the there is a decrease in the volume of the resultant flow accumulation which is sediment of about 60054352m3 during similar to natural flow of streams. the last 40 years at the rate of 1501359 3 The changes are obvious in the flow m /year. It has to be noted that the rate accumulation layer of the year 2013. It of erosion may not be uniform is revealed that the flow accumulation throughout the period as nature of capacity of the streams adjoining the city erosion depends up on the intensity of has been reduced from 26376 m3 in the rainfall, nature of terrain and degree of year 1973 to 18446 m3 by the year 2013 slope failure along with human (Fig.6). The existing drainage pattern in intervention, the rate of soil loss may the area is also quite contrasting with also vary accordingly. The study shows the drainage in the year 1973. that there is a definite loss of sediment in the area due to various physical as Perhaps, this could be due to erosion well as anthropogenic causes. It is at higher levels and subsequent obvious that the changes are seen siltation at down slope and valley sites.

Fig.3 Digital elevation model (Left-1973, Right-2013)

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 24 particularly, at lower elevations on both topography appear to be natural as well sides of the main ridge on which the city as man-made. Basically, the area is is located. composed of sedimentary rock The 2-fold increase in the areal formations with high topographic relief. spread of the city from 1.88km2 (188 Moreover, as the area falls in a hectares) in the year 1973 to 4.48km2 tectonically active zone, the topographic (4.48 hectares) by the year 2013 has changes are quite strong by the natural largely responsible for slope instability processes like erosion, slope failure and thereby contributing to severe erosion, soil slumping at a very faster rate. The slope instability and subsequent terrain parameters such as lithology, physical degradation of land in the area. slope, degree of weathering, soil The carrying capacity of the streams texture, drainage pattern and tectonic that exist in this area is reduced due to features like faults and fractures also erosion at higher elevations and enhance the intensity of erosion and subsequent siltation along the lower further physical degradation of land. The slopes and valleys. The changes are major causes that are responsible for quite obvious in the pattern of streams these topographic changes that have in the area. occurred in this area over a period of time can be attributed to different mass Causes movement processes like soil erosion, The major driving forces which are landslides and mud-flows in this responsible for the changes in surface unconsolidated sedimentary terrain mostly aided by the on-going tectonic Fig.5 Flow Direction (Left-1972, Right-2013)

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 25 activity and torrential rainfall during erosion and slope failure. monsoon periods. In addition, the Conclusion human intervention in the form of construction of high rise buildings over Aizawl city and its suburbs are precipitous slopes has led to slope experiencing severe topographic failure thereby physical degradation of changes and subsequent physical the terrain at much faster rates. degradation of land. The study has Similarly, deforestation for shifting revealed the changes in the terrain that agricultural practices in the adjoining took place during the last 40 years based areas, unscientific land use practices on the application of advanced GIS and unauthorized large scale mining through the analysis of activities are also found to be the major multi-date significant thematic layers causes to bring large scale changes in like triangulated irregular network the landscape. (TIN), digital elevation model (DEM), slope, flow direction and flow It is surmised, therefore, from this accumulation. It has been estimated study of multi-date elevation models and that about 60054352m3 of sediment was flow accumulation layers, coupled with lost between 1973 and 2013 due to the spatial variations in the Aizawl physical degradation of land mostly by cityscape and its surroundings that the natural causes like on-going tectonic area is prone to several endogenic and activity, slope failure and anthropogenic exogenic processes causing drastic activities in the form of rapid unplanned topographic changes resulting in severe urbanization, deforestation, illegal

Fig.6 Flow Accumulation (Left-1973, Right-2013)

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 26 mining and unscientific land use practices.

References : Bhatia,S.C . (2008). Fundamentals of Remote Sensing. Atlantic Publishers, New Delhi, 536p. Burrough, P.A. and McDonnel, R.A.(1998). Principles of Geographical Information Systems. Oxford University Press, Inc., New York, 333p. DEBarry, P. (2004). Watersheds (Process, Assessment and Management). John Willey & Sons, Inc. New York. 648p. Ganju, J.L. (1975). Evolution of the Orogenic Belts of India. Geol. Min. Met. Soc.India, Bulletin No. 48, 1975, pp.17-26.

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 27

Morphometric Aspects of the Tut watershed, Mizoram K. Srinivasa Rao K. Lalduhawma Abstract : The Tut watershed stretches in north-south direction in an area of about 846 km2 covering parts of Lunglei and districts in Mizoram. The computed basic, derived and shape parameters of a total of 42 sub-watersheds reveal significant clues such as coarse drainage texture, contrasting lithology and structure, structurally controlled drainage over steep slopes, tectonic activity in the form of folding and faulting, The present study is an attempt to understand terrain conditions and on-going tectonic activity through drainage morphometric analysis. The morphometric parameters of drainage density ranges from 1.30 to 4.58, stream frequency of 3.49 to 16.57 and drainage texture varies between 3.00 and 9.68 indicate that coarse to intermediate drainage texture in the study area. The mean bifurcation ratio ranges from 2.16 to 5.94 shows that variation in lithology and rock structure in the drainage basin. The variations in the elongation ratios ranges from 0.39 to 0.97 indicate that the sub-basins in the Tut basin were affected by structural disturbances as faulting. The relief ratio (Rl) ranges from 0.05 to 0.95 indicates that the overall steepness of a drainage basin and is a measure of intensity of erosional processes of the watershed. The Relief ratio ranges from 0.05 to 0.95 shows that the high relief ratio indicates the study area is having steep slope and high relief. The ruggedness number varies from 0.4 to 4.2 indicates that the steepness of slope and stream length. The form factor values of the present study varies from 0.31 to 0.89 shows that the flow intensity of a basin. Key Words: Drainage morphometry, tectonic activity, faulting.

Introduction geological and geomorphic history of a drainage basin. Based on a thorough Watershed is a natural hydrological analysis of physiographic as well as unit of land, which collects water as well lithological conditions aided by drainage as sediment and drains through a morphometric aspects soil loss can also common point by a network of streams be estimated. Similarly, drainage (Paranjape, et. al., 1998). Watersheds of morphometric studies are also useful to required sizes can be taken as planning delineate ground water potential zones units in order to achieve sustainable in an area. development and management of available natural resources (Kumar et. In order to understand significant al., 2014). As drainage basin geometric properties and stream morphometry is a measurement and network of a watershed requires mathematical analysis of configuration measurement of various basic, derived of surface, shape and dimensions of and shape parameters of a drainage landforms (Clarke, 1969) that will be basin precisely. The present study aims useful to analyze terrain at understanding various linear, areal characteristics. Drainage morphometry and relief parameters such as stream provides important clues to understand order, mean bifurcation ratio, form basin geometry for analyzing initial factor, elongation ratio, circularity ratio, slope, rock hardness, structural form factor, compactness coefficient, controls, recent diastrophism along with ruggedness number, stream length,

Dr. K. Srinivasa Rao is an Associate Professor, Dept.of Geology, Mizoram University. Mr. K. Lalduhawma is a Research Scholar in the Dept. of Geology, Mizoram University.

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 28 drainage density, relative relief and sandstone and siltstone/Shale. relief ratio, of Tut watershed. Geomorphologically, the area is occupied Materials and Methods by undulated topography with a series of strike ridges and valleys. The The drainage network of the drainage network of the present study watershed has been delineated from the shows that the terrain exhibits trellis, Survey of India toposheets of 83 D/12, parallel to sub-parallel drainage patterns 84 A/5, A/6, A/7, A/9, A/10, A/11 and which indicate structurally controlled 84A/12 on 1: 50,000 scale. The entire drainage. The shape of the basin is watershed has been sub-divided into 42 elongated due to the influence of the fourth order sub-basins for its detailed tectonic activity (thrusting and faulting) morphometric analysis. The different of the Tut basin. linear, areal and relief aspects of drainage network have been carried out The drainage patterns have revealed by following the methods and formulae the degree of lithological, structural (Table 1) proposed by Horton (1945), controls, initial slope, rainfall and Strahler (1956), Schumm (1956), vegetation of the area. The influence of Strahler (1964) and Singh (2004). lithology on drainage development in the Strahler's (1956) scheme of ranking of study area is mentioned in Table 2. The streams has been adopted to assign stream orders. Fig. 1. Location map of Tut watershed. Study Area The Tut drainage is a tributary of Tlawng River, which covers an area of about 846 km2 extending parts of the Lunglei and Mamit districts in Mizoram. The drainage area spreads in between the latitudes of 92030' and 92042'E and longitudes from 23010' to 24002'N. The Tut river originates of 900m. above mean sea level near Chengpui settlement in of Mizoram. It flows from south to north and finally joins the Tlang river at Pathiontlang near Hartoki in . The area is mostly covered by the deciduous ever green forest and most of the area is in accessible due to lack of road connectivity (Fig. 1). The geology of the area comprises of Surma Group of rocks mainly Bhuban formation belongs to the Tertiary age. The lithology consists of arenaceous and argillaceous sequences comprises of

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 29 parallel to sub-parallel drainage were Basic Parameters developed by the influence of lithology Stream order (Nu) on drainage development. The area is having the impermeable rocks shows The stream order is a dimensionless the dendritic or radial drainage. The number and it can be used as trellis type of drainage pattern comparison of geometry for drainage development has produced by the networks on different linear scales. The unconsolidated and highly permeable entire Tut watershed drainage network sediments which might be controlled by has been delineated into 42 fourth order the underlying geological structures sub-basins based on the Strahler's such as folds and faults. (1952) method (Table 1). In this method, the smallest finger tip tributaries are Results and Discussion designated as first-order streams; When The drainage area of 846 km2 Tut two first order streams join, a second watershed was divided into 42 fourth order stream is generated; where the order sub-watersheds for morphometric two second order streams join, a third analysis. The morphometric characters order stream formed and so on. The of the Tut watershed is further divided main stream considered through which into basic parameters such as stream all discharges of water and sediment order, stream length, basin area, basin supplied by the lower order streams, length and perimeter of the basin. The become a stream of highest order. It is derived parameters like bifurcation also observed that when stream order ratio, drainage density, stream increases stream frequency is frequency, drainage texture and decreasing. The stream characteristics compactness co-efficient and the shape support the Horton's (1945) first 'law of parameters are Elongation ratio, stream orders' indicate that the number circularity ratio, form factor, ruggedness of streams of different orders in a given number, relative relief and relief ratio watershed tends closely to approximate calculated and compared with sub-basins an inverse geometric relationship. in the present study (Tables 3 and 4).

Table 2. Lithological influence on drainage development in the Tut Watershed.

Sl. Morphometric Units Drainage Bed rock properties No. 1. Summit surface Radial Impervious bed rocks with steeply sloping ground 2. Hill slopes i) Hill-side slopes with free Sub-parallel to Impervious bed rocks, steep to faces dendritic moderate slopes ii) Valley side slopes with Dendritic colluviums Less pervious bed rocks, moderate slopes 3. River valleys with terraces Trellis Highly permeable unconsolidated material flat or gently sloping ground

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 30

Stream Length (Lu) bifurcation ratio. The mean bifurcation The stream length (Lu) is a ratio of the streams in the study area dimensional property to understand the ranges between 2.16 to 5.94. The Study characteristic size of the components of area is geomorphologically represented a drainage network. The areal by undulating topography. The present distribution of consecutive stream study suggests that most of the rocks orders in a basin reflects the underlying are permeable in nature. The Tut hydrological characteristics of the rocks. watershed under study indicates that The stream length of each order in the suffered structural disturbance as Tut watershed is given Table 3. The indicated by Strahler (1964). stream length is the total length of all Stream Frequency (Sf) streams in a given order. The number The Sf is the ratio between the total of streams in various orders in the sub- number of streams (Nu) in a given order watersheds and their lengths were to the area of the basin (A) and also measured manually. known as channel frequency. The Sf Area of the basin (Au) varies from 3.49 to 16.57 (Table. 4) in The total area of the Tut watershed the present study area, the higher Sf is 846 sq.km and the areas of sub- reflects the greater surface run-off and watersheds shown in Table 3. The a steeper ground surface. maximum area of the sub-watershed is Drainage Density (Dd) 25.57 km2 and the minimum area 2 The Drainage density is the ratio contains 1.95 km . of the total stream lengths of all orders Perimeter of the basin (P) in a given basin to the area of the basin. The perimeter is the total length of The computed values of the Drainage density are presented in Table 3. It the basin boundary. The various sub- 2 basins perimeters are mentioned in ranges between 1.30 and 4.58 km/km Table 3. in the Tut sub-watersheds. The Drainage density is one of the important Basin Length (Lb) indicators of linear scale of the landform The basin length is known as elements in stream eroded topography maximum length of the basin, which (Horton, 1945). It reflects the direct measures parallel to the main drainage. relationship between the closeness of The length of various sub-watersheds spacing of the streams and indirect under study is mentioned in Table 3. evidences of the structural framework of the watershed. The low Drainage Derived Parameters density is favourable for the regions of Bifurcation Ratio (Rb) high resistant or high permeable The bifurcation ratio is calculated lithology under dense vegetation and low from the stream order data. The relief, when a high drainage density bifurcation ratio is not constant from one supported in the regions of weak or order to the next order. Strahler (1968) impermeable rocks with sparse has introduced mean bifurcation ratio vegetation and mountainous relief (Rbm) for achieving accuracy of (Strahler, 1964).

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 31

Drainage Texture (T) to the area of circle having the same The drainage texture (T) is the perimeter (P) as the basin (Miller, 1953). relation between the total number of It is a significant ratio, expressing the stream segments in all the stream stage of dissection in any region and also orders and perimeter of the drainage gives an index of the structural fabric of area (Horton, 1945). The derived value the underlying rocks. The stream of drainage texture varies from 3.00 to length, stream frequency and stream 9.68 (Table 4) suggesting that the gradient of the various orders play an texture is relatively coarse to important role on the Rc rather than the intermediate. The drainage texture is slope conditions and drainage pattern of the measure of closeness of channel a basin. The Rc value of the drainage spacing, depending on climate, basin exactly 1.0 indicate that the basin vegetation, soil, geology, relief, is set to be a perfectly circular shape, in infiltration rate and stage of which the discharge is in greater development of a landform (Smith, 1950; quantity (Miller, 1953). The Rc for the Doornkamp and King, 1971). Tut sub-basins ranges from 0.35 to 0.95. (Table 4). Compactness Co-efficient (Cc) Form Factor (Ff) The compactness co-efficient is used to express as the relationship of a The Ff was first proposed by Horton hydrological basin with that of a circular (1945) that this parameter predicts the basin having the same area as the flow intensity of a basin of a defined hydrological basin. The compactness co- watershed area. It is expressed as the efficient of Tut watershed highest is ratio between the area of the basin (A) 2.57 and lowest 1.50. and the square of the basin length (L2). The Ff value of the sub watershed in the Shape Parameters present study varies from 0.31 to 0.89 Elongation Ratio (Re) and mentioned in Table 4. The form factor indicates the inverse relationship According to Schumm (1956) was with the square of the axial length and defined by the ratio of between the has a direct relationship with peak diameter of the same area as the basin discharge (Gregory and Walling, 1973). and basin length. The variations in the elongated shapes of the sub-basins Ruggedness number (Rn) within the watershed basins are caused The Rn is the product of a basin relief by the effects of structural disturbances and drainage density (Strahler, 1957), (Sreedevi, et. al., 2005). The elongation it indicates the qualities of steepness ratio observed in the present work of slope and stream length. The Tut sub- ranges from 0.39 to 0.97. The computed watershed Rn values range from 0.4 to elongation ratios of each sub-watershed 4.2. (Table 3). is mentioned in Table 4. Basin Relative Relief Circularity Ratio (Rc) The basin relative relief is the The Rc is a quantitative expression elevation difference between the of the shape of the watershed, which is highest and minimum elevation. The indicated by the ratio of basin area (a) relative relief of the Tut sub-watersheds A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 32 ranges between 0.30 and 1.30 km (Table are elongated in nature. The stream 4). development is affected by the slope, Relief Ratio (Rl) local relief and climate in the Tut basin. These are the controlling factors for Relief ratio is the elevation producing variations in drainage difference between the highest and densities and stream frequencies lowest points on the valley floor among the sub-watersheds. (Schumm, 1956). It indicates the overall Acknowledgement steepness of a drainage basin and is a We are grateful to Dr. Ch. measure of intensity of erosional Udayabhaskara Rao, Department of processes operating on the slope of the Geography and Natural Resources watershed. The Rl of Tut sub-watersheds Management, Mizoram University, ranges from 0.05 to 0.95 (Table 4). Aizawl for his valuable critical Conclusion comments to improve the manuscript. The authors are thankful to the Head, The present study is undertaken to Department of Geology, Mizoram analyze the quantitative morphometric University, Aizawl for providing facilities parameters of fourth order sub- to carry out the work. One of the watersheds of Tut basin. The areas is authors (K. L.) is grateful to the underlain by the Surma group of rocks University Grants Commission (U.G.C.), consists of Bhuban formation, which New Delhi for providing financial belong to Tertiary age. The Tut river is assistance in the form of Research a six order watershed having the fellowship in Science for meritorious development of drainage patterns such students (RFSMS). as trellis, parallel and radial drainage development. The morphology, high Reference rainfall in the hill ranges and structure Clarke, J. I. (1969) : "Morphometric from Maps" control the development of drainage : Essays in geomorphology, Elsevier network. However, lithology and Publications, New York. pp. 235-275. structure of the drainage basin have Chorely, R.J. (1957) : "Illustrating the Law of great influence on the evolution of Morphometry". Geol. Mag., V. 94, pp. 140- 150. drainage in study area. Doornkamp, J.C. and King, C.A.M. (1971) : The morphometric analysis is "Drainage Basins and Stream Networks. broadly divided into three categories as In Numerical Analysis in Geomorphology". basic parameters, derived parameters J.C.Doornkamp and C.A.M.King (ed.) and shape parameters. The computed Arnold Publ., London. pp. 3-20. Gravelius, H. (1914) : "Gundrifi der Gesamten morphometric parameters indicate that Gewwcisserkunde". Band I : Flufikunde lower order streams are more dominant (Compendium of Hydrology, Vol. I. Rivers in the sub-watersheds of Tut basin. The in German). Goschen, Berlin, Germany. high values of mean bifurcation ratios Gregory, K. J. and Walling, D. E. (1973) : and also high values of drainage "Drainage Basin Form and Process: A densities indicate that drainage has Geographical Approach" Wiley, New York. affected by structural disturbances. The 456p. values of form factor and circularity ratio Horton, R.E. (1932) : "Drainage Basin of sub-basins indicate that most basins Characteristics". Trans. Amer. Geog. Union, V. 31, pp. 350-361. A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 33

Horton, R.E. (1945) : "Erosional Development Strahler, A.N. (1956) : "Quantitative Slope of Streams and their Drainage Basins : Analysis". Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., V. 67, Hydrophysical Approach to Quantitative pp. 571-596. Morphplogy". Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., V. Strahler, A.N. (1957) : "Quantitative Analysis 56, pp. 275-370. of Watershed Geomorphology". Trans Kumar, A. Ravinder, D. and Deshmukh, B. Amer. Geophy. Union Trans., V. 38, pp. (2014) : "Morphometric Analysis of 913-920. Watersheds of Kangra Region of Indian Singh, S. (2004) : "Geomorphology". Prayag Himalaya for Assessing their Fluvial Pustak Bhawan, Allahabad, pp.353-384. Erosion Susceptibility". Himalayan Strahler, A.N. (1964) : "Quantitative Geology, V. 35, pp. 47-55. Geomorphology of Drainage Basins and Miller, V.C. (1953) : "A Quantitative Geomorphic Channel Networks". In: V.T. Chow (Ed.), Study of Drainage Basin Characteristics Hand book of Applied Hydrology. in the Clinch Mountain Area". Va and McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, Tenn. Project NR 389-042 Tech. Rept.3, pp. 430-476. Columbia University. Strahler, A.N. (1968) : "Quantitative Melton, M.A. (1958) : "Correlation Structure Geomorphology" In: Fairbridge, R.W. of Morphometric Properties of Drainage (ed.), Encyclopedia of Geomorphology, Systems and their Controlling Agents". Reinhold, New York. pp. 898-912. Jour. Geol., V.66, pp. 442-460 Paranjape, S. Joy, K.J. Machado, T. Verma, A.K.and Swami Nathan, S. (1998) : "Watershed Based Development a Source Book". Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samithi, New Delhi, India. Rymbai, P.N. and Jha, L.K. (2012) : "Population Pressure Resulting Change in Land Use Systems and Forest Cover in Meghalaya : A Case Study of Umbanium Micro-Watershed". NeBIO, V.3 (2), pp. 63- 68. Schumm, S.A. (1956) : "The Evolution of Drainage Systems and Slopes in Badlands at Perth Amboy, New Jersey". Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., V. 67, pp. 597-646. Smith, K.G. (1950) : "Standards for Grading Textures of Erosional Topography". Amer. Jour. Sci., V. 248, pp. 655-668. Sreedevi, P.D., Subrahmanyam, K. and Shakeel, A. (2005) : "The Significance of Morphometric Analysis for Obtaining Ground Water Potential Zones in a Structurally Controlled Terrain". Env. Geol. V. 47, pp. 571-576. Strahler, A.N. (1952) : "Hypsometric (Area- Altitude) Analysis of Erosional Topography". Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., V. 63, 1117-1142.

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 34

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 35

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 36

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 37

Changing Pattern of Agricultural Productivity in North East India : A Regional Interpretation Zoramkhuma R. Ramthara Abstract : Present paper examines the pattern of changing pattern of agricultural productivity and agricultural production systems prevalent in the North-East Region. Calculating agricultural productivity in its money term for two points of time - 1998-99 (liberalisation period) and 2008-09 (post-liberalisation), it is found that the agricultural productivity is changing very fast all over the North-east region of the country. Especially, hill areas have experienced very high increase in agricultural productivity. It happened due to two main reasons: first, a fast change in the food grain dominated cropping pattern to commercial cropping because farmers wish to grow high value crops to maximise their profit and, secondly, the growing market economy and expanding road network in rural areas which have been helping in regulating agricultural products within and outside North-East Region. Keywords : Agricultural Productivity Pattern, General Productivity Pattern, Processes of change. Acknowledgement : Surendra Singh, (Retd. Professor), Department of Geography, North- Eastern Hill University, . Introduction over the years leading to a new type of large scale agriculture (Altson et al. In general agricultural productivity 2010). Industrial revolution also changes change conceals considerable regional the behavior of the farmers in selection differences because of farming of agricultural crops with the need of practices, techniques availability of agro-based industry. irrigation facilities, attitude of the farmers and so on. The difference of In North-East Region of the country agricultural productivity change among the agricultural type and pattern are the regions to some extent is a natural diverse, ranging from subsistence to phenomenon, such as rainfall, commercial types. It appears that the temperature, humidity and some other result of variability in resource agro-ecological factors influence endowments, physiography, climate, productivity. It is not only the natural institution, technology and socio- phenomenon but also population economic factors. As a consequence, increase and government policies production performance of agricultural relating to agricultural extension, input sector has followed uneven path and the distribution, institutional credit large variations have been seen in facilities, agricultural co-operatives, and productivity between agro-ecological some basic/institutional inefficiency zones or among districts. Large are the causes of productivity variations variations in productivity lead to regional in the regions. The era of mechanized disparity. Identification of various level agriculture began with the invention of of productivity helps to analyze the such agricultural machines like reaper, reason behind such variations that may cultivator, thresher, combine harvester control the future growth and and tractors, which continued to appear development patterns. Such variations

Mr. Zoramkhuma is a Research Scholar in Department of Geography, NEHU Dr. R. Ramthara is an Associate Professor in Department of Geography, PUC

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 38 in productivity also indicate scope to C = (t0) - t1) (3) raise production and productivity where, Y = agricultural productivity attaining balanced agricultural growth. per areal unit, A = area of ith Crop, Y = In the present work attention is focused i i yield of ith Crop, Pi = hrvest price of ith to describe the regional pattern of Crop, O = total agricultural output in its agricultural productivity and changes money term, C= change over time, (t0) therein to visualize the changing = base year, (t ) = current year. pattern of productivity in general in 1 order to study its factors. Classificatory For the purpose of analyzing approach is adopted to describe the changing pattern of agricultural productivity pattern. productivity, the conversion of area and Methodology yield of the various crops has been used for two points of time (i.e. 1998-99 and In the present case, agricultural 2008-09). Thus, the agricultural output productivity refers to land productivity of each of the areal unit (District) has that is defined as total agricultural been calculated by converting crop output per unit of cultivated area. Going production in to its money term with the through the literature available on help of multiplying the total production measurement of agricultural output, it of each crop by its constant harvest is widely accepted that agricultural price of the base year (1998-99). production is the result of combinations of infra-structural elements, viz, The regional analysis of agricultural physical, techno-economic, socio- productivity is solely based on secondary cultural, etc. by which agricultural data collected district wise from Ministry efficiency is influenced (Singh and of Information and Technology, Chauhan, 1977). Since market price of Government of India and other agricultural product is influencing factor government publications. Farm harvest of agricultural output, the economists price of 1998-99 is considered for both considered three elements of the time periods, 1998-99 the agriculture (Area, Yield and Price of liberalisation phase and 2008-09 the crops) to measure the total output in Post-liberalisation phase of economic terms of money value. For the purpose growth. A total number of 32 crops were of aggregated agricultural output, the included for the calculation of the total following standard formula used by agricultural output. Classifying Bhalla and Tyagi (1989) and Singh districts in to five productivity classes, (1994), has been adopted: the general pattern are visualized and studied. They are there are the areas O = ∑ (A .Y .P ) (1) i i i of: (i) Very High Productivity (Above Rs Then agricultural productivity is 20,000/ha), (ii) High (Rs 15,000/ha - Rs simply the output per unit of cultivated 20,000/ha), (iii) Medium (Rs 10,000/ha land as - Rs 15,000/ha), (iv) Low (Rs 5,000/ha - Rs 10,000/ha) and (v) Very Low Y = (O/A) (2) Productivity (Below Rs 5,000/ha). Change in agricultural productivity over time

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 39

Class Wise Interpretation of and plain areas. It account 23 districts Agriculture Productivity and 41.8% of the cropped areas are falling under this category (Fig-1B). The general interpretation of inter- Similar to the above class, food grain district variations in agricultural crops area is decline 6.46% from 88.68% productivity envisaged the differences to 82.22% in between 1998-99 to 2008- and inequality of development of 09 respectively. agricultural productivity level within the study areas. Such variation over times 3) Medium (Rs 10,000/ha - Rs 15,000/ provides the general understanding the ha): speed and influx of agricultural In 998-99, most of the areas of technology and transformation. Eastern and Southern Hills Central Hills 1) Very High Productivity (Above Rs and Valley, Meghalaya Plateau and some 20,000/ha) plain areas of Tripura Hills and Valleys are included in this category. The During the liberalization period, the percentage contribution of food grain Areas of Very High agriculture crops area is significantly high and productivity are confined only in 7 93.67% of the crop area was under food districts including Manipur Valley, Parts grain crops. Contrary to base year, in of Nagaland and N.C. Hills and Tripura 2008-09 numbers of districts falling (Fig-1A). While the occupied areas of was under medium productivity areas are remarkably increased from 8.43% of increased and identified in 18 districts total crop areas to more than 21.56% of of Tripura, Mizoram, the total crop areas (24 districts) during and Lower and Upper Assam Valley. And the period of post-liberalization (1998- counting 35.18% of total crops areas are 99 to 2008-09). These mean that the falling under this category. While, the surrounding areas of Patkai Hills and percentage shares of food grain crops Eastern Himalaya and the entire was shrinking 10.67%. It means that the Meghalaya Plateau including Karbi Hills percentage share of commercial crops of Assam were included in the expansion was increased up to10.67% during the areas of Very High Productivity (Fig - 1B). ten years (Table - 1 & 2). During the decade, very high productivity class experienced significant declining 4) Low (Rs 5,000/ha - Rs 10,000/ha): trends of food grain crops area up to 21.43 % (Table - 1). During the base year, low productivity category are recognized in 2) High (Rs 15,000/ha - Rs 20,000/ 24 districts, isolated districts of ha) Purvanchal North, Meghalaya Plateau, High agricultural productivity areas Mizoram and alluvial soil district of is identified in 10 districts and occupying Lower and Central Brahmaputra Valley. around 15.94% of the total cropped areas, Food grain crops were occupied 39.41% which are generally confined in the of the total crop areas of the North- Manipur valley and Southern parts of Eastern Region. But, only 5 districts are Nagaland in 1998-99 (Fig-1A). However, falling under low agricultural in 2008-09 the high agricultural productivity in 2008-09. Generally, food productivity areas are noticed in hills grain crops are dominant crop in low

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 40 agricultural productivity. Though, in The comparison of area and output this class the percentage share of food shares provide basis of productivity grains areas was increased 7.56% changes. These changes are discussed during the ten years. in the in the following. 5) Very Low Productivity (Below Rs A. Changes in Productivity Pattern 5,000/ha): Comparing two map of agricultural During the ten years, more than productivity (Figs. - 1A & 1B), it is clear 10% of the total crops area were that the obliterated high and very high occupied by very low productivity and productivity pattern of 1998-99 has counting 21 districts in 1998-99 (Fig-1A). become unified by adding more areas At 2008-09 the numbers of district under these categories of high and very falling under very low productivity are high productivity. Expansion of this found in two southern districts of category was mostly in the hill and Mizoram. Similarly, during ten years the mountain areas of Arunachal Himalaya, percentage share of food grains was Patkai Hills and Lushai Hills of the increased up to 23.96% in this category South. Most of the Meghalaya Plateau (Table - 1). also raised productivity level from Productivity class wise comparison medium (1998-99) to very high (2008- of the productivity distribution would 09). Changing ratio of area and output show its transformation processes of crops show the characteristic features cropping pattern and crop diversification. of production transformation.

A 1998-99 B 2008-09

Fig-1: Levels of Agricultural Productivity in (A) 1998-99 and (B) 2008-09 Changing Pattern of Agricultural Productivity (1998-99 to 2008-09):

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 41

(B) Changes in Area and Output of the other part of the country. It may be Food Grain Crops due to its remote location, cultural diversity, technological lag, knowledge There is a decrease in the food grain know how of farmer and poor economic crop area in moderate and very high setup. In between 1998-99 to 2008-09, productivity classes which shows that the commercial crops became more the cropping pattern is gradually popular. These crops occupy area of transformed from food grain dominated about 14.67 % to the total cropped area to commercial crops. Food grains are low in North-East Region in 1998-99 that has value crops so the production of food been expanded to 16.08 % in 2008-09 grains also decreases in this class of (i.e. 1.41% ) during the period of ten high productivity. Table - 1 reveals that years. On the other hand, the total there has been fairly high decrease of output of these crops was increased 25.50% percent from 78.72% to 53.22% 25.48 % from 21.29 % to 46.77 % during in the food grain output with in the the same period of time (Table - 2). decade. In terms of areas and output, Comparing the changes in area and the percentage share of food grains has output of commercial crops, it is fact the been declined towards high to low area under these crop were raised productivity classes (Table - 1) Such marginally but production contribution negative changes in food grain area and became about a half of the total output shows that the cropping pattern agricultural production as it was raised changes fast in the North-East Region from 4.9 million tons (1998-99) to 45.4 of the country. It affects productivity. million tons (2008-09). It means the (C) Changes in Area and Output of main thrust of adoption of technology Commercial Crops (use of fertilizer, pesticides and HYVs of In the North-East India, commercial seeds) was towards the production and crops became important to grow fast productivity increased of commercial during the late 1990's when crops. liberalization policies were adopted in The evidence of the same fact can

Table – 1: Change in Area and output of Food Grains Crops in Different Productivity Classes in 1998-99 to 2008-09

Sl.No Productivity Class Food Grain Area (ha) Food Grain Output (Rs Lakh) 1998-99 2008-09 Change 1998-99 2008-09 Change (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

1 Very High (Above Rs 94.75 73.32 -21.43 62.31 22.00 -40.31 20000) 2 High ( Rs 15000- 88.68 82.22 -6.46 74.94 53.04 -21.90 20000) 3 Medium ( Rs 10000- 93.67 83.00 -10.67 81.24 54.19 -27.05 15000) 4 Low ( Rs 5000-10000) 85.55 93.11 7.56 89.33 73.12 -16.21 5 Very Low (Below Rs 63.98 87.94 23.96 85.78 63.78 -22.00 5000) 6 Average 85.33 83.91 -1.42 78.72 53.22 -25.50 Source: Compiled by Researcher

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 42 be seen by establishing relationship subsistence level prior to between changes in area and output of implementation of economic policies. commercial crops with productivity But, the pattern of agricultural land use level. The areas of Low productivity level and productivity have been becoming have lesser changes in area and output more market oriented and production of of commercial crops rather than the high value when they realized the areas of the High productivity level are importance of market and strong road accompanied by high changes of area network which was expanded during the in North-East Region (Figs. - 4.5 & 4.6). early part of 20th century. There has There has been increase of been fast change in cropping and commercial output in each of the productivity pattern during the post- productivity classes (Table - 2). The liberalization phase of economic percentage share of area under development in the North-East Region. commercial crops increased about 21.43 Such interesting changing pattern of percent and its output about 40.31% agricultural productivity have peculiar during the last ten years in the area of characteristic as: Very high productivity (Rs 20000 and (a) The areas having medium and low above per hectare). These ratios of area productivity level in 1998-99 have and output of commercial crops are fast change in productivity during shrinking down in low productivity the decade considered for. In 2008- areas. It shows that cropping pattern 09, about 63.37% of the total crop changes fast from food grains to areas (47 out of 72 districts) are commercial crops especially in high under the areas having high and productivity areas. very high productivity level. This Findings and Conclusion means that agricultural productivity is increased in the moderate The farmers were concentrated to productivity areas. The main driving grow agricultural crops only for their factors of productivity increased in

Table – 2: Change in Area and output of Commercial Crops in Different Productivity Classes in 1998-99 to 2008-09 Sl.No Productivity Class Commercial Crop Area (ha) Commercial Crop Output ( Rs Lakh) 1998-99 2008-09 Change 1998-99 2008-09 Change (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

1 Very High (Above Rs 5.25 26.68 21.43 37.69 78.00 40.31 20000) 2 High ( Rs 15000- 11.32 17.78 6.46 25.06 46.96 21.90 20000) 3 Medium ( Rs 10000- 6.33 17.00 10.67 18.76 45.81 27.05 15000) 4 Low ( Rs 5000- 14.45 6.89 -7.56 10.67 26.88 16.21 10000) 5 Very Low (Below Rs 36.01 12.05 -23.96 14.26 36.21 21.95 5000) 6 Average 14.67 16.08 1.41 21.29 46.77 25.48 Source: Compiled by Researcher

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 43

the North-East Region are due to the increased in the area of food grain changes of cropping pattern and crops (Fig. - 2B). It means that improvement of agricultural increasing area under food grain technology (irrigation, HYV seeds crops does not have much effect on and road etc.) in North-East Region productivity. However the of the country. percentage share of food grain areas b) Increasing area under food grain and output has been increased crops do not have effect on particularly in plain areas due to productivity level and its increase introduction of irrigation technology (Fig - 2A). Rate of increase in in the area and increasing demand productivity is much faster than the of food grains, so the productivity

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 44

level is observed low in these areas. References c) The occupied area of commercial Alston, J. M., Bruce A., Babcock and Philip crops became more in the North- G. Pardey (2010) : The Shifting East Region. The occupied area of Patterns of Agricultural Productivity in World Wide, The Midwest Agri- commercial crops is unequal in all business Trade Research and over the North-East Region in the Information Center, Iowa State beginning of liberalization and after University, USA ten years it becomes more uniform. Bhalla, G. S. and D. S. Tyagi (1989) : Pattern Along with the increased of areas in Indian Agricultural Development- the output contribution of A District Level Study, Institute commercial crops to total output is for Studies in Industrial increased during the ten years. Development, New Delhi Binswanger, H. P (1978) : Introduced d) The occupied area of commercial Technological Change-Evaluation of crops is unequal in all over the Though, Johns Hopkins North-East Region in the beginning University Press of liberalization and after ten years Boserup, E. (1965) : The Conditions of it becomes more uniform. Along with Agricultural Growth, George Allen the increased of areas the output and Unwin, London Singh, S. (1994) : Agricultural Development in contribution of commercial crops to India: A Regional Analysis, total output is increased during the Kaushal Prakashan, Shillong ten years. In the areas of low Singh, S. and V. S. Chauhan (1977) : productivity the percentage share of Measurement of Agricultural area under commercial crops has Productivity- A Case Study of been reduce. Inversely, the area Utter Pradesh, Indian Geographical under commercial crops increased Review of India, 39: 222-31 fast up to even 21.43% in very high productivity areas of hills and mountains. e) Only a few patches of high productivity (in the hill areas) have been expanded up to the half of the North-East area during the ten years. It happened due to changing pattern from food grain dominated (1998-99) to horticulture and fruits crop dominated (2008-09). Hill areas have potentials to expand horticultural crops because of humid climate, fertile soils and bio- diversity in this area.

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 45

Pre-Marital Sex Attitude among Students of Mizoram University K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva Abstract : This paper is an attempt to examine attitude of Mizoram University students and research scholars towards pre-marital sex. The sample size of present study is 170 (17%) university students and research scholars representing 1000 university students. This study tested 'how liberal or conservative' the educated youths are to prove the current general perception of 'increasing liberal ideas and openness of younger generation on pre-marital sex'. Paper also touched upon issues of 'virginity' to understand their social or moral values among the educated youth of present generation and also is the evaluation on perception about preferences on marriage type and their observation on the prevailing practices. It is interesting to find that girl students are more conservative than their male counterpart on issues of virginity. It is also significant to reveals that students having both rural and urban backgrounds are the most liberal on pre- marital sex compared with students possessing only urban or only rural background. Keywords: Pre-marital sex, attitude, virginity, rural, urban, liberal,

Introduction the relationship between two promising Premarital sexuality is any sexual marriage couples. It is not clear whether activity with an opposite sex partner or sex between individuals legally forbidden with a same sex partner before he/she from marrying, or the sexual relations has started a married life. The term is of one uninterested in marrying, could usually used to refer the intercourse be considered premarital. Some people before the legal age of a marriage. Adults confused on the definition of pre-marital who presumably marry eventually also sex as it can be confusing with fall under this definition. Premarital sex increasing modernity in which we is sexual activity practiced by persons experiences many unknown things of who are unmarried. The prevalence of the past day. Two prominent confusing pre-marital sex has increased in both situations are that: One is sexual developed and developing countries intercourse that is engaged between a (http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ man and a woman who are never been premarital_sex#cite_note-1). married. Second, a sexual intercourse done by a married person with someone Social attitudes to premarital sex else who is not his/her legitimate have changed throughout history and spouse. The later is adultery and continue to change today. In the past prohibited by laws across the countries. days pre-marital sex still usually Because of ambiguity of the definition occurred only with the promise of of pre-marital sex with the passage of marriage in the future, but this attitude time alternative terms have been also changes over time and the practice suggested, including non-marital sex, of today's pre-marital sex seems much youthful sex, adolescent sex, and young- difference leading to the definition of adult sex. Still these terms also suffer pre-marital sex in ambiguity. It refers from a degree of ambiguity, as the to all sexual relations a person has prior definition of having sex differs from to marriage; this removes emphasis on person to person. Dr. K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Geography & Resource Management, Mizoram University, Aizawl.

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 46

Beliefs about pre-marital sex also for cousins to marry one another" despite differ greatly according to people's the disapproval of clerics sent to Britain cultures and religious beliefs. "For most by the Paris-based "Reform Church" people attitudes towards sexual movement, a Catholic faction that permissiveness come from moral attempted to refocus society's moral standards that are notably shaped by compass with a particular emphasis on religious practice and orientation and sex and marriage . With the Act in force by other sub-culture influence such as after 1753, for the first time in British community standards and racial history, all marriages in England and norms"(Smith 11). In some cultures Wales had to take place in their parish premarital sex has traditionally been church. Illegitimacy became more related to the concept of virginity. socially discouraged, with first However, unlike virginity, premarital pregnancies outside of marriage sex can refer to more than one occasion declining from 40% to 20% during the of sexual activity or more than one sex Victorian era but returning to 40% by partner. There are cultural differences the start of the 21st century (http:/ as to whether and in which en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ circumstances premarital sex is socially premarital_sex#cite_note-4&5). acceptable or tolerated. Discussion on In a study conducted in the United pre-marital sex can include issues such States, 61 percent of men and 12 as virginity, sexual morality, percent of women born prior to 1910 extramarital unplanned pregnancy, admitted to having premarital sex; the legitimacy besides other issues. gender disparity may have been caused Review of Literature by cultural norms regarding the Many literatures show the different admission of sexual activity or by men practices and prevalence of pre-marital frequenting prostitutes. Starting in the sex across cultures and how it has been 1920s, and especially after World War II, related with societal change and premarital sex became more common; developments. E-sources particularly this was especially prevalent among useful on this regards as talk about pre- women. This has been attributed to marital sex is more opening up recently numerous causes, including the due to improvement of social media and increasing median age at marriage and internet where people can share opinion the widespread availability of efficient pertaining sex virtually. contraceptives (http:/en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/premarital_sex#cite_note, In Britain prior to the Marriage Act sex_and_society). 1753, British couples could live together and have sex after their betrothal or "the A 1938 survey of American college spousals". Until the mid-1700s, it was students found that 52% of men and 24% normal and acceptable for the bride to of women had had sex. 37% of women be pregnant at the nuptials, the later were virgins but believed sex outside church public ceremony for the marriage was acceptable ((http:/ marriage. Indeed, in the 1170s in Wales en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ "it was common practice for ordinary premarital_sex#cite_note-life- couples to co-habit before marriage and 1938060666-15). A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 47

Beginning in the 1950s, the stigma premarital_sex#cite_note-28). attached to pre-marital sex diminished. By 2007, according to a Roman Love began to become enough for a Catholic website, "France has probably reason to practice sex, instead of the highest rate of premarital sex by age marriage or engagement. By 2000, 20 of any country in the world: 72% or roughly a third of couples in the United almost three quarters of the young States had lived together prior to population indulged in pre-marital sex. marriage. Premarital sex has become, (http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ if not acceptable, tolerable. (http:/ premarital_sex#cite_note-31). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ premarital_sex#cite_note,footnote_ The study conducted by Szeman sex_and_society_663). (1985) showed that in Hungary a village had been characterized by the double In a 2005 Kaiser Family Foundation standard view much on the role of men study of US teenagers, 29% of teens and as such the women are prohibited reported feeling pressure to have sex, to engage in any type of sexual 33% of sexually active teens reported relationship prior to marriage. Szeman "being in a relationship where they felt (1985) continued that this outlook has things were moving too fast sexually", been affected through the exceptionally and 24% had "done something sexual strong family socialization. they didn't really want to do" (http:/ Furthermore, the study has supported en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ the assumption that despite the premarital_sex#cite_note-kaiser-16) liberalization trend that is general in Several polls have indicated peer Hungary, there are still differences in pressure as a factor in encouraging both the pre-marital sexual pattern from one girls and boys to have sex. (http:/ region to the next, and there are en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ particularly marked differences premarital_sex#cite_note-pollingdata- between rural and urban areas (Szeman, 17). 1985). According to the 2003 Australian Harding and Jencks, (2003) declared Study of Health and Relationships that since the early 1960s there has conducted by La Trobe University, "over been a sharp increase in liberal three quarters of men and women attitudes toward premarital sex. agreed that premarital sex is acceptable. Liberalism increased within most There was little difference between men groups of people in1969; however, they and women. (http:/en.wikipedia.org/ have observed that in the 1970s with wiki/premarital_sex#cite_note-27). the new group of 18-year-olds, there is By 2011, a survey of 500 parents no clear trend of liberalism. Leyson ( found 80 per cent thought sex before n.d.) impliedly agrees what was declared marriage was acceptable. "The survey, by Harding et al., ( 2003 ) when he which was conducted by TV station SBS, stipulated in his paper that currently the also found almost one in five parents sexual attitudes of the people are more thought it was acceptable for young liberal. Nevertheless, Harding et al. people to start having sex at age 16 (2003) stated that the group of individuals (http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ having the age of over 30 shows A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 48 conservatism. premarital_sex#cite_note, footnote_ In 1989, 15% of women in Beijing sex_and_society_663). engaged in premarital sex against 2013 So far as Mizoram is concerned it where between 60% and 70% had done appears that there is no such proper so. Chinese Academy of Social studied on pre-marital sex attitude and professor Li states that this shows an therefore, in light of the above increase in the types of relationships literatures across different countries amongst new generations in China. pre-marital sex is one of the most While several factors have been important issues to be discussed in responsible for the increase, these Mizoram as understanding of one's figures were associated with the equally sexual behavior and attitudes are deeply increasing trend of a growing educated related with social norms, religious generation of women who are foregoing practices and developments among or delaying marriage in lieu of further many other factors. Therefore, present education, their careers, and personal study emphasis on attitude towards pre- independence. (http:/en.wikipedia.org/ marital sex among students of Mizoram wiki/premarital_sex#cite_note-BW-40). University as it is expected that educated In the study conducted by Zablan people moulded with modern liberal (1994) revealed that 18 percent of ideas compounded by western influence Filipino youths approved premarital sex, may be freer than older generations. 80 percent disapproved, and 2 percent Research Questions were neutral (as cited in Leyson, n.d.). There is a general opinion that According to the World Bank, the today's generations are comparatively Philippines are among the top ten more liberal than their old counter-folk countries where there are an increasing pertaining to pre-marital sex. Present number of teenage mothers (Ong, 2009). study question that how far this general Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) are perception is true in the context of present in North America or European Mizoram by examining and analyzing countries and they noticed that there information collected from students of is widespread premarital sex among Mizoram University toward their adolescents in their respective place. attitude on pre-marital sex. They learned that chastity is not important to them for they consider this Data and Methods as old-fashioned virtue. This the reason To answer the above research why OFWs especially mothers are question 170 questionnaires have been praying deeply that their daughters and prepared to know attitude of university sons will continue to value chastity and students towards pre-marital sex. do not follow what the Western societies Questions have been asked to students are doing (Villegas, 2011). of different departments randomly and In India more than 95% of population most of them from social streams rather didn't accept premarital sex and most of than physical sciences. Interviews were the societies in India were restrict the conducted to students across ages, people to stay in live in relationship. married and unmarried so as to (http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ understand attitudes towards pre- A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 49 marital sex of different age groups. Limitations Students are of different ages ranging Present study has certain limitation from 19 years to 48 years as it includes and weaknesses on the following points- research scholars. 1. Since this is a pilot survey the study Questions covered age, sex, marital covered only 170 students to status, rural or urban background of represent 1000 students of Mizoram student, religion, attitude towards University (17%) and it would be premarital-sex and under which better to ask the opinion of more situation lovers agree to indulge in pre- students to obtain more authentic marital sex, degree of liberty on virginity results. for their partner, opinion on 'love or 2. The coverage of questionnaires was arrange marriage' and which one is not sufficient as it streamline only 'according to them' more prevalent today. on certain determining factors like For present paper it was limited to background and age. It would be attitudes towards pre-marital sex and better to ask more detail questions excluding virginity and opinion on relating to pre-marital sex and marriage. associated factors involved in the After collecting all the required formation of one's attitude. information data has been enter and 3. Since the topic is sensitive that there tabulated in excel for further is a gap between what students report calculations. A simple mathematical and what they are actually willing to technique of percentage calculation and do is different. Even though name of variations of opinion on premarital sex the interviewee is not asked to based on backgrounds of the students is protect their identity still some done. students seem not true to their Objectives minds that seems cause to incongruous results. 1. To understand the general attitude 4. Another weaknesses of the study is towards pre-marital sex among that there is no empirical study about educated students of Mizoram pre-marital sex in Mizoram in the University past to compare with present study 2. To examine how far it is true to the this hamper the study pertaining to general opinion that 'today's temporal analysis. generations are more liberal and Disscussion open on the issues of pre-marital sex. General Information of the 3. To study that 'is there any Interviewees background influence of the students on their attitude towards pre-marital Present discussion highlights the sex general information of students/ research scholars of Mizoram University 4. To compare male-female attitudes particularly on sex, marital status, towards pre-marital sex for to religion and rural or urban background. understand 'which sex is more As many as 170 students of different liberal' than the other. sexes, married and unmarried, various

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 50 religious faiths and of different other' pre-marital sex is acceptable with backgrounds were interviewed. As 58 or 34.1% agreed on it while a large shown in table-1, of 170 students 84 chunk of 112 or 65.9% students remain (49%) were male students and 86 (50.6%) conservative by disagreeing even if were female. Majority of the students lovers are really love each other. It is interviewed were unmarried (120 or interesting to note that the same 70.6%) while a good number of them (50 numbers of student agreed and or 29.4%) were married students. disagreed on the questions of 'if lovers are going to marry' (table-2). Table-1. General information of interviewees Total % Male 84 49.4 Table-2. Under what conditions Pre-marital Sex is condone Sex Female 86 50.6 Attitude on Pre-marital Sex Agree % Not % Married 50 29.4 Marital Status Agree Unmarried 120 70.6 If lovers are willing 50 29.4 120 70.6 Christian 145 85.3 Religion Hindu 25 14.7 If they really love each other 58 34.1 112 65.9 Rural 51 30 If they are going to marry 58 34.1 112 65.9 Background Urban 101 59.4 Both 18 10.6 If they are mature 47 27.6 123 72.4 Source: Survey conducted by authors during May-June, 2014 If women can prevent from pregnant 40 23.5 130 76.5 Average 50.6 29.8 119 70 Regarding religion, as many as 145 Source: Survey conducted by authors during May-June, 2014 or 85.3% students embraced Christianity whereas 25 or 14.7% Number of student who accepted pre- belongs to Hindu religion and there was marital sex on the question of 'if lovers no report of other religious faiths among are mature' decreased to 47 or 27.6% the interviewees. Table-1 displays that while 123 or 72.4% disagreed on the majority of the students (101 or 59.4%) same. Again, the proportion of students were having urban background while 51 agree upon pre-marital sex on the or 30% students coming from rural ground of 'if women can prevent from areas and 18 or 10.6% reported having pregnant' decreased to 40 or 23.5% both rural and urban backgrounds. whereas as many as 130 or 76.5% General attitude towards Pre-marital disagreed on it. Sex Thus, it can be concluded that only a This section examines the general little over one-fourth (29.8%) of Mizoram attitudes of both sexes of different University students agreed upon lovers' backgrounds on the issue of pre-marital indulged in pre-marital sex based on sex. This is an attempt to milk-out the certain grounds whereas a fairly high degree of liberty and openness of proportion i.e 70 % still conservative on educated University students pertaining the issue of premarital sex. This clearly to pre-marital sex. clarify the general perception of 'today's generations are more liberal on pre- As shown in table-2, out of 170 odd marital sex' is not completely true. students a few of the i.e 50 or 29.4% agreed that pre-marital sex is acceptable Influence of Background on the 'if lovers' are willing while as many as attitude of pre-marital sex 120 or 70.6% disagreed at all. The Present section focus on influence of number of students slightly increased background of students on their attitude when asked on 'if lovers really love each towards pre-marital sex. There is a A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 51 general opinion that people living in Out of 51 students coming from rural urban areas are more liberal, open and areas 14 or 27.5% agreed pre-marital broad minded in their world view. In sex between lovers 'if they really love light of this common attitude test has each other'. It is interesting to note that been conducted here to prove or disprove those students attaining both rural and the statement. Table-6 to 10 shows the urban background are the most liberal opinion of students having different as 9 or 50% of them agreed on pre- backgrounds like student who are marital sex 'if lovers are really love each coming from rural, from urban and those other' while another half disagree on who are having a both rural and urban the same. background. Table-8 shows the result of another Table-6. Under what condition Pre-marital sex is condone criteria test on students based on their If lovers are willing- Agree % Disagree % Total backgrounds. 37 or 36.6% urban Background Urban 33 32.7 68 67.3 101 students can condone pre-marital sex Rural 14 27.5 37 72.5 51 'if lovers are going to get married' Both 5 27.8 13 72.2 18 whereas majority of them i.e 64 or 63.4% Source: Survey conducted by authors during May-June, 2014 disagreed on the same. Out of 101 students having urban background 33 or 32.7% reported that Table-8. Under what condition Pre-marital sex is condone If they are going to Agree % Disagree % Total pre-marital sex is acceptable 'if lovers marry are willing' while majority i.e 68 or Background Urban 37 36.6 64 63.4 101 67.3% disagreed on the same. Out of 51 Rural 17 33.3 34 66.7 51 students having rural background 14 or Both 7 38.9 11 61.1 18 27.5% reported of agreeing pre-marital Source: Survey conducted by authors during May-June, 2014 sex 'if lovers are willing' while as many Comparatively lesser number of as 37 or 72.5% do not agree at all. Those students coming from rural areas i.e 17 students attaining both 'rural and urban or 33.3% agreed on pre-marital sex 'if background' reported that 5 or 27.8% lovers are going to get married' while agreed on pre-marital sex 'if lovers are 34 or 66.7% of them are not approved willing while majority of them i.e. 13 or pre-marital sex even if lovers are going 72.2% disagreed on the same. to get married. Another interesting Table-7 shows that out of 101 finding is that students having both students coming from urban areas 36 rural and urban background are most or 35.6% reported to agree pre-marital liberal as 7 or 38.9% of them agreed pre- sex 'if lovers are really love each other' marital sex ' if lovers are going to get but more number of students i.e 65 or married' while a good number i.e 11 or 64.4% disagree on the same condition. 61.1% of them still conservative on the same. Table-7. Under what condition Pre-marital sex is condone Another criteria set forth to test If they really love each Agree % Disagree % Total other impact of background on attitude Background Urban 36 35.6 65 64.4 101 towards pre-marital sex is 'if lovers are Rural 14 27.5 37 72.5 51 mature'. Out of 101 urban students 31 Both 9 50.0 9 50.0 18 Source: Survey conducted by authors during May-June, 2014 or 30.7% agreed pre-marital sex 'if lovers are mature' whereas as many as 70 or

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 52

69.3% students disagreed on the same background, rural background and both (table-9). backgrounds students having both rural and urban background are most liberal Table-9. Under what condition Pre-marital sex is condone on pre-marital sex issues followed by If they are mature Agree % Disagree % Total student having urban background and Background Urban 31 30.7 70 69.3 101

Rural 13 25.5 38 74.5 51 students coming from rural areas are Both 5 27.8 13 72.2 18 least liberal or conservatives.

Source: Survey conducted by authors during May-June, 2014 Table-11. Ranking in based on background of the students who are liberal on pre-marital Sex Attitude on Pre-marital Sex Agreed based on % Out of 51 students having rural Conditions Urban Rank Rural Rank Both Rank background 13 or 25.5% reported to If lovers are willing 1 3 2 If they really love each other 2 3 1 agreed pre-marital sex 'if lovers are If they are going to marry 2 3 1 mature' while majority i.e 38 or 74.5% If they are mature 1 3 2 If women can prevent from pregnant 2 3 1 disagreed on the same. Out of 18 Rank Liberal Conservative Most Liberal students having both rural and urban Comparative analysis on Male- background 5 or 27.8% agreed that pre- Female attitude towards Pre-marital sex marital sex is acceptable 'if lovers are Table -15 shows that opinion of male mature' while 13 or 72.2% disagreed on students and female students on their it (table-9). attitude towards pre-marital sex on the Table-10 reveals that 25 or 24.75% condition of 'if lovers are willing'. It is students coming from urban areas interesting to find that male-students agreed on pre-marital sex 'if women can are more liberal than their female prevent from pregnant' whereas a huge counterpart. Out of 84 male students proportion of 76 or 75.2% reported interviewed 34 or 40.5% agreed pre- disagreed on the same condition. marital sex 'if lovers are willing' while only 16 or 18.6% agreed on the same Table-10. Under what condition Pre-marital sex is condone If women can prevent from pregnant Agree % Disagree % Total condition in case of female students. Background Urban 25 24.75 76 75.2 101 Table-15. Under what condition Pre-marital sex is condone Rural 7 13.73 44 86.3 51 If lovers are willing Both 5 27.78 13 72.2 18 Sex Agree % Disagree % Total Source: Survey conducted by authors during May-June, 2014 Male 34 40.5 50 59.5 84 Out of 51 students of rural origin Female 16 18.6 70 81.4 86 merely 7 or 13.73% agreed pre-marital Source: Survey conducted by authors during May-June, 2014 sex 'if women can prevent from However, the proportion of 'disagree' pregnant' while an overwhelming students on the same condition is number of 44 or 86.3% disagreed on the enormously higher than 'agree' same condition. And again for the third students. A good number of 50 or 59.5% time students having both rural and male students 'disagree' on pre-marital urban background are most liberal as 5 sex even 'if lovers are willing' while as or 27.78% students agreed pre-marital many as 70 or 81.4% female students sex 'if women can prevent from 'disapprove' pre-marital sex on the same pregnant' while a large proportion of 13 ground. or 72.2% disagree on it. Table-16 also tries to test the attitude It can be concluded that among the of students towards pre-marital sex on three category of students' i.e urban another condition of 'if they (lovers) A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 53 really love each other. In male and 77.9% female students correspondence with the above results 'disagree' on the same (table-18). male students are more liberal than Table-18. Under what condition Pre-marital sex is condone female students as 35 or 41% male If they are mature students reported that 'if lovers are Sex Agree % Disagree % really love each other' pre-marital sex Male 27 32.1 57 67.9 should be accepted while 22 or 25.6% in Female 19 22.1 67 77.9 case of female students who agreed on Source: Survey conducted by authors during May-June, 2014 the same ground. Among the list of options given to Table-16. Under what condition Pre-marital sex is condone Mizoram University students those who If they really love each other 'agreed' pre-marital sex on 'if women Sex Agree % Disagree % can prevent from pregnant' scored the Male 35 41.7 49 58.3 lowest with 31% male student versus Female 22 25.6 64 74.4 only 12.8% female students. 69% male Source: Survey conducted by authors during May-June, 2014 and as many as 87.2% female students Numbers of disagreement are higher 'disagreed' on the same (table-19). in both male and female students. 49 or 58.3% male students 'disagree' to have Table-19. Under what condition Pre-marital sex is condone If women can prevent from pregnant pre-marital sex even 'if lovers are really Sex Agree % Disagree % love each other' while higher proportion Male 26 31.0 58 69.0 of female students i.e 64 or 74.4% Female 11 12.8 75 87.2 'disagree' on the same situation. Source: Survey conducted by authors during May-June, 2014 Another option has been offered to Findings and Conclusion students to understand their attitude towards pre-marital sex is that 'if lovers Overall analysis reveals that a little are going to marry'. Table-17 clearly over one-fourth (29.8%) of Mizoram shows that the proportion who 'agree' is University students agreed upon lovers' higher in case of male students than indulged in pre-marital sex based on female i.e 45.2% versus 20.9% while certain grounds whereas a fairly high proportion of 'disagree' also higher for proportion i.e 70 % still conservative on male student compared to female the issue of premarital sex. This clearly students i.e. 54.8% versus 79.1%. clarify the general perception of 'today's

Table-17. Under what condition Pre-marital sex is condone generations are more liberal on pre- If they are going to marry marital sex' seems true but might not Sex Agree % Disagree % be as high as presumption. Male 38 45.2 46 54.8 Analysis based on background of the Female 18 20.9 68 79.1 University students shows that students Source: Survey conducted by authors during May-June, 2014 having both rural and urban background Out of 84 male students 86 female are most liberal on pre-marital sex students 32.1% male and 22.1% female issues followed by student having urban students agreed that pre-marital sex background and students coming from should be condoned 'if lovers are mature' rural areas are the least liberal or most enough while larger proportion of 67.9% conservatives. A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 54

However, students having 'rural' Comparative Family Studies. Vol. 6 Issue background cherished 'love' more than 1. Academic Journal. Retrieved June 9, students having 'urban' background and 2014. http://connection.ebscohost.com/ c/articles/13426130/changes-pre- 'both' backgrounds. marital-relations-case-study-village- Analysis on attitude differences northern-hungary Villegas, B.M.. (2011) : Premarital sex between male and female students, it among Filipino teenagers. INQUIRER.net. can be concluded that female are Retrieved May 19, 2014 from http:// persistently more conservative than business.inquirer.net/13775/ their male counterpart in all premarital-sex-among-filipino- parameters relating to pre-marital sex. teenagers Among the indicators of attitude test on Wiltse, L. (2009 ) : Teenage pregnancy in premarital sex 'if lovers are going to Manila, Philippines. Retrieved July 1, marriage' become the most acceptable 2012 from http://lab.colorsmagazine.com/ excuse among male students (45%) teenagers/contributed/teenage- pregnancy-manila-philippines/ while 'if lovers are really love each berlin.de/sexology/IES/ other' become the most permissible philippines.html#0 excuse for female students (25%). Woodward, L., Fergusson, D. M. & Horwood, References J. L. ( 2004 ) : Risk Factors and Life Processes Associated with Teenage Harding, A.( 2010 ) : Abstinence-only Pregnancy: Results of a Prospective Study program helps kids postpone sex. From Birth to 20 Years. John Wiley & Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Sons, Inc. Retrieved April 8, 2014. . New York. Retrieved June 12, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ 2014 from http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/ 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.01170.x/ 02/02/us-abstinence-only- idUSTRE61163120100202. abstract Harding, D. J. & Jencks, C. (2003) : Changing (http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ attitudes toward premarital sex. Public premarital_sex#cite_note-1). Opinion Quarterly Vol. 67 Issue 2. (http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Academic Journal.Retrieved June 11, premarital_sex#cite_note-4&5). 2014 from http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/ (http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ articles/10051435/changing-attitudes- premarital_sex#cite_note, toward-premarital-sex. BSCO Publishing sex_and_society). Leyson, J. F.(n.d) : The Philippines. Retrieved ((http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ premarital_sex#cite_note-life- June 12, 2014 from http://www2.hu- 1938060666-15). Ong, C. ( 2009). Teenage pregnancy on (http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ the rise in the Philippines. MediaCorp premarital_sex#cite_note,footnote_ Pte Ltd. Retrieved May 2, 2014 from sex_and_society_663). http://www.channelnewsasia.com/ http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ stories/southeastasia/view/4306 35/ premarital_sex#cite_note-kaiser-16) 1/.html http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Premarital sex high among Filipino youth. ( premarital_sex#cite_note-pollingdata-17). http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ 2007 ). Mukamo Philippines. Retrieved premarital_sex#cite_note-27). May 12, 2014 from http:// (http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ www.mukamo.com/premarital-sex- premarital_sex#cite_note-28). high-among-filipino-youth/ (http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Szeman, Z. (1985) : Changes in Pre-Marital premarital_sex#cite_note-31). Relations: A Case Study in a Village in Northern Hungary. Journal of

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 55

Geopolitical Situation in Manipur: An Appraisal N. Kishorchand Singh N. Deva Singh Abstract : The present study examines the fundamental concepts related to geo-- political situation of Manipur based on its historical evolution and socio-political structure . The analysis has been undertaken with reference to the existing theories on development of a geo-strategically important region and establishes causal links between domestic problems and international conflicts in relation to India's security. The study aims to find out the internal elements of Manipur leading to security crisis and seeks the possible ways of solution understanding the political limitations viz a viz the whole geographical setup of the state.

Introduction kingdom was in a position to choose its Manipur has been undergoing a allies in terms of trade and commerce political crisis with the Indian Union and others. At the same time, the state since it's merge red to the later in the was centre in itself as far as its cultural year 1949. As the conflict remains practices and others are concerned. This protracted till today, it is so complex that independence status ended in 1891 after the solution in one matter doesn't Manipur became a colony of the British mitigate the core issue. So, a holistic under its imperialist expansion. After study of some of the prioritized problems the departure of the British and when needs to be understood and analyzed so Manipur was merged with India, she as to bring the state of Manipur in a became a border state, and her better developmental condition in territorial integrity is at stake. The age harmony. The questions that the old bondage of love and peaceful co- developmental works can go along in this existence of all the different ethnic kind of political turmoil and further can groups started breaking up with no point be looked into from multi-dimensional of turning back. For instance, the angles. Geography and history were part internal conflicts between different of a larger whole of the problems. ethnic groups have come up and the fault line between hill and valley is widening. The socio-political problems facing today had the outcomes of the historical Manipur being a sub-state after her and geographical situation of Manipur. merger with the Indian Union lost its The theoretical approach captures the independent decision making historical trajectory of Manipur but does capacities. At the same time the policies not fully explain the present situation and programme of the Indian of conflict. As far as the civilization government has never been so trajectory is concerned, Manipur which consistent. As with all political theories, had an almost uninterrupted political geostrategies are relevant principally to history from 33 AD as an independent the context in which they were devised: Mr. N. Kishorchand Singh is an Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Moirang College Dr. N. Deva Singh is a Professor in the Department of Geography, Manipur University

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 56 the nationality of the strategist, the India follows the principle of Panchsheel strength of his or her country's with respect to her neighboring forging resources, the scope of his or her a sound relationship with the above country's goals, the political geography mentioned countries underwent of the time period, and the technological moments of ups and downs as India factors that affect military, political, suspected (in many instances true) economic, and cultural engagement. these countries to be supporting the The trust of the common people to both centrifugal forces in Northeastern states the state and central government has in terms of arms, logistics, training and gone and the feeling of step-motherly sanctuary, etc. But after the end of the treatment aroused. People felt that the Cold War and paradigm shift occurring geopolitical advantages of Manipur were at the global geo-political landscape, and misused by the Central government. specially after India underwent Geopolitical Issues structural adjustment programmes in the early 1990s, she also started forging Geopolitics is an overall method of better ties with the neighboring geographical analysis of concrete socio- countries, with the exception of political situations viewed as localised Pakistan, in terms of trade and security. and the usual representations which Formation of regional trading and describe them. It determines the security blocs such as Bangladesh, geographical coordinates of a situation India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and and socio-political process. Coordinates Thailand Economic Cooperation refers does not with geographical 'data' (BIMSTEC), and Bilateral Trade per se but to the internal and external relationship with countries like factors of a situation that impinges on Myanmar although India refrained from the nature of politics and other socio- having a bilateral relationship with economic conditions that is bound to Myanmar on account of its military rule unfold in the course of history (Foucher, and support. 2000). Manipur had always occupied The epistemological problem posed central strategic position right from is that of thought made up of British imperial expansion into the heterogeneous and discontinuous region because of the former's location elements, for the internal and the and status of a regional power. external are not of the same 'nature'. It Geopolitics of imperial powers coupled might therefore be considered that with strategic location, even to armed geopolitical reasoning seeks to discover rebels in the Northeast and India's Look the relationships, which connect East Policy are notable moves. Such isolated geographical facts. The case is recent moves can be explained in terms aptly true regarding India's security of theoretical elaboration given by dilemmas and in forging the Michel Foucher. He stresses: relationship with neighboring countries such as China, , , The essence of strategic reasoning Myanmar, Bangladesh, etc. with respect is the choice of routes for a movement to the conflict ridden North-Eastern depending on the configurations states particularly Manipur. Although encountered and the hierarchical A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 57 organization of decision-making and Tamenglong and Senapati and four in means, and/or the choice of measures valley which includes Imphal East, which make it possible to oppose enemy Imphal West, Bishenpur and . movements, that is, localised threats. The arrival of British brought about It is based on a reading, not of maps but major changes in the boundary of of routes, possible or probable transport Manipur, thus undermining its own lines. Yet any movement implies a notion of geopolitics. For example, the differentiation in the use of space Kabaw Valley became a part of Burma (Foucher, 2000). officially in 1834 in return of The moves in terms of forging trade compensation. Regarding the Kabaw and security ties are dictated by Valley, Sir R Temple said, "Then there strategic reasoning on the part of India. came some territorial adjustment of the In such moves the physicality of Eastern frontier of the Kingdom of Upper Manipur as a land bridge between South Burma, and we actually had to arrange Asia and South becomes a for a small transfer of territory from compulsory component thus, proving its Manipur to Burma in consideration of geo-strategic location, although earlier which the Maharaja was glad to receive and continues to be a localised threat to a small sum per annum in rupees" India's internal security. So in order to (Sanajaoba, 1993). Secondly, in 1834 it bring an acceptable solution, there is was declared by the Governor General need to explore the geopolitical setting and the Supreme Council of Hindoostan, of Manipur, the demands of the people, "With regard to the two ranges of hills external linkages and the central the one called the Kalanaga Range, and government's policies towards the state the other called the Noonjai Range, of Manipur. which are situated between the eastern bend of the Barak, and the western bend Geo-political Setting of Manipur of the Barak, we will give up all claim With a total area of 22,327 Sq.Km. on the part of the honourable Company present day Manipur is divided between thereunto, and give him (the King) the Hills and valley. The valley account for line of the Jiri and the western bend of only of 2238 Sq.Km. that is only 10.02 the Barak as a boundary, provided that per cent of total area that represents the Rajah agrees to the whole of what is 58.85 per cent of the total population of written in this paper which is given in state, which is 27,21,756 (2011 Census). the agreement between Rajah Gumbhir The hill areas with 20089 Sq.Km. singh and Commissioner F. J. Grant in represent 41.156 per cent of population. the year 1835 (Sanajaoba, 1993). With about 350 Km. of international The Marquess of Ripon, in rising to border with Burma (Now Myanmar) call attention to the papers relating to Manipur is bounded by upper Burma in the affairs of Manipur lately laid before east, Chin Hills of Burma in southeast, the house, and referring to the state of Nagaland in north, Mizoram in south and Manipur, he said " it is a small state southwest and Assam in west. The state probably until these events took place is presently having nine administrative very little known to your Lordships, districts including five in hills namely unless, indeed, some of you may have , Ukhrul, Chandel, heard of it as the birthplace of the game A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 58 of Polo; but it is a protected state, which rest on more specific geographical has been under our protection for a assumptions about where best to act and considerable time, and where we have why this makes sense. Thus, the world had for long a political Agent to represent is actively 'spatialised,' divided up, us. In the year 1851 the Government of labeled, sorted out into a hierarchy of India took a step , in guaranteeing the places of greater or lesser 'importance' then Maharaja in the possession of his by political geographers, other state, which made somewhat closer our academics and political leaders. This connection with that state than it had process provides the geographical before" (Proceedings of the House of lords framing within which political élites on Manipur, 1891, quoted in Sanajaoba, and mass publics act in the world in 1993). pursuit of their own identities and Finally, according to the Pemberton interests (Agnew John, 1998) played a Report in 1935, the territory of pivotal role in shaping the history Muneepoorwas declaraed to lie the Manipur. Commercial factors and geo- routes leading from the districts of Sylhet strategic consideration were of and Cachar to the Ningthee river, and paramount elements that informed the central portion of the northern province British policy toward the erstwhile of Ava . The territory comprised within independent Manipur. Recognizing, the the boundaries thus specified, occupies strategic significance of Manipur, the an area of 7000 square miles, of which British on the eve of the Anglo-Burmese a valley of 650 miles of rich alluvial soil, War in 1824 "decided to establish constitute the central portion; the Manipur as an independent buffer state remainder is formed by an encircling between Burma and the British India zone of hilly and mountainous country in North to make British interests more inhabited by various tribes, who have conducive". The British declared war all been brought under subjection to the against Burma on 4th March 1824. paramount authority of Muneepoor There was convergence of interest (Proceedings of the House of lords on between Manipur and British against Manipur, 1891, quoted in Sanajaoba, the common enemy (sic Burma) that 1993). Manipur Levy of 500 strong soldiers under Gambheer Singh and Nara Singh Geographical understanding of fought the invading Burmese along with politics in the world today or the phrase British soldiers (Jhaljit, R.K. 2009).

'world polities' conveys a sense of a th geographical scale beyond that of any In the 20 century, the strategic particular state or a locality in which importance of Manipur became all the states and other actors come together more evident, when looked against the to engage in a number of activities. This backdrop of imperial powers colonization includes diplomacy, military action, aid, of South and South East Asia. More fiscal and monetary activities, legal precisely, the Battle of Imphal, regulation, charitable acts, etc. that are highlights the strategic importance of intended to influence others and extend Manipur with regard to the geopolitics the power of the particular actors who of imperial powers such as British and engage in them. But the activities also Japan. No other factor has produced so compelling and determining impacts on A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 59 the political history of Manipur than its movement is, today, understood to be on geo-strategic location. Geographically, account of the forced annexation of Manipur, as well as the so-called the Manipur in 1949. Since then, the armed North-East presented a buffer zone movement for restoration of sovereignty between Indian sub-continent and and self-determination has been the South-East Asia. In political sense, the scourge of Manipur and disturbing the region acted as the interface between neighbouring regions. Insurgency the imperial powers that were centres around not only on historical consolidating and expanding their and cultural configurations but also on sphere of domination on and across the the centrality of geopolitical imagination interface. Though Manipur was never a both by the non-state actors and the geopolitical player by itself, she occupied Indian State itself. In other words, a crucial site in the geopolitics of understanding insurgency problems opposing powers. Because of the geo- from the perspective of geopolitics can strategic location of Manipur, one of the help in bringing about a lasting solution bloodiest chapters in the history of World and peace in the state. War II, perhaps took place there. Constitutional and Extra- Moreover, it can be mentioned here that constitutional Demands British's competition with the France and Netherlands later on with Japan for Misunderstanding that informs the possession, consolidation and centre-state relationship as well as the defense of their colonies in South-East lack of awareness of the interest of Asia had put Manipur into central stage Manipur and North East leads to a of British and Japanese geopolitical political conflicts leading to societal thinkers particularly during the Second breakdown. Two types of local demands World War period. In the post Cold War mark the situation of crisis in Manipur era, the geopolitical strategic against the Indian state. One is importance of Manipur has been constitutional in the sense that these recognized by India: from that of land lock demands are implicit provisions of the and border state to that of a land of golden constitution of India. Constitutional opportunity connecting South Asia and demands taken into account in the study South East Asia in India's Look East includes statehood movement, inclusion Policy (Chatterjee, 2009). of Manipuri in the 8th Schedule of the Indian constitution and autonomous After the end of British suzerainty, movements in the form of demands for Manipur enjoyed a brief period of separate districts and inclusion of hill independence in terms of putting in areas in the 6th Schedule of the Indian place a democratic constitution with the Constitution. As far as the constitutional monarch as the constitutional head of movements are concerned, the Indian the state, and holding of a democratic State took years to address the genuine general elections based on the demands of the people. Moreover, the principles of adult franchise. However, demands for autonomous status such as merger with the Indian Union resulted inclusion in the 6th Schedule remains in the suspension of the sovereignty of unanswered, thereby, heightening the the erstwhile ancient kingdom. The anger of the people. One common emergence of armed opposition A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 60 characteristic is that other than fire- in Manipur. fighting the demands of the people, no The insurgency movement carries political efforts have been undertaken the threat of destabilizing India's to address the concerns of the people. boundary as well as security. The other form of local demands Underscoring this fact, from time to the circulating in Manipur are the Government of India has entered into separatist movements or movement for bilateral relations with the neighboring sovereignty (Naorem, Joykumar, 2005), countries to combat insurgency. which can said to be extra- However, so far, there have been no constitutional. During colonial times, political initiatives to end the tragic except for the states of Manipur, Tripura situation. and , the remaining areas of formed parts of the The political movements in Manipur erstwhile British province of Assam. In within the category stated above, post-independent period of India, constitutional and extra-constitutional however, different kinds of tribal and and see how it has affected the national non-tribal nationalisms have emerged interest of the country. In the first in the region. In Manipur, several forms category, we group the demand for of nationalism are seen in different statehood, inclusion of the Manipuri times. Among some in the eight Schedule of the intelligentsia and extremist groups, Indian constitution, demand for the secessionist nationalism was and sixth schedule and the Sardar Hills continued to be seen ever since the Autonomous District Council. Within merger of Manipur with Indian Union. the category of the extra-constitutional Once a powerful kingdom, Manipur movements, which directly challenges comprises three culturally diverse the sovereignty and the national ethnic communities: (a) the non-tribal security of the India, we examine the Meitei community constituting more armed opposition movements or the than 50 per cent, (b) the Naga tribes separatist movements for sovereignty. forming 25 per cent, and (c) the Kuki- What we often encounter in the context Chin tribes accounting for 15 per cent of Northeast is that the Indian ruling of the population. The majority Meitei class, through executing terror tactics people are located in the Imphal valley and unjust policies, often attempts to region and the Naga and Kuki tribes silence the genuine demands of the dominate the hill areas of the state. people. Inability of the Indian State or Since 1960 the majority Meitei people the concerned authority is responsible are debarred from buying and owning for the prevailing state of law and order land in the tribal dominated hill areas problem in the region. Political of the state. The anti-merger maneuvering and use of military forces sentiment, on the one hand, and the to solve many of the problems has added cultural differences of the inhabitants to misery of the people. and the economic disadvantage imposed on the Meiteis, on the other, provided a Critical Interpretation of External viable platform for secessionist Factors nationalism to grow among the Meiteis One understanding is that the anti

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 61 social elements or demands for which political party comes to power. At sovereignty more than 50 per cent, (b) present there is a India-friendly the Naga tribes forming 25 per cent, and government in Bangladesh, and helping (c) the Kuki-Chin tribes accounting for the Indian forces to push out insurgents 15 per cent of the population. The from its soil. Arrest of RK Meghen and majority Meitei people are located in the ULFA leaders are cases in point Imphal valley region and the Naga and (Yenning, 2010). Kuki tribes dominate the hill areas of In addition to the insurgents the state. Since 1960 the majority movements, the changing global space Meitei people are debarred from buying after the end of cold war, also added to and owning land in the tribal dominated the emergence of Northeast region in hill areas of the state. The anti-merger global prominence. Liberalization and sentiment, on the one hand, and the globalization, which India undertook in cultural differences of the inhabitants the early 1990s are also responsible for and the economic disadvantage imposed the change in perception about the on the Meiteis, on the other, provided a region. India's look east policy, a policy viable platform for secessionist that aims at capturing the market of the nationalism to grow among the Meiteis South East Asia as well as bolster trade in Manipur. are evident cases. The reality of the geo- The insurgency movement carries strategic importance of the region crops the threat of destabilizing India's up here. In order to capitalize on the boundary as well as security. unfolding scenario, India has Underscoring this fact, from time to the undertaken to open up border trade Government of India has entered into between Myanmar and Manipur, a bilateral relations with the neighboring primary step in relation with countries to combat insurgency. catapulting India's and at ASEAN, , India However, so far, there have been no the same time is undertaking to lay down political initiatives to end the tragic the Trans-Asian Highway passing situation are being aided by the foreign through Manipur. The only concern is countries (Kumar, Anand, 2010). To if these endeavors remain to benefit the begin with, almost every insurgent needs and aspirations of the common movement in the northeast received people. As statistics show, there has help from China (Huyien Lanpao, 2014). been no improvement in the border For example, NSCN as well as PLA had trade between Myanmar and Manipur, received armed and guerilla warfare but the overall sea trade between these training from China at the time of their two countries has witnessed an upward inceptions. Besides, political regimes in escalation in the few decades. both Bangladesh and Pakistan have India's Policies Towards Manipur given open support to insurgents in the Northeast. Many of the training camps In the face of multifarious demands, of the insurgents are in Bangladesh and one pertinent issue that arises is Myanmar. The drive against the whether, policies and developmental insurgents in these countries are of packages formulated by the Government recent origin and in the case of of India are in response to the peoples' Bangladesh, the situation depends on demand or the Government of India A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 62 takes advanced initiative for the confidence the state government. The development of the state. In order to policy of neglecting the productive base discern this complex issue a of economy, inherited from the British quantitative analysis of the development policy of treatment of the state as part funds for various heads needs to be of a 'frontier', still continues. It connotes undertaken right from Manipur was only strategic importance from the granted statehood. Another fact is that defense matrix of India (Konthoujam, Manipur is totally dependent on the 2006). The case of the Nagas' demand Central Government for its financial for a separate political arrangement is survival. In other words, Manipur an enlightening one. In the entire survives on grants received from India. process of secret talk between India and However, as far as her development is the NSCN-IM, the state government has concerned, all its development are been entirely sidelined. Only when talks crafted from outside by so called experts are finalized, the Government of India without taking into account the local directs the state government to follow specific needs. This external factor is its commands. Secondly, even when the equally responsible for its Supreme Court of India has declared backwardness. Official estimate economic blockade a punishable crime, revealed a yield of 4,959 Kg per hectare when there were economic blockades of on the average, which ironically is not the Highways, the blockades are not much below the yield in post-Green lifted until and unless, the Government Revolution Manipur. Even on the eve of of India enters into centre stage. These centralized economic planning (1951), are unfortunate precedents for the rice yield in Manipur Valley was 1,422 Indian federalism as a whole in its Kg per hectare compared to all India's working and procedure, and evidences 714 Kg per hectare (Chongtham 2005). that the Government of India has not The claim that there was self sufficiency responded to the genuine demands of of rice in pre merger status of Manipur the people. but it is not so today need to question the role of policy makers. Conclusion As far as the question regarding if A state as diverse as India, in terms the Government of India frames policies of its ethnic composition, fauna and and packages with regard to needs of the floral and physical setting, Manipur is people, the blame cannot be entirely marked by local demands of various placed on the central government. kinds but which can be broadly Rather, the failure is on the part of the categorized as constitutional and extra- state government as she fails to constitutional. Constitutional demands communicate squarely on the needs of have ranged from demand for statehood the people. The federal structure of the to granting of autonomy in the form of Indian polity has been time and again districts. As much as there are diverse by-passed, when issues related with the ethnic groups, each group has voiced for state is concerned and when there are autonomy in order to own the demands from certain sections of the demarcated area and utilize the society, Government of India directly resources. Such demands often erupt deals with them without taking into into conflict that calls for genuine A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 63 political interventions. However, in the Manipur occupies a geo-strategic case of Manipur, almost every political position in terms of being the land bridge demand has not been met with a political between South Asia and , will. Instead, political expediency deserves investment and economic dictates over the genuineness of the development rather than being a purely demands. Sometimes, it takes years to militaristic out-post. It is imperative for reach the ears of the New Delhi about the Government of India to devise the problems engulfing Manipur under mechanisms to end the political conflict needless fire. Statehood demand, for prosperity and peace. Every demands movement for inclusion of Manipuri to need patient ears, solve the problems the 8th Schedule of the Indian at the earliest instead of fostering a deep Constitution, demand for 6th Schedule rooted problem over the years. Finally, and demand to make the National policies should be made in consultation Highways blockade free zones, etc. are with the people with due respect for evidences. In this regard, governments human security. have failed to recognize the voice of the people. Reference :

The same also can be said about the Agnew, John (1998) : Geopolitics;Re-Visioning extra or unconstitutional demands that World Politics, London, Routledge have erupted in the form of movement Chatterjee, Dipankar (2009) : "Chairman of for sovereignty. So far, there have been the Confederation of Indian Industry´s no concerted efforts to end insurgency Northeastern Council" quoted in The in the state. The Indian State still Indo-Burma News, April 24. Chongtham, Priyoranjam (2005) : Manipur's favours to call the movements Economy: Historical Roots and insurgency and the insurgents Structural Evolution. Eastern Quarterly misguided unemployed youths without 3, III. October -December: 149-59. delving into the historical and political Foucher, Michel (2000): "The geopolitics of nature of the movements. Moreover, front lines and borderlines", Geopolitics, while there has been persistent 5:2, pp. 159-170. movement for the removal of the Armed Huieyan Lanpao, Imphal, dated : 23,08.2014 Forces Special Powers Act, the p. 6 government of India has been silent. At Jhaljit, R.K. (2009) : "The Golden Rule of Garib Niwaz". In Sharma, H.D and the same time, one can say that with Naorem, Sanajaoba, (eds. 2009), New the inception of the Look East Policy, Insights into the glorious heritage of there have been efforts to develop the Manipur, Vol. I & II, New Delhi, Northeast region, especially Manipur. Akansha. However, the policy orientation is Kumar, Anand, (2010) : "External Influences shrouded under security drives other on the Northeast Insurgency", Studies than development. On the other side , in International Strategic Issues, Vol. XII, the Chinese hegemony in the ASEAN No. 2, January-March. gives a deep impact on governments Konthoujam, Indrakumar (2006) : "Imagining the North-East Through and people of North East India. India's Look East Policy: Towards a In such a scenario, certain policy Contextual Understanding", Alternative initiatives can be forwarded. Since Frames I, II. January-March: 45- 60.

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 64

Naorem, Joykumar (2005) : Revolutionary Movements in Manipur, New Delhi: Akansha. Sanajaoba, Naorem (1993) :Manipur: Treatise & Documents, New Delhi: Mittal Publications. Yenning, "The Bangladesh Factor and Politics of Silence", The Sangai Express, Imphal, October 31, 2010.

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 65

Marketing Pattern of Squash and the Role of Growers Association of Mizoram K. Vanrammawia James LT Thanga Abstract : Squash has been among the important cash crops of Mizoram cultivated with regular market opportunities in and outside the state. Unlike other commercial crops grown in the state, its marketing system is organized one following the effort of growers' association. Despite the unavailability of basic market infrastructure for its marketing, the crop shows efficient market characterized by competitiveness and market stability. Key words: Organized Market, Iskut, Growers' Association, Market Stability and Efficiency. Introduction very crucial for many underdeveloped Marketing of agricultural products countries where there is lack of include all activities, agencies, and efficient physical infrastructure. prices involved in the procurement of Agriculture occupies a very prominent farm inputs by the farmers and the place in the economy of Mizoram. As per movement of agricultural products from the Economic Classification of Workers the farms to the consumers (Acharya in 2001 Census, about 60 percent of the and Agarwal 1987). It is a process which total workers are engaged in agriculture starts with a decision to produce a and allied sector. However, the state saleable farm commodity and involves agriculture has been facing structural all aspects of marketing structure or problems and of which minimal system both functional based on availability of physical market technical and economic consideration infrastructures vis-à-vis absence of and includes pre- and post harvest organized marketing functions have operation, assembling, grading, storage, been the serious lacuna for further transportation, and distribution. It is development. In spite of it being general acceptance that production and agrarian since time immemorial, its marketing are the two sides of the same commercialization had started only coin. Efficient marketing system since the last few decades. At the same transferred price signal arising at the time, there is still no sufficient physical consumers' level to the producers which market infrastructure to cope with the in turn acts as price incentive for the growing marketable surplus. At this producers to increase the production of juncture, no one can overemphasize the the commodities. The presence of importance of well organized marketing efficient physical and organized market function to relief the suffering of farmers function in agricultural market in the due to uncertainty on prices and country would be conducive for the marketing opportunities. To gauge this emergence of efficient agricultural scenario, attempt is made in this paper market. The existence of a network of to study the various aspects of squash organized marketing functionaries is marketing in the state. Mr. K. Vanrammawia is a Research Scholar in the Department of Economics, MZU Dr. James LT Thanga is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Economics, MZU A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 66

Cultivation of squash in Mizoram is facilitate its marketing, a well organized known to have started with the coming NGO, named "Mizoram Iskut (Squash) of western Christian missionaries and Growers' Association" (MIGA) was formed locally it is named Iskut. Squash being in 1982 with its headquarters in a minor cucurbit was not cultivated Sihphir. extensively and was not a The rest of the paper is organized into commercialized vegetable in other parts different sections such as methodology of the country at the time of its of the study; growth of area and introduction in Mizoram. As it is a semi- production; marketing channels and perennial crop, the state was found to market stakeholders; seasonal be an ideal place for its successful conditions; market stability, market/ cultivation considering its soil and price information; role of MIGA in squash climatic conditions. There are different market and concluding observations. varieties of squash classified according to the fruits shape and colour, i.e. Round Methodology white, Long white, Pointed green, Broad There are two main data sources- green and Oval green. Normally, two types records of the state government's of green and other creamy green are department and state agencies on the grown in Bangalore and North Eastern one hand, and sample survey on the region. A well-grown plant of about one other. The former is taken as secondary year yields 500-600 fruits per year and sources while the latter is primary each weight 200-450 grams; and it lasts source. Primary data have been for 3-4 years. collected using cluster sampling method. Extensive cultivation started only This method consists of the selection since the 1980's when farmers of and identification of the cluster, and the Sihphir village initiated its cultivation selection of final sample from the for onward adoption to their permanent selected cluster using suitable random livelihood, as an alternative to sampling method. unsustainable practice of jhumming. As Though squash is cultivated in an of now, there are around 1200-1600 extensive ways as commercial crops families engaged in its cultivation. among the farmers of Sihphir village and These farmers are spread in the villages farmers in its neighboring villages, in and around Sihphir within Aizawl and there is no area in the state which Kolasib districts, viz. Sihphir Vengthar, cultivates this crop in the scale as this Sihphir, Neihbawih, Lungdai, Serkhan, area did till date. Accordingly, Sihphir Nisapui and in other villages at smaller Cluster appeared to be the only scale. Unfavourable climatic conditions reasonable option for the selection of in the neighboring state of Assam made cluster. Further, there has been an its cultivation more attractive with active growers association, named potential marketing opportunities in MIGA, in place for the promotion and of Assam, like facilitation of cultivation and marketing Karimganj, Silchar, Bagha, and respectively in this area. Member list Hailakandi. Thus, it is one of the most of this association was simply adopted important crops grown and exported from as sampling frame of our study, and Mizoram in huge quantities. To A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 67 thus, a sample of farmers/growers were who would come to the village to collect selected from this frame using simple the produce. Further, squash produce in random sampling method. the state are normally disposed in the Growth of Area and Production retail and wholesale markets in Carchar District of Assam, around 150 km from Table 1 presents the expanding the farm gate. Meanwhile, all the records volume of squash production and area of marketing agents being contacted coming under its cultivation since 2003- during the course of field work do not 04. There has been gradual increase in show the product being sold beyond the total area and production of squash Assam State. The main marketing and significant jump in the year 2008- channels identified in the study are 09 following the implementation of given in Figure 1. Technology Mission by the State Government. However, the productivity Figure 1: Marketing Channels of Squash in Mizoram as represented by average production per hectare has declined drastically in Consumers Consumers the recent years. This may be due to the area expansion, with the Retailers (Assam) Retailers (Mizoram) implementation of this Mission, unaccompanied by quality improvement Wholesaler/Traders (Non- Wholesaler/Traders (Non- Wholesaler (local) in its cultivation. local)

Table 1: Area and production of Squash in Mizoram 2003-2013 Itinerant Dealers (local & non-local) Year Area(in Ha) Production(in MT) Yield /Ha (MT) 2003-04 580 20949 36.12 Commission Agent 2004-05 583 19886 34.11 2005-06 604 21593 35.75 2006-07 664 24455 36.83 Producers 2007-08 714 26418 37 2008-09 3200* 48000 15 2009-10 2250 34875 15.5 2010-11 3500 56350 16.1 2011-12 4000 66500 16.63 The major portion of the squash 2012-13 4250 73525 17.3 produced in the state has been exported Source: Dept of Horticulture, Government of Mizoram, 2012 *New Technology Mission to the neighbouring state of Assam. An

interview of farmers suggested that

Marketing Channels and Stakeholders more than 80 percent of the total Marketing of squash goes to some quantity produce is exported to Assam. extend in an organized basis under the There are two major ways of strict supervision of "Mizoram Iskut procurement operation done by Growers' Association" (MIGA). Though wholesalers of Assam viz. (i) direct the association is hardly involved in procurement from the farmers and (ii) marketing the commodity directly to the procurement through local commission traders, usually coming from outside, it agents and itinerant dealers. Itinerant is trying to prevent price crash on Dealers are those middlemen who account of market flooding by the facilitate local men or local commission farmers (this will be discussed later). At agent with fund and material to procure the same time, farmers, themselves, the commodity by offering certain have clear knowledge on market margin as dealing charge. These destination and the prospective buyers dealers would collect the same for A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 68 onward sale to the bigger wholesalers squash market is showing systematic operating in Cachar District of Assam. relationship of price and quantity At the same time, local market has arrivals, suggesting market efficiency increasingly assumed importance for which exhibits significant causal squash. Ignoring the possibility of sale relationship between the two. The by traders and commission agents in trends showing the quantity arrival and the local market, produce disposed in price observed in the study areas for a the local market through local retails period of 3 years is presented in Table constitute around 10 percent. The main 2. actors in this channel are local Table 2: Month-wise market arrival and price of Squash during 2010-13 Wholesale Commission agents (sometimes acting as retailers), who 2011-12 2011-12 2012-13 Arrival Price/ Arrival Price/ Arrival Price/ have direct contact with the producer. Month (In Qtls) Qtl (In Qtls) Qtl (In Qtls) Qtl They procure the produce from the April 250.6 2200 248.7 2150 231.95 3000 farmers and brought to various market May 723.7 1500 639.45 1100 717.6 1900 places of Mizoram. Interestingly, these June 1456 800 1483.04 750 1482.8 750 July 4788.7 700 4813.52 600 5043.99 650 agents are organized in the form of August 8125.9 500 8333.12 400 8588 600 association, named 'Mahni Thlai Zuar September 9124.8 300 8874.04 250 9577.35 275

Association (MZTA)' (Own Produced October 6007 375 5754.37 350 6471.1 320

Vegetable Marketing Association), November 3323.8 400 3356.44 400 3392.49 400 though they actually function as December 1867.3 500 1923 450 1865.96 450 wholesalers in addition to marketing of January 1256.3 550 843 500 737 500 own produce. Depending on the Source: Sample survey 2013 prevailing producer's price, MZTA has To test the status of squash on strong influence on the retail price. To marketing efficiency, log-linear prevent price competition among the regression model is estimated with price member, the association set the being dependent variable and arrivals wholesale price limits (minimum and in the current and previous year as maximum) to be followed by the explanatory variables. The results are members. presented in Table 3. It is observed that Seasonal Conditions quantity arrivals, both current and previous period, are the significant Squash assumed considerably determinants of market prices. With the longer period as marketing season coefficient of log-linear model having which starts in the month of April and ends in January the next year, and Table 3: Estimated Log-Linear Regression. August - September being the peak period. The price also changes Dependent Variable: Log(Price) Method: Least Squares according to the volume of market Included observations: 30 arrivals that it is highest at the Log(Price)= C1+C2*Log(Arrival)+C3*Log(One Year Lagged Arrival) beginning of the marketing season and Parameters Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob. decline continuously to a minimum C1 10.4 0.44 23.86 0.000 point at the peak month of quantity C2 -0.25 0.08 -3.13 0.004 arrival. After reaching this point, price C3 -0.27 0.07 -3.65 0.001 starts to increase gradually. Thus, R-squared 0.77 Adjusted R-squared 0.75

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 69 been the elasticity parameters, it may different commodities improve the be concluded that there is negative decision-making capacity of the farmers price elasticity for squash market in and strengthen their bargaining powers. conformity with the traditional Law of To assess the existing status of market Demand. Further, the negative information system in place for the elasticity with respect to lagged price farmers in the study area, they were may be interpreted alternatively as asked to recollect the sources of market current quantity stock in the market information during the recalled period. have future price market price The results are presented Table 5. ramification negatively. Interestingly, the result showed growers association having played a very crucial Market stability role in disseminating market Stability of a market is the information to the farmers. characteristic of good and efficient market (Rhodes, 1978). If prices are not Table 5: Sources of market information (market price) by the farmers stable, it poses uncertainty not only to Sl. No Information Sources No of farmers Percentage the farmer but also for the consumers. 1 Other farmers 5 10.42 Stability of prices is essential 2 Growers' Association (MIGA) 25 52.08 3 Traders and their local agents 18 37.5 characteristics of sound market. To Total 48 100 examine the stability of squash market, Source: Sample survey 2013 ANOVA is conducted on the stability of market prices across the marketing Role of Mizoram Iskut Growers' seasons. The result is presented in Association Table 4. The Mizoram Iskut Growers' Table 4: Analysis of Variance for Testing Variability Differences between Marketing Seasons Mean Association (MIGA) was formed in 1982 Sum of Square Items Factors Squares df Effect F-Ratio Sig. with its headquarters at Sihphir village. Quantity Squash Arrivals Presently, the Association has branches Between Seasons 173858.1303 2 86929.06516 0.0082* 0.9919 in 9 villages with most of the squash Within Season 287937124.2 27 10664337.93 Total 288110982.3 29 growers being its member. MIGA has its Prices Between branches in the villages mainly where Seasons 179901.6667 2 89950.83333 0.1855* 0.8318 Within Season 13094435 27 484979.0741 there are enough surplus production of Total 13274336.67 29 *Insignificant estimate squash, they are N. Chaltlang, Lungmuat, Serkhan, Nisapui, North The results presented in Table 4 do Bualpui, Lungdai, Sihphir Neihbawih, not show significant differences of prices Sihphir and Sihphir Vengthar. The over the marketing seasons. Thus, main objective of this association is ANOVA result can lead us to the initiate better and efficient marketing conclusion that the existence of market system side by side with sustainable stability across the marketing seasons system of cultivation. To achieve the in case of squash in Mizoram. objective, it has instituted certain Market/Price information strategies since the mid 1980s. They are as follows: The availability of prompt and reliable information about quantities First, 'Quota System' was introduced arrivals and prices quotations for to check flooding of market and its

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 70 subsequent price crash. Under this raj, system' and have instituted 'free the state's Trade & Commerce marketing system' since 2000 till date. Department, in consultation with the Under the new raj, every producer was association, gave permit/license, and given liberty to sell his produce any time appointed marketing contractor to buy and any place whatever he/she thinks commodity from the growers. This profitable. association, on it part, decided to form Under the new marketing system, groups consisting of few growers and MIGA is still taking various initiatives each group was allocated a day or two to and measures to ensure that the sell their produce on rotational basis. farmers get a remunerative price in The size of the group was decided marketing of their products. It is still according to the volume of their produce holding the authority of selecting to prevent flooding of market and the procurement contractors or wholesaler potential price crash in the market in its jurisdiction. The initiative has destination (normally Cachar District of effectively prevented cartelization Assam). Quota System was also wholesale markets as well as facilitated with by the government by procurement agents, which would providing price support subsidy for some otherwise monopolize market price. time. This system of squash marketing Though the association is not directly could go well for quite some time with a involved in procurement and marketing, price-support subsidy extended to the it clearly shows itself to be the main growers by the government during 1994- coordinating institutions that facilitate 95 and 1996. In addition to price subsidy, the functioning of organized market the government offered minimum functions in the areas. procurement price to the extent of Rs 1.25 per kilogram to the farmers since Concluding Remarks the marketing season of 1996-97. The squash marketing in Mizoram However, the new Market Intervention is found to be following systematic Scheme (MIS) of the government did not pattern with price stability and the get much response from the growers and elements of market efficiency with very hence was discontinued consequently. limited public interventions in its Second, with the increase in production operation. This has clearly suggested and withdrawal of price support subsidy that a well functioning of organized from the government, and the coming market could greatly benefit the farmers of new entrants in squash market, i.e. and enhance market sustainability. Meghalaya, in the late 1990s, Quota However, one should not deny the fact System did not work well to the that organized market does not emerge satisfaction of farmers. MIGA in its on its own, but has to be initiated with search for new marketing avenues facilitations and accommodating effort conducted a market survey under by the government as well as the financial support of North Eastern farmers and their organized effort. Council (NEC) to the extent of markets in New Delhi, Sikkim, Shimla, and some cities. Based on this market study, MIGA finally decided to do away with the 'quota

A Journal of GAM Geographic Vol.9. July, 2014, ISSN 0975-4121 - Peer Reviewed 71

References: Acharya SS and Agarwal NL(2011): Agricultural Marketing in India Fifth Edition, Oxford and IBH Publishing CO Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 2011. Datta, Samar, K., Gurdev Singh and Millindo Chakrabarti (2003) : Management of marketing and export of ginger with special reference to Eastern Himalayan Region, in Indian Ginger- production and utilization, H P Singh & M. Tamil Selvan (Edited), Directorate of Arecanut and Species Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation, Government of India, Calicut, Kerela. Zonuntluanga, R (2002): Problems and Prospects of Agricultural Marketing In Mizoram (Unpublished Ph.D Thesis), The Department of Economics, School of Economics, Management and Information Sciences, Mizoram University: Aizawl: 2002. Pawar, N.D and Mishal, D.H (2005):Behavior of Prices and arrivals of Pomegranate in Western Maharashtra, in Agricultural Marketing, A National Level Quarterly Journal on Agricultural Marketing, Directorate of Marketing & Inspection, Ministry of Agriculture, GOI Vol XLVII, No. 4 January-March, 2005. Shiferaw, Bekele., Gideon, Obare and Geoffrey Muricho (2006):Rural Institutions and Producers organizations in Imperfect Markets: Experiences from Producer Marketing Groups in Semi- Arid Eastern Kenya. CAPRi Working Paper No 60. October, 2006. Moharir, Kihor (2010):Role of Co-operatives societies in Agriculture product marketing in Maharashtra, Abhinav, Vol. 1. Issue 8, 2010, pp 80-83 Rhodes, James V (1978): The agricultural Marketing system Columbia; Grid Publishing, 1978.

A Journal of GAM