Aggregate Supply, Aggregate Demand, and Inflation: Putting It All Together
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Supply Shocks and the Conduct of Monetary Policy Takatoshi Ito
Supply Shocks and the Conduct of Monetary Policy Takatoshi Ito As I see it, everybody else has considered this problem. The supply shock is a major challenge to an inflation targeter. It has been agreed that against demand shocks, the inflation targeting is a powerful framework. But probably we have not seen the serious challenge to the inflation targeting framework by supply shocks. Probably the oil price increase in the last year and a half posed some modest challenge to inflation targeters but since we started from very low inflation, it was not really a challenge. Just flipping through Governor Tetangco’s slides, I am sure he will be very elaborate on details of the supply shocks and effects on monetary policy so I will not go into those details. Let me talk about how I think the importance of establishing the inflation targeting framework before supply shock really comes. I still think that inflation targeting is a powerful framework, even against supply shock in addition to demand shocks. The power of inflation targeting framework is that it is to maintain inflation expectations of the public even if you are deviating from the targeted inflation rate. So we discussed about missing targets and so on in the morning session, but the powerful test about whether your inflation targeting framework is successful or credible is, when you deviate for good reasons from the target, does the inflation expectation stay constant? I think this is a good test of the credibility and the success good performance measure of the inflation targeting framework. -
Investment Shocks and Business Cycles
Federal Reserve Bank of New York Staff Reports Investment Shocks and Business Cycles Alejandro Justiniano Giorgio E. Primiceri Andrea Tambalotti Staff Report no. 322 March 2008 This paper presents preliminary findings and is being distributed to economists and other interested readers solely to stimulate discussion and elicit comments. The views expressed in the paper are those of the authors and are not necessarily reflective of views at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York or the Federal Reserve System. Any errors or omissions are the responsibility of the authors. Investment Shocks and Business Cycles Alejandro Justiniano, Giorgio E. Primiceri, and Andrea Tambalotti Federal Reserve Bank of New York Staff Reports, no. 322 March 2008 JEL classification: C11, E22, E30 Abstract Shocks to the marginal efficiency of investment are the most important drivers of business cycle fluctuations in U.S. output and hours. Moreover, like a textbook demand shock, these disturbances drive prices higher in expansions. We reach these conclusions by estimating a dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) model with several shocks and frictions. We also find that neutral technology shocks are not negligible, but their share in the variance of output is only around 25 percent and even lower for hours. Labor supply shocks explain a large fraction of the variation of hours at very low frequencies, but not over the business cycle. Finally, we show that imperfect competition and, to a lesser extent, technological frictions are the key to the transmission of investment shocks in the model. Key words: DSGE model, imperfect competition, endogenous markups, Bayesian methods Justiniano: Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago (e-mail: [email protected]). -
Supply Shocks, Demand Shocks, and Labor Market Fluctuations
Research Division Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Paper Series Supply Shocks, Demand Shocks, and Labor Market Fluctuations Helge Braun Reinout De Bock and Riccardo DiCecio Working Paper 2007-015A http://research.stlouisfed.org/wp/2007/2007-015.pdf April 2007 FEDERAL RESERVE BANK OF ST. LOUIS Research Division P.O. Box 442 St. Louis, MO 63166 ______________________________________________________________________________________ The views expressed are those of the individual authors and do not necessarily reflect official positions of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, the Federal Reserve System, or the Board of Governors. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Papers are preliminary materials circulated to stimulate discussion and critical comment. References in publications to Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Papers (other than an acknowledgment that the writer has had access to unpublished material) should be cleared with the author or authors. Supply Shocks, Demand Shocks, and Labor Market Fluctuations Helge Braun Reinout De Bock University of British Columbia Northwestern University Riccardo DiCecio Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis April 2007 Abstract We use structural vector autoregressions to analyze the responses of worker ‡ows, job ‡ows, vacancies, and hours to shocks. We identify demand and sup- ply shocks by restricting the short-run responses of output and the price level. On the demand side we disentangle a monetary and non-monetary shock by restricting the response of the interest rate. The responses of labor market vari- ables are similar across shocks: expansionary shocks increase job creation, the hiring rate, vacancies, and hours. They decrease job destruction and the sep- aration rate. -
Unemployment, Aggregate Demand, and the Distribution of Liquidity
Unemployment, Aggregate Demand, and the Distribution of Liquidity Zach Bethune Guillaume Rocheteau University of Virginia University of California, Irvine Tsz-Nga Wong Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond February 13, 2017 Abstract We develop a New-Monetarist model of unemployment in which distributional considerations matter. Households who lack commitment are subject to both employment and expenditure risk. They self- insure by accumulating real balances and, possibly, claims on firms profits. The distribution of liquidity is endogenous and responds to idiosyncratic risks and monetary policy. Despite the ex-post heterogeneity our model can be solved in closed form in a variety of cases. We show the existence of an aggregate demand channel according to which the distribution of workers across employment states, and their incomes in those states, affects the distribution of liquid wealth and firms’ profits. An increase in unemployment benefits or wages has a positive effect on aggregate demand and can lead to higher employment. Moreover, an increase in productivity has a multiplier effect on firms’ revenue. JEL Classification Numbers: D83 Keywords: unemployment, money, distribution. 1 Introduction We develop a New-Monetarist model of unemployment in which liquidity and distributional considerations matter. Our approach is motivated by the strong empirical evidence that household heterogeneity in terms of income and wealth, together with liquidity constraints, affect aggregate consumption and unemployment (e.g., Mian and Sufi, 2010?; Carroll et al., 2015). There is a recent literature that formalizes search frictions and liquidity constraints in goods markets that reduce the ability of firms to sell their output, their incentives to hire, and ultimately the level of unemployment (e.g., Berentsen, Menzio, and Wright, 2010; Michaillat and Saez, 2015). -
AS-AD and the Business Cycle
Chapter AS-AD and the Business Cycle CHAPTER OUTLINE 1. Provide a technical definition of recession and describe the history of the U.S. business cycle and the global business cycle. A. Dating Business-Cycle Turning Points B. U.S. Business-Cycle History C. Recent Cycles 2. Explain the influences on aggregate supply. A. Aggregate Supply Basics 1. Why the AS Curve Slopes Upward a. Business Failure and Startup b. Temporary Shutdowns and Restarts c. Changes in Output Rate 2. Production at a Pepsi Plant B. Changes in Aggregate Supply 1. Changes in Potential GDP 2. Changes in Money Wage Rate and Other Resource Prices 3. Explain the influences on aggregate demand. A. Aggregate Demand Basics 1. The Buying Power of Money 2. The Real Interest Rate 3. The Real Prices of Exports and Imports B. Changes in Aggregate Demand 1. Expectations 2. Fiscal Policy and Monetary Policy 3. The World Economy C. The Aggregate Demand Multiplier 4. Explain how fluctuations in aggregate demand and aggregate supply create the business cycle. A. Aggregate Demand Fluctuations B. Aggregate Supply Fluctuations C. Adjustment Toward Full Employment 710 Part 10 . ECONOMIC FLUCTUATIONS CHAPTER ROADMAP What’s New in this Edition? Chapter 29 is now the first chapter in which the students en‐ counter the AS‐AD model. This chapter now uses some of the material from the second edition’s Chapter 23 introduc‐ tion to AS‐AD to explain the beginning about aggregate supply and aggregate demand. The connection between the AS‐AD model and business cycle has been rewritten and made even more straightforward for the students. -
Some Answers FE312 Fall 2010 Rahman 1) Suppose the Fed
Problem Set 7 – Some Answers FE312 Fall 2010 Rahman 1) Suppose the Fed reduces the money supply by 5 percent. a) What happens to the aggregate demand curve? If the Fed reduces the money supply, the aggregate demand curve shifts down. This result is based on the quantity equation MV = PY, which tells us that a decrease in money M leads to a proportionate decrease in nominal output PY (assuming of course that velocity V is fixed). For any given price level P, the level of output Y is lower, and for any given Y, P is lower. b) What happens to the level of output and the price level in the short run and in the long run? In the short run, we assume that the price level is fixed and that the aggregate supply curve is flat. In the short run, output falls but the price level doesn’t change. In the long-run, prices are flexible, and as prices fall over time, the economy returns to full employment. If we assume that velocity is constant, we can quantify the effect of the 5% reduction in the money supply. Recall from Chapter 4 that we can express the quantity equation in terms of percent changes: ΔM/M + ΔV/V = ΔP/P + ΔY/Y We know that in the short run, the price level is fixed. This implies that the percentage change in prices is zero and thus ΔM/M = ΔY/Y. Thus in the short run a 5 percent reduction in the money supply leads to a 5 percent reduction in output. -
What Role Does Consumer Sentiment Play in the U.S. Economy?
The economy is mired in recession. Consumer spending is weak, investment in plant and equipment is lethargic, and firms are hesitant to hire unemployed workers, given bleak forecasts of demand for final products. Monetary policy has lowered short-term interest rates and long rates have followed suit, but consumers and businesses resist borrowing. The condi- tions seem ripe for a recovery, but still the economy has not taken off as expected. What is the missing ingredient? Consumer confidence. Once the mood of consumers shifts toward the optimistic, shoppers will buy, firms will hire, and the engine of growth will rev up again. All eyes are on the widely publicized measures of consumer confidence (or consumer sentiment), waiting for the telltale uptick that will propel us into the longed-for expansion. Just as we appear to be headed for a "double-dipper," the mood swing occurs: the indexes of consumer confi- dence register 20-point increases, and the nation surges into a prolonged period of healthy growth. oes the U.S. economy really behave as this fictional account describes? Can a shift in sentiment drive the economy out of D recession and back into good health? Does a lack of consumer confidence drag the economy into recession? What causes large swings in consumer confidence? This article will try to answer these questions and to determine consumer confidence’s role in the workings of the U.S. economy. ]effre9 C. Fuhrer I. What Is Consumer Sentitnent? Senior Econotnist, Federal Reserve Consumer sentiment, or consumer confidence, is both an economic Bank of Boston. -
Consumer Behaviour During Crises
Journal of Risk and Financial Management Article Consumer Behaviour during Crises: Preliminary Research on How Coronavirus Has Manifested Consumer Panic Buying, Herd Mentality, Changing Discretionary Spending and the Role of the Media in Influencing Behaviour Mary Loxton 1, Robert Truskett 1, Brigitte Scarf 1, Laura Sindone 1, George Baldry 1 and Yinong Zhao 2,* 1 Discipline of International Business, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; [email protected] (M.L.); [email protected] (R.T.); [email protected] (B.S.); [email protected] (L.S.); [email protected] (G.B.) 2 School of Economics, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 24 June 2020; Accepted: 19 July 2020; Published: 30 July 2020 Abstract: The novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic spread globally from its outbreak in China in early 2020, negatively affecting economies and industries on a global scale. In line with historic crises and shock events including the 2002-04 SARS outbreak, the 2011 Christchurch earthquake and 2017 Hurricane Irma, COVID-19 has significantly impacted global economic conditions, causing significant economic downturns, company and industry failures, and increased unemployment. To understand how conditions created by the pandemic to date compare to the aforementioned shock events, we conducted a thorough literature review focusing on the presentation of panic buying and herd mentality behaviours, changes to discretionary consumer spending as defined by Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, and the impact of global media on these behaviours. The methodology utilised to analyse panic buying, herd mentality and altered patterns of consumer discretionary spending (according to Maslow’s theory) involved an analysis of consumer spending data, largely focused on Australian and American markets. -
CONSUMER CONFIDENCE and the ECONOMY by Jay Wortley, Senior Economist
STATE NOTES: Topics of Legislative Interest March/April 2001 CONSUMER CONFIDENCE AND THE ECONOMY by Jay Wortley, Senior Economist There are a number of key economic variables that are closely watched because they help identify the current state of the economy and provide some clues as to where the economy is headed. One of these indicators is the University of Michigan’s Index of Consumer Sentiment. This index is designed to measure the level of confidence consumers have in the economy. This article explains why this index is closely watched, describes how the index is created, and presents what the index is revealing about the current state of the economy. Why is Consumer Confidence Important? Consumer confidence is important because it is a key factor that helps determine how much consumers are going to spend on goods and services, which is one of the major driving forces in the economy. From 1980 to 2000, expenditures by consumers accounted for 67% of total economic activity. Due to the fact that consumer spending is a major source of overall economic activity, most of the time it is safe to say that as consumer spending goes, so goes the overall economy. For example, in 1991, personal consumption expenditures, adjusted for inflation, declined 0.2% and overall economic activity, as measured by real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) fell 0.5%, but in 2000, real consumer spending increased 5.3% and total economic activity grew 5.0%. Consumer confidence is a good indicator of consumer spending because the more confident consumers are about future economic conditions, the more likely they are to purchase consumer goods, particularly the relatively high- priced major purchases such as motor vehicles, houses, and household furnishings. -
Aggregate Demand and the Dynamics of Unemployment
Aggregate Demand and the Dynamics of Unemployment Edouard Schaal Mathieu Taschereau-Dumouchel New York University The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania June 3, 2016 Abstract We introduce an aggregate demand externality into the Mortensen-Pissarides model of equi- librium unemployment. Because firms care about the demand for their products, an increase in unemployment lowers the incentives to post vacancies which further increases unemploy- ment. This positive feedback creates a coordination problem among firms and leads to multiple equilibria. We show, however, that the multiplicity disappears when enough heterogeneity is introduced in the model. In this case, the unique equilibrium still exhibits interesting dynamic properties. In particular, the importance of the aggregate demand channel grows with the size and duration of shocks, and multiple stationary points in the dynamics of unemployment can exist. We calibrate the model to the U.S. economy and show that the mechanism generates ad- ditional volatility and persistence in labor market variables, in line with the data. In particular, the model can generate deep, long-lasting unemployment crises. JEL Classifications: E24, D83 1 1 Introduction The slow recovery that followed the Great Recession of 2007-2009 has revived interest in the long-held view in macroeconomics that episodes of high unemployment can persist for extended periods of time because of depressed aggregate demand. The mechanism seems intuitive: when firms expect lower demand for their products, they refrain from hiring and unemployment increases. In turn, as unemployment rises, aggregate income and spending decline, effectively confirming the low aggregate demand. In this paper, we propose a theory of unemployment and aggregate demand to investigate this mechanism. -
The-Great-Depression-Glossary.Pdf
The Great Depression | Glossary of Terms Glossary of Terms Balanced budget – Government revenues equal expenditures on an annual basis. (Lesson 5) Bank failure – When a bank’s liabilities (mainly deposits) exceed the value of its assets. (Lesson 3) Bank panic – When a bank run begins at one bank and spreads to others, causing people to lose confidence in banks. (Lesson 3) Bank reserves – The sum of cash that banks hold in their vaults and the deposits they maintain with Federal Reserve banks. (Lesson 3) Bank run – When many depositors rush to the bank to withdraw their money at the same time. (Lesson 3) Bank suspensions – Comprises all banks closed to the public, either temporarily or permanently, by supervisory authorities or by the banks’ boards of directors because of financial difficulties. Banks that close under a special holiday declaration and remained closed only during the designated holiday are not counted as suspensions. (Lesson 4) Banks – Businesses that accept deposits and make loans. (Lesson 2) Budget deficit – When government expenditures exceed revenues. (Lesson 4) Budget surplus – When government revenues exceed expenditures. (Lesson 4) Consumer confidence – The relationship between how consumers feel about the economy and their spending and saving decisions. (Lesson 5) Consumer Price Index (CPI) – A measure of the prices paid by urban consumers for a market basket of consumer goods and services. (Lesson 1) Deflation – A general downward movement of prices for goods and services in an economy. (Lessons 1, 3 and 6) Depression – A very severe recession; a period of severely declining economic activity spread across the economy (not limited to particular sectors or regions) normally visible in a decline in real GDP, real income, employment, industrial production, wholesale-retail credit and the loss of overall confidence in the economy. -
Aggregate Supply and Unemployment
Aggregate Supply Explain why the elasticity of the aggregate supply curve for an economy varies between infinity and zero (12) Are supply-side policies likely to be more effective than demand-side policies in reducing unemployment? (13) Aggregate supply (AS) measures the output of goods and services than an economy can supply at a given price level in a given time period. The output potential of the economy depends on (a) the stock of factor inputs available (b) the productivity of factor inputs (c) the pace of technological progress. The elasticity of aggregate supply is a measure of how responsive output is to changes in demand. Supply elasticity normally depends on (a) the degree of spare capacity in the economy (b) the time period involved (c) the amount of stocks that can be used to meet changes in demand There is a continuing debate about the elasticity of aggregate supply. Standard Keynesian theory assumes a perfectly elastic aggregate supply curve. Changes in aggregate demand lead to changes in the equilibrium level of national output - prices are assumed to be constant in the injections and withdrawals framework. Neo- classical economists argue that aggregate supply in independent of the price level. The AS curve is assumed to be vertical in the long run - and can shift following increases in the stock and productivity of factors of production. A synthesis view shows the elasticity of aggregate supply changing at different levels of output. These views are shown in the diagrams below. Price Level (P) SRAS1 AD1 AD2 Y1 Y2 Real National Output (Y) In the diagram above the short run aggregate supply curve is drawn as perfectly elastic.