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Impacts of Environmental and Resources Variability on Human Communities

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Impacts of Environmental and Resources Variability on Human Communities PART III - IMPACTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND RESOURCES VARIABILITY ON HUMAN COMMUNITIES PARTE III - REPERCUSIONES DE LA VARIABILIDAD DEL AMBIENTE Y DE LOS RECURSOS EN LAS COMUNIDADES HUMANAS MAN, STATE, AND FISHERIES: AN INQUIRY INTO SOME SOCIETAL CONSTRAINTS THAT AFFECT FISHERIES MANAGEMENT by M.H. Glantz Head, Environmental and Societal Impacts Group National Center for Atmospheric Research* Boulder, Co 80307, USA * The National Center for Atmospheric Research is sponsored by the National Science Foundation. Resumen La pesca no es solo una actividad económica, es también una actividad política, cultural y social. Desde esta perspectiva se identifican algunos de los factores que afectan la implementación de estrategias racionales de ordenación de la explotación de los recursos marinos renovables. Se analizan los diversos factores que influenciaron la explotación de la anchoveta peruana con la finalidad de aplicar esta experiencias en la ordenación de otras pesquerías. Los éxitos y fracasos de la ordenación de la pesca están relacionados con actividades al nivel internacional, al comportamiento de grupos a nivel nacional, y al comportamiento a nivel individual. En este documento se tratan estos tres niveles como categorías de factores distintos que afectan la ordenación pesquera. INTRODUCTION Rational fisheries management strategies must compete with a broad spectrum of societal factors that influence the exploitation of marine resources. Fishing is not only an economic activity, but political, cultural, and social as well. Therefore, to understand how a particular fishery has been managed requires investigations by social as well as physical scientists. The purpose of this paper is to identify some of these factors that might impinge on the implementation of rational management strategies for living marine resources. The focus of this paper will be on pelagic fish in general and the Peruvian anchoveta fishery in particular. This fishery underwent rapid growth and development, beginning in the early 1950's and its history is relatively well documented. The Peruvian anchoveta fishery shares some marine biological as well as oceanographic and climatological characteristics with other eastern boundary current fisheries 303 (e.g., Parrish et al., 1983; Troadec et al., 1980). In addition, Peru shares fisheries management characteristics with other coastal countries that exploit their eastern boundary current fisheries. Pelagic fish dwell near the surface of the ocean, have high rates of natural mortality, have a highly aggregated distribution, are shoaling forage fish, and are apparently extremely vulnerable to subtle as well as drastic variations in their atmospheric and marine environments. Shoaling pelagic fish are relatively easy to capture with efficient gear and large quantities can be taken in a short period of time. While some species are used as food fish, they are also of commercial value for reduction to fishmeal. Their value as fishmeal stems more from the tonnage of landing than from their value per unit of fish. Fishmeal is used a feed supplement, primarily for poultry and livestock. It may be produced from whole fish and other marine organisms not used for human consumption, from by– catches or surplus catches obtained from catches for human consumption, or from fish obtained during the processing of fish (Popiel and Sosinski. 1973). Fish populations in general have characteristics that set them apart from other living resources. Therefore, analogies made with forests, soils, and renewable resources in general, that sometimes appear in the literature, must be used with great care(e.g., Clark, 1981). Within the fish populations there are species and subspecies which can be set apart from each other according to specific characteristic differences. Careful comparisons between similar species can be a fruitful approach to understanding similar stocks in different regions where some information exists for one region but is available to a lesser extent for other regions. In the absence of perfects information about any single fish stock or fishery, the use of the comparisons for the purpose of identifying analogies can provide valuable insights in to the management of fisheries based on similar stocks (Bakun, et al., 1982 Troadec et al., 1980) One can find views throughout the fisheries (and more broadly, resource) management literature that relate the successes and failures of renewable resource management to either activities at the international level (“international demands for fishmeal in combination with Peruvian import restrictions sparked the Peruvian production of fishing boats”), group behaviour at the national level (“if you allow an industrial fishery to begin, it will destroy the guano resources”), or individual behaviour (“fishermen want to sink every other boat but their own”). The framework used in this paper treats these three levels of analysis (the international, the state, and the individual) as three distinct categories of factors that can affect the management of a fishery. By separating these three levels for analytical purposes, such a framework encourages a broader consideration of potentially relevant factors for managing a fishery than just the consideration of fish population dynamics or oceanographic variables that are known to affect marine life. This approach could lead to the identification of factors that affect management strategies for the Peruvian anchoveta fishery in particular and for other eastern boundary current pelagic fisheries in general. If deemed useful in these instances, such a framework for analysis might be used to identify societal and other factors that might enhance or constrain the management strategies for other fisheries as well. As the reader will see, it is not always easy to classify events as falling exclusively in one of the three levels. In fact, some of the events discussed may appear in more than one of the three levels of analysis. One such example relates to the rapid growth of Peru's exports and whether it was because of international level or national level causes. As Roemer (1970, p. 45) put it, “To what extent was Peru merely the passive beneficiary of expanding markets and to what extent did it become a more efficient producer of its export products than its competition?” The categories in which to discuss different events or activities were selected by the author according to his perceptions about which level was most appropriate. There are several important areas not addressed in this paper because they have already received widespread attention in the fisheries literature. These include the competition of economic models for the attention of (and use by) fishery managers, the strengths and weaknesses of different competing fish population models, and detailed considerations of marketing factors that can affect 304 how a fishery might be managed. Also omitted are discussions of the numerous regulatory schemes that have been implemented or have been proposed for implementation in attempts at rational fishery management. In addition, the paper presents examples drawn only from coastal pelagic fisheries, so as to avoid selective use of examples from different types of living marine resources (crustaceans, demersals, whales, shellfish, ocean pelagic, and so forth) in order to make a point. This type of selective attention is often misleading to policymakers, because, as one might effectively argue, different species require different management schemes. Finally, this paper is not an attempt to present new factual information on fisheries and their management, but to present a new way of organizing and evaluating existing information. It is the application of an existing framework for analysis (Waltz, 1959) to better understand the different influences, stimuli, and constraints that affect the management of a living marine resource such as the Peruvian anchoveta. Peru: An Introduction Peru has traditionally been divided into three geographically defined zones; the coastal plain, occupied to a large extent by coastal deserts, the mountainous sierra, and the jungle or selva (Miller et al., 1974, p. 7). This view of Peru persists today (e.g., Banks and Overstreet, 1981, p. 2981). In the mid-1970's, however, a Peruvian geographer challenged the traditional division into three regions. He divided Peru into eight geographically defined regions (Pulgar Vidal, n.d.). Like other geographical accounts, however, this textbook also combined the sea with the coastal plain. In fact, little attention was devoted to consideration of the coastal marine environment. In a conference report on Social and Economic Change in Peru (Miller et al., 1974, p.7), the conventional division of Peru into three parts was also challenged. The editors of this report suggested that there be a different emphasis, other than geography, based on …functional links rather than characteristics of terrain, land-use and society. The concept of functional regions underlies the modern division of Peru into planning regions …which transcend environmental contrasts, brutal and striking though they are. The examples given at this particular conference centered on mining and agriculture, suggesting, for example, that the cotton production on coastal estates had ties to the interior for labour and to Lima(Peru's capital) for transportation but little interaction with other regions of Peru. This particular conference had little discussion of Peru's living marine resources. These few examples, together
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