Regional Research, 2015 2 Special Issue, 2015

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Editor: Dr. A. Katrovskiy (Smolensk)

Co-editors: Dr. V. Streletskiy (Moscow) Academic journal Dr. V. Shuvalov (Moscow) Dr. A. Chistobayev (SaintPetersburg) Established in 2001 Editorial council: Published quarterly Dr. P. Baklanov (Vladivostok); Dr. A. Vishnevs- kiy (Moscow); Dr. A. Gladkiy (Ukraine); Dr. N. Zubarevich (Moscow); Dr. Z. Krišjāne (Latvia); Dr. N. Kasimov (Moscow); Dr. V. Kolosov (Mos- cow); Dr. A. Kuznetsov (Moscow); Dr. G. Lappo (Moscow), Dr. S. Lentz (Germany); Dr. A. Murphy (USA); Dr. N. Mironenko (Moscow); Dr. J.-R. Pitte (France); Dr. M. Sharygin (Perm)

Editorial board: A. Aguirrechu (Moscow); A. Alekseev (Moscow); V. Baburin (Moscow); V. Belozerov (Stavropol), L. Vardomskiy (Moscow); Yu. Kovalev (Smo- lensk); O. Kuznetsova (Moscow); L. Mazhar (Smolensk); T. Pototskaya (Smolensk); I. Rodion- ova (Moscow); L. Smirnyagin (Moscow); S. Tark- hov (Moscow); A. Tkachenko (Tver); G. Fedorov (Kaliningrad)

Academic Secretary: Yu. Kovalev (Smolensk)

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[email protected] C REGIONAL RESEARCH, 2015 2 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015

CONTENTS

EDITOR’S COLUMN ...... 3

THEORY AND METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH Baburin V.L. Unified model of settlement and location of production ...... 4 Danshin A.I. Contemporary trends and priorities within progress of Russian agricultural geography ...... 14 Savoskul M.S. Migration study in social geography in Russia: interdisciplinary approach ...... 24 Shuper V.A. Society spatial self-organisation as research field and university course ...... 34

RESEARCH METHODS Bityukova V.R. Integral estimation of environmental situation in Russian cities and towns ...... 42 Gladkevich G.I. Economic geographical approach to assessment of territory in natural resource management ...... 49 Popov A.A. Spatiotemporal analysis of key factors for residential real estate estimates in Moscow ...... 60

PRACTICAL RESEARCH Аlekseev А.I. Man and nature in development of rural areas of Non-Chernozem zone ...... 71 Goryachko M.D. Potential influence of large-scale investment projects in Russia on socio-economic development of regions ...... 77 Zubarevich N.V., Safronov S.G. Spatial inequality of money incomes in Russian regions and other large post-Soviet countries ...... 88 Kazmin M.A. Land market in post-Soviet Russia: territorial aspects of formation and development ...... 97 Kuznetsova O.V. Problems of evaluation of federal investment policy as factor of regional development ...... 111 Makhrova A.G., Kirillov P.L. ’Housing Dimension’ of Contemporary Urbanisation in Russia ...... 118

RESEARCH HISTORY Aguirrechu A.A. Establishment and early decades of the department of economic geography of the USSR (Russia) at Moscow University: historic and geographical research ...... 129

Data on authors ...... 142 3

EDITOR’S COLUMN

Dear friends!

This special issue of ‘Regional Research’ for the 2015 IGU Regional Conference represents the collection of papers by the staff members of Department of Economic and Social Geography of Rus- sia (Faculty of Geography, Lomonosov Moscow State University). The Department was founded in Moscow State University in 1929 byone of the pioneers of Soviet/Russian economic geography Nikolai Nikolaevich Baranski and since then for decades,it remained the leading national institution for the human geography studies. Itisthe largest and most famous University centres in the field of socio-economic geography in Russia. Professors, assistant professors, researchers, graduate students and students of the Department are permanent authors of original scientific articles published in ‘Regional Research’. The Department, in fact, isone of the founders of the journal and part of its staff not only are members of the Editorial Board of the journal, but also consistently participate in the preparation of its issues, including reviewing and refereeing incoming articles. The content of submitted articles reflects general research interests of the staff of the Department. The papers are of various ‘nature’– conceptual, analytical,and methodological.Some are dedicated to the results of specific studies in various fields of socio-economic geography. A special section is devoted to the history of the Department. On behalf of the Editors and the Editorial Board of the journal, I want to congratulate the team of the Department of Economic and Social Geography of Russia with the 85th Anniversary of the Department and wish them further success for the benefit of Geography!

A. Katrovskiy (Editor) 4 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 THEORY AND METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH

Baburin V.L. (Moscow) UNIFIED MODEL OF SETTLEMENT AND LOCATION OF PRODUCTION

Abstract. The article considers the spatial relationship between internal structure of regional systems of settlements and social and economic functions performed by those systems. The aim is to build a unified model of settlement and location based on models of spatial analysis and production functions. This article offers a combination of these two classes of models to assess relationship between density and settlement structureand economic potential of a territory in order to create social and economic development forecasts for regions. Keywords: spatial models of settlement, production functions, settlement system, Russian regions.

Introduction. A gap between research in size of the largest city divided into the ranking production and non-production spheres and set- number (rank) of the former. Later G. Zipf spread tlement of population has emerged and is wid- this model on a wider range of human activities ening in modern economic geography. How- and formulated Zipf’s law «rank-size» according ever, all processes are closely interconnected to which population size of n town (Nr) equals to in reality and this connection is wavy and not 1/n of population size of the largest city: strictly determined. Furthermore, it is extremely difficult to determine, what is the argument and Nr = N1 / r, what is the function. A hypothesis may be put forward that those two most important subsys- where r – rank of the town, Nr – population size tems alternate with each other in terms of civi- of the town of rrank, N1 – population size of the lization development – the leader becomes the largest city. follower and vice versa. Classical papers on modeling urban settle- Nowadays there is a rather broad class of ment include the article «On sizes of towns models describing the state of spatial settlement united in a system» («О размерах городов, systems. However, as a rule, demographic and объединенных в систему») by Y.V. Medved- economic components are studied separately, as kov [10]. He suggests a formula: well as urban and rural population being distin- -1 -b guished within settlement component. Пj = к ∙ П1 ∙ J , Having no intention of carrying out a comprehensive review of papers on this problem, let where Пj – population size ofjtown in ranking, us focus on those, important for the following П1 – population size of the first city; k and b – models. One of first Russian scientists to create constant parameters, reflecting characteristics a model of urban geographywas V.P. Semenov- of the specific system, and, similarly to correla- Tyan-Shansky who suggested a geographical tion factor, serving as a formal «mathematical law in his paper «Town and village in Europe- model of the structure of a system of towns». As an Russia» («Город и деревня в Европейской a rule, Zipf’s law was used to rank towns and России») (1910), according to this law a city is only in rare cases to rank rural settlements [2]. the centre of a planetary system, smaller towns, Currently many scientists (S.M. Gusein- economically dependent on the centre, emerge Zade, A.A. Pavlov and others) have demon- around it. Nearly at that time (1913) F. Auer- strated that Zipf’s law bears probabilistic nature, bach established a pattern, under which popula- and deviations are connected to natural historic tion size of any town is equal to the population and social and cultural features of a territory [5]. Baburin V.L. 5 A classical paper on typology of rural set- cluding degradation of settlement systems in the tlements is the monograph «Rural settlement» affected area. («Сельское расселение») by S.A. Kovalev: V. Shuper found a solution to this problem research is carried out based on the criterion which consisted in applying a curvature of space of population size – a complex index, represent- tool to the ideal Christallerian lattice, when it ing economic, historical and settlement features bends under the strain of agglomeration core of a human settlement. Population size largely (the centre). As the result centres of the second determines the lifestyle of people in a settlement rank coincide with the core and centres of the and S.A. Kovalev distinguishes relevant types third rank concentrate around the core, if we of rural settlement in the USSR [7]. project the image onto the planar surface (with Ideas of interconnection between towns with an adjustment of mutual repulsion force be- various population size were structured in a spa- tween towns of the same hierarchy level). This tial model by W. Christaller (1933), which, for is how the name of the modified theory origi- the first time, was oriented on practical optimi- nated – relative central place theory [12]. zation of settlement systems. He formulated a Beckmann-Parr’s equation, that describes theory of optimal location of towns, basic no- relationship between sizes of central places tions of which were central place, surrounding of adjacent hierarchy levels, is violated in this areas, demand cone. There is a definite rela- system (as k is not a constant value): tionship between the size of towns and the de- P − kK m = velopment level of functions of retail trade cen- − , tre in Christaller’s urban settlement. P +1m k1

Dealing with more recent works, we should where Pm – population size of a central place focus on approaches to modeling and quantita- of m hierarchy level, Pm+1 – population size of tive assessment of urban settlement by V.A. Shu- a central place of m+1 hierarchy level, K – hier- per who suggests a synthesis of synergetics and archy type, k – share of the central place in the Christaller’s central place theory [13]. In those affected area [13]. approaches he proves that with a running value The concept of isostatic balance introduced of the share of central place, population of cen- by V. Shuper allowed to detect a proportional tral place at higher hierarchy levels will be twice function between the nature of spatial organi- smaller than population of surrounding settle- zation of urban settlement and the proportion ments, which is highly unlikely. The first para- of population between different hierarchy levels dox is related to a constant value of the share [13]. There are heavy and light hierarchy levels. of central place in population of its area at all First ones are characterized by a larger popula- hierarchy levels. The second paradox stated by tion size compared to an ideal lattice, for the sec- V. Shuper consists in inability of Christaller’s ond ones the opposite is true. It is obvious that model to be used to describe agglomeration ef- to maintain the balance heavy levels will shift fect. It appears as the result of centres of m level towards periphery and light levels will move to shifting towards centres of m–1 level, and as the the main centre. Then the condition of isostatic result of depletion of the range of services. Both balance of a settlement system (between heavy m centres and m–1centres benefit from this sys- and light levels) is described by the following tem: larger cities develop at the expense of la- equation: bour force of their satellite towns, smaller towns R t n −−= get a faster access to innovations as the result ∑ e c1m , of diffusion of innovations. Centres of m+1 n Rn t level suffer the most in such system as mcentres where R n – theoretical radius (correlation be- shift towards a larger centre, while they experi- tween actual and theoretical population for ev- e ence deficit of services and their population has ery level), R n – empiric radius (correlation be- to migrate to mandm–1centres, which leads to tween actual and theoretical distance between formation of depressed areas near large centres. main centre and centres of each lower level), A hypothesis may be put forward that territo- m – number of hierarchy levels in central place rial production complexes of various hierarchi- system less the first one, с – number of levels cal level have a similar effect as they demand excluded in case of concentration. This equa- all labour and natural resources, depleting sur- tion less c is applicable to standard Christall- rounding areas and provoking degradation, in- erian lattice [13]. 6 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 It is fair to assume that classical and rela- changes in the former, and direct contribution tive central place theories (CPTs) are two polar of natural conditions diminishes as productive options, while the majority of actual settlement forces in society strengthen and population den- systems are described by modelsoftransition sity increases. That is related to greater demo- types. An extensive analysis of manifestation graphic capacity of a territory that increases due of isostatic state and of the settlement system to more productive technologies, more redistri- itself may serve a basis for forecasting its de- butions, and diffusion of innovations in the ter- velopment and detecting new «growth areas», ritory. Finally a permanent decrease of the influ- which is especially relevant for modern Russian ence of natural factor occurs, especially when economy (for example, to place new produc- the industrial age begins1. At the same time both tions where it is mostly rational from the point qualitative and quantitative transformations take of view of completing the formation of local place, both the size and the number of human settlement system with isostatic balance). settlements grow. Altogether this results in However, ideas presented by A. Lösch [9], changes of hierarchy structure and the «basis» who developed a more complex model of urban of a settlement system. settlement, are closer to the author. He brought Nevertheless, even today settlement is forward a theory of production settlement (pro- closely related to the natural component, that duction as a rule is attached to towns) within is reflected in genesis of settlements [4]. Most a market economy. He generalized earlier human settlements emerged when natural in- studies in economic location (J. von Thünen, fluence on economy was huge (the agricultur- W. Launhardt, A. Weber and others) and created al age), and settlement is a system, the state a concept of economic landscape for which the of which at tn moment largely depends on its main factor is represented by distribution areas state at tn–1 moment. So many towns are located for enterprises of different levels that form a net- on large or medium rivers due to the fact that work of economic areas with nodes in towns. they emerged when rivers were main trans- The main difference between Lösch’s model portation routes and sources of water. Valleys and Christaller’s theory is that Lösch is oriented of rivers(left bank areas) became main areas, on market balance, not on a mechanical balance on which large industrial enterprises, demand- of «ideal concepts» by means of regulations, in ing vast plane territories, concentrated in the fact it is a model of spatial self-organization of industrial age. As a whole, natural component society and its economic life. represents a combination of many factors generating the landscape. Being transformed by Formulating unified concept of settlement social processes, the landscape becomes man- and economic location. A system paradigm made (Shalnev distinguishes natural, natural underlies the suggested interpretation of unified and cultural, cultural and natural, and cultural settlement system combined with production landscapes). There are extreme cases when the functions it performs. According to P. Haggett role of «direct» natural processes tends to zero geography studies open systems («node areas») (largest cities, agglomerations). that are, according to R.J. Chorley, characterized by an inflow of external energy, maintenance of General concept of model. Unlike natu- homeostasis by means of self-regulating pro- ral component, economic component dem- cesses, preservation of optimal values during onstrates increase in influence on settlement lasting period of their organization forms, no system. Let us examine the dynamics of inter- aiming at maximum entropy state, similar fi- relation between settlement and economic ac- nal development results regardless of the initial tivity from the point of view of technological conditions. In other words, any natural econom- cycles [1, 4]. ic spatial system develops being dependent on Technological cycle (TC) is a combination two components: natural component and social of relatively stable typical production processes and economic component. Moreover, there is a (combination of technological processes, domi- complex interaction of those components when nant for a given historic stage, and correspond- a projection of economic organization of a ter- ing structures) that transform natural resources ritory on its natural resource potential triggers into cultural values. They concentrate thousands

1 Here we mean a direct influence of the elements of natural resource potential of a territory, while indirect influence remains and as a rule is described by complex periodic cycles. Baburin V.L. 7 of innovations, i.e. any commonly recognized (agriculture, forestry, hunting industry, novelties in production and non-production mining industry, etc) spheres, as well as in settlement and in personal TC of the second rank – use products lives of citizens [1, 3]. of TC of the first rankas raw materials Each cycle consists of several stages, de- (manufacturing, construction, etc) veloping consecutively because of the develop- TC of the third rank – utilize results ment of the society: of other TC activity including technolo- primary: adaptation of natural resources gies of using recyclable materials that to a standard technology; minimize direct pressure on the environ- secondary: modification of properties ment (pollution) of natural resources based on a standard TC of n rank – later redistributions in technology; the spheres of services and personal con- tertiary: adaptation of cycle production sumption (only indirectly touched upon to the requirements of TC of the follow- in this article). ing ranks. It is clear that the development of produc- The idea of TC itself represents a modern- tive forces makes TC more complicated, de- ized variation of concept of PPC (power-pro- creases the number of cycles of the first rank, duction cycles) by N.N. Kolosovsky [8]. There intensely develops cycles of the second, third are 3 basic types of TC to which settlement sys- and higher ranks. Here the main trend con- tem is directly related (fig. 1): sists in a less important role of natural factors TC of the first rank – extract raw mate- in the mechanism of TC itself. TC of the first rials directly from natural environment rank create mostly rural settlements or small

TC of rank n

Products

TC of rank 2

Waste

Products 2

Waste Waste

Products

Waste

TC of rank 1 TC of utilization

3 1

2 2

1 3

Resources Waste

Nature

1 – primary stage 2 – secondary stage 3 – tertiary stage

Fig. 1. Dynamic model of technological cycles 8 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 townships that are very similar to villages (e.g. tion between agricultural and industrial segment emerging as the result of logging or fishery), and service sector is non-linear (fig. 2). TC of higher rank and most complex TC of the Therefore, settlements based on production, first rank create urban settlements. It should directly using natural resource potential (agri- be clear that a TC may be concentrated within culture, hunting industry, fishery, mining indus- one territorial unit (for example, an industrial try, and logging), are concentrated at the bottom complex of local level – of a node), or may be of hierarchical structure. Their population size disintegrated in the space by stages. Natural- and distribution density (number of settlements ly, these two cases have different effects on a of specific population size per unit area) is de- settlement system. It should be noted that eco- termined by the capacity of resource being used nomic component of settlement system is more per unit area and type of its distribution on terri- mobile and gives nearly real-time reaction on tory, by level of productive forces development, conjuncture cycles, while the reaction of popu- and by historic and cultural features of territorial lation is mediated by labour market, and migra- communities. tion component manifests with a considerable S.A. Kovalev demonstrated that latitudi- lag. All this generates constant disproportions nal zonality and altitudinal zonality are inher- between economic and population components ent to agricultural settlements (since agricul- of settlement system. Monotowns are the most tural enterprises use resources subject to laws illustrative example of this. of latitudinal zonality and altitudinal zonality). Thus it may be stated that a settlement system However, there are many other factors apart is a social and economic geographical system, from this basic one. For example, it was stat- representing a hierarchically reciprocally subor- ed above that the type of distribution of a re- dinate combination of human settlements, and source on a territory is extremely important. In a human settlement is a spatial projection of TC the north of European part of Russia lands that given its natural peculiarities and previous stages are convenient for agriculture are fragmentarily of development of the human settlement [2]. distributed (there are a lot of bogs, forests with Within the economic subsystem service sec- acid soil, lakes, etc) which resulted in finely tor has a considerable lag with regard to produc- contoured and highly disintegrated agricultural tion, as it is a derivative of manufacturing (TC lands, all settlements are bound to slopes of of the second and higher ranks) and of agricul- large geographical mesoforms (river valleys, ture (TC of the first rank), since base effective hills, heights, macroslopes of moraines on the demand forms in these sectors, and this demand border with sandurs), preferably drained and, as triggers service sector multiplier, while the rela- the result, less degraded and without gleying.

volume of service sector

volume of real sector

Fig. 2. Non-linear relation between sectors of economy Baburin V.L. 9 It is obvious that those territories are not nu- other words, the better the EGP is, the fewer merous and are relatively small. So there are points with such EGP are. Therefore, the larger a lot of settlements with small population size, the population size is, the lower the probability unlike the south of European part of Rus- of their appearance is. sia where vast homogeneous masses of lands are located to which corresponds a settlement °= FY xf )Z(  , (1) structure with a lower number of settlements with larger population size. where Y – number of settlements that depends Mining and logging industry settlements are on the size (area) of a territory and on the mea- not subject to zonality in their distribution, they sure of its development, that determines λ fac- are bound to deposits of mineral resources and tor, a constant factor for this territory, then Y has ranges of forest landscapes. an inverse relations with x, that is determined by Generally the lowest (rural human settle- a constant n factor; x – population size of settlements) level, so called base level, has a dis- ments, an independent variable, with a range tribution of population of human settlements from 0 to +∞; z – EGP of human settlements. by population size that is close to normal. The Generally the correlation between density highest level of settlement system has a hier- of distribution of human settlements and their pop- archic structure correspondent with the devel- ulation size may be described with a formula [2]: opment of TC of the second and the third rank − and various combinations of them. There are λ ⋅= xI n, (2) three scenarios according to which an urban settlement emerges: a settlement is initially cre- where I – density of distribution of human settle- ated as an urban settlement, a settlement transits mentswith a given population size per unit area from a rural settlement to an urban settlement, (1000 km2); x – population size; λ – a constant and a mining township (or more often a group factor related to the density of distribution of hu- of townships) grows and forms an urban settle- man settlementsthat form the basis of the settlement. One of main reasons why a hierarchy oc- ment system. It is this factor that reflects the im- curs on the highest level is the disintegration pact of natural factors given ethnic and cultural of TC in the space by stages, different combina- and other peculiarities of territorial communities tions of TC, and, definitely, concentration and of population on regional settlement system; n – specialization of production. factor of hierarchy of human settlements with All this leads to more complicated rela- different population size that is a constant for tions within the system and to grouping (self- each moment for the system and that depends on organization) of settlements. As the result such natural and historic and social and cultural pre- complex forms of settlements as agglomerations requisites of development, in fact it reflects the and conurbations emerge [2], that distort both contrast of a settlement system. hierarchic and spatial components of a settle- Taking the logarithm of the equation (2), ment system. we get: Formulating a model.There is an important loglog λ ⋅−= log xnI (3) question in economic and social geography: what is the argument and what is the function Let us introduce a substitution log I = y, log within the development of a settlement system? λ = A, log x = X. Then: Population size of settlements or their number? According to a dominant opinion population y A ⋅−= Xn , (4) size of settlements is the function of their rank. However, when viewing this problem within a i.e. a regression curve that transforms into a system paradigm it becomes obvious that eco- straight line in a double logarithmic scale. In this nomic and geographical position (EGP) (attrac- case n = tg (a), wherea – angle between function tor) of a human settlement defines its place in graph and ОХ axis, i.e. n – factor, defining hi- the system, i.e. its potential population size. We erarchy structure of settlements between X-axis should bear in mind that a general rule here is and regression line Y = А – n Х (fig. 3). In this as follows: there are a lot of places with nor- case factor А will define density of settlements mal EGP, there are less places with good one, for different systemsaccording to the «basis», and there are very few with unique EGP. In that, in its turn, is a derivative of natural and 10 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015

Fig. 3. Equation graph (4) historic and social and cultural prerequisites of by factors of the ratio of employed population settlement and development of a territory. to the total population, we get population size Factorndefines hierarchy (contrast of settle- by settlements. The mechanism of production ment system) (n1 > n2 > n3)and is in a certain way function allows to calculate such parameters, related to Christaller’s postulate on a fixed value that are important for efficiency evaluation of of К. However, unlike K, that does not define settlements and settlement systems, as average a1 а2 (does not show) differences in population size (Y/X1=A0X1 , a1-1 X2 ) and maximum pro- between settlements of different rank, this factor ductivity [11]. Maximum productivity demon- may give this evaluation at particular values of K. strates the number of extra production (service) There is a close connection between demo- units that becomes available with an extra la- graphic and production potential of Russia’s ter- bour unit. This means that the closer the value ritory [8, 11]. It manifests through the correlation of а1is to 1, the more beneficial it is to extend of modeled parameters of a regional settlement production at all other conditions being equal. system I = λ · x-n, settlement field potential It is crucial that the mechanism of production functions allows to assess the elasticity of pro- Pj j = KY duction output (dy / d2 ∙ x1 / y = a1) by labour Dijr inputs. Thus it is possible to relate everyday life and modeled parameters of economic structure – of population to resulting settlement and eco- production functions [17]. The simplest way to nomic characteristics. express basic relations in economic (production) In this case a possibility emerges to express process is Cobb–Douglas production function population size of a settlement through the βα ( γ ⋅⋅= xxK 21 , where α+β ≥ 1). It express- amount of production/services and main funds: es basic relationship between main production a2 E factors (labourx1and capitalx2 (main funds)) in Pj = L ∙ (Y / X2 ) (5) the process of production of GDP (GRP or municipal analogues). Labour, in monetary and in where Pj is population size of jsettlement, L and human terms, is part of the weights of settle- E are constant factors. It is important to em- ments in the formula expression of potential phasize that the above given equation allows of a settlement field (as part of the able-bodied to determine changes in population size only population of settlement I (Ntri) employed in for a rather homogeneous structure (industry) Jindustry) for a territory. Then the sum of em- of economy. If the structure is highly fluctuat- ployed in industries by settlements will be the ing, this expression describes only a general number of able-bodied population of a settle- tendency. L and E factors allow to compare ment, and the sum of settlements will be the both individual regional settlement systems and number of employed in J industry. Multiplying changes through time within one system. Baburin V.L. 11 In its turn a combination of industries mutual verification of social and economic sub- (scope of activities) in a settlement determines systems of the society. the complexity of its economic structure or di- The presented approach may be formalized. versity that is calculated based on Shannon’s The formula of settlement field potential is well- formula n known in economic geography for a rather long time. If we assume that −= ∑ log ppH ii , =1i ⋅ mm 21 where H – the amount of information, n – num- Y = γ , (6) Rn ber of possible events, pi – probability of ievent. Technically this formula allows to relate where R – distance between social and economic the number of economic entities in a settlement entities (population size, number of employed, (settlement system) to the number (diversity) of overall production of goods and services, etc.); specializations, that, in its turn, allows to deter- n – permeability of space; m – mass of social mine the attractiveness of place (places) of resi- and economic entities; γ – constant value reflect- dency, migration and investment flows. ing the type of social and economic space, then Moreover, inner structure of a settlement re- the formula (6) may be transformed into a den- flects changes in diversity of settlement’s func- sity characteristics of the space tions depending on its population size. Changes in population size are, on the one hand, a result = RS 2 , (7) of greater diversity (here we can see an evident similarity with Christaller’s model, but the ex- ⋅ mm p = 21 pression may have a denumerable type for each s . (8) of settlements), and, on the other hand, greater population size generates demand for more and Factorn (r) theoretically may vary in a more new functions (satisfaction of needs). rather wide range (according to Gusein-Zade A problem of monotowns is that the rule of from 1 to 3). 1 corresponds to the state of space diversity growth due to increase in population when the intensity of field rests nearly the same size of a town is violated in them, and, as the re- while going away from centre – mass (as a rule sult, potential for diversification is much lower. in large polycentric agglomerations). Greater At the same time they are more specialized and value of nmeans that it becomes more difficult in the phase of high conjuncture for a specialized to get through the space, as the resistance grows product (service) they have obvious advantages (as a rule it is related to insufficiently developed (make excess profit). Of course in the phase a infrastructure). As the result, potential field below conjuncture they become «unprofitable». comes more and more contrasting until it ac- There are certain peculiarities in applying tually «separates» into individual elements at model of potential of a settlement field (field high values ofn. Generally the more developed of economic activity) that should be noted. infrastructure is, the lower the value of nis. If we compress all settlements in a point (high- As a rule, there is a shift of factor values to- ly dense areal), we get negligibly small dis- ward 1 on the axis of time. In principle, the at- tances and a large number of settlements and tributes of space in different points are different total population size and as the result maxi- on the same territory at the same moment, so n mum values of potential. This situation may value will be changing, i.e. transforming from occur either due to greater number of elements a constant to a variable under the law of core- (settlements) in a system, or due to lower resis- periphery dichotomy. tance of space (lower values of n, that tends to Field characteristics of social and econom- 1), but more frequently due to the combination ic potential are subject to the impact of cyclic of both factors. processes (uneven development) in nature and This correlation allows to unite in a single in society. Then during crisis n increases, dur- space-time system a demographic potential (in ing expansion it decreases. In principle m1an- its settlement component), that is more stable dm2should decrease as well but much more and partly determined by the nature of Russian smoothly and with a time lag. In the phase regions, and production potential, that is con- of crisis the field weakens and blurs getting stantly under pressure of conjuncture cycles. more contrasting. Market size decreases, share An imitation model that is based on this allows of depressed elements in the system grows, den- 12 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 sity goes down, and solidarity relations in the When the two series were added together, society weaken. This is well demonstrated by the resulting united series was ready for further the dynamics of patent field [1, 3, 6, 7]. processing. The first operation consists in defining the den- Methods of calculation. The complexity of sity of distribution of settlements on the territory of 2 the stated task required elaboration of specific regions (per 100 000 km ), i.e. n /S1 ∙ S0, where n – calculation methods. Analysis of differences be- number of settlements, S1 – area of administrative 2 tween areas in settlement on the territory of the units, S0 – 100 000 км . In practice we defined the

USSR and Russia for the period from 1970 to ratio S0 / S1 = Р, and thennwas multiplied by the re- 2010 has been carried out in order to validate the sulting Р factor. Finally we get spatial distribution proposed model. It should be noted that quite of settlements of different population size across often formal statistics distort real situation. The the territory of Russia/RSFSR for different census underlying principle of gathering data by ad- dates. But uneven statistical categories of popula- ministrative units, mismatch between adminis- tion size required making intervals equal. To this trative and actual borders of towns and cities, end the number of settlements in a category (e.g. unification of several settlements into one are 6–10) was divided into the «size» of the category crucial disadvantages. Nevertheless information (i.e. the difference between Х and ∆X, where ∆X – is available and requires minimum processing. upper limit of a category (10), and Х – lower limit In order to get consistent series of population (5). General formula: size, data on rural and urban settlements were n united in the overlapping area, where settle- ∆ − ments with the same population size belonged XX to different categories (towns and rural settle- Thus we get an index: ments). This is related to the fact that limits are ( n ⋅ S S 0 ⋅ Pn not defined in population size tables (more than Y = 1 = , 5000 for rural settlements and less than 3000 for ∆ − XX ∆ urban settlements). Ordzhonikidzevskaya stan- wheren – number of settlements in a category itsa (rural locality) has population size of more of population size, P = S0 / S1 – factor for calcu- than 50000, another 20 rural settlements have lating the density of settlements within an ad- population size from 20000 to 50000, and 159 ministrative unit, ∆ – increment of population more, mainly in southern regions, have popu- size within the category. lation size from 10000 to 20000, at the same The main source of information were all- time 369 urban settlements had population size Union and all-Russian censuses of 1979, 1989, of less than 3000 and 312 more – from 3000 to 2002, and 2010. We took statistics by regions 5000. In order to get a continuous series of val- of the Russian Federation/RSFSR. Then rural ues of the number of settlements (both rural and and urban settlements were aggregated into a urban) by categories of population size (6–10, single data array in a table, with the largest rural 11–25, etc.) it was necessary to make a single settlements (more than 3000) being overlapped form and to recalculate values for marginal cate- with urban settlements (more than 5000), so gories (less than 3000 and more than 5000). For they were recalculated into one marginal cat- these purposes, in cases when no direct informa- egory (from 3000 to 5000). tion on settlements was available,the following Then the density of distribution of settle- method was applied: based on a condition that ments of each population size category was cal- urban settlements with population size less than culated by regions per 100 000 km2, i.e. 3000 are the basis of urban settlement systems, N average population size was calculated by di- p ⋅= 100000 , (9) viding the number of residents in the category S of less than 3000 into the number of settlements. where N – number of settlements in a given pop- Then we assumed normal distribution on this ulation size category, S – area of a region. basis and calculated the number of settlements As the result we get spatial distribution of in a relevant category of population size. Simi- settlements of different population size over the lar calculations were done for rural settlements Russian territory. for the top interval combined with a direct re- However, there is a problem here. Due to pe- calculation of settlements of the top categories. culiarities of collecting and processing of statis- Fig. 4. Calculating n Baburin V.L. 13 tics, the size of population size categories is not 2. We introduce a substitution log I = y, the same, so it is impossible to determine cor- log λ = A, log x = X, n = B: relation of settlements between categories. For this purpose it is required to divide calculated A – B ∙ X = y (14) density value for a given category into the size of this category: 3. Using least square method, we find p y = log I, X = log x in expression (10). For this I = , (10) the following system of equations is solved (15): верх − xx нижн  A ∑=⋅+⋅ ∑ yXBN wherex – upper limit of a category,  2 , (15) upper A ∑ X A ∑ ∑ ⋅=⋅+⋅ yXX )( xlower – lower limit of the category [2]. The next step is to find λ and n (please see where N – number of population size categories, (2)) for each region. (i.e. number of points based on which a straight There are two algorithms: line is built). Graphical analytic method represents a pro- 4. We express A from the first equation: cess of consecutive calculations: ⋅− XBy 1. A graph of dependency of log Ion log xis A = ∑∑ (16) built (please see fig. 4). N 2. λ and n factors are calculated based on the 5. Insert А (12) into the second equation and calculated dependency graph that is a regression express B: line consisting of several joint straight lines. ⋅ ∑∑ Xy 3. We calculaten (fig. 4). ∑ yX )( −⋅ = N B 2 (17) 2 ∑ X )( n = tg (a), (11) ∑ X − N − yy tg a )( = i j , (12) 6. Insert calculated value of В into the for- i − xx j mula (17) and find А. We calculate λ. The straight liney = A – n ∙ X 7. Exponenting the expression log λ = A, we crosses О yaxis. For this point value of X is find λ, from the substitution n = B we get n. equal to 0. Inserting into the equation of straight The calculated data (I, λ, n) may serve a ba- line, we find λ [2]. sis for analyzing the structure and dynamics of Mathematical statistics methods allow a dif- the Russian settlement system, for creating ty- ferent way of calculating factors: pologies, and for generating regional forecasts. 1. We use the following equation: This algorithm may be used to study settle- loglog λ ⋅−= log xnI . (13) ment system at the quantitative level, however, it is necessary to remember that each area has its peculiarities related to its economy, natural conditions and historical development, so a complex characteristics of a settlement system is important as well. Some of disadvantages of this method are inability to demonstrate peculiarities of group settlement and averaging of results for large areas. All this distorts the reality in a certain way.

Fig. 4. Calculating n 14 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 References

1. Бабурин В.Л. Инновационные циклы в российской экономике. 4-е. изд. – М.: Красанд, 2010. – 216 p. 2. Бабурин В.Л. Опыт количественного анализа типов расселения // Вестн. Моск. ун-та. Сер. 5. География. – 1975. – № 4. – P. 103–105. 3. Бабурин В.Л. Эволюция российских пространств: от Большого взрыва до наших дней (иннова- ционно-синергетический подход). – М.: Едиториал УРСС, 2002. – 262 p. 4. Бакланов П.Я., Романов М.Т. Мошков А.В. и др. Изменения в территориальных структурах хо- зяйства и расселения Дальнего Востока при переходе к рыночной экономике. – Владивосток, 1996. – 196 p. 5. Гусейн-Заде С.М. Модели размещения населения и населенных пунктов. Автореф. дисс. … докт. физ.-мат. наук. – М., 1990. – 27 p. 6. Зуев Г.М., Самохвалова Ж.В. Экономико-математические методы и модели. Межотраслевой анализ. – М.: МЭСИ, 1995. – 78 p. 7. Ковалёв С.А. Сельское расселение (Географическое исследование). – М.: Изд-во Моск. ун-та, 1963. 8. Колосовский Н.Н. Производственно-территориальное сочетание (комплекс) в советской эконо- мической географии // Колосовский Н.Н. Основы экономического районирования. – М.: Госполи- тиздат, 1958. – P. 133–175. 9. Леш А. Пространственная организация хозяйства. – М.: Наука, 2007. – 663 p. 10. Медведков Ю.В. О размерах городов объединенных в систему // Количественные методы ис- следований в экономической географии / ВИНИТИ, МФГО СССР. – М., 1964. – P. 90–121. 11. Терехов Л.Л. Производственные функции. – М.: Статистика, 1974. – 128 p. 12. Шупер В.А. Релятивистская теория центральных мест и расселение в постиндустриальную эпоху // География мирового развития. Вып. 2. Сб. науч. трудов. Под ред. Л.М. Синцерова. – М.: Тов-во научных изданий КМК, 2010. – P. 177–194. 13. Шупер В.А. Самоорганизация городского расселения. – М.: Рос. откр. ун-т., 1995. – 166 p.

Danshin A.I. (Moscow) CONTEMPORARY TRENDS AND PRIORITIES WITHIN PROGRESS OF RUSSIAN AGRICULTURAL GEOGRAPHY

Abstract. The article reviewed one of the branches of human geography – agricultural geography, its historical progress, contemporary research subject and evolution of research methods. The most significant trends in studies of spatial aspects of agriculture are represented. Particular attention concentrates on the prospective research areas of new priority. Keywords: geography of agriculture, rural areas, spatial features of agriculture, farm unit categories, agricultural organizations, family farm units, specialization and naturalization.

Statement of research task.The geogra- ena research methods, indicators and indices phy of agriculture (agricultural geography), used, frequently rejecting old ones. that has been developing within human ge- Being consistent with this perspective, it is ography, acquires features that are typical important to examine trends that appeared in not only for a natural science, but for a social Russian agricultural geography during post-So- science as well, that is subject to fundamen- viet development of agriculture, and to identify tal transformations in our country in the pe- directions for perspective study of spatial fea- riod when one social and economic formation tures of agriculture. gives way to the other. That is why conceptual and methodical approaches aimed at detection History of research. Agriculture, that is one of specific features of spatial development of of crucial branches of material production pro- the branch as a whole change dramatically, re- viding population with food and textile indus- search subject of this branch of geographical try with raw materials, involved analysis of al- science structures in a different way, and new location of individual branches without precise elements emerge, that had not been the focus definition of development factors at the early of agrogeographers earlier. The first stage of stages of development of social systems. Nearly development of new views sees the accumula- the entire oecumene could be described, like tion of new knowledge from the perspective it did Hecataeus of Miletus who characterized of a new social system, and then scientists all regions, that were known to him, as well as try to justify adequate approaches, phenom- agricultural activities within those regions [1], Danshin A.I. 15 or descriptions could be large-scale and charac- K.I. Arsenyev to P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, terize the «economy» (in the original sense of A.I. Skvortsov, B.N. Knipovich and others). the word1) within one Roman villa (see [8]). This Change of social and economic forma- descriptive character was typical for agricultural tion demanded new approaches to agricultural geography until late 18th – early 19th century, production, but sources of accumulated data when studies aimed at development of theoreti- of early 20th century exhausted only by the be- cal basis of agricultural geography emerged in ginning of 1930s. Studies by A.V. Chayanov, a number of European countries, including the B.N. Knipovich, A.A. Rybnikov, N.D. Kon- Russian Empire. The first stage of this period dratyev and others, based on these data, were saw descriptive generalization of material, that published as crucial fundamental works. By that provided for analysis of natural geographic con- time, researchers of spatial aspects of agricultur- ditions, soil typology, theories of influence of al production gradually divided into agrarians, natural components on a plant while it is cul- economists, and «naturalists». tivated. The geography often was an element The complexity of agriculture itself (with a of accumulated agricultural knowledge, like in large number of branches) and a significant num- the book by A.T. Bolotov2, while spatial compo- ber of interacting factors, defining development nent was determined only when spatial organiza- of this or that branch of agriculture, made it pos- tion of agriculture was a crucial part in the anal- sible to target economic and geographical studies ysis of economic parameters, like in studies by at proving the feasibility of using resource po- J. von Thünen, or of natural characteristics, like tential of a territory in order to develop a branch. in studies by V.V. Dokuchaev [6]. Primarily it was related to the necessity of search- By the early 20th century Russian agricul- ing for new methods of interpretation of land use tural geography gradually formed lines of rein different types of landscapes in the context search targeted at explanation of reasons for of specific features of spatial organization. natural and economic components, but what is One of leading scientists in Soviet agricul- important is that methods of agricultural region- tural geography, A.N. Rakitnikov, believed that al division using physiogeographical, agrarian, the main task of «…agricultural geography is to social and other criteria of assignment of re- give grounds for such differentiation in using gions emerge [5]. Many works were executed different parts of agricultural area of the coun- in the beginning of the Soviet period, but they try with different natural and economic condi- were based on statistical data collected earlier. tions…» that would ensure maximum economic Nearly all «forerunners»of Soviet economic re- effect of the development of the branch [15, gional division used agricultural criteria among p. 3]. Nowadays this approach is called techni- the most important ones due to poor industrial cal and economic line of agricultural geography development of Russia before the revolution. in many works by T.G. Nefedova. As a rule, agricultural criteria included both Size of the country, transition to large so- natural factors, the priority of which served as cialized economy, problems related to the rec- the basis of regional division by, for example, lamation of virgin lands3 required research in S.V. Bernstein-Kohan, and social and economic terms of large-scale projects. factors, on which A.N. Chelintsev insisted (he A.N. Rakitnikov assumed that this research compared a number of attributes, characterizing consists of four critical elements: organizational structure of agricultural produc- morphological and typological analysis tion). Scientists who believed that it is neces- of spatial differences of existing ag- sary to combine physiogeographical and so- riculture (analysis, classification, and cial and economic criteria in regional division mapping of land use, forms (systems) were rather numerous (from V.N. Tatishchev, of animal husbandry, organization

1 Economy – from ancient Greek οἶκος – house, household, household management andνόμος – nome, territory of household management and rule, law, literally, «rules of household management» (see Райзберг Б.А., Лозовский Л.Ш., Стародубцева Е.Б. Современный экономический словарь. – М.: ИНФРА-М, 2007. – 495 p.) 2 A.T. Bolotov, who spent a considerable part of his life in several manors, prepared a description of agriculture of these manors, having paid attention to specific features of life in the province, being as if a forerunner of the modern direction of research of rural areas. See Болотов А.Т. Жизнь и приключения Андрея Болотова, описанные самим им для своих потомков. – М.: Современник, 1986. – 768 с., Болотов А.Т. Избранные труды / Составители: А.П. Бердышев, В.Г. Поздняков. – М.: Агропромиздат, 1988. – 416 p.) 3 Reclamation of previously undisturbed lands took place throughout the history of Russia, but the term «virgin land» is generally used only for southern parts of Western Siberian lowland, tilled in mid 1950s. We use the term «virgin lands» referring to all reclaimed land. 16 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 of territory of agricultural organizations, from the perspective of natural conditions, was types of agricultural organizations and rather closely related to the approach on detect- their production relations, agricultural ing specific features of agriculture within given regional division); conditions of natural environment proposed by analysis of natural and economic condi- V.G. Kryuchkov. tions leading to spatial differences in the During the Soviet period everything was character of agriculture; subject to studies of planned proportional devel- historic and geographical analysis of ag- opment of socialized economy, support of pro- riculture as one of methods of detecting duction and employment of population, forma- dependence of differences in agricultural tion of different regions under different natural land use (possibility of detecting the in- conditions. The main criterion was the objec- fluence of new patterns in production al- tiveness of economic conditions. location when social and economic rela- For this purpose indicators, that were as a tions change); rule at the disposal of a scientist, were used that critical analysis of existing spatial or- determined the leading role of socialized farm ganization and provision of rationale of units (kolkhoz (collective farm), sovkhoz (state ways and means of improving it. farm), mezhkhoz (interfarm)) in receiving agri- A.N. Rakitnikov believed that «…it is possi- cultural products (Table 1). ble to evaluate, to measure the influence of these It should be noted that now, as in the Soviet unequal conditions adequately enough only via period, the role of family farm units (a) private the reaction of agricultural production on these subsidiary farming and b) garden associations)4 conditions, i.e. using economic indicators of is defined based on recalculation of a regular agricultural organizations» [15, p. 13–14]. sample (0.01% of all family farm units). Inci- He specifies in a footnote that this does not di- dentally even in agricultural census of 2006 the minish the importance of various technical pro- sample on b) was from 10 to 20%, given the fact duction indicators, but it is important to bear in that this phenomenon is wide-spread, which is mind that such indicators alone cannot be used a statistically correct value, but it presents only in order to construct a rational location of agri- averaged (poorly differentiated) indices for culture. It means that each researcher may use a each administrative unit. That is why the error certain set of indicators, reflecting actual loca- is small for large territories, but while analyzing tion of a branch. regional differences (administrative regions), By the end of the Soviet period two main this statistics may be not representative. approaches to studying existing reality of ag- Agricultural allocation by categories of farm riculture were considered to be basic. The ap- units may be defined quite precisely based on proach developed by A.N. Rakitnikov, attempt- land use indicators. As of 1 November 1990 citi- ing to explain spatial differences in agriculture zens used only 3.9 mln ha of agricultural lands

Table 1 Gross agricultural product (in comparable prices of 1983), RUB bn Gross agricultural product share of products of agricul- in farm units in agricultural tural organizations of all categories organizations in products of farm units of all categories, % including including horti- animal horti- animal horti- animal total total total yearly average culture husbandry culture husbandry culture husbandry 1976– 88.1 35.7 52.4 66.5 28.7 37.8 75.5 80.4 72.1 1980 1981– 92.4 36.5 55.9 70.1 29.3 40.8 75.9 80.3 73.0 1985 1986– 103.0 39.1 63.9 79.8 32.2 47.6 77.5 82.4 74.5 1990 Based on: [14].

4 Collection of annual statistics data on agricultural production, animal stock. Danshin A.I. 17 or 1.8% of all agricultural lands in the Russian the statement of the fact that the development Federation. At that, the number of «summer paradigm of the branch has changed. gardeners»dramatically increased from 1985 to Main basis tasks of this line of human geog- 1990. During this period the number of fami- raphy nearly have not changed for the last twen- lies with garden plots increased from 4.7 mln ty years, as the stability of country’s develop- to 8.5 mln (by factor of 1.8), and the area has ment and key trends have not been completely grown from 302 thousands ha to 576 thousands formulated yet. That is why the problem of clas- ha (by factor of 1.9) [14]. Even this growth al- sifying and mapping land use and agricultural lows to state with a great measure of certainty development of the territory is still relevant. that the role of this category of farm units in pro- This country with a vast territory cannot be duction and sales of agricultural products was proud of a significant use of lands for agricul- unimportant during the Soviet period. ture. Nearly two-thirds of its territory may be In many cases study of spatial aspects of al- used for agricultural production only within location of family farm units was carried out very narrow bounds. Only a little more than 12% within social geography –g eography of rural is involved in agricultural production which is area and rural geography (see a detailed de- similar to such countries as Japan, Jordan, Bah- scription in the article by M.Yu. Prisyazhnyy rein, Bhutan, the Democratic Republic of the [12]). This trend is typical for the majority of Congo. Throughout the regions of the Russian developed countries, when 1990s saw a gradual Federation this value varies from 85% in steppe decline in strong agricultural geography, and re- regions (combination of cultivated lands and searches became part of geography of rural area. pastures) to 1–2% in tundra. That is why differ- That is related to the vast set of topics included ent approaches in research methods are required in geography of rural area: from rural areas and for so different territories [3]. small towns, social aspects of territories to man- Works, reflecting a combination of views agement of natural resources and land use. of geographers from different countries on eval- Contemporary studies in agricultural geog- uation of land use in Russia, are of particular raphy. Currently in many countries traditional interest. For example, a recently published ar- agricultural geography (technical and economic ticle on the reasons for withdrawal of lands from line) is focused on studies of spatial structures agricultural use and possibilities of formation of various agricultural systems, on interaction of forest successions on these territories. This between the man and the environment, and on work is written from environmental perspec- stability and development of food systems. tive, but its methods turn out to be interesting Detailed knowledge on territories of de- for agrogeographers as well [13]. veloped countries leads to a more profound While in the past the main focus in the anal- analysis of the state and problems of rural ysis of land use was on technological aspects areas, including microstudies of individual of the use of territories, now it is important that territories up to house-to-house in-depth inafter an implemented land reform, the main fo- terviews with rural families on the specific cus is on reallocation of land funds not by types features of their existence. Recently western of lands, though it is necessary to study this as- researchers have paid their attention to world pect, but on reallocation by forms of ownership, regions where agricultural production does i.e. whether lands belong to private persons or not follow the path of social development, to shareholders. but intensely develops as a real sector of the Land reform determined different approaches economy. As a rule this is true for develop- to the allocation of lands in different regions. That ing states. There is a large percentage of such is why the analysis of land ownership is a crucial works among English,German and French direction for understanding agricultural situation scholars. Often agrogeographers attempt to in the region. As an example let us demonstrate find directions of agricultural geography in a differences and dynamics of area of lands, owned postmodern environment using new research by citizens, by Russian regions (Table 2). models and trying to reflect the influence of Dynamics of this indicator for the period all factors on the development of agriculture. of twelve years reflects institutional factor, At the current development stage of the Rus- rather than spatial factor. But the area of lands sian economy, the science as a whole and ag- owned by citizens (their share in total area of a ricultural geography in particular provides for territory) is determined by the quality of land 18 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 Table 2 Dynamics of area of lands owned by citizens (2001–2012) Changes in area of lands owned by citizens from 2001 to 2012 No lands owned Increase in area Stable indicators Decrease in area by citizens in 2001 of lands (no changes) of lands more Moscow Volgograd Oblast Voronezh Oblast than Stavropol Krai Kursk Oblast 45% Orenburg Oblast Tambov Oblast Rostov Oblast Tula Oblast Saratov Oblast Samara Oblast Oryol Oblast 24–45% Pskov Oblast Altai Krai Belgorod Oblast Republic of Adygea Bryansk Oblast Chuvash Republic Kaliningrad Oblast Novosibirsk Oblast Kaluga Oblast Chelyabinsk Oblast Lipetsk Oblast Omsk Oblast Nizhny Novgorod Udmurt Republic Oblast Kurgan Oblast Penza Oblast Krasnodar Krai Tatarstan Ivanovo Oblast Ryazan Oblast Republic of Mordovia Smolensk Oblast Ulyanovsk Oblast 10–20% Republic of Republic Kemerovo Oblast Bashkortostan of Khakassia Kirov Oblast Republic of Kalmykia Mari El Republic Vladimir Oblast Karachay–Cherkess Tumen Oblast Moscow Oblast Republic Tver Oblast Astrakhan Oblast Yaroslavl Oblast 3–10% Saint-Petersburg Perm Krai Kostroma Oblast Altai Republic Primorsky Krai Sverdlovsk Oblast Zabaykalsky Krai Republic of Buryatia Jewish Autonomous Amur Oblast Oblast Leningrad Oblast Vologda Oblast Novgorod Oblast less Republic Sakha (Yakutia) Murmansk Oblast Kabardino-Balkar than 3% of Dagestan Republic Chukotka Autono- Republic Republic of North Nenets Autonomous mous Okrug Krasnoyarsk Krai Ossetia–Alania Okrug Kamchatka Krai Republic of Karelia Republic Irkutsk Oblast Arkhangelsk Oblast Sakhalin Oblast of Ingushetia Komi Republic Magadan Oblast Khabarovsk Krai Share of area lands owned by citizens in total feder al subject (2012) Tyva Republic Khanty–Mansi Tomsk Oblast Chechen Republic Autonomous Okrug Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug Based on: [2, 17].

(total of natural and economic fertility) for them and processing enterprises. Currently a territories with large share of this category of new specialization is being formed in agricul- land (top of the table) and by a combination tural organizations in the context of economic of agroclimatic potential and institutional fac- situation in Russia and on the global agricultural tor where the share of this category of land is market. Arrival of major players in Russian ag- small (bottom of the table). ricultural business leads to revision of issues Definitely, a more detailed examination of related to specialization of territories. New lo- contemporary problems of land use is required. cal agro-industrial complexes, that are areas of This aspect is frequent in works by M.A. Ka- influence of processing enterprises, as well as zmin [7]. new sales markets of end products are created. The following crucial, traditional, and rel- Now administrative borders of subjects of Fed- evant element of technical and economic line in eration have become transparent for agricultural agricultural geography, that requires participa- production, that is what creates possibilities for tion of economic geographers in the analysis of formation of new zones of attraction. Existence regional changes in agriculture, is the study and of lands, owned by one holding company, in classification of existing types of agricultural different parts of the country often leads to an organizations and production relations between increase in transportation costs of intercompa- Danshin A.I. 19 ny products5, but those relations are, as a rule, role of agricultural organizations in production stable and allowing to redistribute costs of end gradually increases all over the country (fig. 1). products within the holding company. Studying But differences within the country are still very of these aspects is still difficult due to confiden- considerable (fig. 2). tiality of intercompany information. Fig. 2 does not offer obvious groupings, Often a territory in general may specialize except for the main data array. It is possible to in two or three branches, but specializations in distinguish only a group of 5 subjects (the bot- different categories of farm units may not be the tom right part of the triangle), where the share same. When an agroholding appears in an area, of agricultural organizations is very high while as a rule, branch on which the agroholding spe- the value of farming is very low (according to cializes disappears from family farm units. That the ascending order of values of family farm is related to veterinary and phytosanitary safety, units): Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, Nenets and to the possibility of receiving production for Autonomous Okrug, Belgorod Oblast, Mur- employees’own needs from holding. mansk Oblast, Leningrad Oblast. The subjects It is difficult to determine contemporary of Federation, where the share of agricultural specialization because of the absence of neces- organizations sharply decreases, attract certain sary statistical data (sold products) on each ag- interest. Ten territories have values below 20% ricultural producer, as the result some research- (tab. 3). But at the same time values of two other ers use indirect attributes, allowing to estimate indicators vary considerably (the top left part of contribution of a territory into the all-Russian the triangle on fig. 2). High values of farmer specialization of agriculture. Among the most farms, as a rule, highlight specific branches of interesting works we should mention identifi- specialization of the regions. cation of localization of crops by A.S. Naumov Development of market in this country, and I.N. Rubanov [9] and an attempt to cre- entry into the WTO, and, to a certain extent, ate a regional division pattern for the eastern change of a climatic component necessitate op- Russian regions by T.G. Nefedova [10]. Later timization of specialization based on relevant T.G. Nefedova has changed some indicators types of natural environment, creation of pre- while understanding their small importance for cisely determined zonal types of agriculture. regional division [11]. As a rule, production efficiency, profit maxi- In many cases we have to be guided by the mization, is on the first place, therefore, crops structural indicators, that ensure understanding of certain groups of cultures and certain groups of process development in different categories of animals are concentrated where develop- of farm units. According to the latest data, the ment conditions are optimum.

68,0 64,0 60,0 56,0 52,0 48,0 44,0 40,0 36,0 32,0 28,0 24,0 20,0 16,0 12,0 8,0 4,0 0,0 1992 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Fig. 1. Share of agricultural organizations in agricultural production, %

5 The enterprises that are part of a holding company, for example, grain processing enterprises, may not match areas of grain production spatially, that results in a need for transportation of raw materials to places of processing, though there may be other nearby organizational structures that could make products necessary for the holding company. 20 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015

Fig. 2. Structure of agricultural production in subjects of Federation by categories of farm units, 2013 (X – share of agricultural organizations, Y – share of family farm units, Z – share of farmer farms). Based on Rosstatdata–URL: http://www.gks.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosstat_main/ rosstat/ru/statistics/publications/catalog/doc_1265196018516

In the Soviet period directive methods of and melons within the Astrakhan Oblast or high management in agriculture often resulted in dis- concentration of milk production in areas of the crepancy between an optimum environment and Central Chernozem region. types of agriculture. The need of providing near- An important line, which was not signifi- ly 300 million people with all possible produc- cantly developed in agrogeographical research- tion, and a number of strategic industries with es, is the analysis of dynamics of production raw materials, demanded accentuation of some concentration of major products, made in differ- branches and prioritization of their location in ent branches of agriculture and different catego- optimum conditions. Many Soviet positions in ries of farms. specialization of territories have been lost, for Disintegration of planned economy led to example, essential domination of vegetables deconcentration in production of many products

Table 3 Structure of agricultural production by categories of farm units in subjects of Federation with a low share of the agricultural organizations, % Share in production, % Subjects of Federation agricultural family farm units farmer farms organizations Republic of Ingushetia 15 70 15 Republic of Dagestan 14 72 14 Chechen Republic 13 81 6 Republic of Kalmykia 12 57 31 Zabaykalsky Krai 12 79 9 Altai Republic 12 68 20 Republic of Tyva 12 81 7 Jewish Autonomous Oblast 11 63 26 Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug 8 72 20 Astrakhan region 8 50 42 Based on Rosstat data–URL: http://www.gks.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosstat_main/rosstat/ru/statistics/publications/catalog/doc_1265196018516. Danshin A.I. 21 Table 4 Concentration of production of potato in Russia Share Share Share in total in total in total Regions, Area, Regions, Area, Regions, Area, area of area of area of 1990 ha 2000 ha 2013 ha potato potato potato crops crops crops Bryansk Republic of Voronezh 141.9 0.0454 107.0 0.0329 97.9 0.0458 Oblast Bashkortostan Oblast Republic of Voronezh Republic of 124.3 0.0398 104.6 0.0322 93.1 0.0436 Tatarstan Oblast Bashkortostan Nizhny Republic Republic Novgorod 120.1 0.0384 104.3 0.0321 74.3 0.0348 of Tatarstan of Tatarstan Oblast Republic Moscow Krasnoyarsk of Bashkor- 109.7 0.0351 103.5 0.0318 72.5 0.0339 Oblast Krai tostan Moscow 109.6 0.0351 Altai Krai 97.7 0.0300 Altai Krai 63.5 0.0297 Oblast Ryazan Krasnodar Kursk 97.2 0.0311 89.7 0.0276 61.3 0.0287 Oblast Krai Oblast Nizhny Bryansk Altai Krai 77.8 0.0249 88.5 0.0272 Novgorod 57.6 0.0270 Oblast Oblast Sverdlovsk 76.8 0.0246 Kursk Oblast 87.7 0.0270 Krasnodar Krai 56.2 0.0263 Oblast Krasnoyarsk Kursk Oblast 74.8 0.0239 82.2 0.0253 Bryansk Oblast 56.2 0.0263 Krai Nizhny Voronezh Belgorod 72.4 0.0232 Novgorod 80.2 0.0247 52.5 0.0246 Oblast Oblast Oblast Total for Total for 3123.6 0.3216* 3251.9 0.2907* Total for Russia 2137.5 0.3205* Russia Russia *share of top 10 regions Source: Развитие агропромышленного комплекса РСФСР. – М.: Росинформцентр Госкомстата РСФСР, 1991. – 380 с. Регионы России. Социально-экономические показатели. 2002: Стат. сб. / Госкомстат России. − М., 2002. − 863 с., Посевные площади сельскохозяйственных культур Российской Федерации в 2013 году [Electronic resource] URL: http://www.gks.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosstat_main/rosstat/ru/statistics/publications/catalog/doc_1265196018516 (accessed 02.07.14). at the initial stage of market development [4]. Maximum share in crops and, therefore, Now this process has stopped since the major- maximum harvesting of sugar beet were typical ity of branches in horticulture took the optimum for the Central Chernozem region and Krasno- ecological positions. This process continues in dar Krai during the Soviet period. At the be- animal husbandry due to greater influence of not ginning of the 2000s all these subjects of Fed- natural development factors. eration sharply reduced production, whereas Potato, as one of cultures the location of 10 other regions, which did not use to grow beet, which is subject to the influence of both natural started its cultivation generally for receiving component and consumer and economic factor, sugar according to the tolling scheme. In most has had almost the same concentration of crops cases they were peripheral parts of the main for the last thirteen years (tab. 4). While for the area of cultivation, for example, Kalmykia and first ten years (1990–2000) the list of top man- Volgograd Oblast, Rostov Oblast, Chuvashia, ufacturing areas changed significantly, which Kaluga Oblast, Kabardino-Balkaria, Northern is less noticeable by areas, than by whole yield, Ossetia-Alania. Now a process of concentration during the second period only Moscow Oblast of crops takes place since the branch is almost disappeared from the list (having moved to completely within holding companies [18]. Six the 17th place, after reducing crops more than regions out of twenty-five yield more than 2/3 twice), giving its place in ranking to Belgorod of all factory sugar beets. Oblast which reduced the areas of crops less A sharp increase in livestock of small cattle dramatically. in the peripheral parts of the country that are 22 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015

14000 13000 12000 11000 10000 9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1991 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

крупныйbovine рогатыйcattle (withhout скот (без коров) cows) коровыcows свиньиpigs козыgoats овцыsheep лошадиhorses

Fig. 3. Dynamics of livestock of groups of animals in family farm units, thousands

poorly adapted to breeding of sheep and goats a ban on keeping animals (esthetics in large set- at the beginning of the Post-Soviet period, cur- tlements, antiepizootic actions). rently has been replaced by a recession in these All these reasons resulted in the livestock regions and fragmentary growth in areas of spe- of pigs and goats being decreased by more than cialization. Stabilization of food supply even 40%, and the livestock of cows and sheep being in the most remote parts of the country led to decreased by more than 20%. Livestocks of bo- subsidiary family farms reducing production in vine cattle and horses were almost stable. many subjects of Federation. One more direction of possible researches Naturalization of agriculture sharply in- in agricultural geography is studying of balance creased in the first years of the economic crisis of products in a spatial perspective, possibility when the price of production changed enor- of ensuring «regional security» in staple foods. mously within one agricultural season, and col- This is a foremost question, especially in areas lective farms and state farms preferred to use with unfavourable conditions for production. barter relations for mutual settlements among Agricultural enterprises of many peripheral re- themselves and their creditors. All this led to gions of the country reduced the production to a wide range of branches in each farm that of- meet optimum levels of consumption, though ten were unprofitable due to small quantities resources would allow to make more products, of production. Naturalization process gradually but the competitive environment limits produc- stopped in agricultural organizations when the tion and consumption of local production. Ag- mechanism of market started operating in the riculturally developed regions demand specific branch. But a kitchen garden, in many regions in production for individual categories of citizens: a combination with a plot outside a settlement, organic agriculture, dietary food, etc. This too remains a tradition in family farms. In animal has to be taken into account in the balance husbandry tendencies of decrease in a livestock of production as a primary element. in private farms are visible. There are a lot of reasons for this. Unwillingness to keep cattle, Conclusions. It was mentioned above that as a rule, is explained by great expenses, lack today researches close to agricultural geogra- of motivations, availability of all necessary phy may be studied in the context of adjacent products in shops, while inability to keep cattle fields of geography. Physiogeographers of al- is explained by difficulties of forage conserva- most all specialties view changes of attributes tion, old age, inability to sale part of production, of territories due to human activity as an applied Danshin A.I. 23 aspect, social geographers may go deep into the ment. Agricultural regional division, as a gener- analysis of activity of family farms, including alization of the accumulated knowledge on the such aspects of land use as garden plots. But territory, should exist as well, but, because of a the latest tendencies of changes in agriculture, changing specialization of many regions of the studying those tendencies, do not render tradi- country, it is necessary to create a monitoring tional directions of agrogeographical researches system of geographic information, able to react less important. It is still essential and necessary rapidly enough on changes and to generate new to classify and map certain forms of land use databases for drawing lines between territories, and forms (systems) of animal husbandry. Now main agricultural features of which are differ- it is impossible to do without studying forms ent, is required. of organization of the territory of agricultural The final stage of all researches should be organizations, moreover, large-scale researches connected with the development of recommen- are necessary right now, as lack of due control dations and practical conclusions and sugges- by regulatory bodies leads to violations of agro- tions, concerning the perspective spatial organi- technical norms and deterioration of the environ- zation of agriculture.

References

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Savoskul M.S. (Moscow) MIGRATION STUDY IN SOCIAL GEOGRAPHY IN RUSSIA: INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH1

Abstract. This article considers specific features of migration study in social and economic geography and in interdisciplinary sciences. A short review of history of migration study in the second half of the 20th century in Russia is submitted. Doctors’ and candidates’ theses on population migration in 1993–2013 serve a basis for analysis of main research directions. The article contains differences in statement of subject and scope of migration study depending on scientific direction. The most widespread topics, methods, and information sources for writing of theses on migration are analysed. Key words: social and economic geography, migration study, research methods.

Statement of research task. Population mi- for academic degrees of the candidate and doc- grations as a complex phenomenon draw atten- tor of sciencesin Russia(hereinafter, candidates’ tion of a wide range of researchers and often be- and doctors’ theses) on migration. This subject come the focus of public discussions. Migrations became the central plot of this publication. The became subject of researches of many scientific conclusion of the article suggests possible pros- directions and disciplines: from philosophy and pects of migration researches within social and psychology to statistics. Each of them introduc- economic geography. es its own conceptual approaches and research The decision to analyse qualifyingpapers on methods in migration study. As the result an migration, and not all publications on this sub- objective danger of isolation of migration re- ject was caused by the following reasons. First, searches within each of this directions emerges, the author assumed that institutionalisation and and existence of a large number of viewson the consolidation of research traditions in science role and consequences of migration for society, happens through the institute of defence of on the one hand, renders relevant, and, on the candidates’ and doctors’ theses, therefore, their other hand, complicates the problem of system- analysis allows to reveal already developed atisation of already accumulated experience in standard approaches to population migration re- migration study. All this necessitates the use of search. The analysis of this data array allows to an interdisciplinary approach to migration study. reveal specifics and place of this or that scien- Familiarity with the whole range of the accumu- tific direction in migration researches. lated knowledge on migrations, both theoretical, Second, both the candidate and the scientific and practical, borrowing and integration of meth- advisor usually pay more attention to formula- odological and methodical approaches consider- tion of concepts and terms presented in abstracts ably expands research opportunities in studying and theses, than to definitions presented in ar- this complex phenomenon. This has become the ticles or monographs. central theme of this publication. Third, theses allow to create a comparable The main task solved in the article is the review database whereas articles and monographs are and systematisation of experience of migration so diversified that it is difficult to systematise study in geography and interdisciplinary sciences and formalise them based on content analysis. (history, economics, demography, sociology, po- Fourth, an important reason was the fact that a litical sciences) during the period after 1991, and database of theses on migration study was neither also a specification of contribution of social and created nor analysed, and therefore it is of great economic geography to migration study. To fulfil interest. Whereas as for systematisation of scien- this purpose the emphasis in the article is put on tific monographs and articles on migration study consideration of the following thematic questions: this gap was eliminated in 2013 by the anthology traditions of migration study in Russia; develop- “Migration in Russia”(“Migratsiya v Rossii”)[4]. ment of migration researches in the second half of the 20th century; analysis of development of mi- Information base of article and research gration researches during the period from 1991 to methods. To analyse migration researches the 2013 on the basis of a database on defenceof theses author made a database of candidates’ and doc-

1 The author thanks A.A. Agirrechu for consultations in the process of drawing up information database on defence of candidates’ and doctors’ theses. Savoskul M.S. 25 tors’ theses on migration. Electronic library of was concentrated on the analysis of resettle- theses and abstracts [11] was used as an infor- ment movement, and the main attention was mation source. Theses were selected based on paid to colonisation subject (including within the following keywords in the names of theses: anthropogeography). Therefore,it was not a migrations, migratory, migrants, emigrations, mere coincidence that the term ”colonisation” emigratory, emigrants, immigration, immi- was wide spread during this period, it wasstud- gration, immigrants, resettlement movement, ied in researches by G.K. Guins, I.A. Gurvich, movement of population. A.A. Isaev, A.A. Kauffman, etc. [8]. Problems As the result the database analysed in the ar- of colonisation and resettlements in prerevo- ticle included 56 names of doctors’ and 414 can- lutionary years were investigated in their sys- didates’ theses on migration. Besides thepaper tematic correlation with agrarian and other topic and author’s surname, the following pa- social and economic problems [8]. Study- rameters were analysed: research subject, place ing of survival and development of new set- of defence, region of researches, information tlers was an important direction of research. base and research methods. A significant amount of works was devoted The author of article cannot claim that the to seasonal works of peasants that was caused analysed database contains 100% of all papers by the abolition of serfdom and the beginning on migration researches. But comparison of of the stage of active urbanisation in Russia. this electronic resource by a number of years The most significant researchers in this sphere with the data on defence of theses on the site during the pre-revolutionary period include of the Higher Attestation Commission (VAK) D.N. Zhbankov, N.V. Shakhovsky, N.V. Pono- [13] proved it to be highly representative. It is marev, N. Yezerskiy, L.P. Vesin, etc. [8]. possible to claim that the electronic library of It should be noted that during this period re- abstracts and theses included more than 90% of searchers usually used the term “resettlement”, all theses on migration defended in Post-Soviet not “population migration”. Russia for the period from 2000 to 2013. The second stage of migration study in Apart from the database, information Russia is the 1920s – the early 1930s. Ac- sourcesof the article were electronic catalog cording to L.L. Rybakovsky [8], during this of the Russian State Library [14], bibliograph- period the traditions of population migra- ic reference books on migration [2, 3, 4], and tion study,establishedbefore the Revolution, various references. Papers analysingtheses re- remained,which is partly connected with the searches in geographical sciences are not nu- continuation of resettlement movement to merous, therefore, their detailed analysis is not which works of L.E. Mintz,an economist, are presented in article. Among similar papers it is devoted. A significant contribution to studying possible to note A.A. Agirrechu’s publication on of resettlements was made by I. L. Yamzin [10], the structure and dynamics of defence of theses and economic aspects of migratory processes on social and economic geography [1]. were analysed by S.G. Strumilin [9]. The main method applied in the article was During this period running record of popu- the method of content analysis of texts of ab- lation movements in the USSR was organised, stracts of theses on migration. program of population census of 1926 was developed, which included questions concerning Traditions of migration study in Russia. migratory movements of population. Scientific Migration study in Russia has a long history. It literature discussed questions of administrative began in the second half of the 19th century with regulation and planning of population migra- studying of resettlement movements. According tions. V. M. Moiseenko studiedthis period in the to L.L. Rybakovsky, initially population migra- history of migration study in details [5]. tions became the focus of geographers and statisti- An opinion that the period of the 1930–1950s cians, and later of demographers and sociologists. became a period of “dark oblivion and collapse L.L. Rybakovsky identifies four stages of forma- of migratory science” is widespread in modern tion of migration researches [8] in his publication scientific literature. L.L. Rybakovsky reason- of 1998 that we will discuss in more detail. ably notes that the second half of the 1930s be- The first stageis pre-revolutionary, that came time when the scales of both voluntary, lasted from the second half of the 19th centu- and forced migrations grew, that could not be re- ry to 1917. During this period migration study flected in scientific publications for ideological 26 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 reasons. It is not improbable that results of pop- ing population (L.L. Rybakovsky, Zh.A. Zay- ulation census of 1937 played a certain role as onchkovskaya), emigration (V. V. Stepanov, its organisers were repressed, and demographic R.A. Vardanyan, V.D. Voynova), forced mi- and migratory perspective appeared a dangerous grations (P.M. Polyan, V.N. Zemskov), “brain sphere for researches for many years [8]. drain” (I.G. Ushkalov). There is a reduction The 1930–1950s are really characterised by of number of researches on pendular migrations, a significantly less attention of scientists -to mi theoretical and methodical questions of migra- gratory subject, but during this period there are tion study are practically not raised. researches of population migration of V.V. Pok- During this period there is a growth of the shishevsky, a geographer, who established many number ofresearch centres. Specialists of the traditions of population migration study in geo- Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of graphical science. In 1943–1947 he conducted his- the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Institute toric and geographical researches of processes of of History of the Russian Academy of Scienc- migration in the USSR which results laid a basis es start addressing population migration study for his doctor’s thesis on the subject “Geography more actively, non-state research centres(for of population migrations of Russia. Experience of example, Carnegie’s centre) andoffices of inter- historic and geographical research”(“Geografiya national organisations: International Organisa- migratsiy naseleniyav Rossii. Opyt istoriko-geo- tion for Migration (IOM), International Labour graficheskogo issledovaniya”) [6, 12] which was Organisation (ILO)emerge. successfully defended in 1949 at the faculty of ge- The fifth stage (2002 – to the present day) ography of MSU. V.V. Pokshishevsky introduced is characterised with a different scope of re- and began to apply actively the term “population search and a greater variety of methods. Pre- migration” instead of earlier more widespread vailing subjects of researches include external concept “resettlement”. labour migrations (Yu.F. Florinskaya, Zh.A. Za- The third stage began in the late 1960s and yonchkovskaya), internal labour migrations lasted up to the early 1990s. This is the time of (Yu.M. Plusnin), ethnic migrations (L.V. Osta- activation and emergence of various directions penko, I.A. Subbotina, V. S. Belozerov), adapta- in migration study. A considerable part of works tion of labour migrants in Russia (V. N. Petrov), is devoted to main tendencies in migratory be- migration policy in the world and in Russia haviour of population, including to non-return (V. I. Mukomel, I.V. Ivakhnyuk), cross-border migrations, methods of analysis of migratory migrations (G. I. Glushchenko, V. I. Dyatlov), mobility, questions of studying of methodology gender aspects of migration (E.V. Tyuryukanov). and classification of migrations. Focus of works Also there are papers on synthesis of migration during this period was on interregional internal theories in Russia and the world (T.N. Yudina, migrations of the population of the USSR, on the M.S. Blinova). The number of works on popu- analysis of migration village-city in the condi- lation migrations in foreign countries(S. V. Ry- tions of an active urbanisation. The perspective azantsev) increases. of survival of new settlers in regions of new de- This stage sees a formation of new research velopment and solution of personnel problems approaches to population migration study, non- in connection with outflow of population from statistical methods of research start being ap- rural areas became another important subject. plied more widely. New regional centres of so- During this period there are researches devoted cial geography, studying population migration to the analysis of commuting migrations. as well, are formed (Stavropol, Saratov, etc.). The fourth stage (1991–2002) is character- The following figures prove transformation ised with a totally different subject and nature of scales and dynamics of migration researches of migration researches after radical changes during the Soviet period and after 1991: accord- in country life. There are not only different au- ing to the electronic catalog of the Russian State thors [2, p. 286], but also an expansion of the library only 20 candidates’ theses on population scope of migration researches, including on migration and no doctors’ theseswere executed- previously”closed” directions. during the period from 1960 to 1991. More than The most popular subjects in population mi- 400 candidates’ theses and 50 doctors’ theses gration study at this stage are forced migration connected with migratory subject arein the data- in the former Soviet Union (G. S. Vitkovskaya, base of electronic library of theses for the period E.I. Filippova), migration of the Russian-speak- from 1992 to 2013. Savoskul M.S. 27 The annotated bibliographic index in the the only thing deserving thename of science…” anthology of population migrationcontains [7, p. 107]. more than 350 monographs, collections, and Therefore in this article we will analyse the brochures where the questions of population main theses, both candidates’, and doctors’ on migration study are raisedduring 2000–2012. migration defended during the period from 1993 460 materials on migration are published in to 2013. This period in Russia saw formation “Demoskop Weekly”, an electronic news bul- and consolidation of research traditions in mi- letin, for the same period [3, 4]. gration study. Expansion of scope of researches changes subject and scope of migration researches, it be- Dynamics of defence after 1993. Only from comes more and more interdisciplinary. There 1993 to 2013 more than 400 candidates’ theses are both positive, and negative side of this pro- on migration (the created database included cess. So, there is a certain isolation of popula- 414 works) and 54 doctors’ theses (fig. 1) were tion migration study within borders of certain defended. Interest in migration steadily in- research lines. Back in 1930 José Ortega y Gas- creased within 15 years till 2009 after that the setin his work “The revolt of the masses”called number of studies began to decrease. During the this process a “specialism” referring to natural period from 1993 to 2000 6–7 candidates’ theses sciences, which seemed to be true for humani- on average were defended annually. During the ties as well. Here is his quote: “It would be of period from 2001 to 2010 average annual num- great interest, and of greater utility than atfirst ber of defences was 26–27 candidates’ theses. sight appears, to draw up the history of physical Defence of doctors’ theses also confirm grow- and biologicalsciences, indicating the process of ing popularity of migration researches for the increasing specialisation in thework of investi- considered period: from 1993 to 2000 8 doctors’ gators. It would then be seen how, generation theses on migration were defended, and from aftergeneration, the scientist has been gradually 2001 to 2010 – more than 40. restricted and confinedinto narrower fields of Certain decrease in number of defences of mental occupation. But this is not theimportant candidates’ theses on migration in 2011–2013 point that such a history would show, but rather can be caused both by an exhaustion of most the reverseside of the matter: how in each gener- popular subjects in population migration study ation the scientist, through having to reduce the and filling of the scientific vacuum observed till sphere of his labour, was progressively losing- 1991, and by organisational and technical fac- contact with other branches of science, with that tors (part of papers have not got in electronic integral interpretation of the universe which is catalog of theses, used at creation of the data-

62,5

37,5

25 Number defences of Number

12,5

0 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

candidates’ theses doctors’ theses Fig. 1. Dynamics of defence of candidates’ and doctors’ theses on population migrations in 1993–2013 Source: the database created by the author 28 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 base, yet). Anyway the author avoids a con- on an example of the analysis of the subject and clusion about decrease in scientific interest in the scope of population migration study). population migrations so far. Branch structure of defence by scientific Places of defence of theses by directions. directions allows to reveal sciences which are Centralisation of the space and the leading role most actively studying population migration- of Moscow compared to other regions is traced snow. As figure 2 demonstrates, these are eco- in the analysis of places of defence of theses on nomics and demography, sociology, political the considered subject: the prevailing number sciences, history, and ethnography. In social and of works – 46%, or 205 out of 440 theses (where economic geography 22 candidates’ and 1 doc- the place of defence was specified) was defend- tors’ theses on migration were defended during ed in Moscow (fig. 3). the considered period. The leader in the number of defence of the- Such distribution of defence of candidates’ ses on migrationamong scientific organisations and doctors’ theses on branches of sciences is in Moscow is the Institute of Social and Political perhaps caused, besides traditions of migration Researches of the Russian Academy of Sciences study in demography and economics, and also where more than 30 candidates’ and 6 doctors’ in sociology, ethnography, and history, by a theses were defended from 1993 to 2013. The greater number of theses defended in these sci- second place on the number of defence of theses ences compared to social and economic geogra- on migration is occupied by Lomonosov Mos- phy and philosophy. cow State University (faculties of economics, Proceeding from own observations of the geography, sociology, history). author, and also judging by publications on mi- Defences of theses on migration are regular gration, it is possible to state that after 1991 so- in academic institutes (N.N. Miklukho-Maclai cial geographers make a smaller contribution to Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the population migration study, than representatives Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Ge- of other humanitarian disciplines. But it should ography of the Russian Academy of Sciences, be noted that many most significant researchers Institute of Sociology of the Russian Academy of population migration got geographical educa- of Sciences), and in higher educational institutions tion and only then their activity moved to inter- (Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia, disciplinary sciences (for example, V. I. Pereve- Russian Presidential Academy of Public Admin- dentsev, Zh.A. Zayonchkovskaya, B.S. Horev). istration (later – Russian Presidential Academy This distribution rather testifies to interdisciplin- of National Economy and Public Administra- ary nature of researches of population migration tion), Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia). which are difficult to refer to only one branch of In St. Petersburg 30 candidates’ and doctors’ scientific knowledge (that will be shown further theses on migration researches (7% of all the-

120 111 108 92 90 71 60 22 22 30 12 11 10 1 7 1 0 Number of defences

candidates of sciences doctors of sciences Fig. 2. Defences of candidates’ and doctors’ theses on migration by sciences, in 1993–2013 Source: the database created by the author Savoskul M.S. 29

others 34%

Moscow 46%

Saratov 4%

Stavropol 4% Rostov-On-Don St.St.Peterburg Petersburg 7% 5% Fig. 3. Cities and towns where candidates’ and doctors’ theses on population migrations were defended in 1993–2013 (all in all 440 works on migration where the place of defence was specified)* Source: the database of theses created by the author

ses) were defended. Mainly they were defended relevance of migration study for the region (be- at St. Petersburg State University. sides capitals, these are, for example, regions Besides Moscow and St. Petersburg, that are of the North Caucasus, the Far East); presence all-Russian scientific centres, the North Cauca- of the scientists engaged in this subject (for ex- sus found itself on the third place based on de- ample, Irkutsk, Saratov, etc.). fence of theses on population migrations for the considered period. Interest in migratory subject Specific features of population migration in the region which is one of the centres of eth- study in various social sciences. The content nic migrations is quite clear. In Rostov-on-Don analysis of candidates’ and doctors’ theses, and 23 candidates’ and doctors’ theses (5% of all also of definitions of subject and scope of mi- theses) on migration were defended; 18 defenc- gration researches that are submitted in works, es (4% of all theses) were the share of Stavropol proves that, on the one hand, migrations have and 9 works – of Krasnodar. taken a firm stand in each of sciences, taking The geography of defence of other theses is into account their specifics, and, on the other broad: in total defences on migration, besides hand, as with any complex social and econom- the specified cities, took place in more than in ic phenomenon, there is still no uniformfor 45 cities and towns, but no more than 9 works in all sciences statement of migration researches each city for the last 20 years. subject (tab. 1). Candidates’ theses of geographers on migra- “Crossing” of names of works in various sci- tion, besides Moscow and St. Petersburg, were ences means that for now migration researches, defended in Stavropol, Voronezh, Irkutsk, Smo- though they formally refer to various sciences, lensk, Ufa, Novosibirsk. In these centres, de- are often in the same research field. Various dis- spite insignificant number of works defended on ciplines use similar methods and sources of in- this subject, traditions of migration research by formation. It is explained also by a rather short geographers had already developed. period of studying of migrations during the Post- Main factors determining interest in migra- Soviet period and nature of migratory process tion and number of theses defended in this di- which deals with practically all aspects of life rection in this or that city besides existence of of society, and specifics of development of the thesis board are: size of scientific centre and science. But this also means that population mi- number of research centres in the city (for ex- grations need to be studied taking into account ample, Moscow, St. Petersburg, Novosibirsk); interdisciplinary approaches and methods.

* Places of defence are specified not for all thesesin the database for the period of 1993-1999, therefore, the number of works where defence places are specified – 440 does not coincide with the total number of the theses in a database. 30 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 Table 1 Subject and scope in migration researches in the candidates’ and doctors’ theses defended in 1993–2013 Subject (number of formulations Scope (number of formulations Sciences in abstracts is in brackets) in abstracts is in brackets) geographical migration or migratory processes in specific geographical and regional features of mi- sciences region (9), region (5) gratory processes (4), migratory processes (4) sociological migration as a social process (46), integration and adaptation strategiesfor sciences migrants and groups of population (28), migrants in receiving society, social status social adaptation and social mobility of of migrants, sociocultural practices of migrants (10+4), regulation and manage- migrants, migrants’ perception of receiving ment of migratory processes, migration society (41+7), characteristics of migratory policy (4+6) process (18), management and regulation of migration processes, migration policy (18), social and economic consequences of migration (8), theoretical questions of migration study (4) economic migrations as a social and economic migration as complex and comprehen- sciences process (48), population of regions and sive social and economic process (32), migratory flows, social groups participat- influence of migrations on labour market ing in migrations (33), labour market (10), and social and economic relations (29), migration policy (3), regions (2) management and regulation of migratory flows, migration policy (27), migratory behaviourof population and social relations in receiving society (5), methods of analysis of migrations (2) political migratory processes as part of political various aspects of regulation and manage- sciences process, migrations (35), migration policy, ment of migratory process, migration policy management and regulation of migration of countries and regions (58), influence of (19+9), groups of migrants, migratory flows migratory processes on political processes, (7+4) migratory process (17) historical population, groups of migrants (24), migra- migratory processes, their influence on so- sciences tory processes, resettlement movements cial, economic and political processes (15), (13+4), migration policy (4), region (1) adaptation of migrants and social relations and social mobility of migrants (12), migration policy, regulation of migration during various historical periods (11) philosophic migratory process (5), migrants (4), social cross-cultural interactions and public rela- sciences networks of migrants (1) tions during migration process, including in conditions of globalisation (7), social development, ways of existence of society (5) Note: number of abstracts wherethe formulation is given is specifiedin brackets. Created by the author.

Most expressly research approaches and in- of variability, than in other disciplines. This, terdisciplinary features of migration researches first of all, are geographical and regional fea- manifest at consideration of statements of sub- tures of migratory processes that reflect specifics ject and scope of researches formulated in ab- of modern geographical researches, and also stracts and also at identification of the most detection of regional features of social and eco- typical for this or that direction topics of thesis nomic processes. Four leading research plots are researches. typical for the scope of geographical researches Tables provided in the article show that the of population migration: characteristics of mi- most unambiguous understanding of subject of gratory situation in the region; theses onforced migration researches is typical for geographical migrants (this topicwas especially popular in the sciences. Majority of geographical works have 1990s); settlement of migrants in receiving ter- migratory process in a specific territory as the ritory; labour migrants and labour market (this subject of migration researches. A region is cho- topic appears only in 2000s). These topics, ex- sen as a research subject, which is logical for cept for settlement of migrants, are also typical geographical approach to migrations research. for some other directions (tab. 2). The scope of migration researches in ge- Economics and sociology see a wider range ography is formulated with a smaller degree of understanding of the subject and the scope Savoskul M.S. 31 Table 2 Table theory theory process process process

theory of migration

of migration of migration

migrations migrations

ethnic ethnic ethnic ethnic adaptation of migrants of adaptation countries of Russia and other settlement of migrants i migration policy n receiving society labour market

migrants

and labour migrations,

forced migrations forced forced migrations forced and regulation of migrations management migration of countries and regions characteristics Most popular research topics in candidates’ and doctors’ theses defended in 1993–2013 and doctors’ Most popular research topics in candidates’ migration emigration from Russia tolerance and - to Sibiria movement of markets of migration resettlement globalisation migration and cess, security gender aspects statistical record migrations, state and political pro political sciences historical sciences sciences sciences sciences sciences economic sociological philosophic Note: topics typical for only one scientific direction are highl ighted grey. Source: data base created by the author. geographical 32 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 of migration researches, and also a broader scope the analysis of methods used in candidates’ and of works due to a bigger number of defended doctors’ theses as well. Geographical sciences theses, and also owing to a variety of places of differ from other disciplines based on the set of defence of theses. Migratory process most of- methods used as havingtheir own approach, in ten is the subject of research, as in geography. particular, various methods of regional analy- Both sociology and economics often have mi- sis, division of the territoryinto districts, carto- grants or, in general, the population of regions graphical method, etc. as the subject of migratory research. Social ad- Sociological sciences are characterised with aptation of a migrant is among formulations of both quantitative methods (mass polls, statisti- subject of research in sociological works, and cal analysis) and a wide use of non-statistical labour market and behaviour of migrants in la- (qualitative) methods (tab. 3). Specific feature bour market are in economic sciences. of economic sciences is an active use of quanti- Political sciences, besides the options men- tative methods (mathematical modelling, factor tioned above, often have migration policy of the analysis). country or region as the subject of research. Theses on migration defended in political Historical sciences have population of re- sciences often used not only statistical methods, gions or separate groups of migrants, or migra- but comparative historical method, descriptive tory process as the subject of migration research. method, and others as well. In historical sciences when writing works on migration researches Scope of migration researchsignificantly scientists often address history study method, differs and largely defines specifics of the disci- historical typological analysis, and ethnograph- pline depending on the discipline within which ic methods (observation, deep interviews). the work on the thesis was carried out. Socio- logical sciences most often have integration and Conclusions. Contrary to the author’s as- adaptation strategy for migrants in receiving sumptions at the beginning of work on the society, social status of migrants, sociocultural analysis of the created base of theses, no sig- practices of migrants, migrants’ perception of the nificant changes in the topics of theses inthe receiving societyas the scope of research (tab. 1). 2000s, compared to the early 1990s, have been Economic sciences understand migration revealed. The set of subjects is rather tradition- as a complex and comprehensive social and al, and has not changed essentially in 20 years. economic process as the scope of migration re- Growing interest in migratory processes of ad- searches. aptation of migrants in foreign countries, first of Political sciences have various aspects all, in Western Europe and in the USA, is notice- of regulation and management of migratory pro- able. This is caused by availability of informa- cess, migration policy of countries and regions tion on foreign countries, active use of literature as the scope of migration researches. in foreign languages, expansion of research ca- Historical sciences have the scope of research pabilities of authors, including collecting mate- formulated most similarly to sociological sci- rial in the studied countries. ences – migratory processes, their influence on Growth of number of theses on this or that social, economic and political processes (tab. 1). subject is observed at the time of activation There is a number of topicsthat are typi- of these or those migratory processes. So, the cal only for one of each considered sciences. first half of the 1990s is characterised with a sig- These are questions of settlement of migrants nificant number of works on forced migrants to in receiving region or country for geography, Russia from the Post-Soviet countries. The early gender aspects of migratory process, and also 2000s became the period of keen interest in la- tolerance and migrant-phobia in societyfor bour migrants from the CIS countries to Russia. sociology,theses devoted to features of statisti- At the same time, there are few works devoted cal record of migrants for economics, migration to features of in-Russian migration. and security for political science, resettlement Population migrations remain the process movement to Siberia in the 19th century and studied simultaneously by several scientific emigration from Russia after 1917 for history. disciplines: economics, sociology, demography, history, ethnography, and geography. The Methods of migration researches. Interdis- widest range of thesis researches is character- ciplinary nature of migration study manifestsin istic for economics, sociology, political, and Savoskul M.S. 33 Table 3 Methods used in candidates’ and doctors’ theses on population migrations in 1993–2013 Methods of data collection and analysis (are enumerated in the order based on fre- Sciences quency of mention in abstracts) geographical division of territory into districts, typology of regions, cartographical, statistical, compara- sciences tive geographical, mass poll, method of keys, personal observation sociological statistical, structural and functional, content analysis, mass polls, expert surveys, deep sciences interviews, target groups, narrative interviews, narrative interviews, case study, biography interviews, observation, analysis of social networks of migrants, ethnographic method, method of interpreting understanding economic mathematic modelling, factor analysis, statistical method, secondary analysis of mass sciences polls, comparative method, cartographical method, analysis of documents, expert evaluation political historical and descriptive, comparative and historic, statistical (correlation and factor sciences analysis), politological analysis, mass polls, expert surveys, content analysis, structural and functional analysis, target groups, case study, observation historical source studies, historic and comparative, historic and typological, historic and genetic, sciences statistical, mass polls, expert evaluation, observation, content analysis, deep interviews Created by the author. historical sciences. Geographical sciences The analysis of places of defence of theses occupy aless remarkable place in population shows that, except for the Institute of Social migration study. and Political Researches of the Russian Acad- Understanding of the subject of migration emy of Sciences, and the faculty of economics researches is almost the same for all considered of Lomonosov MSU, there is no single interdis- directions, distinctions are shown in concepts ciplinary centre of research of population migra- of the scope of migration researches in each sci- tionin Russia. Based on the number of defended entific discipline, and also in a number of topics works, the Institute of Social and Political Re- of researches. In general, it is possible to state searches of the Russian Academy of Sciences is that Russia has developed its own approach to the most significant centre, but theses defended migration studyduring the period of activation there are rather narrowly specialised. of migration researches. In the future it is necessary to use integrat- A specific feature of modern researches ing research strategy, combining both quanti- of population migrations is an insignificant tative methods, and qualitative non-statistical number of theses on the theory of migratory methods more broadly in migration researches. processes. Thesis researches, uniting theoretical Expansion of the theoretical field of research- works and empirical researches, are rare. es is important for geography and other sci- Until now qualitative (non-statistical) meth- ences, it is desirable to adapt the accumulated ods were not widely adopted in theses: of all experience of migration study in the western considered works, only five are using exclusive- countries, where there are specialised centres ly non-statistical methods of research. of migration study.

References

1. Агирречу А.А. Структура и динамика защит по социально-экономической географии в России в2000-е гг. // Региональные исследования. – 2014. – №1 (43). – С. 145–153. 2. Зайончковская Ж.А., Карачурина Л.Б. Миграция населения // СССР-СНГ-Россия: география на- селения и социальная география. 1985–1996. Аналитико-библиографический обзор. – М: Эди- ториал УРСС, 2001. – 600 с. 3. Миграция населения в постсоветских государствах. Аннотированная библиография российских изданий 1992–1997 гг. – М.: Моск. Центр Карнеги, 1998. – 185 с. 4. Миграция в России. 2000–2012. Хрестоматия в 3 тт. Т. 3. Аннотированный библиографический указатель научной литературы по миграции, изданной в России. 2000–2011 / НП РСМД. – М.: Спецкнига, 2013. 5. Моисеенко В.М. Территориальное движение населения. – М.: Мысль, 1985. – 120 с. 6. Назаревский О.Р. В.В. Покшишевский // Экономическая и социальная география в СССР. – М.: Просвещение, 1987. – С. 432–438. 7. Ортега-и-Гассет Х. Избранные труды. – М.: Изд-во «Весь мир», 1997. – 700 с. 34 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 8. Рыбаковский Л.Л. Исследования миграции населения в России. Гл. 22 // Социология в России. Под ред. Ядова В.А. – М.: Ин-т социологии РАН, 1998. – С. 436–451. 9. Струмилин С.Г. К перспективной пятилетке Госплана на 1925/1927–1930/1931 гг. // Плановое хозяйство. – 1927. – № 3. 10. Ямзин И.Л., Вощинин В.П. Учение о колонизации и переселениях. – М.–Л., 1926. – 332 с.

Electronic sources

11. http://www.dissercat.com – site of electronic library of theses and abstracts 12. http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/2005/0213/nauka02.php – electronic news bulletin “Population and society”(“Naselenie i obschectvo”) 13. http://vak.ed.gov.ru – official site of the Higher Attestation Commission (VAK) of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation 14. http://www.rsl.ru – official site of the Russian StateLibrary.

Shuper V.A. (Moscow) SOCIETY SPATIAL SELF-ORGANISATION AS RESEARCH FIELD AND UNIVERSITY COURSE

Abstract. Researches of society’s spatial self-organisation have historically developed in the bed of theoretical geography in the Soviet Union, later in Russia. The main ideas of this stream are the ideas of equality of causal and finalistic explanations, of spatial self-organisation as a quasi-natural phenomenon, of the structure as an invariant aspect of systems. The last one enables us to use invariants as a characteristic of social space symmetry. The transformation of common ideas about causality is of a big importance for the student’s scientific world view. The course ”Society’s spatial self-organisation”, half-year long, is delivered to the master students of the Department of geography, Moscow State University, having a specialisation in social and economic geography. Keywords: spatial self-organisation, attractors, equifinality, causal explanation, explanation, symmetry, invariants, mission of university.

Introduction. We do not always realise those author for the moment of his first scientific pub- tectonic shifts that radically change intellectual lication – average life expectancy, recruitment landscape as a condition of our professional ac- needs of science – annual number of peers” [21, tivity and our spiritual existence. Generations, pp. 637-638]. now entering a retirement age and more senior Petrov saw signs of crisis not only in sci- ones, were blessed to witness one of the bright- ence, but also in education. The criticism of an est and most romantic periods in evolution of ”extensive model of scientification”, adopted in science that were the 1950s – the 1970s, and a modern society, became one of the main provi- little younger ones at least happened to catch its sions of his latest book, which in many respects reflection. Extremely high prestige of science is summing up the results of his most intense and scientists was combined with exponential scientific and philosophical pursuits [21]. We growth of their number, so the most acute au- will go back to his views on education prob- thors already back then drew a conclusion that lems in the final part of the article, now we will it is impossible for this favourable condition to analyse the most profound changes in scientific last for a rather long time. M. K. Petrov (1923– outlook in their impact on social and economic 1987) definitely was one of them, as he wrote geography, happening before our eyes. more than thirty years ago: ”Futurologists, predicting the future by extrapolating current Synergetic revolution and social geo- trends with a long history on the future, more graphy. Synergetic revolution, apparently, may or less accordingly state that a dark age awaits be considered as the last scientific revolution of humanity in the first half of the 21st century – a the 20th century, the last breakthrough of the period stretched for two or three decades when era of exponential growth of science. It incor- many trends, that according to no logic should porated its intensity of scientific creativity, un- cross each other, will intercross. For example, imaginable at present. Nowadays the scope of expenses on science will have to surpass the na- what had been done impresses nearly the same tional income of developed countries, age of the as moonfall does. Its sources are in I. Prigozhin Shuper V.A. 35 ‘s (1917–2003) works written in 1967-68 [22, torical process, than the traditional analytical 23], though the term synergetics was intro- approach. Unfortunately, looking at the world, duced in 1973 by H. Haken [36]. I. Prigozhin we are more guided by analytical scientific ap- and his followers have used concepts of non- proach, than we should be for our own good. linear dynamics or nonlinear science. It should The economy seeks to be an analytical science. be noted that in Russia at the Keldysh Institute But all historical processes, including dynam- of Applied Mathematics (Academy of Sciences ics of stock markets, are complex and cannot be of the USSR) approximately at the same time understood on the basis of analytical scientific researches of dissipative systems (characterised approach” [31, p. 93]. by openness, nonequilibrium and nonlinearity) Theoretical constructions of synergetics, as formed a powerful scientific direction [27, 28]. it may seem at first sight, are intended for the This direction obtained a number of important description of discrete objects because a system, scientific results, including the discovery ofa including a nonequilibrium one, is tradition- so-called effect of the T-layer, entered in the ally understood as a set of interacting elements. National register of discovery at No. 55 with a Meanwhile, it is intuitively realised also that the priority of November, 1965 [25]. A special role main thing in any system is its structure, and the in development of synergetics and distribution later has been understood since the end of the of its ideas belongs to S.P. Kurdyumov (1928– 1960s thanks to N.F. Ovchinnikov (1915–2010) 2004), the recognised leader of this direction as an invariant aspect of system [18, 19]. One of and the founder of an authoritative school. Un- the main aspects of this invariance is the invari- fortunately, since the Keldysh Institute of Ap- ance in the context of different methods of allo- plied Mathematics (Academy of Sciences of the cation of system elements. What are geographi- USSR) was closed for foreign scientists until cal patterns, principles, equations, etc. worth of the end of the 1980s, the results of the Russian if all of them are inapplicable when other grid of researches enjoyed neither due fame, nor due regional division is selected? Definitely, we can- recognition in the world. It is S. P. Kurdyumov not understand the world, without sampling it, who possesses a merit in opening this insti- without distinguishing certain elements. How- tute for Russian and foreign scientists that also ever, we should not forget that it is, as V.V. Na- provided a powerful incentive for distribution limov (1910–1997) put it right, violence of our of synergetic views. discrete language over continual reality [17]. Ideas of synergetics were fruitfully imple- It is unlikely that it would be less fruitful to mented in social and geographical researches. present a system not as a set of interacting ob- Yu.G. Lipets (1931–2006) and his laboratory of jects, but as a set of interacting attributes, first geography of world economy development at of all spatial [38]. the Institute of G eography of the Russian Acad- Grains sprout only on a fertile soil. Owing emy of Sciences obtained important results. Tra- to peculiarities of historical development of ditional for geography attention to a spatial fac- geography, ”geographical soil” became very tor found a new embodiment in a vision of space favourable for ideas of synergetics. That is re- as a source of development [15]. This approach, lated, first of all, to the quantitative and theo- providing not for the analysis of development retical revolutions which significantly changed factors, but for the analysis of properties of so- the image of our science in 1960s and 1970s. cial and geographical space in the context of Let us remind that one of key ideas of the sec- those properties being more favourable or less ond edition of W. Bunge’s book ”Theoretical favourable for development, has clear advantag- geography” (Russian translation published in es when the number of factors is very great, if 1967 [3]), published in 1962 (the first, limited not infinite, and an accurate evaluation of those edition appeared in 1960), was the idea of struc- factors is extremely difficult. Similar views are tural isomorphism, (though Bunge did not use spreading in economic science, and one of the this term), that was understood as the identity most eminent adherents of those views is G. So- of ways of spatial organisation of geographi- ros. ”Recently a new direction of science started cal phenomena of various nature, studied both to develop, – Soros writes, – that is called a by physical geography, and by social and eco- theory of complexity, a theory of evolution of nomic geography. Bunge ventured to borrow systems, or a theory of chaos. This approach ideas from geomorphology and applied them to is much more useful for understanding of his- describe social and geographical phenomena. 36 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 A comparison of a meandering river to a chang- who enriched biology with ideas of potential ing route of a federal highway, which is also form, and by A.A. Lyubishchev (1890–1972) compelled to overcome ”natural levees” of high [16]. The later most fully developed ideas of land prices, became canonical. B.B. Rodoman determination of evolutionary processes by a made an important contribution to theoretical certain ultimate objective, final symmetry, in understanding of processes of spatial differen- fact, an aspiration of implementing the maxi- tiation and to creation of a catalogue of spatial mum number of forms from some catalogue, structures [26]. Meanwhile, creators of theo- that is still unknown to us, that could be imag- retical revolution in geography had outstanding ined remotely by analogy with Schoenflies- predecessors, and not only those who were well- Fedorov’s groups. known to them – W. Christaller (1893–1969) Theoretical constructions like potential [42], A. Lösch (1906–1945) [14], G.K. Zipf form, defining the direction of development (1902–1950) [44, 45], but also those who re- of separate organisms and evolution of species, mained absolutely unknown to them – L. Lal- or final symmetry are very important for geog- anne (1811–1892) [12, 13] and V.P. Semenov- raphy. The catalogue of forms of stable spatial Tyan-Shansky (1870–1942) [29, 30]. The first organisation of the states was actually devel- of these two anticipated some provisions of the oped by V.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky earlier, theory of central places in 1863, and also formu- than L.S. Berg published his well-known work lated patterns of self-development of transport on nomogenesis. It is necessary to focus on networks, being a century ahead of researches less obvious ideas. These are, first of all, ideas in this area. The second one actually developed of confinality (equifinality) in development of a catalogue of forms of stable spatial organisa- giant cities, put forward by P. Haggett in the tion of states at the beginning of the century, 1960s [34]. Cities of this class are much more however, these results did not find a resonance similar to each other than small towns out of in scientific community. which they grew. The same tendencies may be traced in development of systems of cities. Sys- Evolution theory and theoretical geo- tems of central places also seek to develop into graphy. Extremely high intellectual level of a certain equilibrium state, so-called isostatic research work in the field of evolution theory balance, which acts in relation to them as an at- during the period between two wars led to emer- tractor – area of an attraction of process [37]. gence of a number of very significant research- The idea of an attractor, a key concept es, bringing into question the role of natural of synergetics, gave a new impulse to theoreti- selection as a creative factor. On the contrary, cal searches in geography within a finalist para- from the point of view of biologists, not darwin- digm. Systems of urban settlement are subjects ists, it plays a rather conservative role, eliminat- of study of a type that presents to researchers ing deviations from norm, not promoting those the whole spectrum of phenomena, that can deviations. The reason is that any acquisitions be neither described, nor explained in terms of evolution start providing benefits not imme- of causal analysis. Definitely, important results, diately, but only after they have reached a rather related to development of settlement systems, high level of development. Before this they are were obtained within a causal paradigm, how- nothing but harmful to their owners. Once again ever, they described mainly their individual it is useful for us to turn to the ideas of struc- attributes. Common patterns of development, tural isomorphism of evolutionary processes namely pattern of formation of entire settlement in wildlife and in development of civilisations. systems, characterised by compliance to the rule First steamships could hardly travel at a higher ”rank-size” (Zipf’s rule or Auerbach’s law), and speed than HMS ”Swallow”, calculated by P.-S. further gradual formation of hierarchical struc- de Laplace (1749–1827), first cars could hardly ture in these systems, leading to less compliance go faster, than two-horse harnesses. It is natu- to the rule ”rank-size” and more compliance to ral that an outstanding biologist and geographer predictions of the theory of central places (sys- L.S. Berg (1876–1950) put forward a hypothesis tems of central places transit from quasiamor- that a creative factor of evolution is not natural phous state into quasicrystal [37]), may not be selection, but nomogenesis, i.e. manifestation of explained within a causal paradigm. certain patterns [2]. These views were further Application of ideas of an attractor when developed by A.G. Gurvich (1874–1954) [7, 8] studying systems of central places allowed to Shuper V.A. 37 go further and, figuratively speaking, to look tion of theoretical representations of synerget- over the horizon, by raising a question of pos- ics into our science, and after them, penetration sible ways of development of systems of central of an extremely effective mathematical tool. places after reaching an attractor. It was found that systems either enter an oscillatory mode, Spatial self-organisation from physi- or aim their development at a new attractor cists’ prospective. Among the most success- [4,5], as these systems are open and are con- ful cases of applying mathematical apparatus stantly changing. Establishment of interrelation of nonlinear dynamics to geographical tasks between evolution of settlement systems, de- are works by S.P. Kapitsa (1928–2012) [9]. The scribed at once in two aspects – as evolutionary results, obtained within his phenomenological changes of the structure of central places and as model of the Earth’s population growth, are change of stages of urbanisation suggested by well-known. Perhaps, the most important re- J. Gibbs [11], and evolution of transport net- sult in the context of world outlook is that the works became another important result of this Earth’s population growth was never defined research. Here certain clarifications are required. exclusively by external factors, i.e. conditions Stages of urbanisation suggested by Gibbs re- or resources, its rates were always defined by flect a maturity of settlement systems by means internal regularities of the process. ”This cir- of such parameters as proportion of growth rates cumstance allows to formulate the principle of population of cities and towns, suburbs and of demographic imperative, as opposed to the rural areas. These parameters may be consid- principle of population suggested by Malthus, ered independent of structure of central places who claimed that the very resources determine of a respective country or region, and, therefore, the population growth rate and its limit. A math- a close agreement in time of profound changes ematical image of the principle of demographic of hierarchical structure of systems of central imperative is the principle of dependence in places (emergence of a new level of hierarchy) synergetics [9, p. 157].” Specified regularities and transition of a settlement system into a new expressed in the language of nonlinear dynam- stage of evolution, according to Gibbs, itself ics (so-called hyperbolic growth), serve a basis may be considered a result, very important for for a forecast of stabilisation of population of geographical outlook. the Earth by the end of the 21st century at the However, its importance grows thanks to level of 12 billion people, moreover, 90% of this agreement in time of change of stages in the amount (10.7 billion) should be expected by the evolution of settlement, described in two aspects middle of the 21st century. mentioned above, and change of stages in the S.P. Kapitsa’s results relating to the organisa- evolution of topological structure of transport tion of global urban settlement system are much networks. Back in the late 1970s – early 1980s less known [9]. Meanwhile these results are of S.A. Tarkhov in his research clearly demonstrat- special interest for geography. The main con- ed that transport networks are able to self-de- clusion of these researches is that all cities and velop, and patterns of their spatial structure and towns of the world have always been subject to their evolution are universal and depend neither the rule ”rank – size”. Thus, a technical nuance on the sizes of the covered territory (a city, a re- of such researches should be noted: actually the gion, a country), nor on a character of networks form of distribution is defined by the first twenty (a railway system of a country, a network of trol- or thirty cities. On a graph with axes in loga- leybus routes of a city, etc.). External conditions rithmic scale, smaller towns almost merge into may accelerate or slow down the development one point in any case. Therefore, a data file, that of a transport network, but cannot affect the se- should be processed, may be not so large but it quence of events [33]. S. A. Tarkhov obviously ensures a quite satisfactory accuracy of results. proceeded from the ideas of potential form, that This circumstance allowed to use historical data is the most developed topological structure of a on population of the world’s largest cities of the transport network, which is the attraction area periods of the Middle Ages and antiquity. for its evolution, though he did not formulate It is hard to overestimate the value of this this explicitly. Those similar representations, results for geography, where similar calcula- not imported from other sciences, but generated tions, despite their simplicity and availabil- by the logic of development of geography, cre- ity of data, had never been carried out because ated very favourable circumstances for penetra- they contradict deeply to geographical outlook. 38 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 Indeed, from the point of view of any at least In the context of characteristic size, it is im- a little qualified geographer, it is reasonable to portant to understand that the main factor, en- check whether a system complies to the rule suring higher economic and social efficiency of ”rank-size” only if this system of cities and small countries, is a pyramid of direct percep- towns possesses a true integrity, i.e. belongs to tion– all residents of such countries know each some country or historically developed region. other personally, or through common friends. This views go back not to G.K. Zipf, but to Fe- Therefore, the population of these countries lix Auerbach (1856–1933), a physicist with very should not exceed 10–12 million people. Ev- wide interests who for the first time detected this ery theory has spatial-temporal borders of ap- regularity in 1913 [41]. Accordingly, only now, plication. Meanwhile a good regional division when the concept of ”global city” [10] is spread- in geography may be only a by-product of a ing, there are theoretical prerequisites for simi- successful theory, the same is true for a clas- lar calculations on a global scale. These calcu- sification. It was B.N. Zimin who managed to lations and their results, whatever they are, are restore the idea of objectivity of economic re- obviously deprived of sense from the point of gions which was almost lost, in the context of view of the outlook dominating in geography, if serious researches, after N.N. Baransky’s death they belong to periods preceding the formation (1881–1963), certainly, at a different level of of a uniform world economic system, whether it development of science and with absolutely dif- be the 18th century or, especially, Pre-Columbi- ferent views of the ontologic status of reality an era. Meanwhile, the approach of a theoretical perceived by geography. physicist to treatment of interactions turned to It is determined also that characteristic sizes be significantly different from a geographer’s of systems of central places are 104–105 square approach (and, above all, more fruitful) owing kilometres [37]. This explains failures of at- to a much more abstract character of the science tempts to create a uniform settlement system that played a crucial role in formation of scien- of the USSR, a country with a rendered habit- tific outlook of this researcher. able territory of millions, but not tens or hundreds of thousands square kilometres. At the Self-organisation and characteristic same time reconstruction of settlement system space. The phenomena of spatial self-organ- of Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic based isation are expressed also in a phenomenon of on the theory of central places in 1960s–1970s characteristic space and time in social and eco- was very successful. nomic geography [40]. First of all, we should An invariant of spatial self-organisation mention studies by B.N. Zimin (1929–1995), discovered by G.A. Goltz (1933–2009) is very who developed the theory of small advanced valuable. Having established the dependence countries, that allows both to provide an exact between average duration of a working day and definition for this phenomenon, and to explain average time of labour trips on a huge empiri- the increased economic and social efficiency cal material, G.A. Goltz managed to determine of such countries [24]. maximum possible sizes of a city under the At first Zimin operationally defined a stan- given conditions [6]. Thus Goltz succeeded in dard economic region as an area with a GRP relating actual characteristic space (size of a of 90–110 bln. dollars (in dollars of 1970) and city) to characteristic time (a daily cycle). How- with an export quota of one-third. It allowed to ever, characteristic time not necessarily has to define also a small advanced country, as a country be measured in weeks, days or hours… The smaller than a standard economic region. Thus evolutionary morphology of transport networks it became clear that such country has a number of S.A. Tarkhov [33] provides for an absolutely of absolutely unexpected properties ensuring different characteristic of characteristic time, higher economic and social efficiency in com- measured by sequence of events in the devel- parison with big countries. This is related to opment of networks, not involving our dear ha- a higher level of social infrastructure, which bitual clock-faces. This approach is consistent Zimin understood, first of all, as an image of with the views of V.I. Vernadsky (1863–1945) labour thinking of the population. Certainly, he on space and time in natural sciences. Both geo- did not exclude traditional components, like li- metrical properties of space, and the current of braries and universities, but they were consid- time are derivatives of processes, but not exter- ered as resulting, but not as causing factors. nal framework in which those processes pro- Shuper V.A. 39 ceed. It is necessary to emphasise that natural cial and economic geography of foreign coun- geographers have started researches of charac- tries (the fifth year of a specialist programme teristic time [1], especially in respect of the ex- and the first year of a magistracy) consists in act statement of the problem, earlier, and have formation of some major general scientific in- moved significantly further. Social geographers sights among students, first of all, the idea of have more achievements in research of charac- equality of causal and finalist explanations in teristic space, therefore we could be interesting science, in general, and in geography, in partic- and useful to each other. ular. Thanks to synergetic revolution causality was denied far beyond the limits of researches Spatial self-organisation and training of of a microcosm, the area inaccessible to direct specialists. ”Extensive model of scientifica- sensory perception and extremely remote from tion” according to M.K. Petrov led to a crisis everyday life. Meanwhile, phenomena of social in both secondary, and higher education back in self-organisation are still studied in most cases his time, when the former was further and fur- using traditional informative means, rather un- ther behind the forefront of science, and the later successfully, of course. did not and could not keep up with progressing We should note great difficulties that are differentiation in science. In order to preserve connected with the distribution of ideas con- the unity of science, which by the beginning of tradicting deep-rooted stereotypes of think- the 1930s had turned into a rainforest, as J. Orte- ing – those ideas are rejected even not by our ga y Gasset (1883–1955) figuratively called it, consciousness, but at the subconscious level. it is required to create and develop crosscut- In most cases students, who smartly answered ting directions that from the second half of the the questions about the finalist explanation at a 20th century included system approach and test or at an exam, are still prisoners of a causal synergetics. These pilot sciences, according to paradigm that becomes obvious at the defence J.A. Shrader (1927–1998), act as conductors of graduation papers. That is why distribution of general scientific ideas, promoting not only of synergetic outlook, not just of the relevant mutual enrichment of various sciences, but also terminology, or even methods, is a much lon- their integration, counterbalancing, though in- ger and more difficult process, than perception sufficiently, constantly deepening differentia- of a system approach. Using not only ideas tion of scientific knowledge. of attractors, but also concepts of potential form The author of ”Rebelión de las masas” pub- or final symmetry facilitates the solution of this lished a very small, but deeply and powerfully task to some extent. insightful book, ”Misión de la Universidad” Another major problem of the course is [20], in 1930, which unfortunately remained to form presentation of spatial self-organisa- unknown to M.K. Petrov and to many other tion as of a quasinatural process, according to outstanding Russian thinkers. The great phi- S.A. Tarkhov [32, 33]. The phenomena of spa- losopher accused university of a fundamental tial self-organisation is the best, from the point falseness, that manifests, in particular, in the of view of theoretical geography, part of our fact that an obviously bigger volume of knowl- science, that may be subject to natural science edge is required from a student, than the knowl- methodology. Back in the early 1950s a clas- edge he or she is able to master. Other defect, sic of liberalism, F.A. von Hayek (1899–1992), in his opinion, consists in the content of teach- convincingly proved impossibility of formula- ing – sciences are presented as if the majority tion of laws of a natural science type in social of students are going to be scientists and should sciences, as a law does not work in society if be prepared for research work. However, the it is not recognised [35]. In terms of a rapid worst defect is related to a narrow specialisa- physicalisation of all scientific knowledge, of a tion, when specialists do possess neither general victorious march of ”social physics” [43], one scientific outlook, nor necessary cultural level, side of the Iron Curtain preferred not to think that threatens the very foundations of the Euro- about these cautions, and the other simply was pean civilisation. not aware of them. Then in the last quarter of The main goal of the semestrial course ”So- the 20th century the pendulum swung to the op- ciety’s spatial self-organisation” delivered by posite side, and, like flies to a honeypot, various the author to students of departments of eco- subjectivistic approaches emerged, like cogni- nomic and social geography of Russia and so- tive geography, and expertise began to replace 40 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 research [39]. Meanwhile spatial self-organisa- Conclusion. The present moment, accord- tion is that particular case when Hayek’s caution ing to one of heroes of Mayakovsky, is charac- (it is possible to consider it as methodological terised by being a standing moment. The domi- paradox – there are sciences, and they have no nation of applied subject accompanied by a laws) does not work. A particular case is not most wide spread of indifference to fundamental always something small, and, certainly, is not researches least of all promotes advance in ar- always something negligible. Eventually, all eas, demanding radical changes in deep-rooted organic chemistry is a particular case of inor- ideas. Research of spatial self-organisation is ganic chemistry, but there are three times more one of them. However, the best part is gener- organic compounds, than inorganic ones. ally taken, so applied researches will be more Finally, the third of the major tasks facing and more stuck without any serious theoretical the course, is to form ideas of symmetry of so- breakthroughs. Perhaps, our main task should cial and geographical space which manifests in consist in training ”young navigators of future invariants. Here a paramount value belongs to storm” who will take our science out of theo- N.F. Ovchinnikov’s idea of the structure as of retical (and not only theoretical) stagnation. For an invariant aspect of a system. Thus the main this purpose it is necessary to provide students way of research of spatial self-organisation is with profound knowledge in the field of phi- to identify invariants which characterise both losophy of science, first of all, concerning value spatial structures, and geographical space. of achievements of natural and social sciences All these three tasks cannot be considered or- in terms of world outlook, and, definitely, to thogonal: an invariant very often acts as an at- teach them, with all thoroughness, how to apply tractor, area of attraction of process, especially mathematical methods. Spatial self-organisation when external factors disturb the balance. Final of society also finds a place among the world symmetry, according to A.A. Lyubishchev, is outlook disciplines, focusing students not on an attractor of processes of spatial self-organ- narrow and mechanical approach, but on coura- isation. Equifinality, that is obviously related to geous creativity. After all, mission of university, it, integrates ideas of an attractor and of invari- according to J. Ortega y Gasset, first of all, con- ants. These processes can be studied only as sists in keeping pace with the most progressive quasinatural processes. ideas of the time [20].

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RESEARCH METHODS

Bityukova V.R. (Moscow) INTEGRAL ESTIMATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL SITUATION IN RUSSIAN CITIES AND TOWNS

Annotation. This article elaborates new methods of integral estimation of anthropogenic impact on regional and municipal levels. The base indicators for these estimations are comparable for all territorial levels and calculated for real pollution areas. The scale and intensity of the exposure were taken into account. For the first time the integral index of anthropogenic impact intensity was calculated for all 1100 cities and towns of Russia and a comparative analysis of cities and towns impact on environmental situation in their regions was carried out. The main factors of changes in anthropogenic impact are explored for different population classes. Keywords: environmental ranking of cities and towns, anthropogenic impacts, integral estimation, environmental situation, ecology of city.

Introduction.Cities and towns are nodal complex and other sources in order to monitor points of social and economic space, charac- environmental situation. Creation of effective terised not only by a high concentration of tools for comparative analysis of city statistics population, capital, and infrastructure, but also is a basis for taking administrative decisions on concentration of sources polluting all natural strategic planning of urban development. Im- components that forms aparticular anthropog- possibility of using one indicator which would enous environment, quite often not suitable for fully reflect the existing situation objectively living. They not only concentrate qualified per- necessitates need for complex characteristics sonnel, considerable educational, cultural, and for decision-making connected with improve- scientific potential, but also generate nature pro- ment of environmental condition of cities and tection strategies and new technologies aimed at towns, improvement of quality of life of popula- reduction of this pollution. All this defines im- tion, identification of groups of cities with the portance of a polylarge-scale integral estima- most dangerous situation. tion of anthropogenous influence in Russian While choosing priorities it is necessary to cities and townsusing international and domes- consider the following aspects: first, the -ter tic experience, and this research is devoted to ritory of cities and towns has a set of various development of a method of this estimation. The sources functioning at the same time, each solution of this task allows to carry out a com- of themhas a certain set of types of AI, and plex assessment of environmental situation in second, each source influences a certain part Russian cities and towns, to identify factors and of natural complex, these or that natural com- main tendencies of changes in environmental ponents of urban environment. Variety of crite- situation in them, including during the periods ria and methods applied in various researches, of economic growth and crisis. considerable differences in sets of components To assess the unevenness of the anthropog- used lead to various approaches to integral es- enous impact (AI) on environment both system timations. As a rule, priority criteria of quality of disaggregated indicators, and synthetic (inte- assessment for urban environment, determined gral) indices can be applied, the latter are most from the point of view of impact and conse- adequate to the complexity of the research sub- quences for the environment, are different as ject. The method of complex assessment of AI is well. But in any case characteristics of quality a system studying, measurement, and synthesis of urban environment include such components of influence by processing, using special meth- as level of impact, conditions of its distribution, ods, indicators reflecting influence of economic and level of pollution. Bityukova V.R. 43 Overview of research on the subject. Despite index depends not much on environmental pa- extreme relevance, environmental problems of rameters and becomeseven closer to indices of cities and towns drew the attention of a wide quality of life. range of scientists and international communi- 3. Really environmental indicesare calcu- ty not so long ago. The UN Centre for Human lated in a small number of countries (the USA, Settlements, Habitat, played an important role in Canada, Russia make their own environmental this process as in 1990 it launched a program on rankings of cities and towns), the majority of sustainable development of cities and towns and countriesare guided by well-known rankings of promoted inclusion in the final document “Agen- Mercer Human Resource Consulting and The da 21”of the chapter ”Promoting sustainable hu- Blacksmith Institute, considering more than 400 man settlement development”. It was recognised cities and towns around the world [7, 13]. In that settlements are main focus of policy aimed at Russia they are presented as estimations of en- promoting sustainable development. vironmental danger in Russian cities and towns In 1996 Istanbul hosted UN conference based on national statistics data, or on data on settlements – Habitat-II, “Sustainable hu- of ecomonitoring, measurements of levelof man settlements development in an urbanising various pollutants in the environment (a rank- world”. Active international work on the analy- ing of A.I. Voyeykov Federal State Budgetary sis of opportunities for sustainable development Institution GGO[5], a complex geochemical as- of cities and towns focused the attention on sessment [9]). Researches in cities and towns in features of a city as a subject of environmental different years also included indicators of toxic- research. ity of separate industries [6]. Later it resulted in The majority of modern techniques is based attempts to design integral indicators in large- on aggregation of three blocks – ecology, econ- scale researches of anthropogenous impact in omy, society and, depending on a set of specific cities and towns, development of various stan- indicators, represents three types of indices: dard calculations [3]. 1. Indices of quality of life included living Russian rankings for all cities and towns standards and way of life, and also health and face, first of all, lack of statistical informa- life expectancy where characteristics of environ- tion, its inadequacy, insufficient development mentalsecurity are taken into account [1]. Exist- of monitoring and, as a result, lack of data on ing indices of quality of life are very similar as pollution of natural components. The Ministry for the set of indicators, in general, they differ of Natural Resources and Environmental Pro- in calculation procedures. Russian indices ei- tection of the Russian Federation initiated de- ther exclude environmental indicators, as they velopment of the Technique of an environmen- are difficult to standardise [4], or include only tal ranking of Russian cities and towns prepared density of emissions [8, 11]. by Ernst & Young. However, this technique 2. Indices of sustainable development of cit- has a number of flaws which were reflected ies and towns are most widespread both in the in the final ranking. For example, selection of world, and in Russia. There is a universal UN estimation categories violates the principle of index which is based on an assessment of life systemacity (simultaneous use of categories expectancy, education, and income, and regional “air environment” and “transport” makes them indices are developed in many countries of the duplicate each other). The volume of emissions world (the USA, Canada, France, Great Britain, is divided intocity population, taking into ac- Brazil, Ireland, Spain, China, Japan, Slovakia, count migrants, which significantly distorts the Croatia) [6, 10]. In general, the structure of sus- indicator. The blocks “Energy Consumption” tainable development index includes three types and “Mitigation of Environmental Impact”are of indicators: development (population, area of rather factors forming environmental situation the city, transport networks, etc.); flows (ener- in cities and towns, than internal components of gyconsumption, imported and exported goods, assessment. As the result, it is quite difficult to water consumption, etc.); environmental quality interpret the final ranking since Kursk won the (waste, quality of water and air environments; first place. Main problems of this ranking are a new indicators are added: noise pollution, green vague purpose: “environmental state ensuring areas, quality of land use;a more comprehensive comfortable living conditions” that does not approach to the environment is introduced) [14]. promote integrity of the system of indicators, However, in practice sustainable development and a limited number of considered cities, only 44 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 82 large cities. This changes reference points of the proposed structure of a complex estimation, the rankingsignificantly. similar to the disaggregated systems of indica- Taking into account existing international and tors applied in international comparisons, allows domestic approaches in this research,an AI level to evaluate the structure of environmental prob- estimation technique is presented, comparable to lems for each city and to summarise impact of the a technique of assessment of regions, but taking same type from all sources by 6 blocks: into account specific features of urban environ- A. The subindex of man-made impact on ment for all 1100 Russian cities and towns. the atmosphere is presented by indicators (A1) density of emissions from the industry and mo- Materials and methods. The proposed tor transport standardised to unit toxicity (per complex estimation of AI is based on account- the area of lands of cities and towns, industry, ing of statistically significant impact of cities transport). Quality of the proposed indicators and townson natural complex, the set of indica- of pollution density is based on calculations by tors was limited by databank opportunities. The real pollution areas for 240 cities and towns on Passports of Russian Cities and Towns – 1997– a large scale. The problem of using this indica- 2012 database of Computer centre of Goskom- tor for AI monitoring is in insignificant differ- stat of Russia, containing data on 974 cities and ences in emissions of the majority of cities and towns out of 1100 cities and towns of the coun- towns as opposed to a huge gap between them try in which 92.4 million people or 97% of all and Norilsk and Moscow. But this is not a flaw citizens of the Russian Federation live, formed of the indicator, but a reflection of real territorial information base of the research. disproportion, typical for Russia. (A2) emission The choice of priorities at selection of indi- toxicity factor representing the relation of vol- cators in this research was based on two prin- ume of atmospheric emissions, standardised to ciples: (1) scope of research defines degree of volumes of “monopollutant”, i.e. to equal toxic- generalisation and a certain balance between ity in the structure of aerosol, to gross volume detail of research and width of research work of emissions. which necessitates generalisation, that is ag- B. Impact on water sources is evaluated by gregation and selection of leading factors; (2) indicators (B1) water consumption and (B2) dis- selection of research paradigm since for cities posal of sewage per resources of overland flow, and towns where the system of direct and feed- and also (B3) shareof polluted sewage. back links is extremely complex and sometimes C. Anthropogenous impact on land re- multidirectional, it isthe view of the process that sources of industrial complex and housing and defines system of indicators. public utilitiesis defined by(C1) density of stan- As AI is by definition multidimensional, has dardised solid waste, specific volume of solid no conventional formalised structure in relation and liquid household waste (C2) share of dis- to cities and towns, identification of priority cri- turbed industry lands, (C3) waste toxicity index teria inevitably has a subjective nature, but there defined as the relation of volume of production is no other approach. In relation to cities and and consumption wastes, standardised to unit towns in order to ensure minimum duplication toxicity, to gross volume. of indicators, the following priority directions D. Density of demographic pressure. Im- of impact were selected for integral index: impact of population on the environment manifests pact on the atmosphere, on water and land re- both directly (without mediation of technologi- sources, heat and radiation effects. cal processes, for example, recreational load), Development of indices for estimation of and indirectly (through economic activity). On existing intercity distinctions has to be based the other hand, indicators of (D1) population both on purposeful selection of indicators, their density in many respects characterise degree testfor adequate reflection of the studied- phe of impact risk as theydemonstrate in specific nomenon, and on choice of the best calculation conditions, what part of population is under methods. Selection of indicators on each block this load. For a city rather indicative indices is based on the principles of systemacity, reli- are also (D2) housing density and (D3) density ability, and availability of statistics, pronounced of transport network defining both direct impact territorial differentiation, and existence of clearly on soils and geological environment, and ven- interpreted dynamics, that allowed to evaluate the tilation conditions of the territory, i.e. partially structure of environmental problems. Therefore, self-cleaning potential. Bityukova V.R. 45 E. Heat effectis defined by the existence Results. Frequency distribution on AI in- in the city of highly and medium contrasting- dices turned out to be statistically normal and thermal anomalies exceeding background tem- even symmetric, and distribution on the number perature bymore than 100C, connected mainly of inhabitants, on the contrary, sharply slanted: with industrial facilities and intense thermal 45% of urban populationlivein the conditions leaks from underground water-bearing commu- of high and very high density of impact. Con- nications. It is characterised by (E1) density of trasts between cities and towns reach hundreds heat and steam networks calculated in two-pipe of times on shower water consumption and mode, km/sq.km, (E2) specific delivery of ther- formation of household garbage, thousands of mal energy to consumers for year (Gcal/per cap- times on shower drains, hundreds of thousands ita), and also (E3) number of people on 1 source. of times on the volume of drains, millions of F. Radiation effectis determined by location times on the volume of formation of waste, and of enterprises of Ministry of Nuclear Energy, re- several billions of times on waste of the 5th lease of radionuclides withresidual waters on NPP class. This reflects real distinctions, as density (Nuclear Power Plants), average daily gas-aerosol characteristics of emissions vary much more, emissionsof long-lived radionuclides on NPP, and and contribution of air pollution increases in the consequences of accidents. Calculation of this in- structure of integral index. Normalisation of index is the most difficult part of research since it dicators averages estimates and narrows gaps. considers the maximum number of indicators with Integral estimation by relative indicators the most poor statistics. It was considered as a full- reflects territorial structure of AI, identifying fledged factor in the cities and towns where there type of regions with high localisation of pol- are relevant sources and monitoring data [12] on lution in the only centre, and also small towns the following indicators (Bq/cub.m.*year) corre- having dangerous facilities, including radiation lated to background value for the territory of loca- hazardous facilitiesin problem regions (fig. 1). tion of the specific city: average annual volumet- 29 cities and towns with 18 million inhabitants ric activities in the air of the ground layer of the have the greatest values of intensity of impact.

atmosphere (F1) Σβ; (F2)137Cs; (F3)90Sr; annual The structure of this group is various: it includes

dropover(F4) Σβ; (F5)137Cs; (F6)90Sr; (F7)90Sr three million-plus cities (Moscow, Novosi- contentin river water (mBq/l). birsk, Krasnoyarsk), four cities with the popu- While choosing normalisation methods, na- lation of 500–1000 thousand people (Irkutsk, ture of impact on final estimate and content of Khabarovsk, Kemerovo, Tula), 7 large cities, controlled indicators were the criteria. Linear 3 medium towns, 12 small towns, among which scaling methodwas used for intermediate cal- Zapolyarny is on the first place. culationsas being the most widespread and ade- Structures of the indexdifferby types of im- quate to the international complex estimates, but pact. Considerable deviations are formed by ra- it is incorrect to use it when parameters are high- diation pollution which is actuallya”floating at- ly polarised. In this research logarithmic scaling tribute”. The total value was more influenced by methodis proposed [2] which removes excessive levels of formation and density of waste, density differences between a set of indicators, makes of emissions, volume of load on water sources. the structure more uniform and more adequately In small towns indicators connected with the reflecting problems of the regions: level of development of the territory (waste and heat supply) have a greater influence, the role , of radiation pollution increases, as mainly small towns got to zones of maximum radiation haz-

where xi is value of specific indicator. ard. For cities and towns with population of more Integral AI index was calculated based on than 500 thousand people, integral estimations the formula: are maximum and have a similar level, share of + АА  BB ++ В   CC ++ С   ++   ++   ++++++ FFFFFFFEEEDDD  ИАВ = ( 21 ) +  321  +  321  +  atmospheric321  +  pollution321  +  is increased, 4321 at that for 765  2  3   3   “million3  plus cities”it3  is increased due6 to trans-  + АА  BB ++ В   CC ++ С   ++   ++ EEEDDD   ++++++ FFFFFFF  ИАВ = ( 21 ) +  321  +  321  +  321  +  321  +  port4321 influence,765  and for the largest cities (more 2  3   3   3   3   than6 500 thousand people) due to industrial in- + АА  BB ++ В   CC ++ С   ++   ++ EEEDDD   ++++++ FFFFFFF  ИАВ = ( 21 ) +  321  +  321  +  321  +  321  +  4321 765  fluence (fig. 2). No statistically significant cor- 2  3   3   3   3   6  , relation between integral index and population where notations of indicators are given above. size has been revealed (correlation factor makes 46 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 Fig. 1. Integral estimation of AI intensity in Russian cities and towns, 2012 Fig. 1. Integral estimation of Bityukova V.R. 47

1,8 F Radiation effect 1,6 0,25

1,4 E Heat effect 0,2 1,2 C Impact on land resources 1,0 0,15 B Impact on water resources Subindices 0,8 0,1 0,6 A Impact on the atmosphere

0,4 0,05 D Density of demographic 0,2 pressure Integral anthropogenous 0,0 0 impact index (right scale) more than 500-1000 100-500 50-100 less than 1000 50 Population , thousands

Fig. 2. Structure of Integral anthropogenous impact index by groups of cities and towns with different population size

0.23), though in general high value of popula- though localisationis more noticeablein regions tion size increases the probability of gettinginto of the Urals, the Volga region and the South of a group with maximum values of separate indi- Siberia. The majority of such cities (4) are in Ir- cators. So, in Moscow almost all indicators are kutsk Oblast; Bashkiria, and Sverdlovsk Oblast maximum, except for share of polluted sewage each has 3 of them; Tatarstan, Samara Oblast, and radiation effect. It is followed, in descend- Kemerovo Oblast, and Chelyabinsk Oblast each ing order,by St. Petersburg, Rostov-on-Don, has 2 of them. Krasnoyarsk, Omsk, Tula, Khabarovsk, Novosi- Degree in which cities and towns determine birsk. 224 cities and towns have more than one environmental situation in the region, was iden- indicator with maximum value, and 603 more tified based on the ratio of IAI level in the region have at least one. and in the cities and towns in its territory to av- The structure of IAI in the group of “lead- erage Russian level (placed in the centre of the ers” is very various. Zapolyarny, Moscow, and system of coordinates), this allowed to identify Norilsk, centres of large coal GRES (Gusinoo- the following territorial ratios (fig. 3): zersk), of metallurgy (Tula) have an increased Cities and towns with high AI level deter- role of the subindex of atmospheric pollution. mining high AI level of the region (33.8 million Neryungri, Kemerovo, Kostomuksha, Bilibi- people). Among them are largest regional cen- no, and Kovdor have the volume and structure tres (Yekaterinburg, Kazan, Chelyabinsk, etc.), of waste as the leading factor. For small towns centres of placement of metallurgic complexes, of the East Ural print of the accident at “May- pulp and paper plants, oil refineries, etc. Small ak”, it is radiation effect. There is no statistically and medium towns include centres of mining insignificant correlation between share of branch- dustry (Neryungri, Asbest, etc.), aluminium in- es with high levels of pollution in the structure dustry (Shelekhov), centres of GRES (Kashira, of production and AI indices. But on average in Shatura), and also towns of metropolitanareas. groups of monotowns with metallurgical spe- Cities and towns with high AI level located in cialisation IAI is 16% higher, than in towns with regions with low level of pollution (52.7 million chemical production, 22% higher than in centres people) are generally first and second largest cit- of production of electric, electronic and optical ies of rather clean regions (Novosibirsk, Nizhny equipment, 25% higher than in centres of pulp- Novgorod, etc.). Territorial structure of these re- and-paper production, and 46% higher thanin gions has pollution localised in large cities. centres of food production. Cities and towns with low AI level located Almost 50 regions have centres with very in regions with high level of pollution (5.1% high AI, 47 of them are regional capitals. Such of urban population). There are two types of cities are distributed rather evenly over the terri- combinations in this group: (1) cities and towns tory of the country, there is no disproportion be- of extracting regions (Tyumen Oblast, the Komi tween European and Asian parts of the country Republic) where the considerable part of impact 48 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015

"clean" city in "dirty" region 0,195 "dirty" city in "dirty" region Chelyabinsk Kyshtym 0,145 Sochi Yekaterinburg

Kemerovo N.Novorod 0,095 Moscow

0,045 Bryansk Krasnoyarsk Makhachkala Zapolyarny Khabarovsk -0,005 -0,115 -0,065 -0,015 0,035 0,085 0,135 0,185 Novosibirsk Volgograd Omsk -0,055 Arkhangelsk Deviation of of IAI city Deviation from from average by cities Lagan Ulan-Ude Grozny Gusinoozetsk -0,105 Argun Astrakhan

-0,155Deviation of region IAI "dirty" city in "clean" region "clean" city in "clean" region from average by regions Fig. 3. Types of territorial structures of Integral anthropogenous impact index is moved out of borders of cities and towns; (2) and communal services. A special role in cit- small towns of regions where pollution is con- ies and towns belongs to motor transport, its centrated on largest enterprises of heavy indus- impact factors have changed rapidly during the try and is localised in large cities. last decade: dependence of atmospheric pollu- Low AI level in cities and towns corresponds tion on the growth of number of cars decreases to region level (5% of urban population). These and the role of such factors as quality of engine are generally small towns of the South, the Cen- and fuel, density of road network, and nature tre, and the Volga region, a single large city – of traffic grows. Derbent, and several medium towns specialise- In general trends of changesin environmen- din food industry. tal situation in regions are more smooth, than in cities and towns. The more diversified the re- Conclusions. The conducted research gion economy is, the less range of fluctuation showed that trends of changes in environmental of integral index of anthropogenous influence situation in cities and towns and regions have is, as in different branches economic and envi- both similarities, and differences. The role of in- ronmental indicators of development change at dustrial pollution decreased both for cities and a different speed. The more developed large-city towns, and for regions, but for the latter the role settlement in the region is, the more difficult and of the industry is more pronounced due to the more various the factors of its environmental influence of extracting industries. Similarity is situation are. An exception is made by regions shown in a general reduction of anthropogenous producing hydrocarbons where main pollution impact, in an increased role of such compo- areas are moved to suburban territories. nents as load on water resources and formation Formation of environmental situation of waste, in a greater contribution of pollution in Russia is characterised by a gradual de- connected with life support of population. crease in the role of factors which are pos- In spite of the fact that factors forming en- sible to affect by means of large-scale invest- vironmental situation in cities and towns and in ments aimed at technological modernisation regions are in many respects similar, in cities of production. In the long term the role of so- and towns they are more dynamic, more depen- cial factors, first of all, “greening” of public dent on the level of development of housing consciousness, should increase. Gladkevich G.I. 49 References

1. Анимица Е.Г., Елохов А.М., Сухих В.А. Качество жизни населения крупнейшего города. – Екате- ринбург, 2000. – 408 с. 2. Битюкова В.Р.,Кириллов П.Л. Методы комплексной оценки региональных различий экологиче- ской напряженности в России // Региональные исследования. – 2011. – № 2 (32). – С. 56–69. 3. Битюкова В.Р., Угарова Н.А. Эколого-экономическая оптимизация размещения промышленно- сти в крупных городах // Экология и промышленность России. – 2012. – № 2. – С. 14–20. 4. Бобылев С.Н., Зубаревич Н.В., Соловьева С.В., Власов Ю.С. Индикаторы устойчивого развития: экономика, общество, природа. – М., 2008. – 232 с. 5. Государственный доклад о состоянии окружающей природной среды Российской федерации в 1997–2012 / Министерство природных ресурсов и экологии РФ. – М., 1998–2012. 6. Колдобская Н.А. Возможности использования международных индексов для оценки экологического состояния крупных городов России // Региональные исследования. – 2012. – № 1. – С. 79–84. 7. Международная ассамблея столиц и крупных городов. [Электронный ресурс] URL: www.e-gorod. ru/Documents/programs/indicators 8. Нефедова Т.Г.,Трейвиш А.И. «Сильные» и «слабые» города России // Полюса и центры роста в региональном развитии / Под ред. Ю.Г. Липеца. – М., 1998. – С. 135–143. 9. Никифорова Е.М., Кошелева Н.Е., Касимов Н.С. Экологическая опасность загрязнения тяже- лыми металлами почв Восточного округа г. Москвы (по данным 1989–2010 гг.) // Инженерная геология. – 2011. – № 3. – С. 34–45. 10. Обзоры экологического состояния Канады. [Электронный ресурс] URL: http://www.ec.gc.ca/de- fault.asp. 11. Перов М., Финогенов А. Интегральный рейтинг ста крупнейших городов России / Материалы Института территориального планирования «Урбаника». – СПб., 2011. 12. Радиационная обстановка на территории России и сопредельных государств в 2012 году. Еже- годник ФГБУ «НПО «Тайфун»; Росгидромет. – Обнинск, 2013. 13. Экологический рейтинг городов мира. Институт Блэксмит. [Электронный ресурс] URL: http:// www.blacksmithinstitute.org/: 14. National Civic Review. Wiley Periodicals, Inc., A Wiley Company. Special Issue: Twenty-Five Years of Healthy Communities: Part 1. Winter 2013. Volume 102, Issue 4. Pages 3–78.Issue edited by: Tyler Norris.

Gladkevich G.I. (Moscow) ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHICAL APPROACH TO ASSESSMENT OF TERRITORY INNATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

“We become more and more specialised not in sciences, but in problems. This allows, on the one hand, to go extremely deep into the studied phenomenon, and, on the other, to expand it from all points of view”. (Vernadsky V.I. Razmyshleniya naturalista. M., 1977, vol. 2, p. 54) Abstract. More intensive use of territory and more complex spatial patterns of natural resource management contribute to the formation of conflict areas. The method of analysis of territorial conflicts, offered in this study, is based on the concepts of “function points” and “polarisation of landscape”, developed by Russian economic geographers. Upon receipt of integral evaluation of the gravity of conflict, incommensurability of individual figures related to disproportionality of units of measurement is solved by use of nonparametric methods. Keywords: territory, concept of impact assessment, territorial capacity, function points, territorial conflicts, nonparametric methods.

Introduction and statement of problem. of capacity of a territory, limiting possibilities Economic and geographical studying of the ter- for certain activities in this place. ritory in aspect of natural resource management Calculation of territorial (ecological) capacity is aimed at the spatial aspect of such phenom- is based on fixation of results of total impact on enon as impact, the increase of scales of which the environment of diverse types of economic ac- results in a complication of the structure of tivity and determination of parameters and limits natural resource management and formation of of impact in order to prevent transition of a territo- conflict areas. rial system into a condition of degradation. Despite obvious geographical differences Saturation of a territory with any objects as- between territories and their social and econom- signs a so-called “function point”, that is a pri- ic parameters, it is common for all territorial mary type of activity, to it. Capacity limits a set conflicts that they are caused by the exhaustion of functions of a territory and their development. 50 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 Symbiotic relations allow harmonious co- of which should be considered as one more im- existence of functions in the same territory. portant additional resource of using it. Russian “Neighbourhood” of functions (common bor- and foreign researches offer a concept of “eco- ders of areas with different functions) also nomic frame of the territory” for these purposes does not render their development impossible. [2, p. 207], as well as centro-peripheral models, Simultaneous use of the territory by antagonist reflecting staging of social development and pat- functions promotes formation of conflict areas. terns of spatial organisation, typical for various Development of the territory in terms of con- steps and stages [10], central place theory as a flict leads to it losing key functions, that quite set of principles of creating networks and spheres often cannot be replaced at the expense of other of influence of mutually subordinate settlements, territories, and in some cases, are lost forever. All and also of others hierarchised objects (nodal el- this demonstrates relevance and practical need for ements of production and social infrastructure) development of the technique aimed at settlement [18]. “Model of cultural landscape” [15] with of territorial (ecological) conflicts and preserva- a territorial structure providing for harmonious tion of multifunctionality of territories. coexistence of natural zones and human activi- Degree of study of question. Territory is ty – “polarised landscape” is closer to the topic a fundamental category of the whole system examined by the author in this article. of geographical sciences, and it has an extreme- According to the author, now it is also nec- ly comprehensive content. It differs in “capac- essary to add to spatial resources the concept ity and fundamental importance”. Territory of territorial capacity, decrease of which in the is analysed from different perspectives: as “a conditions of changing the environment under synonym to space”, as “natural, economic, so- pressure of so-called impact limits development cial, recreational, genetic resource”, as “living of many activities, leads to a gradual deteriora- environment of population” [20, p. 151]. Terri- tion of qualitative characteristics of the territory tory includes a set of natural, economic, social, and even full degradation of the developed func- ecological components, the whole set of them, tions (fig. 1). “spatial superposition of which is projected on Today a standard way is the main way to de- the Earth’s surface” [21, p. 36]. termine capacity. It should be noted that it does Economic and social geography view ter- not take geographical factors into account, it ritory as a specific type of resource, a spatial does not evaluate the extent to which the territo- resource (also referred to as “territorial re- ry is currently used, it does not consider chang- source”). There are at least two types of ter- ing of the environment, that is important for ritorial resources that are research subjects: re- determining parameters of further development. sources of economic and geographical position Exhaustion of territorial capacity leads to and spatial resources. The role of location in formation of conflict areas, the phenomenon geographical science is considered to be central, that is practically not studied not only in eco- human life and activities as well as functioning nomic and social geography, but also in interdis- of various spheres of economy depend on it. At ciplinary sciences. the same time, Russian dictionaries, as a rule, do not use the term “location”, and the technique of Concept of territorial capacity and re- its quantitative assessment has not been devel- search of impact on environment. Territorial oped yet (apart from studies on the assessment capacity or capacity of territory is a quantita- of EGP of the cities). At the same time, there is tively expressed ability of a place to meet con- an opinion that the potential of economic geo- crete needs of society not violating the structure graphical position may be included in national and functional properties of social and econom- wealth as its component. ic and ecological systems. Spatial resources depend on “landscape Depending on functional purpose of a place structure” of the territory and are exhausted in (in the present or in the long term) different the process of placement of economy, settle- types of territorial capacity are evaluated: de- ment of population, development of infrastruc- mographic, economic, recreational, ecological ture [20]. While the territory is filled in with (tab. 1). The concept of demographic capac- various objects – settlements, manufacturing ity was first introduced by P.P. Semenov-Tyan- enterprises, transport and engineering construc- Shansky [17]. A limit of demographic capacity, tions – its structure forms, the improvement according to Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, is the Gladkevich G.I. 51

Fig. 1. Territorial resources Created by the author

maximum population, able to earn their bread, logical situation) in this territory. Assessment living in this territory and using its resources. of ecological capacity is based on fixing results N. F. Reymers characterises territorial capac- of economic activity and determining the level ity as a possibility of expansion of economic ac- of impact at which a territorial system transits tivity in this area “without large additional costs into the state of degradation. Restrictions in use of its improvement”, mainly, by an intensifica- are sometimes so severe that their observance tion and complex use of the mastered resources may render certain types of economic activity [13, p. 123]. At the same time, he introduces the unprofitable. A compromise solution is neces- concept of potential territorial capacity, referring to sary in this case, that would be economically “additional capital expenditure for development and reasonable, but would not undermine the ability involvement of new resources in economic use”. of “natural environment to provide normal ac- Recreational capacity is the maximum abil- tivity to a certain number of organisms and their ity of a place to satisfy demand of population communities” [13, p. 123]. for services of rest and treatment, not degrading Territorial capacity may be expressed in dif- natural and resource recreational potential. ferent units. In physical sciences the capacity of The limit of ecological capacity depends on limited objects is determined by multiplying the the scales of impact on the nature and resistance area by the height. It is possible to determine of natural systems to this type of impact [7, p. 96]. more or less precisely the area for geographical Territorial capacity as a whole is a complex systems, but the height or the degree of space- concept connected with specific features of func- filling cannot actually be determined, as it is tioning of territorial systems and cannot be ex- impossible to determine precisely the degree of pressed merely as a sum of different types of ter- intensification of use of the territory by several ritorial capacity, composing it. It is necessary to types of activity at the same time. measure territorial capacity to maintain stability Territorial differentiation of indicators is of natural systems, prevent their degradation that either absent or is poorly developed in con- fully depends on scales and specifics of economic struction, sanitary and hygienic, recreational, activity and on the level of social and economic industrial, agricultural and even urban planning, development of society. Therefore, this task has ecological and recreational standards. to be solved by economic and social geography. N.F. Reymers suggested a scientific jus- Ecological capacity is directly related to the tification for calculating ecological capacity. degree of ecological tension (acuteness of eco- N.F. Reymers saw an opportunity in measuring 52 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 Table 1 Types of territorial capacity DEMOGRAPHIC Maximum population able ECONOMIC to earn their bread in this Possibility of extension RECREATIONAL territory of economic activity in this area by intensify- ECOLOGICAL ing its use Ability to meet needs Ability to resist for rest not degrading man-made load not natural environment deteriorating the environment P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, G. A. Privalovskaya, V. S. Preobrazhensky, N. F. Reymers, E.B. Lopatina, V. V. Pok- T.G. Runova, Yu.A. Vedenin, B. I. Kochurov shishevsky, S. M. Myagkov, N. F. Reymers I.V. Zorin, E.G. Petrova N. S. Mironenko, I.T. Tverdokhlebov Created by the author. ecological capacity “to preserve intact (more or The data in the table shows how different the less) a certain part of the territory (“many tens potential ecological capacity of the territory is in percent”) [14, p. 210]. Identifying ecological ca- different natural zones. So, buffer zone in south- pacity is a way to ecological optimisation, tran- ern taiga, ensuring ecological balance, should be sition from natural territories to their “ecologi- no less than 50% of the total involved area, and cally and socially and economically reasonable in a zone of the broadleaved woods it should be systems” for creating “functional and territorial only 25%. Comparing real picture of a place with mechanisms to maintain ecological equilibri- the suggested “ideal” one allows to receive in a um” [14, p. 209]. short time important expert estimates of the eco- N.F. Reymers’s ideology is reflected in his logical condition of the territory, directly depend- map chart of optimum ratio by natural zones ing on its social and economic parameters, on the of intensively exploited and extensively used, one hand, and on natural features, on the other. and conservation areas, ensuring ecological Territorial (ecological) capacity (filling of the balance. However, his map chart is almost im- territory with “social components”) is directly re- possible to read and has to be “deciphered” in lated to the impact of production and of man on order to be applied. Table 2 below represents the nature, leading to qualitative transformation these cartograms, correlated to natural zones, of the territory that allows to consider this catego- in a convenient form. ry as social and economic. Impacts on the nature

Table 2 Optimum ratio by natural zones of intensively exploited and extensively used, and conservation areas, ensuring ecological balance Maximum use, Buffer zone (carrying out or able to carry Natural zone % out an ecological function), % 1. Arctic desert, tundra, and forest tundra 10 90 2. Taiga: а) northern part 10 90 b) southern part 50 50 3. Mixed forests 70 30 4. Broadleave forests 75 25 5. Forest steppe 65 25 6. Steppe 60 40 7. Semideserts and deserts 10 90 8. Subtropical forests 20 80 9. Mousson mixed forests 70 30 10. Zones of altitudinal zonation 20 80 Source: [14, p. 208]. Gladkevich G.I. 53

Fig. 2. Classification of impacts Source: [19, p. 85–86]

(more and more referred to as “impact”) are here- Yu.G. Saushkin specified that it is necessary inafter all “types of human activity and objects to take into account the fact that the man has to created by him causing these or that changes in deal with an impact of the changed nature on the nature” [12, p. 8]. It is suggested to classify him. Using his words, interaction between the impacts based on their physical content, on their nature and society develops “on a spiral”. “The strength and intensity, on temporal scale and on geographical environment influences produc- territorial coverage (fig. 2). tion, promotes its development and then influ- The content of impacts is demonstrated in ences activity of the next generations that once table 3. All these characteristics are important again change the environment according to their while assessing the consequences of impact, new needs, skills, tools” [16, p. 137]. thus it is important to note that “territorial cov- Different measure of resistance of natural erage”, limits of impact and their configuration complexes to the impact is defined by their abil- (the fourth characteristics in the table), directly ity of self-purification, self-regulation and self- depend on the first three properties. restoration [9]. But, it is necessary “to adjust” It is important to bear in mind interrelations, resistance of natural systems, due to the fact that interactions (“chain reactions”) in the nature, their resistance potential is already undermined through which influences and changes are trans- or, at least, is changed. ferred from one component to another and further to the whole natural complex, and then to Concept of territorial conflicts. Generally another natural complex, etc. speaking, changes of the nature can be revers- Changed natural complexes, acting as an ible and irreversible. To determine the scales of environment and as resources, have a reverse changes in the nature, its current state is com- impact both on the man, and on human acti- pared to basic state, considered as a norm or a vity (fig. 3). standard. The consequences of impact, occur-

Table 3 Content of impacts Physical content Strength and intensivity Withdrawal of substance Strong Introduction of wastes Medium Construction of technical objects Weak Transformation of natural components

Temporal scale Territorial coverage Short-term and long-term Isolated and local Impetuous, episodic, and continuous Line and network (transport and communication networks) Seasonal, annual, and secular Areal (area) – agricultural lands, housing lands, recreational zones Source: [19]. 54 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015

Fig. 3. Scheme of research of impact on environment Source: [4, page 24] ring under the influence of the changed nature, nature conservation (as a further step of effect use of the territory, its functions. preservation of health, emerges after a Use of the territory is the way of its involve- certain period of development of all other ment in the systems of society functioning. The needs), includes only parts of territory type of use of the territory, understood as sat- where all types of economic activity are isfaction of certain requirements of society, is restricted; called by A.A. Mintz and V. S. Preobrazhensky transport and industrial. “function point” [11]. Social importance of different types of use Function point – “position principle and of the territory is not identical and that should be pressure of a place” (as M.D. Sharygin calls it) – taken into account in economic practice. In each represents unique character, identity, originality, case the priority has to be given to those types of that are inherent to any territory, besides its gen- use of the territory which, on the one hand, are eral geographical properties. demanded by the most pressing needs of soci- Natural resource management in a specific ety, and, on the other, are consistent with specif- territory is defined by cumulative effect of the ic natural properties of the territory. The priority following main groups of factors: are those functions of the territory that preserve technological group of factors (means, its biological efficiency – nature conservation, techniques or tools) used to satisfy agrarian, recreational, silvicultural etc. human needs; Old developed areas are characterised with territorial group of factors related to periodic transformations of function points. specific features of the territory and natural That is related to emergence of new needs which and anthropogenous systems located on it; cannot be satisfied by the functions which are social and culturological group of factors already developed here. The task of science is describing types of needs satisfied in this to give to the process of change of functions territory. a progressive course. Since human needs are the main motive The same function can be carried out by of natural resource management, the typol- territories of different type. More often ter- ogy of natural resource management developed ritories are multifunctional. The combination based on the set of needs and on the branches of functions forms certain types of natural of economy. Main types of natural resource resource management which are differenti- management include: ated by the types of impact on the environ- agricultural; ment, their scale and the subsequent degree housing; of transformation of the natural and social and recreational; economic environment. Gladkevich G.I. 55 The set of functions of the territory and Spatial combination of functions can be scales of their development are limited by its characterised as symbiosis, neighbourhood or ecological capacity. Exhaustion of territorial ca- antagonism (fig. 4). pacity happens both if maximum allowed man- At symbiotic relations functions can har- made load is exceeded, and if spatial structure moniously coexist in the same territory. In case becomes more complicated that, as a rule, leads of neighbourhood functions can have common to formation of conflict areas. borders. Functions which cannot share a ter- It is possible to distinguish the following ritory are antagonists. The antagonism arises types of conflict areas: monofunctional, mul- from incompatibility of such pairs of functions tifunctional and complex. A monofunctional as “housing – nature conservation”; “housing – conflict area is formed in territories where an industrial”; “housing – transport”; “recreation- individual function evidently dominates. It is al – industrial”; “nature conservation – indus- formed when degree of intensity of use of the trial”, etc. The antagonism of functions not only territory and, respectively, anthropogenous deg- complicates their functioning, but also results in radation, caused by this use, lead to above-limit their destruction, degradation. values of ecological threshold of territorial capacity that, in its turn, may cause reduction of Technique of identification of territorial economic efficiency of production. conflict in natural resource management. Monofunctional conflict is formed both at This technique has several stages. After param- intensive, and extensive ways of use of the ter- eters of social and economic development in ritory. This may be illustrated by the following the studied territory are assessed, main func- examples: forest is used for industrial purposes tions of the territory are defined, and borders of in a territory with a pronounced and attractive functional zones are identified, then areas where recreational function, or a recreational territory different functions intercross are detected and, is assigned for intensive agricultural activity, thus, antagonist functions in common borders i.e. when the border of one of functions is ex- (fig. 5) are defined. The final stage is to range tended to the disadvantage of a neighbouring areas based on the gravity of conflict in order to territory. make further administrative decisions. For this Multifunctional conflict area is formed in the purpose it is necessary to unite natural and ter- zone of implementation of various highly inten- ritorial factors and social and economic condi- sive functions, distribution of which is limited tions that defined current situation. Deviations by building borders (housing, transport and in- from standard and territorial indicators can dustrial, some types of recreational activity). serve as parameters of assessment. Conflict aggravates when qualitative charac- Obtaining assessments, integral by nature, teristics of environment degrade when ecologi- on each of areas is complicated by incom- cal threshold of territorial capacity is exceeded. mensurability of individual indicators because Further development of the conflict leads to de- of disproportionality of units of their measure- crease in less efficient use of the territory, and, ment. This problem is solved by application in some cases, to destruction of traditional types of nonparametric methods of research which of- of its economic activity. fer a number of advantages – wide field of appli-

Fig. 4. From harmony of functions to conflict areas Source: [8, p. 94; 9, p. 178] 56 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015

Fig. 5. Stages of identification of conflict areas in natural resource management Created by the author. * SED – social and economic development

cation, smaller sensitivity to distortions of sta- cal logic). It has a different content, in this case, tistical data. The method of the sum of places, expressing a territory rank according to the remarkable for the simplicity of calculations, is gravity of the detected conflict. the most available of them. Thus, the algorithm of a rating assessment The first stage of calculations consists in of areas may be presented in the form of the fol- preliminary ranging of all areas based on each lowing files (tab. 4): of the selected indicators, separately on natural information is presented in the form of a and social and economic blocks. Thus the first matrix of input data; ranks are appropriated to areas with the best val- best values attributed to a conditional ues; the second – with the highest share of the standard are defined for each indicator; best (or the highest percent of the best value), initial matrix is transferred to a matrix etc. Before calculation of the sum of places for of normalised values of indicators; all considered indicators (procedure of horizon- procedure of qualimetric weighing of the tal addition of a share of 1 that is a represen- selected parameters is carried out; tative calculation in mathematics) by lines and numeric value of generalising indicator receiving simple average at the end of the line, is established for each area on the basis qualimetric “weighing” should be done in order of particular indicators; to assess the importance of separate qualities by values of generalising assessment are introduction of “weight” coefficient [1]. Weight ordered based on this or that criterion. coefficients define numeric “contribution” both Areas are ranged based on the gravity of each natural parameter of the assessment, of conflict and split into types (if there is a large and of social and economic parameter, and can number of assessed objects) for subsequent se- vary considerably. In case necessary numerical lection of actions on the large number of them at data and empirical communications are absent, once. Current situation may be differentiated on weight coefficients are defined by means of ex- levels: catastrophic; on the verge of catastrophe, pert evaluations [4]. “Weight” of an indicator critical; unsatisfactory, satisfactory, etc. depends on the degree of its influence on the Drawing parameters of assessment of areas assessed situation. The sum of weights for all on the plane in such a way that position on Y-axis indicators should to equal to 1 [3]. reflects values of social and economic -parame The result of calculations on each area at the ters, and on X-axis reflects natural and territorial end of the line reflects the level of the generalis- and ecological parameters helps to identify types ing assessment of this object as a percentage to of objects on a set of diverse indicators (fig. 6). the best values integral in an average value from The first level of conflict arises when joint particular estimates. The method resembles cal- (in common borders) development of functions culation of the Index of human development leads to full degradation of one of them without (but only from the point of view of mathemati- any possibility of its restoration in the near fu- Gladkevich G.I. 57 Table 4 Rank of conflict areas based on gravity of conflict Natural Social and economic Areas by rank and territorial parameters parameters of situation gravity (unlimited number) (unlimited number) areas Integral Assessed evaluation

Pп1 Kп1 … Pпn Kпn Pс1 Pс1 … Pсn Kсn Pi* Catastrophic 1. On the verge of catastrophe 2. Critical 3. Unsatisfactory 4. Satisfactory 5. …. …… ……. … Created by the author.

*Pi = (Pп1xKп1 + PпnxKпn + Pс1xPс1 + …PсnxKсn): n Qualimetric coefficient

Fig. 6. The scheme of identification of types of areas based on conflict gravity Created by the author. * SED – social and economic development ture. Below situations are considered and areas Spatial actions are aimed at ensuring eco- are ranged when the crisis is less acute. logical balance, include reduction of scale of Elimination of territorial conflicts is the impact according to criteria of ecological ca- most important task of optimisation of natural pacity and are differentiated according to the resource management. Organisational actions type of a natural complex and depending on on “mitigation” of monofunctional conflict are types of activity. Splitting of large monofunc- aimed at “extension” of impact in time (tab. 5), tional areas (for example, vast agricultural for example, determination of period of con- and intensively used recreational territories) struction of industrial enterprises taking into ac- by natural objects with conservation status is count life cycles of protected species of animal effective. or water biological resources. If there is a multifunctional conflict, the situ- Technological measures – application ation is more difficult. The same measures re- of advanced technologies reducing impact of quire more fundamentality and expenses. Role aggressive functions – are crucial for elimina- of advanced production technologies, allowing tion of territorial conflicts. to reduce the zone of impact of highly intensive 58 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 Table 5 Ways of elimination of territorial conflicts TYPE OF CONFLICT AREA WAYS OF ELIMINATION MONOFUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL ACTIONS (limited number of functions) on elimination of the territorial conflict: «extension» of influence in time TECHNOLOGICAL MEASURES: application of advanced technologies reducing impact of aggressive functions ENSURING ECOLOGICAL BALANCE: Reduction of scale of impact ac- Splitting of large monofunctional cording to criteria of ecological areas by natural objects with capacity conservation status MULTIFUNCTIONAL OPTIMIZATION OF TERRITORIAL STRUCTURE (multiple functions) (spatial actions, in addition to measures for elimination of monofunctional conflict): Increase in area of nature conservation function up to required minimum Withdrawal or transfer of function to a territory of optimum development «Polarisation of landscape» (creation of «buffer» zones between antagonist functions) Proposed by the author. functions (housing and transport and industrial), rial concentration of population and production, increases even more. a special case of which are urbanised zones, nat- Spatial aspect of elimination of conflict ar- ural landscape and a city, affecting it adversely, eas becomes the most important thing. It con- should be “moved away” from each other as sists in creation of “buffer” zones between an- far as it is possible, separated and, at the same tagonist functions. Buffer zones are intended for time, connected by a “buffer layer” made up “absorption of impact” from highly intensive of intermediate functional zones (for example, functions on the territory. In case of forced re- agricultural) [15]. duction of the area of buffer zones, more rigid Thus, there should be transitional zones nature conservation technologies for transport differing in population density and degree of and industrial and housing functions, aimed at change of the environment (natural reserves, maintenance of ecological balance of the terri- suburban recreational parks, agro-industrial tory, are necessary. zone, housing (residential), urban zone, etc.) be- A more severe measure is a withdrawal or tween a “big city” and “wild nature”, opposite replacement of the least significant function. In and equal types of environment, both necessary this case, it is desirable “to transfer” functions to for people. Optimisation of territorial structure territories of optimum development. of “polarised landscape” is aimed at decreas- It is interesting that functions neighbouring destructive impact of the growing city and ing in a territory, acting as antagonists, can is based on the aspiration to preserve functions strengthen each other in case of their coordi- ensuring ecological balance (ecological equilib- nated development, promoting multiple growth rium) of the territory. However, in reality it is a of territorial capacity. The model of “designing difficult task because of a multifunctional char- ideal landscape” by B.B. Rodoman is aimed at acter of the specified zones. It is also necessary this, it is to be used primarily for recreational to take into account the influence of neighbour- purposes, but taking into account preservation ing territories that may be negative. of a natural complex, on the one hand, and “all Using technique of identification of conflict the other human activity”, on the other hand. areas for assessing various planned projects and B.B. Rodoman proposes to create “buffer development plans of territories is aimed at a zones” between antagonist zones intended for more reasonable decision-making in implemen- “absorption of impact” from highly intensive tation of the planned economic activity. functions on the territory – industrial, transport Analysis of the territory from the point of and industrial and housing. In terms of territo- view of potential conflict areas is of practical Gladkevich G.I. 59 use. It was repeatedly used by the department kinds of activity which caused formation of of economic and social geography of Russia in conflict areas. The study reflects negative con- MSU while carrying out research aimed at their sequences of the loss of the main function of the practical realisation. Here are some examples. territory – recreational, development of which While assessing problems of complex use was stopped due to the conflict. of territory at the construction of drinking water reservoirs (case study of reservoirs of the Up- Conclusions. Settlement of territorial con- per Volga), ways of preservation of its important flicts in natural resource management allows to functions by multi-purpose use were defined preserve multifunctionality of the territory by and recommendations on “stabilisation” of ru- means of “cultivation of functions” in the area by ral population by creating additional demanded creating buffer zones between antagonist func- types of activity were made1. tions or transferring functions to territories with Elaboration of development concept for optimum development, or withdrawal of func- a territory in terms of potential formation of a tions development of which results in a conflict. grave conflict in natural resource management2 The technique of identification of territorial (case study of the Baikal territory) allowed to conflicts is relevant to practice. It is easy to ap- put forward a program of coevolutionary devel- ply and may be used both by public authorities, opment, of use of natural and resource potential and by private companies while designing pro- excluding destructive transformation of eco- grams of further development, preparing docu- logical and economic systems. Protection of the ments of territorial planning. Investors are in- Baikal Natural Territory is viewed as a way of terested in identification of risks in the course indirect stimulation of economic development. of making decision on the transaction, on the This method was applied at the research of place and time of project implementation. In a conflictogenity of new economic objects in- case a multifunctional conflict is potentially fluencing traditionally developed functions in possible (or has already emerged), it is reason- the territory adjacent to the city of Novorossi- able to draft additional actions on minimisation ysk. There are a complex on shipment of liquid of negative impact. ammonia and a storage base of liquefied hydro- The possibility of receiving quite reliable in- carbons near Novorossiysk. Placement of these tegral estimates by means of qualimetric coeffi- objects on the Black Sea coast complicated the cients, demonstrated in this article, may be used structure of economic activity and strengthened for solving a wide range of tasks. anthropogenous impact on lowlands, most suit- The proposed methodical approach may be able for development of a transport complex, improved by application of satellite data given that are limited in area and already rich in other the fact that GIS-technologies are wide spread.

References

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Popov A.A. (Moscow) SPATIOTEMPORAL ANALYSIS OF KEY FACTORS FOR RESIDENTIAL REAL ESTATE ESTIMATES IN MOSCOW

Abstract. This article examines main methodical approaches to spatial patterns of residential real estate market development. Methods of developing an automated valuation model system of residential real estate appraisal (a case study of Moscow) are described. Using regression analysis, key factors influencing the pricing process are highlighted and analysed, overestimated and underestimated districts of Moscow are defined, a forecast of changes in spatial differentiation of prices on residential real estate in Moscow is presented. Keywords: Moscow, automated valuation models, pricing factors analysis.

Introduction. Real estate is one of key sec- on differentiation of the indicator of “housing tors of post-industrial economy of large cities. capital”, may be considered as a substitution for The share of “operations with real estate, rent information on the level of real income of resi- and services to consumers” in GRP of Moscow dents, that is easily accessible in Western Eu- has exceeded 20% by the mid 2010s, that put the rope and the USA [6]. capital of the Russian Federation on the same Specific features of real estate market in the level with the largest cities of the world (for ex- Russian Federation (low indicators of housing ample, a similar factor for New York is 26% and per capita and affordability, technological re- for Paris is 25%). Development of real estate strictions on the part of construction industry, market is important not only in the context of absence of a civilised market of rent, weak fis- regional projection of macroeconomic trends, cal regulation for private investors) significantly but also as an important parameter influencing influence migratory mobility of population both intracity processes. on a country level, and in large cities. Housing Differences in the cost of residential real conditions are also considered in complex re- estate are used by many Russian researchers as searches connected with the assessment of liv- a key indicator of the depth of social stratifica- ing standard of population, calculations of in- tion. Though they are compelled to do so due tegral indicators of the attractiveness of cities, to the lack of Russian intracity statistics, data evaluation of differences in the quality of urban Popov A.A. 61 environment [4]. Recently, the most in-depth marketing classification of assets. This results in and detailed scientific studies on the develop- a wide spread of values on key indicators (aver- ment of housing market have been conducted in age price of a square meter, its differentiation the field of forecasting of pricing by means of between areas, and dynamics). It complicates economic models [10]. both the analysis of segments of the market, Real estate markets cannot be studied fully and the interpretation of final results. Experts in a separation from the territory not taking into spend most of the time collecting and correct- account characteristics of location of assets and ing the input data, not analysing it. Work with quality of the environment. High level of speci- time series is especially complicated, as ways fication may be ensured only when specific geo- of systematisation of information are subject to graphical approaches to researches are applied changes. The considerable part of information (in particular, polyscale analysis). space is occupied by publications of analytical divisions of real estate agencies and developers, Sources of information on real estate mar- i.e., the actors interested in creation of a news ket. Despite a high demand on works connected background favourable to them. Greater trans- with the development of real estate market (on parency of market in some regional centres is the part of the state and business), methodologi- explained by a many-fold difference in price cal approaches to its analysis in Russia are much level compared to the capital: huge size of mar- less developed, than for other sectors of econo- ket in Moscow does not allow participants of the my. It is connected to the fact that this market market to agree on clear “rules of the game” and is relatively young (in contrast to, for example, openness of information. studying of industry, this line of geographi- Therefore, it is necessary to create of a tech- cal researches could not inherit the techniques nique of objective calculation of key indicators formed throughout the Soviet period), has a spe- (first of all, connected with determination of the cific development scenario and does not have a current price level, its dynamics). Both consumers uniform data source. Quality, completeness and (end buyers and tenants), and expert community efficiency of statistics, systematised by Federal (as use of third-party data may lead to incorrect State Statistics Service, does not meet the re- conclusions, complicates comparative analysis quirements of expert community. Unlike coun- and creation of time series) are interested in this. tries with developed markets of real estate, there is no reliable source of information on price Adaptation of method of housing mass level and their trends on the scale of cities and valuation to geographical research. In order regions in the Russian Federation (an analogue to obtain data on spatial differentiation of prices of Case-Shiller index in the USA that is pub- on residential real estate one of two sources is lished by Standard & Poor’s rating agency and always used: is one of the major all-country macroeconomic 1. Information on ask prices (from adver- indicators) [1]. Attempts to introduce a uniform tisements published by agencies, developers and technique of collection and systematisation of individuals). information executed by professional partici- 2. Information on transaction prices (from pants of the market (Russian Guild of Realtors) systems of state registration). were successful only in several regional centres Data on ask prices is a priori less reliable. by 2014 (Yekaterinburg, Krasnodar, Nizhny Even under the conditions of licensed activity of Novgorod). For those centres city classifica- participants of the market with a strict responsi- tions of housing estates were created, division bility for the publication of incomplete and un- into districts of territories, adapted to specific reliable information (that does not exist in the features of housing market, was developed, and, Russian Federation), while processing this data most importantly, information multilisting sys- it is impossible to be sure that a transaction was tems were brought into operation (storing reli- executed at a stated price and that it can be used able data on all advertisements and on the ma- for further calculations. An adjustment on bar- jority of transactions). gaining only partially corrects this problem, but The housing market of Moscow capital re- still reduces the selection accuracy. gion, which is one of the largest in Europe on Data on transaction prices (if it is available capitalisation, so far exists under the conditions in a format allowing generation of a comprehen- of partial information protection, lack of uniform sive database) is used to create similar databases 62 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 implemented in a number of foreign systems of neous housing development and with minimum mass valuation. Examples in open access are differences in the quality of urban environment. Zillow and Trulia Internet projects in the USA, It allows to solve one of the major problems RightMove and Zoopla in Great Britain, Szybko facing appraisers, that is, the automation of sys- in Poland. Creation of a system of open data on tem of analogue selection. Filtering databases the Internet portal of the Federal Registration to exclude incorrect records is implemented by Service [11] in 2011 theoretically should have means of step-by-step application of the follow- solved all problems with the correctness of data, ing methodical actions: described above. In reality using it turned out processing of several sources for a long to be no less problematic than the analysis of time period (up to 5 years), that is, using bases of advertisements. If no essential adjust- approaches and tools of big data analysis, ments are introduced, calculations based on the removal of advertisements with incorrect data of the Federal Registration Service result values of prices, areas and ratios of those to in serious inaccuracies. It is related to the fact parameters (about 15% of advertisements that more than 40% of apartments are registered do not meet this criterion), not at market prices in information on transac- removal of advertisements with tions (to avoid taxation), it is impossible to de- incorrect address references (about fine the exact address of the asset for 80–85% of 10% of advertisements do not meet this records, it is difficult to distinguish transactions criterion), on primary and secondary markets. Neverthe- verification of data from advertisements less, information received after relevant verifi- with data on characteristics of housing cations has indisputable advantages connected stock from regional division of BTI with the official status of the source, a uniform (Technical Inventory Bureau) (about technique of data collection and systematisation 20% of advertisements do not meet this on a national scale. criterion). Thus, while creating a correct technique of This multistage filtration allows to receive a big data processing for the analysis of a price situ- array of highly reliable information. About 45% of ation, one cannot be limited to a single source advertisements are removed, as they do not meet and it is impossible to do without filtering each the criteria of reliability. Additional correction of of data arrays to exclude false information. The selection is carried out (since bases of advertise- suggested proprietary methodology is ideo- ments always shift towards a greater share of less logically the closest to technologies of creating liquid assets, while more liquid assets, on the con- systems of mass valuation of residential real es- trary, prevail in bases of transaction), so that it cor- tate [2]. Its main difference from the systems, responded to the structure of housing stock which realised by specialised evaluating companies, exists in each part of the city. is the logic of filling “from the particular to Several data arrays are one-by-one used in the general” (from a particular combination the calculation of per-square-meter price in a “house + number of rooms type” to the scale of given house: a city) [7]. Appraisers, as a rule, do not aim at current advertisements from this house, evaluating every house (which is necessary to archival advertisements from this house, geographers), there is only an objective to ob- with the price calculated for the present tain the most exact adjustment factors to apply moment through discount factor, them to similar assets. current and archival advertisements from Within this technique, calculations are at first similar houses (with identical qualitative carried out for a minimum possible territorial characteristics (material of walls, series, cell (house) for each possible number of rooms number of storeys) and located in the in the apartment, and only then are step-by-step same “subdistrict”). aggregated for assets of higher level (munici- This allows to calculate estimated value of pal areas, administrative districts). Specifica- each residential real estate asset, not based on tion of administrative-territorial division of the 10-15 analogue assets from current advertise- city plays an important role in this technique. ments, but on hundreds of records with a high Each of 125 municipal areas of Moscow (for degree of reliability. The model is dynamically borders valid till 2012) is additionally divided updated, addition of new actual data allows au- into several “subdistricts” with rather homoge- tomatic recalculation for all its elements, and at Popov A.A. 63 the same time increases its accuracy. It allows to 340–380 thousand rub/sq.m (it corresponds to obtain data on price level for any space and time the main price range for business-class houses). layer (both for the present moment, and in ret- The same graph illustrates various ways of de- rospective). It appears that results of the above termining level of difference in prices between described technique may have significant practi- districts used by different researchers. On the cal application in the following spheres: one hand, there is a fivefold difference in perfor making administrative decisions in square-meter price between the most expensive the development sphere (both for local (Arbat) and the cheapest (Kapotnya) municipal tasks of the analysis of achievable price areas of Moscow (similar relation will lead to level for specific buildings and sites, and an eightfold difference for the price of apart- for more high-level purposes connected ment). At the same time, the dispersion of prices with modelling of efficiency of large for the majority of apartments differs for per- urban planning decisions); square-meter prices only by 2.38 times which is for greater accuracy of fiscal regulation impossible to consider a critically high value for (in the context of planned calculation of such a large city as Moscow. real estate tax based the market value of Spatial distribution patterns of prices have apartments); changed rather poorly throughout the existence for use in the IT sphere (regarding of free housing market of Moscow. The pro- integration into the Internet sites and nounced maximum in the centre is still along the applications). axes of status value that had developed back in The current version of calculation model has the Soviet period (along Leninsky, Leningrad- the following restrictions: sky, and Kutuzovsky Avenues). Highly dense estimated value is calculated for 29,000 development of the territory within MKAD of multi-family houses in Moscow (i.e. (Moscow Ring Road) made it difficult for new 97% of the total number); locations of status value to emerge. Among only houses commissioned before 2011 not numerous examples of them are quar- were considered (to exclude complex ters around parks “Pokrovskoye-Streshnevo”, specifics of pricing in the market of new “Moskvoretsky”, “Dolina Setun”, building of buildings); undeveloped lands along Michurinsky Avenue territory of New Moscow, Zelenograd, and Udaltsov Street, and also an increase in and a number of municipal areas with prices around the headquarters of Gazprom in low-density housing development the southwest of Moscow (which was created were not considered (Vnukovo, not only at the expense of new buildings, but Molzhaninovsky, Vostochny). also because of boosting attractiveness of apart- Results of calculations based on the de- ments in the secondary market). Pricing in the scribed model are presented on fig. 1. Moscow market is poorly influenced by local A distinguishing feature of the Moscow mar- factors (proximity to parks, garden squares or, ket of residential real estate is an essential dif- on the contrary, to large highways, railroads, ference between median value of per-square- and markets), the main price transitions are not- meter price (for May 2014 it is 174.2 thousand ed at the level of groups of districts and sectors. rubles) and average value (189.3 thousand In recent years intracity heterogeneity of rubles) and weighted average (184.5 thousand prices in Moscow is steadily decreasing. Value rubles) values. These calculations are given for of variation factor on the set of “houses” for a set of “houses”, but this pattern is also pres- the estimated per-square-meter price decreased ent in the analysis of data by territorial cells, from 37.8 to 35.4%, and for the average price which signifies the lack of uniform price space of apartment from 44.0 to 41.2% for the period in the Moscow market of real estate. Distribu- from 2010 to 2014. Earlier a similar trend was tion graph for per-square-meter price (see noted in 2004-2006 and was related to the begin- fig. 2) significantly differs from figures, typi- ning of mass demolition of “Khrushchyovkas” cal for other cities and close to normal distri- (five-storey apartment blocks)[5]. Now level- bution. Local minimum is in the price range ling of prices turned out to be a consequence of 260–290 thousand rub/sq.m (there is a limit of implementation of projects on development for standard Soviet building at this price level), of transport infrastructure on the suburbs of the and local maximum is in the price range of city (metro stations in Mitino, Strogino, Zhule- 64 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015

Fig. 1. Differentiation of per-square-meter price by subdistricts of Moscow, 2014 bino, Novokosino, Brateyevo were construct- of each pricing factor is one of the key tasks fac- ed), and also of some decrease of the attractive- ing researchers of real estate market. This line ness of the centre of Moscow for buyers. is well developed in Russian practice in the part Application of mass valuation model for connected with specific features of a real es- analysing pricing factors. Defining the role tate asset (metric area, number of storeys, legal Popov A.A. 65

Fig. 2. Distribution of houses in Moscow according to estimated per-square-meter value. Data for 2014. Author’s calculations

encumbrances) or with high-level tasks related X2-X6. An aggregated factor (see fig. 3) was to the assessment of influence of general eco- calculated on 5 groups of factors (location in nomic factors (personal income, new housing transport system, quantitative and qualitative supply) on price level in the region [9]. Thus analysis of venues of trade and social infrastruc- less attention is paid to the pricing factors con- ture, analysis of environmental situation, loca- nected with location features of assets. As a rule, tion in terms of elements of negative and posi- only 2–3 indicators, which can be obtained eas- tive neighbourhood) [8]. ily directly from databases (distance to a metro For more accurate interpretation of results of station, to the centre or to the external border the model, reflecting influence of various factors of the city) are used [3]. Using detailed data on on pricing, it is necessary to justify the choice of formalised assessment of quality of urban envi- a spatial grid of cells and of the analysed param- ronment for each residential quarter of Moscow eter (the dependent variable Y). The later may substantially solves this problem. be either an average price per square meter, or Three data arrays were created for regres- an average price of a standard apartment. sion analysis: The vast majority of researches in Rus- The dependent variable Y in the model is the sia use a relative index (unlike in the USA and estimated value for all multistoried houses of Western Europe, where the indicator of average Moscow (according to the technique described price level, as a rule, is the estimated value of above). “a typical house/apartment with 2 bedrooms”). Information on qualitative characteristics of Using price per square meter limits possibili- houses is used in the model as the independent ties for interpretation of research results a little variable X1. BTI data bases were systematised (as in reality not square meters, but apartments in order to obtain this value. Characteristics of are bought and sold), but reflects the specifics buildings (number of storeys, height of ceilings, of housing stock of the Post-Soviet cities better. depreciation rate, characteristics of surrounding The majority of economical and geographi- area), and integrated data on the quality of plan- cal researches, devoted to real estate market of ning concepts in apartments (a ratio of total and Moscow, use an official grid of administrative living area, number of bathrooms, balconies). division (administrative districts and, slightly Data on quality of urban environment is more often, municipal areas) as a cell, division used in the model as the independent variables of the city into zones of service of metro stations 66 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015

Fig. 3. Values of quality of urban environment index by subdistricts of Moscow, 2014

is considered less frequently. These options pro- turn, possesses significant internal heterogene- vide for carrying out an analysis on cells with ity. This is confirmed by calculations of varia- a big area and average population of about 100 tion factor for the price of apartment and the thousand inhabitants, as the result, spatial pat- price per square meter for various variants of terns are detected based on a data array, that, in cells. It makes 18.5% for municipal areas, that Popov A.A. 67 Table 1 Heterogeneous distribution of housing prices for different spatial cells of Moscow Average value Average value Number of variation factor of variation factor Spatial cell of cells for per-square-meter for apartment price, % price, % Administrative districts 9 120.3 62.7 Municipal areas 122 18.5 41.2 Subdistricts (parts of municipal 403 8.8 20.1 areas) Zones of service of metro stations 129 16.6 44.2 Groups of houses (yards) 7312 4.0 4.2 Based on author’s calculations. Table 2 Importance of allocated groups of factors in pricing in the market of residential real estate of Moscow (r² determination factors in regression model) All houses Houses Houses All houses except All houses outside within in areas for elite of Moscow historic historic outside residential centre centre MKAD complexes Quality of housing stock 0.57 0.64 0.72 0.57 0.13 Quality of urban environment 0.60 0.68 0.74 0.66 0.44 Components of quality of urban environment Transport 0.57 0.62 0.35 0.53 0.61 Trade and social 0.39 0.41 0.53 0.49 0.35 infrastructure Environmental situation 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.02 Negative neighbourhood 0.16 0.20 0.04 0.22 0.02 Positive neighbourhood 0.31 0.21 0.52 0.37 0.16 Quality of housing stock + 0.75 0.73 0.82 0.73 0.62 quality of urban environment Based on author’s calculations. means that average level of internal differentia- name a group of factors connected with such tion of prices in municipalities of Moscow is too characteristics of areas as an image of territo- high to choose this grid as suitable for detailed ries and their status value, social composition. research of pricing factors. The role of objective factors in pricing also Therefore, creation of model for a grid of diminishes when going away from the centre, subdistricts (municipal areas of Moscow di- however, the external border of the city and the vided into 2–5 parts) for the estimated value of status of the resident of Moscow, determined by a square meter is chosen as an optimum com- it starts, acting as a non-formalisable parameter bination of the analysed parameter (dependent for territories outside MKAD. variable for regression model) and the cell for Comparison of the relation of per-square- research. Transition to level of “groups of hous- meter price to median value for the city to the es”, though it would yield a little more correct similar index calculated for the quality of urban results, is objectively more difficult in interpre- environment allows to detect distribution of the tation and mapping. overestimated and underestimated urban areas Regression analysis shows various contribu- (see fig. 4). It clearly demonstrates a number of tion of parameters of quality of urban environ- trends which have emerged in urban planning ment and of construction characteristics of the development of Moscow for the last 5–7 years. house for various territorial layers. The role of Overestimated areas include not only the subjective (not described mathematically) fac- centre and territories with high concentration tors remains rather high (it is about 25% on the of new business-class buildings (in the West, whole of houses). Among them it is possible to the Southwest and the Northwest of the city), 68 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015

Fig. 4. Overestimated and underestimated territories (analysis by subdistricts of Moscow), 2014 but also areas of the late Soviet development as places of settlement of factory workers, who along outer side of MKAD, and also all territo- were invited to the capital according to prop- ries beyond it. They do not have a high quality iska quota (registration of a limited number of of urban environment, their social composition non-native residents). Their overvaluation is often inherits the history of their development clearly illustrated by a barrier role of border Popov A.A. 69 between the two subjects of Federation. Areas of mentation of techniques on its systematisation the Moscow region, boundary to Moscow, with and processing is an important task currently similar characteristics of urban environment, facing microgeographical researches. have much lower prices (on average, 20–25% 2. Calculation of per-square-meter price of lower), that is, “coming” to compliance with ob- residential real estate using the technology of jective characteristics of location. Belonging of mass valuation allows to obtain data for further area to Moscow is connected with privileges of analysis with the highest level of reliability and Moscow registration and status of the capital for detail (up to a house). In the presented research buyers and automatically overvalues price level. a classical model of mass valuation was adapted The described price gap is typical only for sales for Russian practice through introduction of market. The rent of apartments in comparable adjustments on data of BTI on the structure of areas on the opposite sides of the border differs housing stock and the improved division of the much less (for 5–7%). city into districts. Underestimated areas include the majority of 3. Distinguishing features of the Moscow districts of the median belt (except the western capital region on a national scale (“economy of part) which borders historic centre of the city rent”, high mental value of the status of a resi- from the North, the East and the South, form- dent of the capital, attractiveness for external ing almost perfectly round ring. Now they are migrations) lead to distortion of classical mod- of the greatest interest for developers. There are els of housing market operation. In particular, large industrial and municipal zones, quarters of there is no uniform price space in the capital. shabby housing constructed back in 1920-1930s, Substantial deviations from normal distribution that means that these are territories that may be in per-square-meter price between individual subject to an active redevelopment and where segments (economy class and business class) the main construction activity will be concentrat- and between parts of agglomeration are noted ed in the next 5–7 years. The new management (for example, crossing of the border “Moscow – team decided to abandon the practice of 2000s Moscow region” results in a step change of 20– when commercial housing construction was 25% in per-square-meter price). mainly concentrated in the traditional prestigious 4. Regression analysis of the accounting of directions of the capital (in the western sectors), pricing factors in the residential real estate market where we saw an active infill development and of Moscow illustrates a high level of dependence construction along the borders of conservation on a set of objective components (qualitative areas. Implementation of large-scale projects on characteristics of location and housing stock); building of territories of ZIL plant, Serp i Molot their “contribution” makes 75% (city average). plant, the old territory of AZLK, Karacharovsky Territorial differentiation of per-square-meter mechanical plant, part of an industrial zone of price has changed rather poorly for 20 years of Kaloshino may level sectoral differences which functioning of the open housing market. Intracity grew for the first two decades of functioning of distribution of prices, in many respects, inherits free housing market. These projects may also the ideas of status value and quality of urban en- “counterbalance” the Southwest vector of devel- vironment of areas from the Soviet period. The opment of the city, related to incorporation and role of local factors in pricing (situation concern- active land development of New Moscow. ing elements of negative and positive neighbourhood, view) remains insignificant. Conclusions. 1. Lack of high-quality in- 5. Comparison of rated values of estimated formation resources and databases with an ap- per-square-meter price and index of quality of propriate level of detail and reliability is an es- urban environment allows to define overes- sential restriction facing experts, who deal with timated and underestimated areas of the city. the problems of heterogeneity of urban space. Change of the vector of urban planning policy Conventional scenarios for studying real estate in 2010–2014 (transition from infill develop- markets (analysis of time series, correlation and ment and construction along the borders of regression modelling) may be significantly en- green zones in traditionally prestigious areas to riched by application of specific geographical a redevelopment of large industrial zones of east methods of research (polyscale analysis, use of sectors of Moscow), in medium term, may lead various options of division into districts). Ensur- to levelling of the existing differences in price ing greater transparency of information, imple- level between sectors. 70 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 References

1. Евстафьев А.И., Максимов Д.В. Анализ организации жилищной застройки и рынка жилья города на основе пространственно-параметрического моделирования // Известия вузов. Северо-Кав- казский регион. – 2010. – № 5. – P. 112–118. 2. Косарева Н.Б., Полиди Т.Д., Пузанов А.С. Рынок жилищного строительства в России: современ- ное состояние и перспективы развития // Вопросы экономики. – 2013. – № 3. – P. 62–70. 3. Махрова А.Г., Татаринцева А.А. Развитие процессов джентрификации и реконструкция город- ской среды центра Москвы в постсоветский период // Региональные исследования. – 2006. – № 3 (9). – P. 28–42. 4. Махрова А.Г. Рынок жилья и расселение в Московском регионе // Демоскоп Weekly. 2006. № 247–248. [Electronic resource] URL: http://demoscope.ru/weekly/2006/0247/tema01.php. 5. Пилипчак Ю.В. Особенности проведения массовой оценки недвижимости в Москве: теория и практика // Социально-экономические явления и процессы. – 2012. – №12. – P. 256–259. 6. Попов А.А. Территориальная дифференциация качества городской среды в Москве // Вестник Моск. ун-та. Сер. 5. География. – 2007. – № 4. – P. 29–36. 7. Родионова Н.В. Специфика ценообразования на рынке жилья и факторы, влияющие на цену недвижимости // Аудит и финансовый анализ. – 2009. – № 2. – P. 32–38. 8. Стерник С.Г. Развитие оценки недвижимости сравнительным подходом на основе методологии дискретного пространственно-параметрического анализа и моделирования рынка // Аудит и фи- нансовый анализ. – 2009. – № 5. – P. 42–47. 9. Case K., Shiller R. Prices of Single-Family Homes: New Indexes for Four Cities // New England Economic Review. – 1987. – № 8–9. – P. 46–56. 10. Mitropoulos A. Criteria for Automated Valuation Models in the UK // United Kingdom Criteria Report. [Electronic resource] URL: https://www.rightmove.co.uk/ps/pdf/ds/Fitch.pdf. 11. Портал услуг Федеральной службы государственной регистрации, кадастра и картографии Росреестр [Electronic resource] URL: https://portal.rosreestr.ru/wps/portal/!ut/p/c4/04_SB8K8xLLM 9MSSzPy8xBz9CP0os3gTZwNPL8tgY5MwIwM3A88AIwvv4FAPI3cjY_2CbEdFAO5-2_s!/ (Accessed 20.05.2014). 71

PRACTICAL RESEARCH

Alekseev A.I. (Moscow) MAN AND NATURE IN DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL AREAS OF NON-CHERNOZEM ZONE

Abstract. This paper traces the evolution of the author’s views on factors of rural development of Russian Non-chernozem zone in the context of general trends of human geography in the USSR. This article examines such explanations of “insufficient development” of this territory as natural conditions, availability of human resources and characteristics of settlement, quality of population. The conclusion points out the crucial importance of quality of population. Keywords: ruralareas, naturalconditions, population, Non-chernozemzone.

Introduction. The majority of scientific ar- settlements, connections between them, settle- ticles is written according to the understanding ment systems, etc. And agriculture simply “proof the essence of phenomena that the author has vides jobs” for residents of rural settlements. at the time of writing the article, even in case It is interesting that at the same time, besides this understanding changed in the process of re- “classical” agricultural geography, such direc- search. At the same time the history of science tions, new to Soviet geography, developed, as tells us that mistakes in interpretation of phe- recreational geography, demogeography (study- nomena are important both in themselves, and ing of a demographic situation – this concept as a demonstration of whimsicality of scientific appears only then), geography of services indus- search, lack of straight and direct ways in sci- try of rural population, – and all this with almost ence. Therefore, it seemed to me interesting to no relations with “scientific neighbours” (except recall my own way to understanding of devel- for service geography which could not develop opments of Non-chernozem rural areas: changes without settlement geography). An opinion that in problem definition, idea of development fac- all these directions should interact closely, as tors, of main problems, and, in general, under- they have a common subject, started to shape standing of what happens in this territory. (Thus, only at the very end of the 1970s. And I was of course, I have no confidence that now I came very proud of myself, when I wrote in theses of at last to the correct and full understanding of meeting on geography of population in Tbilisi this problem, and I have a complete and consis- (1979): “Identification of production types of tent idea of it – which is likely to be impossible). agricultural organisations, types of settlement, demographic situation, and natural areas, that History of problem. When I was a graduate has been carried out for a long time, demands student and studied rural settlement of Central the following step – development of typology Russia, I paid very little attention to agriculture of rural areas”[1]. It seemed to me that I “had of this territory (and back then, in the 1970s, broken the mould”. agrarian functions were still main functions in But it appeared to be the other way around! rural areas). Now it is difficult for me even to After a meeting in the Moscow branch of the explain how this could be. It seemed to me that Geographical Society (in the late 1970s) when there are a lot of actually “settlement” questions once again attendees urged each other to unite for studying: population size of settlements, in studying of rural areas, Andrey Rakitnikov “settlement pattern” (and methods of studying said: “But after all, it is not new, it is just a re- it, like potential of settlement field), functions of run!”. Then I asked him to name such researches,

1 Research executed with the support of RFBR, project№13–06–00895. 72 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 and after a while I got a list of about ten stud- and human life in general. And it seems to me ies of the 1910-1920s. I remember that there that therefore only those can be good geogra- was N. I. Vavilov’s book “Agricultural Afghani- phers who feel passionately about impressions stan” (“Selskohozyaystvenny Afghanistan”) [4], of surrounding life, who, like the poet and the V.P. Khristianovich’s book “Mountain Ingush- writer, perceive deeply the world around us, per- etia” (“Gornaya Ingushetia”) [16], works on ceive it not only in individual concrete facts, but animal husbandry in Pechora, etc. Having read generalise it, getting into depths, giving an im- part of them, I, being extremely excited, came age and a picture, but not an exact and incorrect to Rakitnikov with a question: why 50–70 years monophonic photo” [15]. ago scholars both wrote, and understood village Why were all the appeals in vain? There are problems much better, than we do now, “fully at least three possible reasons. First: to put it equipped with an advanced science”? Having mildly, insufficient development, or, rather, al- rather poor knowledge of Russian history back most total absence ofthe humanities in Russia. then, I assumed, that it could be the matter, that Sociology practically did not exist in the USSR we had become more narrowly specialised, less until the end of 1960s, and there was nothing for “complex” researchers. Rakitnikov looked at me geography “to be integrated with”. The second with regret and told: “The science had been de- reason is the general atmosphere in the country stroyed!” Then I started to understand the catas- which absolutely did not encourage studying trophe that had happened to the Russian science of differences in population life. And at last, it in the first decades of the Soviet government. seems to me, there was almost nobody to re- spond to appeals: the senior generation (those “Antropocide”. A bit later I happened to who did not leave, were not repressed, and did make a draft of “anthology of geography of pop- not leave the science) was leaving, and oth- ulation” (alas, not finished yet), and I thumbed ers succeeded them, for whom the expression through all issues of the magazine “Geogra- “richness of human spirit” was likely to be phy at school” (“Geographiya v shkole”). And unclear... In the memoirs “My life in economic again there was a surprise: many questions that geography” (“Moya zhizn v ekonomicheskoy seemed up-to-date in the 1970s had already geographii”), published only in 2001, N. N. Ba- been discussed thirty years earlier! ransky put it very sharply (referring to the late It is known that revival of Russian geogra- 1940s – early 1950s) : “The geographical facul- phy of population (after destruction in the late ty went down: people like Berg, Borzov, Vitver 1920s of anthropogeography as a “bourgeois left to forefathers, and very narrow specialists of pseudo science”) began in the second half of low level replaced them”[3]. the 1940s–and at first with rather simple things, O.I. Genisaretsky’s opinion seems suitable with subject, most represented in statistics (lo- to recall. An interviewer asked him a question, cation of population and settlement). But R.M. what he thought of Merab Mamardashvili’s Kabo’s [8] and Yu.G. Saushkin’s studies ap- opinion that “there was the most terrible of all pealed to much broader approaches, including catastrophes in Russia – anthropological”. The way of life of population, traditions and cus- answer was as follows: “much was destroyed toms. Moreover, some examples of such works in three generations. … Narrowing of range were created –for example? “Geographical of visible human opportunities, “keeping head sketches” (“Geographicheskiye ocherki”) by down”, dealing for a fall, all this led eventually Yu.G. Saushkin [14], his wonderful “economic to a crash of the great country. After all, a sys- and geographical etudes” in the “Geography at tem is possible to judge based on what person is school” magazine in the late 1940s [13, etc.]. reproduced in it. So, maybe, Merab Konstanti- The spirit of this magazine at that time novich is right. In any case, there was some kind (when it was headed by Yu.G. Saushkin) is well of antropocide – killing of humans. … Besides, illustrated in the article by A.E. Fersman (1946) we have long lived in the light of the stars that that includes a real anthem to geography: “this no longer shine, used a pre-revolutionary cul- science cannot be taught coldly! It should to be tural resource. There were schools of sciences, connected with perception of the many-sided people who were students of those scientists nature. It should give an impression of the rich- who were students of those scientists. But such ness of nature and human spirit, should show a potential is spent very quickly”. (Rossiyskaya how this nature influences way of life, character Gazeta. 2004. 5 February). Alekseev A.I. 73 Even a more critical opinion about the Sovi- I remember interviewing local administration et period was given recently by Andrey Zubov, of Borovsky District of Kaluga Oblast (which a historian [6]. He believes that the pre-revolu- was the “key” in my master’s thesis) in 1973– tionary Russian Empire was quite a European 1974, about types of farms in settlements in order state, but Bolsheviks who came into power de- to understand prospects of rural settlements in stroyed European cultural elite and opposed the this district: whether there were “standard” (with USSR to the rest of the world, and “the acquired full mechanisation) or old “non-standard” farms. cultural primitivism” was the result of that. Back then it was considered obvious that small- In relation to our subject it manifested, first of scale dairy farms (on 50–100 cattle) are absolute- all, in “elimination of kulachestvo (wealthy farm- ly unpromising since they cannot be mechanised: ers) as a class”, and in general – removal from ru- after all, the industry does not make equipment ral areas of the most skilful and active farmers. for such small farms! And it is very inconvenient The most important thing is reclamation! “to mess around” with them: not all of them have In 1974 the resolution of the Central Commit- good roads, and milk should be carried by trac- tee of CPSU and Council of ministers of the tors; it is already difficult to find milkmaids and USSR “On measures for further development cattlemen in small settlements, etc. In 1973 Ivan of agriculture of the Non-chernozem zone of Vasilyev, a publicist writer and a village expert, the RSFSR” was accepted. It said that “land propagandised experience of Velikiye Luki Dis- reclamation is the main part of the long-term trict (Pskov Oblast) where “already 6–7 years program of accelerated development of agri- ago it became clear that cowsheds should be cultural production in Non-chernozem zone of built not less than for 200 cows, and only in large the RSFSR”. There was the following expla- promising villages” [5]2. nation: main reasons for “insufficiently effec- At that all this seemed to me quite reason- tive development” of agriculture in this zone able: really, natural conditions were not perfect, are the character of environment, determining that means that it was necessary to improve low fertility of soil, finely contoured lands, them, to transform: to increase fertility of soils, bogginess, etc., and also the fact that settle- to liquidate fine contours, to build new mecha- ments are small, which makes it impossible to nised farms, etc. provide all settlements with all necessary ser- My confidence that natural conditions in vices. Therefore, one of the main tasks was Non-chernozem zone are “unfavourable” was “transformation of villages into well-planned supported by a poem of Fyodor Tyutchev, a settlements of state farms and collective farms, Russian poet. Being in August 1855 in the city building of agricultural production enterprises of Roslavl of Smolensk Oblast (on his way from in a complex with modern houses and cultural St. Petersburg to his manor of Ovstug, nowa- and community facilities, completion of mov- days in Bryansk Oblast) he wrote: ing of people from small settlements to large These poor villages, settlements by 1990” [9]. This meagre nature: A reference of the Ministry of Agriculture Long-suffering native land, (written in the process of preparation of the Land of the Russian people! resolution) said also that “though the animal husbandry in this zone is the leading branch, Proud foreign eyes the livestock of public cattle in many collective Will not notice nor grasp farms and state farms is scattered among small- The light that shines through scale farms and there is poor mechanisation. Your humble barrenness. Only 110 cows, 554 pigs, and 456 sheep are on average the share of one farm. At the beginning Worn by the weight of the cross, of 1973 about half of cattle, pigs, and two-thirds The Heavenly King in the guise of a slave of sheep were kept in equipped rooms in state Has passed through all of you, farms of this zone” [17]. Native land, blessing you.3

2 Heads of construction departments of that time had even more radical views: one of them claimed that it is absolutely unreasonable to build cowsheds for up to 200–400 cows, and it is necessary – for 1200 or 2400! [10]. It is clear that for builders it is much easier to construct one farm for 1200 cows, than 12 farms for up to 100 cows. A so-called «department approach» was widespread, especially in the Soviet period, when each ministry decided on its own what was more favourable for them. It is obvious that if money had been allocated to farmers, they would have spent it absolutely differently. 3 Translation by C.Ely (translator’s note) 74 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 So, it seemed clear that “the nature is guilty of milk) only thanks to such dispersion of settlement everything”. But what will be the future of rural and land use (residents of small villages were settlement? Definitely, geographers had serious able to prepare forages on nearby hay-lands dur- doubts concerning “moving people from unprom- ing the summer). This interrelation was broken as ising villages”: whether that is necessary and pos- the result of two processes: sharp growth of live- sible to make, especially in a short period of time. stock of cattle and, at the same time, outflow of Our research in Vologda Oblast, requested by population from small villages and reduction of CRLM (Central Research Laboratory of Man- their number. Therefore, it was necessary to start power) of Goskomtrud of the RSFSR, in 1976- using imported forages in dairy farms [11, 12]. 1978 confirmed this. Studying of “internal migra- Interesting conclusions about the character of tion” – “from small villages to large settlements” “feeding landscapes of the Russian ethnic group” was one of its tasks (at that time this indicator, and about the limits of territorial concentration of number of moved families, even became part of animal husbandry were made by K.P. Ivanov, a annual reports of collective farms!). student and a follower of L.N. Gumilev [7, etc.]. Results of survey [2] were as follows: out of The most important thing are people! By the about 400 state and collective farms of the area mid 1980s it was already clear to me that the real “moving” was carried out only for several main thing in the solution of problems of Non- farms. Only one suburban collective farm, with chernozem zone is not reclamation of lands, but its main farm built up with urban five-storey improvement of living conditions of rural pop- buildings, had people from small villages com- ulation, and, first of all, construction of roads: pletely moved. And in others, where central without them any improvement of service of farms were used to build housing for young population and ensuring an opportunity to people from small villages, their parents still choose a job were impossible. Without all this, lived in those small villages and their children in its turn, rural areas could not be made attrac- were sent to small villages in summer, since the tive for young people to live there. And the main centre of farm was considered by its inhabitants reason for insufficient development of agricul- to be too noisy and dirty, just “like a city”. Thus, ture in Non-chernozem zone is not the environ- there was no actual reduction of the number of ment, but lack of manpower. small villages even in most “advanced” farms. Back then, in the mid 1980s, my attention And their population (mostly of retirement age) was called to a most vivid “social and geograph- did not want to move at all. ical image” in Russian literature –the beginning Thus, it is obvious that moving people is not of the story “Khor and Kalinich” in “A hunter’s at all a way to improve situation in rural areas. sketches” by Ivan Turgenev (1847): Soon enough the practice of “moving people “Anyone who has chanced to pass from Bolk- from unpromising villages” was abandoned at hov District into Zhizdra District must have been the state level as well. impressed by the striking difference between the But the state policy remained the same con- race of people in the province of Orel and the pop- cerning “the main part – land reclamation”. ulation of the province of Kaluga. The peasant of Most scientists and officials did not agree that in Orel is not tall, is bent in figure, sullen and suspi- principle it is possible not to change the nature cious in his looks; he lives in wretched little hovels of Non-chernozem zone, but to adapt to it. of aspen-wood, labours as a serf in the fields, and Conversations with A.N. Rakitnikov, whom engages in no kind of trading, is miserably fed, I had the luck to meet during my expeditions to and wears bast shoes. The rent-paying peasant of Vologda Oblast in 1978, were of great impor- Kaluga lives in roomy huts of pine-wood; he is tance for my understanding of the situation in tall, bold, and cheerful in his looks, neat and clean Non-chernozem zone. It became clear that the of countenance; he carries on a trade in butter and traditional type of settlement and agriculture, tar, and on holidays he wears high-boots. The vil- which developed in Prisukhonye, was based lage of the Orel province (we are speaking now on small villages, in their placement, being at- of the eastern part of the province) is usually situ- tached to agricultural lands, scattered along the ated in the midst of ploughed fields, near a ravine rivers, generally to pastures and hay-lands4. which has been converted into a filthy pool. Ex- It became possible to spread “hay type of winter cept for a few of the ever-accommodating willows feeding” (and thereof, to ensure high quality of and two or three gaunt birch-trees, you do not see 4 Now it does not matter for us, whether these lands are natural or man-made. Alekseev A.I. 75 a tree for a mile round; hut is huddled up against Were hardly blessed at all hut, their roofs crudely thatched with rotting straw By the Almighty God! ... The villages of Kaluga, on the contrary, are generally surrounded by forest; the huts stand more We are careless and lazy, freely, are more upright, and have boarded roofs; Our fingers are all thumbs, the gates fasten closely, the hedge is not broken And moreover we are patient down nor trailing about; there are no gaps to invite There is nothing to take pride! the visits of the passing pig ...”5. A natural to a geographer (always at least a For geographers it is interesting, in particu- little “geographical determinist”!) question arises: lar, that two poets did not agree with each other why life in a forest zone, with soddy podsolic soils, not only in the relation to qualities of the Rus- is better, than on Oryol chernozems (or grey for- sian people, but also in their assessment of as est soils), that are much more fertile? Turgenev we would call it now, natural resource capacity himself prompts the answer: a Kaluga peasant is of the territory: according to Tyutchev the na- rent-paying, he “carries on a trade in butter and ture is «poor», and according to Tolstoy – this tar”, an Oryol peasant labours in the field (corvée), land is gifted «very largely». is not engaged in trade. In modern language, occu- For me it was a discovery: it seems that pations of the Kaluga peasant are not agricultural, assessment of territory depends more not on and it ensures a higher income for him. Does that its «objective» properties, but on properties mean that it is not all about nature? of population, including its psychological struc- Actually, for those who are familiar with the turing – either towards «long-suffering», or to- history of rural Russia at least a little, it is obvi- wards the land becoming «rich and strong». ous that Central Chernozem area in 19th – early 20th centuries is, perhaps, the poorest and least The most important thing is what people. developed area. While in Non-chernozem Centre In 1988 our department’s second year students peasants practiced “not agricultural withdrawal” had their internship in a «far-away» district of to cities, or were engaged in various crafts, in Gorky Oblast. That collective farm had about Central Chernozem area this withdrawal was 300 workers registered, specialised in dairy cat- generally “agricultural”, they went harvesting to tle breeding, and had prime cost of milk about southern regions of the Russian Empire. one rouble per litre (in shops this litre cost about Six decades after Turgenev, Ivan Bunin in his 30 kopeks, the difference was covered from the story “Village” (1910) makes his hero say (at a fair – state budget of that time). So economically this probably, in Yelets): “Lord God, what a country! collective farm produced nothing but losses. Black-loam soil over three feet deep! But – what And a wood plant, with eight Russians from of it? Never did five years paw without famine. The Adygea, who worked on a rotational basis, en- town was famous throughout all Russia as grain sured 80% of profit of the collective farm. These mart – but not more than a hundred persons at the workers were shocked by a situation in the col- whole town ate their fill of the grain.»6 lective farm. According to them, «everybody I was strongly impressed by A.K. Tolstoy’s drinks constantly, nobody wants to work. We poem, he was almost a fellow countryman asked a young tractor operator not to start drink- of Tyutchev and wrote a polemic answer to him: ing right after lunch, help us to bring timber. He worked for a couple of days and refused – he These poor villages, said, everyone criticised him: why was he trying This meagre nature to earn more money instead of sitting like a self- F. Tyutchev respecting person with friends!?» Having gifted very largely There is a question: are there two different Our land, the Heavenly King Russian peoples? But who are Russians from Ordered it to be rich and mighty Adygea? – they are descendants of the same Everywhere it could be. Nizhny Novgorod (and others) peasants who moved there during the last 150 years. And Rus- But the villages to fall, sians of Gorky Oblast are descendants of those And the fields to be abandoned who did not move. … Already later, when I told 5 Translation by C. Garrnet (translator’s note). this story to L.N. Gumilev’s supporters in Len- 6 Translation by I. Hapgood (translator’s note). ingrad, it was natural to them: after all, passion- 76 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 arity concentrates on the periphery of an ethnic consequences of collectivisation during which area (and in the centre, alas, the situation is the the most active part of rural population was ei- opposite…). ther repressed, or left the village for the city. In 1990s I had to face various approaches to The collective-farm system was based on au- the assessment of non-chernozem village once thorities strictly controlling production activity: again. Surveying adaptation of migrants arriv- what and how much to sow, what the terms are, ing in rural areas of Tver Oblast, it was neces- and even what the depth should be – everything sary to pay attention to absolutely different per- was dictated «from above». And the collective ceptions of this territory by locals and by new farm itself allowed no «amateur performance». settlers. The local population seemed to be con- It was one more factor of the outflow of active vinced that this land was impossible for success- population from rural areas. The population that ful farming, and that life in the village will not stayed was accustomed to work «on command»7. get better until the state starts to invest a lot once And when collective farms collapsed, there was again. And migrants (generally from Central nobody to command, it turned out difficult and Asia and Kazakhstan), in their turn, were sur- unusual to manage their own lives and very few prised: «What a rich country! How many woods, peasants could find niches for themselves. meadows – farm at your pleasure! But nobody wants to work, everybody only drinks…». General conclusion: the main thing for But who are these new settlers – Russians development of rural areas is not the environ- from Central Asia and Kazakhstan? They are ment, not «availability of manpower» (number descendants of the same Tver (and Smolensk, of workers), and even not the development level Ryazan, etc.) peasants who several decades ago of the territory. The main thing is the quality went «to develop national periphery», to re- of population, its attitude towards life, its activ- claim land, etc. And old residents are descen- ity, its ability to find a place in life, its self-con- dants of those who stayed, and, apparently, they fidence. It is still not clear how to identify this, were not the most active representatives of Tver but this is one of the most important problems inhabitants. It is also necessary to consider the of social geography.

References

1. Алексеев А.И. Сельское расселение и сельское хозяйство Нечерноземной зоны РСФСР: про- блемы изучения взаимосвязей // Территориальное планирование населения: 4-е межведом- ственное совещание по географии населения, Тбилиси, ноябрь 1979 г. – Ленинград–Тбилиси, 1979. – С. 125–126. 2. Алексеев А.И., Зубаревич Н.В., Регент Т.М. Опыт изучения эффективности сселения жителей сельских населенных пунктов в Нечерноземной зоне РСФСР // Вестник Моск.ун-та. Сер. 5. Гео- графия. – 1980. – №1. – С. 97–100. 3. Баранский Н.Н. Моя жизнь в экономической географии. – М., 2001. – 196 с. 4. Вавилов Н.И. Избранные труды в пяти томах. Т. 1. Вавилов Н.И., Букинич Д.Д. Земледельческий Афганистан. – М.: Изд-во АН СССР, 1959. – 429 с. 5. Васильев И. Конфликт технологии // Сельская новь. – 1973. – № 4. – С. 8–11. 6. Зубов А. Выход из противостояния // Ведомости. – 2014. – 10 июня. 7. Иванов К.П. Эколого-географический подход к изучению сельского населения и сельских хо- зяйств // Вестн. Ленингр. ун-та. – 1985. – № 7. – С. 73–81. 8. Кабо Р.М. Природа и человек в их взаимных отношениях как предмет социально-культурной гео- графии // Вопросы географии. Сб. 5. – М.: Географгиз, 1947. – С. 5–32. 9. О мерах по дальнейшему развитию сельского хозяйства в Нечерноземной зоне РСФСР. Поста- новление ЦК КПСС и Совета Министров СССР. – М.: Политиздат, 1974. 10. Переустройство сельских населенных мест. – М.: Стройиздат, 1969. 11. Ракитников А.Н. География сельского хозяйства. – М.: Мысль, 1970. 12. Ракитников А.Н. Современный этап развития сельского хозяйства Нечерноземной зоны РСФСР // Сельская местность: территориальные аспекты социально-экономического разви- тия. – Уфа: Башкирский ун-т, 1985. 13. Саушкин Ю.Г. Край гжельской глины // География в школе. – 1946. – № 6. – С. 11–15. 14. Саушкин Ю.Г. Географические очерки природы и сельскохозяйственной деятельности населе- ния в различных районах Советского Союза. – М.: Географгиз, 1947. – 423 с. 15. Ферсман А.Е.Лермонтовигеографическаянаука // География в школе. – 1946. – № 6. – С. 1–4. 16. ХристиановичВ.П.ГорнаяИнгушетия. – Ростов-на-Дону, 1928. 17. Шевельков А.И. Аграрная политика государства в Нечерноземной зоне РСФСР в документах // Вестник архивиста. – 2011. – № 1. – С. 60–73.

7 The head of the very first agricultural cooperative in Moscow Oblast (created in the late 1980s) did not employ those who worked in collective farms since «they got used to work only on command and are not able to make their own decisions». Goryachko M.D. 77 Goryachko M.D. (Moscow) POTENTIAL INFLUENCE OF LARGE-SCALE INVESTMENT PROJECTS IN RUSSIA ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF REGIONS

Abstract: The article discusses the results of influence of large-scale investment projects on socio-economic development of regions and selected cities. The article reflects the results of studies assessing the impact of preparation and holding of the Olympic and Paralympic Games on the city and the region, including rapid population growth as the result of a large number of new jobs and related problems. Influence of the Games on the dynamics of GRP, on the development of resort and recreational complex as the most important sector of the economy of the city and the regionis estimated. Conclusions about positive and negative directions of the impact of the Games are drawn. Methodological aspects of the evaluation of the impact of projects on the regional socio-economic system are considered. Key words: investment, regional development, investment projects, investment in infrastructure.

Statement of research task. In recent years “accelerators” of modernisationin the Russian Russia saw implementation of a number of economy is still highly relevant. Large-scale in- large investment projects,the feasibility of vestment projects are considered as innovations which is widely discussed in scientific, politi- having significant direct and indirect impact on cal and public spheres. Among them there are all components of regional social and economic APEC-2012 summit in Vladivostok, that actu- systems. However, implementation of large ally changed considerably the intracity environ- projects does not always have an essential and ment and set a vector of formation of thelargest positive long-term impact on socio-economic in the region educational and scientific complex indicators, including personal income, employ- on Russky Island; the project on organisation of ment rate, economic activity and some others. the Olympic and Paralympic Games in Sochi in As the result, this necessitates the analysis of- 2014 which also changed the image of the city reasons, predetermining inefficiency of projects, and created prerequisites for transformation of and actualises studies and justification of these- Sochi into an all-season resort. Now a project lection of a set of investment projects to be re- on preparation and holding of the FIFA World alised in the region and mechanisms of effective Cup in 2018 is under way, that is also focused management of those projects. on creation of new development vectors for a Degree of study of the question, overview large group of cities of the European Part and of researches on the subject. Many foreign and certain regions of the Urals. Moreover, social Russian economists deal with issues of influence and economic effects of a number of projects on of investment on social and economic develop- development of transport infrastructure, includ- ment. The majority of researches is devoted to ing construction of high-speed railway lines, are the issues of regulating investment activity and assessed and discussed. investment policy, investment aspects of repro- The volume of investment in such large- duction processes, performance evaluation and scale projects constantly increases. The cost of calculation of a set of indicators in general on carrying out the Games in Sochi is estimated projects and territories of its realisation, analy- at 40 billion dollars, holding the FIFA World sis of investment activity in Russian regions, etc. Cup – about 20 billion dollars, construction of Researches by N.V. Zubarevich, O.V. Kuznetso- a high-speed railway line Moscow – Kazan – va, L.I. Abalkin, A.I. Gladyshevsky, D.S. Lvov, 25–27 billion dollars. According to McKinsey V.N. Cherkovets, T.S. Khachaturov, I.V. Grishi- company, an estimated volume of capital invest- na, S. Drobyshevsky, S. Dneprovskaya, ment into modernisation and new construction B.S. Zhikharevich, I.I. Roizman, L.P. Sover- in the majority of branches during 2011-2020 shayeva, A.G. Shakhnazarov, etc. belong to this will reach 2 trillion dollars [1]. category. The majority of researches devoted di- Cost of a considerable part of investment rectly to the implementation of large investment projects increases by 30-50% in the process of projects (Nureev R.M., Markin E., Shvetsov their implementation, and their efficiency often A.N., Livshits V. N., etc.) also consider econom- provokes broad discussions. Nevertheless, the ic problems, including history and theory of eco- potential of large investment projects as an in- nomic business cycles, connected with the im- strument of formation of poles of growth and plementation of projects, reasons for systematic 78 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015

1600 Housing and commercial

bln construction (including USD 1400 warehouses, offices) Transport infrastructure (including 1200 roads,bridges, railways, airports, sea ports) Metallurgy and mining industry 1000

800 Energy

600 Oil and gas: processing and sales

400 Oil and gas: transportation 200 Oil and gas: exploration and 0 extraction 2005-2010 2011-2015 2016-2020

Fig. 1. Capital investment on large projects by branches, 2005–2020 Source: McKinsey’s materials, 2013 underestimation of risks and overestimation of novative project, stimulating modernisation in benefits of projects, methodological approaches all spheres of public life and finally cardinally to the assessment of economic efficiency of their improving quality of life of the population. The realisation, etc. Those researches do not pay impact of an innovative project is subdivided enough attention to specific features of territories into direct and indirect. Besides, at different and their internal heterogeneity, potential of re- stages of system development, that is at differ- gions and cities for successful implementation of ent stages of project implementation, the impact projects and, in general, feasibility of investment is transformed over time and may be both de- in these or that branches of economy. Efficient stroying and creating. Scale and spheres of the implementation of large investment projects is a influence also vary over time depending on the complex challenge. stage of projectimplementation. Strictly speaking, this influence is greatly differentiated spa- Results. Large-scale implementation of large tially within the municipality or municipalities investment projects changes regional economy in which the projects are implemented. and makes an essential contribution to the ac- Generally it is possible to identify branch- celerated growth of rates of social and economic es which are influenced directly and indirectly development not only for the territory of imple- (fig. 2). Of course, it is incorrect to speak about mentation, but for the whole region. The impact strictly direct or strictly indirect influence, of projects almost on all spheres of life of cities, therefore, branches are divided based on the pri- areas and whole regions and also on certain direc- mary type of influence. So, branchesrelated to tions for the country is both direct and indirect. infrastructure facilities for projects are the most Implementation of large projects may be sum- strongly involved. Implementation of projects marised as a development of a main system, the influences directly all these branches, however, units of which are huge resources, energy, and there is a partial indirect influence, generally investment connected with all spheres of social through the sector of construction materials, and economic system. These three key features which is, on the one hand, the conductor of in- are basic elements that are characterised by both fluence, and, on the other hand, the sphere of intrasystem and intersystem (with environment indirect influence of the project. or other systems) interaction. Transformation of interconnected branches Implementation of the majority of large changes not only general economic structure of investment projects is considered not only as the territory, but also intraterritorial distribution a huge investment project, but also as an in- and concentration of facilities and phenomena. Goryachko M.D. 79

Fig. 2. Scheme of influence of an investment project on various spheres of life of a city (case study of Sochi-2014 project) Created by the author

Functional structure of the territory changes. growth of employment caused by the Influence of the project is distributed on the ter- need of satisfying the demand of addi- ritory according to the principle of diffusion of tional workers. Keynes called this factor innovations from the centres (growth poles) to of additional growth of employment the the periphery. multiplier that shows the relationship be- Analysis of sources and types of impact of tween growth of investment, on the one projects on social and economic conditions al- hand, and growth of employment and in- lows to identify the following main components: come, on the other. Overall change of social and economic Direct influence in the zone of imple- environment connected with the implementation of the project; indirect of the mentation of projects, more animated first rank, within municipality; indirect public life (emergence of an event line of the second rank, within the subject that is so important for concentration of of Federation; indirect of the third rank, creative functions and people) and, as within the Russian Federation. the result, improvement of the major- Complex processes in labour market re- ity of parameters characterising regional lated to new jobs, on the one hand, and to economy. In terms of the multiplier ef- outflow of qualified specialists from ad- fect, according to basic provisions of jacent sectors of economy into the struc- the general theory of Keynes, the crucial tures connected with implementation role belongs to investment. Growth of of the project, on the other. investment and the related innovations Development and modernisation of an will stimulate involvement in economic infrastructure complex and simultaneous activity of additional workers that leads destruction and transformation of natural to an increase in employment, gross do- complexes and historically developed mestic product and consumption. The territorial communities of the population. initial increase in employment due to Change of specialisation of the territory of new investment causes an additional implementation of the project, diversifica- 80 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 tion of functions of the territory and, as Possible greaterirregularity (arrhythmia) the result, decrease in seasonality and so- of development as the result of pass- cial and economic risks of development. ing through and overlapping of various Greater personal income and simultane- phases of project implementation (de- ous stronger social and territorial differ- sign, construction, operation,phase-out). entiation. Significantly differing needs for labour Possible aggravation of various social and material resourcesand, as the result, problems as construction volumes in- considerable amplitudes of fluctuations crease and a huge number of temporarily in economic growth (recession) are typi- employed appears, and also in connec- cal for various phases. tion with the growth of social inequality, All this is true for the implementation as the result of a greaterincome of the of large infrastructure projects (fig. 3) where it part of population which is connected is possible to identify direct and indirect effects. with the implementation of the project. Besides direct effects which are felt directly Expansion of taxation base of the region by this or that type of infrastructure, there is a of project implementation and, as the re- number of multimodal effects that are realised sult, additional opportunities for financ- in the transportation system of the country. Con- ing social and economic projects. siderable part of external effects of transporta- New facilities to be funded from munici- tion development are multiplicative regarding pal budget and need for enlarging expen- their impact on social and economic develop- diture budget. ment of the country. Development of transport

Fig. 3. Scheme of influence of a large investment project in railway transport on social and economic environment (case study of construction of a high-speed network) Created by the author(using the materials of Centre for strategic research) Goryachko M.D. 81 infrastructure has a considerable multiplicative result of implementation of corresponding in- effect on development of the territory: improve- vestment project, are connected with spatial ment of transport availability – decrease in ex- concentration of economic activity. Positive penses – increase in investment attractiveness – influence of an agglomeration factor is deter- business development – increase in taxation mined by the economies of scale thanks to ter- base – increase in living standards and quality ritorial concentration of functions, and also by of life. Direct and indirect effects of the imple- a variety of economic agents and workplaces. mentation of large projects on development of “As existence of high-speed networksimproves railway transport are reflected in fig. 3. physical access for financial analysts, engineers- Large investment into transport infrastruc- consultants, lawyers, and other experts to their ture leads to improvedconnections within the business clients,disintegrated in space, the areas territory and, as the result, greater mobility of adjacent to the stations of high-speed networks- people, which means that they are more likely may predetermine creation of new intellectual to be employed according to their abilities, and and service companies, attraction of investment. that business is more likely to hire labour force. The advantages created by agglomeration ef- Reduction of travel time up to 1–1.5 hours al- fect strengthen the demand for selection of such lows small and average towns to be less depen- places for new companies” [6]. dent on the local labour market. This leads to High density and great variety strengthen centralisation of labour market and concentra- competition, accelerate innovations. Large cit- tion of manpower that involves an increase in ies, agglomerations concentrate branches of labour capacity (due to increase in efficiency research and design and experimental activity, of labour market and in economic activity of and are characterised by rather high rates of in- population) and leads to a subsequent economic novative activity owing to better qualifications growth. Greater competitiveness of economy of personnel. and its investment attractiveness (in the part According to studiesof high-speed networks depending on transport) is connected, first of of the world, for example, cities and areas served all, with ensuring transport accessibility of ter- by Shinkansen line in Japan see a greater employ- ritories for business activity. For enterprises it is ment and higher population growth rates, than ensured by means ofa developed infrastructure other cities and areas. Especially high growth of transportation, as well as commercial speed, rates were recorded in such branches as business quality and reliability of transport services. services, banking services, real estate, and also in Globalisation of economy saw many enter- higher education. The same growth was recorded prises rather regularly carrying out intercity, along secondary transit corridors in Tokyo which transnational, and international business opera- were connected to Shinkansen. The value of land tions. “The most remarkable feature of modern near stations is the function of travel time to To- economic development is concentration of eco- kyo and other large cities. However, economic nomic activity in the cities. Move towards econ- benefits of Shinkansen may decrease over time omy without borders increased the role of cities as speed on the line will decrease due to a greater both in international economy, and in internal number of intermediate stops. economic systems. Development of regions and Studiesof the role of high-speed networks cities relies more and more not on local advan- in French economy prove their leading role for tages related tothe environment (for example, expansion of potential markets of global and climate) and mineral resources, but on agglom- local firms in Europe. Foreign experience of erative effect” [5]. research of influence of high-speed networks Thissecures a great variety of resources for on the territory makes it possible to argue that business and creates conditions for concentration conditions of proximity to a high-speed net- of infrastructure and specialised business ser- work, favourable for business, maycontribute vices. Specialisation and diversification are also to real economic growth, but they themselves among the advantages. Specialisation is most vis- may never be enough. ible in the fields of activity which are character- The most general of the considered cat- ised by a high value added thanks to a facilitated egories of sources and influences is man-made access to information and knowledge [7]. load, which, as a concept, is an integrated char- Major advantages for territories, through acteristic of the whole set of previous and actual which lines of high-speed network lie as the economic activity in the territory. It increases- 82 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 significantly in the whole zone of project imple- actions of a huge number of actors aimed at for- mentation, at all three stages of its implemen- mation of a new, better way of life for people. tation: design, construction, and operation. The In this sense modern Olympic movement and, load is maximum at the stage of construction, especially, in Sochi, represents a complex of in- and minimum at the operational stage. novations aimed at changing the image of the An ecologically safe environment is a ma- city, the region, the country, and the world to jor condition for transition to an innovative the better through sport, culture and education type of economic development. This environ- in the spirit of harmony. Holding the Olympic ment and the stateof ecological and economic Games in Sochi is consideredfor the Russian system in general are influenced by the invest- Federation, first of all, as a renovating proj- ment activity which plays a significant role in ect, stimulating modernisation in all spheres of the achievement of strategic objectives. As a public life. But it is possible to understand and rule, ecological aspects belong to external ef- evaluate its results only based on a rather long- fects, and methodological recommendations on- term monitoring both of impacts of the process performance evaluation of investment projects of preparation and holding of theGames, and its of ecological analysis have no relevant require- consequences. ments for accounting. It is possible to identify the following reasons for insufficient account- Influence on territorial structure. Cit- ing of ecological factors in performance evalua- ies hosting large-scale sporting events under- tion of investment projects: take considerable obligations for creation and difficulty of identification of many fac- preparation of the appropriate infrastructure tors influencingthe environment owing which has an impact on the whole social and to their variety; economic environment. As any large innova- lack of techniques allowing complex tion aimed at changing not only the nature of performance evaluation of investment functioning, but also the structure of territo- projects; rial systems, the Olympic project has a mul- weak institutional framework of relation- tipurpose and multilayered influence which is ship in the sphere of mitigation of dam- shown within the model of “diffusion of inno- age to the environment. vations”. For Sochi, which was traditionally These circumstances necessitate the devel- developing as a resort town, the project was opment of a technique of an ecological and unique with regard to its functional purpose economic evaluation of investment projects. as well. Distribution (diffusion) of innova- This kind of evaluation will make it possible tions had both a branch (sectoral) and a spatial to define performance indicatorsof projects by component. The structure of the city has been means of monetary calculationof consequences transformed due to two new cores in Adler- of the impact on ecological environment and to sky District of Sochi. Increase of centrality of draw conclusions on feasibility and possibility these points of growth is the result of predom- of its implementation. After all, the main result inant development of new functions, such as of any project is the ensured new quality of life sports, business, and resort and recreational. of the population. Diffusion process is imposed on the already existing spatial structure of Sochi (unicentric) Discussion of results. Now researches of with settled connections, gradually transforming the influence of large sporting events, first of it intoa polycentric structure, with two centres: all, the Olympic and Paralympic Games, on an already developed,”old”one in the Central social and economic development of the terri- district and a perspective, “new”one in Imere- tory areespecially valuable. A similar research tinsky Valley. At the same time the third centre is carried out since 2007 on the department of is being formed in the area of mountain clus- economic and social geography of Russia of ter. That is where the most radical transforma- the Geographical faculty of Lomonosov MSU tion of territorial natural and economic system and is connected with the evaluation of the So- took place accompanied bycomplex reactions chi-2014 project in the context of the city, the of natural and sociocultural environment. region, and the country. In the modern world the Not only functions changed, connections Olympic Games are not simply a sporting event, changed as well – due to development of trans- but a multilayered complex of interconnected port they became more intense, “temporal” Goryachko M.D. 83 territory of the city contracted. Especially it project, therefore, its dynamics is the most im- is noticeable within the “triangle” of Sochi – portant indicator of social and economic pro- Adler (Nizhneimeretinsky Valley) – Krasnaya cesses of the city. A radical change in dynamics Polyana. In this case there is a combination of a of the population of Sochi is one of the most highway and a railway on the legof Adler-Kras- essential results of preparation of the Olympic naya Polyana (“Alpika-Service”), and a combi- Games. The stagnating curve of dynamics of the nation of an alternate route of Kurortny Avenue population which reached its minimum in 2006, and a part a bypass road round Sochi on the leg changed the trend to ascending (fig. 4). As the of Adler-Sochi. result, resident population of Sochi increased, Thus, we see a change of a configuration of from the moment when the Olympic Games the big city with a transition to the form of kind were announced,from 395 to 429.6 thousand of a triangle, each top of which is a core, with people by1 January 2013 (more than 8.0%) a leading role of the Central district and rapid and by more than 40 thousand people (to 473.2 development of two other points, carrying out by 1 January 2014). This rapid acceleration of their functions and promoting their differentia- population growth rate, certainly, is a direct tion within the vast territory of the city district. consequence of overlapping of the stages of the As the result both horizontal, and vertical pe- construction cycle and the preparation for the ripherality of development of the Greater Sochi Games. We can expect that after the end of the area are overcome. Games the dynamics of population will slow The total of economic indicators makes So- down and will come to a standard trend. chi one of the three of leaders of municipalities Analysis of dynamics of the population in Krasnodar Krai. More than 20% of retail turn- shows that its trend radically changed in 2006– over of the region belongs to Sochi, it is the sec- 2007, when after a population decline registered ond largest city. During 2008–2012 the city con- in 2003-2006, a rapid growth began, withsignif- centrated about 40% of all capital investment icantly greater rates than in the period of 1994- of Krasnodar Krai, about 1/5 of works executed 2003 (fig. 4). Moreover, further analysis shows by the form of activity “Construction”. that in 2007 population growth in Sochi secured not only the whole positive population growth Impact on population. The main recipi- in Krasnodar Krai, but also compensated for its ent of numerous innovations in urban environ- decline in other municipalities. In the following ment due to the influence of the Olympic and years Sochi accounted for 21–23% of total pop- Paralympic Games is the population. It is also ulation growthin the region (in 2011 its share the main indicator of influence of innovative decreased to 9% that reflects distribution of a

460

450

440 thousands тыс. человек тыс.

430 Population 420 Численностьsize on населенияJanuary 1 на 1 410 января

400

390

380

370

Fig.4. Dynamics of population in Sochi, 1994–2013 Created by the author based on materials of Sochi Administration. 84 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 diffusive wave of population growth on other of constructionvolumes, as well as better quality municipalities of the region), while till 2007 So- of produced goods and services. chi accounted for 25–40% of population decline in the region. Therefore, the additional analysis Potential for economic development. The allows stating with a high degree of reliability most important sphere of the economy of So- that the very implementation of the Olympic chi and Krasnodar Kraiin general is the resort project promoted the change in the tendency and recreational complex. It concentrates alarge of population decline in Sochi, and to a large number of jobs, the complex is the main source extent promoted similar changes in dynamics of income for a considerable part of the popula- of the population at the regional level. tion of Sochi and other resorts of the Black Sea Scale and direction of migrationareagener- coast. Its dynamics and occupancy rate deter- alising integrated indicator of attractiveness of mine the level of services provided to vacation- this or that place. It is based on expansion of ers, quality of life of the population, formation labour market in Sochi and Krasnodar Krai in of budgets of all levels, image of the city and general, that increased migration flows to the Krasnodar Krai in general. region: from 2005 to 2012 migration rate grew Analysis of dynamics of tourists shows by more than 10 times. 1/6 (46 thousand people) that after a period of a significantly more rapid of the total inflow of migrants to the Russian growth of their number (in comparison with Federation in 2012 (295 thousand persons) fell Strategy of social and economic development of on Krasnodar Krai. One more distinctive feature Krasnodar Krai until 2020), its rate significantly of Sochi for the analysed period is the forma- decreasedin Sochi after 2007, and in 2010 the tion of a rather high level ofsalary compared number of vacationers became nearly stable. to Krasnodar Krai. Moreover, growth rates of Moreover, 2011 saw a reduction of the number real income, especially in construction, in Sochi of vacationers in Sochi to 3.9 million people were also advancing in comparison with Kras- (level of 2006), and in 2012–2013 their number nodar Krai and Russia in general. It is important stayed almost the same (4.0). As the result the to emphasise that Sochi and Krasnodar Krai are number of tourists turned out to be lower than characterised by a medium level of income dif- the level adopted in the Strategy. ferentiation. Thus, a larger average salary in the The total number of tourists who visited region led to smaller share of population with Sochi increased by 126% during 2005–2013. low income (from 26.1 to 15.6% during 2005- But compared to the most successful 2009, the 2010) and,based on this, reduction of social ex- number of vacationers in the city decreased ap- clusion effect. The additional positive moment proximately by 1.0 million people. According is that with a growth of salary it is possible to to expected calculations, growth of number of expect an increase in tax revenues in budgets tourists during 2014 will make not less than of different levels. It potentially means greater 20% that will allow to reach the level of 2009 opportunities for social security for unprotected during the next holiday season. categories of citizens (including people with Distribution of the arriving tourists by months disabilities). reflects seasonality in Sochi typical for all resorts Along with positive influence it is necessary of Russia, however, interseasonal fluctuations to identify negative consequences relatedto tem- are significantly less expressed. The minimum porariness of jobs, created for the implementa- number of vacationers in February (175 thousand tion of the Olympic project (more than 100 thou- people) is morethan 3 times lower than the maxi- sand jobs only within the Greater Sochi area), mum in August (560 thousand persons). At the and, as the result, scales ofdisplacement and same time, the New Year’s December – January movement of tens of thousands of people,part of peak is pronounced (about 500 thousand people whom will remain in the city after the Games. in two months that is only twice lower than two It is obvious that we should expect reduction of months (July–August) of peak season (about relevant items of income of workers. Rapid pop- 1 million people)). It testifies to growing oppor- ulation growth imposes greater load on munici- tunities of winter holidays, first of all in Krasnaya pal infrastructure, and greater man-made load Polyana, and also in the top categories of hotels onthe environment, that demands additional of the Coastal cluster (fig. 5). investment for stable functioning and develop- Radical changes occurred in accommoda- ment of facilities according to the requirements tion structure as well, especially in 2013 when Goryachko M.D. 85 800 700 600 500 2013 400 2014

thousands 300 200 100 0 JFMAMJJASOND

Fig. 5. Dynamics of number of tourists in Sochi by months Created by the author based on materials of Sochi Administration actual preparation for the Olympic and Para- 1.2 trillion roubles (about 40 billion US dollars), lympic Games was over. The largest means of having exceeded investment costs of Olympic accommodation in Sochi are one-, two- and venues and their direct infrastructure by more three-star hotels. Total number of category ho- than 3 times. At the initial stage,expenses on the tels increased more than twice, having reached reconstruction of existing and building of new 545 (as opposed to 248 in 2012). Thus one-star transportation facilities dominated in the struc- category saw a triple growth, two- and three- ture of capital expenses (more than 80% in 2008), star – almost a double, the number of hotels then investment in development of tourist infra- with no category doubled as well. Such growth structure accounted for about 50% of expenses. was ensured due to both new construction, and The city of Sochi has been and becomes a certification of existing hotels in anticipation of more and more important transport node in the the Games. Dynamics of the number of rooms south of Russia. Its territory is rich in a large shows a bit different picture. The maximum number of highways (more than 1500 km) of growth of the number of rooms was observed general use (more than 4% of all highways of in four-star hotels – by 4 times! The number of Krasnodar Krai). 12% are federal-aid highways, rooms remained practically without changes in more than 20% arehighways of local value. The two-star category and sharply grew in three- and major highway, a transport and communication five-starcategories (3 times). axis of the city, is the federal route M27 (town- Intracity geography of the health resort ships Dzhubga, Tuapse, Sochi, Adler, state bor- changed as well. The majority of new accom- der). At the same time,it is the main planning modations is constructed within mountain and axis of the city and the majority of intracity coastal clusters, actually in new territories with- settlements are located along it. The transport in the borders of Adlersky District. infrastructure, thanks to the Sochi-2014 project Infrastructure, first of all, transport and com- was modernised in the direction of construc- munication, played an important role for devel- tion of alternate routes and traffic intersections opment of the city and increase of its comfort, in order to decrease the probability, length and influencing the state of the environment, quality duration of traffic jams. At the end of 2009 the of life of the population and the resulting attrac- bypass road with the total length of 17 km was tion of investment. Total capital expenses on the commissioned, and in 2012 4 major traffic in- associate events during 2008–2013 made nearly tersections were commissioned in Sochi (“Adler 86 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 ring”, “Stadium”, a two-level traffic intersection culture facilitieswere commissioned in 2011: in- on the crossing of Gagarin Street and Donskaya fectious hospital with 300 beds in the settlement Street, a road bridge over the river of Sochi with of Dagomys, polyclinic for 100 visits per shift in a traffic intersection near the Krasnodar ring). the village of Veseloe in Adlersky District of So- The opening of the leg”Adler – Veseloe” which chi (50 visits per shift for adult polyclinic and 50 plays a strategic role in the whole transport and visits per shift for children’s polyclinic), MBUZ logistic system was one of the major projects. (municipal budgetary healthcare institution) of The highway connects the coastal cluster with Sochi “Municipal hospital No. 4”; kindergarten a combined highway “Adler – Alpika-Service”, with a complex sports ground in a cultural and the federal route A-149”Adler – Krasnaya Poly- historic centre”Village of Nekrasovskoye” in ana” and a touristarea of Adlersky District. Be- Imeretinsky Valley; general education school for sides, it will provide a drivethrough for transit 1000 pupils in the villageof Veseloe in Adlersky motor transport in the mode of a continuous District of Sochi, with an opportunity of expan- movement through all territory of Adlersky Dis- sion by 1500 places and others. trict in the direction of the border with the Re- Gas pipeline of Dzhubga-Lazarevskoye- public of Abkhazia. Sochi, with a total length of 171.6 km, became Despite a difficult mountainous terrain, den- one of main facilities significantly improvinge- sity of road network in Sochi exceeds average cological situation. Commissioning of this ob- Russian density (39 km / 1000 sq.km) and is ject allowed not only to providegas supply for approximately at the level of regional values the territory of Greater Sochi, but also to in- (447 compared to 468 km / 1000 sq.km in Kras- crease stability of the Sochi energy area, as the nodar Krai). However,taking into account that Adler Thermal Power Plant became one of its the majority of highways and other elements of main consumers. Many actions were takenin infrastructure is concentrated in the seaside area terms of modernisation of systems of heat sup- and along the valleys of main rivers (Mzymta, ply and power supply. Level of energy security Sochi, etc.), real density in residential zone is of the city increased after the start-up of the several times higher. Moreover, when carry- second unit at the Sochi Combined Heat and ing out comparisons, it is necessary to consider Power, that, together with the Krasnaya Poly- high length of intracity street and road network ana Hydro Power Plant covers up to a half of of Sochi (871.3 km) that is greater than the to- the demanded load. tal length of highways of local value. Thus, the A major factor influencing development of total length of road network in the territory of regional space is the existing brand of the ter- Sochi municipality, taking into account street ritory. Positive investment and credit ratings, and road network makes about 2.5 thousand information on favourable social, economic, km, with 46 km of footpaths (about 1 km per political and environmental situation in the city 10 thousand people, which is a rather high rate). or in the region attracts investors, qualified per- As the result of preparation for the Games, road sonnel, athletes, artists, tourists, and “creative network of Krasnodar Krai was developing, its professionals” to the territory, and, together with length increased by 1281 km. them, innovations and funds for their implemen- A railway section of Tuapse – Adler – bor- tation. This allows to speak about formation of a der with Abkhazia goes through the city of So- new branch of city economy – business tourism. chi. In recent years it underwent an essential Eventsfor various target audiences are able modernisation:secondary tracks, new tunnels, to make a considerable information and adver- and railway sidings were constructed on a con- tising effect on social and economic develop- siderable part of it, as well as branch lines to the ment of the region in general. It is possible airport and the Coastal cluster of Olympic ven- to state that a newtype of modern tourism – ues. Total length of railways makes 178.3 km. event tourism – is formedin the region. Main In general it is possible to state that the trans- objective of a trip in this case, is related to a port network within city borders has cardinally im- specific event. Unique tours combining tradi- proved its technical characteristicsfor the last five tional holidays and participation in the most years, its capacity has significantly increased. spectacular events in the world gradually gains Besides transport infrastructure, social in- more and more popularity. The main feature frastructure facilities were modernised. For ex- of event tourism is a great number of outstand- ample, the following health care, education and ing unique moments. Goryachko M.D. 87 Conclusions. In general, analysis of poten- changes are extremely vulnerable in connection tial of the project on organisation and holding with high periodicity of development of these of the Olympic and Paralympic Games revealed branches. Seasonality has decreased a little, as a strong connection between major factors the result of year-round construction works, and of economic growth, allowing to assess influ- additional winter resort functions. Image of the ence of investment activity both on various city has improved, the transport problem has be- territorial levels, and on main spheres of social come less pressing. and economic complex. Dynamics of macro- Though the Olympic construction respected economic indicators of Krasnodar Krai prior environmental standards and rules, the nature to implementation of the Olympic project was of activities on changing the landscape and characterised by an extremely high instability. usual way of life of people temporarily aggra- The first half of the 2000s saw a decrease in vol- vated environmental situation and produced dis- umes of investment, decrease with a subsequent comfort for the population. In the whole zone stabilisation of the number ofemployed in the of implementation of the project man-made context of low growth rates of GRP, that sharply load increasedsignificantly at all three stages of contrasted with a dynamic post-crisis growth its implementation: design, construction, opera- of the Russian economy. tion. The load was maximum at the construction After 2006 GRP dynamics was character- stage, minimum – at the post-Olympic stage. ised by a faster growth, with a decrease on the In general it is important to emphasise that peak of crisis and later return to the line of an the majority of negative effects are derivative of ascending trend in 2010. Unlike average Rus- the construction stage and will disappear after sian situation,an essential lag of commissioning its end, and the created engineering and com- of the Olympic and related venues is typical for municative infrastructure creates prerequisites Krasnodar Krai. As the result, GRP growth is ac- for betterliving conditionsfor the population tually secured only at the expense of growth in of the city. Finally, the main result is the new production and employment in construction and quality of life of the population both in Sochi transport sectors of regional economy, the share and Krasnodar Krai, and in the whole country. of which sharply decreased after the Games. The However,a clear and sound state policy of social same branches provided for a transformation of and economic development of the city for the branch and, as the result, of territorial struc- next 5–10 years is necessary for receiving the ture of the city economy, the specific weight greatest possible positive effect from the large- of sports function significantly increased. Such scale investment.

References

1. Murakami J., Cervero R. High-Speed Rail and Economic Development: Business Agglomerations and Policy Implications. University of California Transportation Center. UCTC – FR – 2012–10. 2. OECD Territorial Reviews. Competitive Cities in the Global Economy. Summary in Russian. Терри- ториальные обзоры ОЭСР. Конкурентоспособность городов в условиях глобальной экономики. [Electronic source] URL: http://www.oecd.org/gov/37840122.pdf 3. Дружина В., Кивиже Г. Крупные проекты: ключевые факторы успеха // Вестник McKinsey. – 2013. – № 28. – P. 28–42. 4. Лившиц В., Швецов А. Каких ошибок следует избегать при оценке инвестиционных проектов с участием государства // Вопросы экономики – 2011. – № 9. – P. 35–39. 5. Нуреев Р.М., Маркин Е.В. Олимпийский деловой цикл // Экономический вестник Ростовского государственного университета. – 2008. – Т. 6. – № 3. – P. 50–64. 6. Нуреев Р.М., Маркин Е.В. Издержки и выгоды Олимпийских игр // Общественные науки и совре- менность. – 2010. – № 1. – P. 46–64. 7. Фуджита М., Камо К., Зубаревич Н. Экономическая география и регионы России // Торговая по- литика и значение вступления в ВТО для развития России и стран СНГ. Под ред. Тарр Д.Г. – М.: Весь Мир, 2006. – P. 545–557. 8. Материалы исследования OGI. Сочи-2014, 2008–2014 гг. 88 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 Zubarevich N.V., Safronov S.G. (Moscow) SPATIAL INEQUALITY OF MONEY INCOMES IN RUSSIANREGIONS AND OTHER LARGEPOST-SOVIET COUNTRIES

Abstract. This article is devoted to comparative analysis of interregionaland intra-regional inequality of money incomes in Russia in 2000s. Inequality level of Russian regions and other large post-Soviet countries is compared based on Gini index. Levelling trends of inequality in salary in Russian urban settlementsare detected. Impact of oil rent redisrtibutive policy on mitigation of inequality in population income of Russian urban settlements is demonstrated. Keywords: Russia, Post-Soviet countries, social development of regions.

Introduction. Modern Russia, as well as terregional differences in population income, as other Post-Soviet countries, is characterised the priority of social levelling in these countries with not only significant stratification of popu- is less significant, and scales of redistribution lation according to their incomes, but also with and social levelling are not so large. They count strong spatial differences. Inequality of popula- on independent mobility of population – people tion income in regions and municipalities is a move from depressive territories where there consequence of economic inequality which in- are jobs and more opportunities to earn money. creased during the Post-Soviet period. Transi- There are still few quantitative researches of tion to market economy revealed competitive interregional inequality in Russia, generally they advantages and obstacles to development of re- are measurements of economic inequality [2, gions that resulted in growth of spatial differen- 7, 8] or review of techniques of such measure- tiation of standard of living of population. ments [1]. Results are ambiguous as trends of International researches show that countries of interregional economic inequality in the last two catching-up development, such as Russia and oth- decades have changed: after the crisis of 1998 er Post-Soviet countries, have a spatial economic and until the boom of oil prices it was growing, inequality that is not only huge, but also growing, regions with competitive advantages developed as regions with competitive advantages develop quicker. At the peak of oil prices in the mid 2000s quicker which accelerates development of the the inequality decreased: having received huge whole country. Developed countries have growth additional income from oil rent, federal authori- of economic inequality of regions slowed down ties increased scales of redistributive policy and and even stopped for objective reasons: there is financial aid to less developed regions. Social human capital and high quality of institutes every- expenses of regions are considered in GRP as where, infrastructure is well-developed [14]. Even production of social services, therefore per capita some mitigation of spatial economic differences GRP of poorly developed regions was growing thanks to emergence of new centres of growth, quicker as the share of social services paid from policy of support and stimulation of development the budget is maximumin their GRP. of weaker regions is possible. However, success The crisis of 2009 also saw a reduction in inter- of a large-scale levelling regional policy pursued regional economic inequality since crisis struck on in EU countries is relative which is proved by a developed regions more strongly and almost did number of researches [13]. not touch upon high-subsidised,which also pro- Social inequality of regions, measured by moted mitigation of interregional inequality [4]. differences in income and salary of population, However, in general over the whole Post-Soviet depends not only on differences in economic period, economic inequality of per capita GRP development, but also on redistributive policy. amplified in the Russian regions [15]. Developed countries with a strong social policy aimed at support for poor groups of population, Statement of research task. Spatial inequal- the share of which is always higher in less de- ity of population income exists both between re- veloped territories, see reduction in interregion- gions, and within them – between groups with al inequality of population income. France [13], high and low income. Are tendencies of inter- Sweden and other countries of continental Eu- regional and intraregional inequality of popula- rope are examples of this. However, developed tion income in Russia similar and what causes countries of the Anglo-Saxon world (the USA, that similarity or differences? Inequality exists Great Britain) did not see any mitigation of in- at the level of urban settlements as well, but it is Zubarevich N.V., Safronov S.G. 89 more difficult to measure because of statistical prices on goods and services differ in restrictions. Nevertheless, even incomplete data Russian regions more than three times, allow to reveal tendencies of growth or decrease therefore population income needs to be in inequality of population of urban settlements adjusted on the cost of living1, at that dif- based on the level of salary and to compare them ferent ways of adjustment result in dif- with interregional trends. ferent regional differentiation of prices; Regional inequality of population income is differences in evaluation of increase in typical not only for Russia, but also for other cost of living in northeast territorial sub- Post-Soviet countries with a large territory. Are jects of the Russian Federation and in the tendencies of interregional inequality of popu- federal cities are especially great. lation income in Russia and in two other large Poor quality of regional statistics of popu- countries – Ukraine and Kazakhstan – similar? lation income is exasperatedby the complexity What determines the level and dynamics of of aggregate accounting of all components influ- these differences – the level of economic in- encing standard of living of households. Besides equality of regions or scales of redistributive money income, households receive various so- policy of states aimed at mitigation of territorial cial transfers in the form of privileges and free differences in population income? public benefits which should also be considered The article sets the task of evaluation of in- in estimates of aggregate consumption. Besides, equalities of income and salaryof regions and the standard of living of households depends on urban settlements in Russia, comparison of in- savings, accumulated real and personal estate – terregional inequality in Russia and other large housing, dachas, cars, and other durables. Post-Soviet countries, and also changes in spa- Statistical problems are serious, therefore, tial inequality based on population income in measurements and evaluations of inequality the 2000sgiven macroeconomic conditions and of money population income of regions should be policy of the states. The analysis of different treated with caution. Nevertheless, it is necessary types of spatial inequality of population income to work with these data, after all, even incomplete allows to consider the problem more widely statistical information allows to reveal trends, if and to reveal similarity and differences between the measurement technique has not change. main trends. The second problem – methodical: how to Problems of measurement of level and struc- measure inequalitymore accurately? R/P 10% ture of income of households in regions and mu- ratio is most commonly used (ratio of the in- nicipalities are caused by a variety of reasons: come of 10% of population with the highest in- in the presence of a considerable shadow come to the income of 10% of population with sector of economy, all statistical mea- the lowest income), but it measures only in- surements of population income are equality “at the edges”. Coefficient of variation supplemented with revaluations and, in shows dispersion of characteristics of all data general, are insufficiently accurate, first array”from the middle”. Gini index (Lorenz of all, at the regional level; coefficient) evaluates uniformity of distribution surveys of householdbudgets conducted and is more sensitive to inequality and move- by Rosstat have insufficient regional se- ments in the middle of an ordered series. lection which leads to distortions; In this article calculations of inequality were population income at the municipal level carried out by different ways: R/P 10% ratio (by city districts and municipal areas) was applied to measure inequality of popula- is not measured by bodies of statistics, tion income in Russian regions, and adapted there are only data on salary by large and Gini index – to measure interregional and inter- mid-sized enterprises and organisations, city inequality. Gini index was calculated with without small businesses; weighting of regional indicators on population natural receipts from family farm units, size,sinceunweighted measurements distort in- important for urban population and cru- equality degree because of very fractional ad- cial for rural population, especially in re- ministrativeterritorial division and non-equiva- gions with favourable soil and climatic lent population size of territorial subjects of the conditions, are difficult to measure; Russian Federation. In order to ensure compa-

1 The following indicators are used for adjustment: cost of living in the region or cost of a fixed set of goods and services for Rosstat interregional comparisons. 90 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 rability, Gini index was calculated in the same age value for the Russian Federation of 3.2 times) way forinterregional inequality of population in 2011, i.e. 83% of the average. The majority of income and salary in large Post-Soviet coun- the Russian regions have medium population in- tries. The similar weighting procedure was ap- come: more than half of territorial subjects of the plied to calculation of inequality of salary in Russian Federation have the ratio of income and Russian urban settlements. cost of living of 75–99% of the Russianaverage. Interregional inequality: scales and dynamics. Economic growth of the 2000s and redis- Measurement of scales of interregional inequal- tributive policy did their part, regions with low ity in population income requires the accounting level of population income became significantly of price factor. Average per capita money popu- less numerous (fig. 1). By 2011 Russia had only lation income is correlated to regional cost of two regions with minimum ratio of income and living in calculations given below. Moscow has cost of living (less than 2 times), these are Tyva always been the leader, in the 2000s the average Republic and the Republic of Kalmykia. Put per capita population income of the capital ex- this in perspective, in 2002 more than 75% of ceeded cost of living by 5–6 times (on average territorial subjects of the Russian Federationha- across Russia – by 3.2 times in 2012). However, dsuch indicators, in 2005 – more than a third. the level of average per capita income of Mus- Geography of outsiders has also partly changed: covites is overestimated: Rosstat applies a tech- they still include depressive regions of the Euro- nique of measurement of population income with pean Russia (Ivanovo Oblast, Vladimir Oblast) revaluations, taking into account the volume of and the East of the country (Altai Krai, Amur commodity turnover of retail trade and purchase Oblast, Jewish Autonomous Oblast), less de- of currency, though not only residents of the city, veloped republics of the Volga region (Mari El, but also numerous visitors shop in the capital. Mordovia, and Chuvashia) and Siberia (Tyva In the 1990s and the early 2000s rich oil and Altai). Thus the majority of republics of and gas extraction districts of Tyumen Oblast– the North Caucasus left the group of outsiders Khanty-Mansi and Yamal-Nenets were leaders, (data on population income of Chechnya till comparable to Moscow, however, in 2012 the 2011 were not published). Partly this is a sign ratio of income and cost of living in them was of special attention of the federal authorities to only 3.5–4 times since population income grew the problem North Caucasus, methodical wiles more slowly because of withdrawal of oil rent of Rosstatmade a no smaller contribution: sta- to the federal budget. There were new leaders: tistical revaluations of hidden wages in Dages- the ratio of average per capita money popula- tan and Ingushetia account for up to a half of tion income and cost of living in St.Petersburg all population income (Russian average – 27%). (4.5 times) exceeded indicators of major oil In the late 2000s economic growth and, es- and gas extraction regions as the result of the pecially, increase in oil prices slowed down, transfer to the second capital of headquarters therefore interregional levelling effect became of large companies and growth of number of less noticeable: ordering of regions based on the well-paid jobs in other sectors of economy. The ratio of average per capita money population in- ratio of income and cost of living has grown come and cost of living for 2008–2011 hardly considerably in Moscow Oblast and Sverd- changed (fig. 1). lovsk Oblast (3.7 times). An important factor of interregional in- Approximately ten other developed re- equality of population income is differentiation gions have the ratio of per capita income and of salary. For 2000–2012 interregional differ- cost of living higher than country average, ences in salary reduced from 10.2 to 4.6 times generally,these are regions with export indus- (in regions with extreme indicators), and for five tries and rather low cost of living (the Repub- of regions with maximum and minimum indi- lic of Tatarstan, the Republic of Bashkortostan, cators – from 6.8 and to 3.8 times. Mitigation Belgorod Oblast, Kemerovo Oblast, etc.). of inequality was promoted by the advancing Why are there so few leaders? The matter is growth of labour compensation in the budget- that average Russian indicator is overestimated ary sphere and in agriculture, these are branches because of the income of Muscovites: nearly concentratingemployed population in less de- 20% of all money income of Russians are the veloped regions. share of residents of the capital. The median ratio Comparison of Russia to other large CIS for Russian regions was 2.7 times (withthe aver- countries shows that since the end of the 1990s Zubarevich N.V., Safronov S.G. 91

40 2002 35 2008 2011 30

15 number of of number regions

0 less than 1 1,0-1,5 1,5-2,0 2,0-2,5 2,5-3,0 3,0-4,0 4,0-5,0 over 5,0

ratio of average per capita population income to cost of living, times

Fig. 1. Ordering of Russian regions based on the ratio of average per capita money population income to cost of living, times growth of economic inequality was a gen- level using adapted Gini index show that Russia eral trend for Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan had the maximum inequality among large CIS (fig. 2). In Russia this trend was less persistent countries (fig. 3). In the 2000s this inequality and was earlier replaced by some decrease in was steadily reduced, especially quickly – on inequality as the result of large-scale redistrib- the dive of oil prices in 2005–2008. Rapidly utive policy of the state. Two other large CIS increased scales of redistributive policy of the countries had more obvious trends of economic state ensured growth of salary of state employ- divergence of regions, including Ukraine – up ees and increase in social payments to low-in- to the crisis of 2008. In Kazakhstan this is a come groups of population. The share of these consequence of domination of resource-based groups is higher in poorly developed regions, economy that exasperates regional inequality, therefore redistributive policy simultaneously and smaller scales of redistribution in the favour reduced interregional inequality of income. An- of poor regions, as huge funds were used for other factor is the advancing growth of pensions construction and development of the new capi- that increased per capita incomes in moderately tal – Astana. Rapid growth of oil income and and poorly developed regions of the Centre and completion of mass construction in Astana led to the Northwest with the oldest population and the strengthening of redistributive territorial policy, maximum share of pensioners. as the result since 2007 the tendency of growing The inequality of Russian regions in sal- inequality was replaced with the opposite one. ary started decreasing since 2002 when salary The levelling effect amplified as the result of of state employees was substantially increased the crisis of 2008–2009. In Ukraine growth of for the first time. Later earnings in the - budget inequality is caused mainly by smaller centrali- ary sphere grew quicker, than in the private sector sation and weak levelling policy of the state in of economy. It also promoted decrease in inter- the conditions of political instability. Only crisis regional inequality since the share ofemployed interrupted the tendency of growing inequality. in branches of the budgetary sector is higher in Thus, Ukraine completely fits into the general poorly developed regions because of lack of jobs. trend of growth of economic inequality for the The interregional inequality in poverty countries with catching-up development, and level also reduced, but slowly. This is the con- Russia and Kazakhstan – not absolutely. The sequence of two factors: strong intra-regional reason is territorial redistribution of oil rent. differentiation of population in the income and Calculations of interregional inequality insufficient targeting of social policy at support based on population income, salary, and poverty for the poor population: only a quarter of all 92 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015

Russia 0,500 Ukraine 0,450 Kazakhstan

0,400

0,350

0,300

0,250

0,200

0,150

0,100

0,050

0,000 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Fig. 2. Gini index for interregional inequality of per capitaGRP in large Post-Soviet countries

0,350 Russia income

0,300 Russia salary Russia poverty

0,250 Ukraine income Ukraine salary

0,200 Kazakhstan income Kazakhstan salary 0,150 Kazakhstan poverty

0,100

0,050

0,000 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

Fig. 3. Gini index for interregional inequality of per capita GRP, average per capita population income and average salary in Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan Source: calculations based on data of Rosstat, statistical bodies of Ukraine and Kazakhstan (sharp reduction of interregional inequality of population income in Ukraine in 2002 is caused by change of a technique of statistical measurement of income) social payments to population are the share of gional inequality of population income and salary direct benefits to the poor. reduced most significantly, this is a consequence In general for 1998-2012 regional dif- of social policy of the state redistributing huge ferences in Russia reduced for all indicators oil rent. In Kazakhstan process of mitigation of standard of living – income, salary, and pov- of differentiation of regions on per capita income erty level. Inequality in consumption measured of population was shown only in the second half by per capita retail turnoverdecreased. Mitiga- of the 2000s, then stopped during crisis and am- tion of regional differences in income and con- plified again in recent years. In salary it manifest- sumption of population is the result of “wealthy ed less obviously. This is a consequence of a less years” of economic growth, supercentralisation large-scale redistributive policy, concentration of and increased redistribution of huge oil income. well-paid jobs in the new capital, and also a low How do Russian tendencies look compared standard of living of rural population prevailing to other large Post-Soviet countries? In Russia rein the southern regions of Kazakhstan. Zubarevich N.V., Safronov S.G. 93 Ukraine was characterised by apersistent inequality in population income in the most de- growth of interregional inequality of population veloped regions in recent years is quite easy to income because of weak redistributive policy of explain. Growth of budgetary income of these the state, however, inequality of salary, strange- regions allowed to conducta more large-scale ly enough, was mitigated. Such divergences levelling social policy, the most illustrative ex- are explained by poor quality of statistics and ample are Moscow supplementary pensionson objective difficulties: Ukraine has high shadow which nearly 10% of the huge budget of the employment rate, large-scale labour migrations capital were spentin 2011. Autonomous areas of to other countries, especially from western re- Tyumen Oblastwith rather small population size gions, and statistical measurements of salary ac- have an opportunity to pursue active redistribu- tually register interregional levelling of labour tive policy in the form of additional payments to compensation of employed in legal sector of salary of the employed in the budgetary branch- economy, mainly in the budgetary branches. es, numerous benefits. Only the budgets of the Even given all statistical distortions Russia richest regions – Moscow, Yamal-Nenets and appears to be”the champion of the CIS” in re- Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Area have funds duction of interregional disproportions in popu- for large-scale levelling policy, their experience lation income though it still remains a country cannot be extended all over the country as other with strong interregional differentiation of in- regions do not have such opportunities. come and standard of living. Inequality of Russian urban settlements in salary. The inequality of urban settlementscan Intra-regional inequality of population be measured only based on salary level, indica- income. The intra-regional inequality can be tor of population income is not calculated at the measured by R/P 10% ratio – ratio of the income municipal level. Statistical data on large cities of 10% of population with the highest income to (according to urban-planning classification these the income of 10% of population with the lowest are cities with population over 100 thousand in- income. As it was already noted, this indicator habitants) are annually published in the statisti- estimates differences only “at the edges”. Accu- cal collection “Russian regions”. The Multistat racy of measurements is low, but nevertheless database forms a basis of data on all Russian allows to identify disproportions and dynamics. urban settlements. The inequality in salary is First, intra-regional inequality of population in calculated for all urban settlements separately the income is maximum in the most developed as well – for large cities to detecthow the size regions – Moscow, St.Petersburg, in autono- of the city influences differentiation of earnings mous areas of Tyumen Oblast and in Samara of population. A hypothesis was put forward Oblast where R/P 10% ratioreaches 18–27 times that in large cities advantages of agglomerative (Russian average– 16 times). Second, during effect (concentration of population and econom- economic growth all Russian regions, except for ic activity, and also a variety of activities) are Moscow, had growing intra-regional inequality more expressed which promotes decrease in in- of population income. In other words, aggrava- equality. It is obvious that the maximum degree tion of intra-regional inequality of income of of advantage of agglomerative effect manifests their population became “the price to be paid” in the largest cities of the country – Moscow and for development of regions. St.Petersburg where every ninth citizen of Rus- Only in recent years this inequality began sia lives. To reveal influence of the federal cit- to reduce. For the majority of regions the eco- ies, the inequality in salary was measured both nomic crisis turned out to be a major factor. But for all urban settlements, and with the federal there are also other factors: inequality started cities excluded. to decrease earlier where it was maximum – in Calculations showed that the inequality in Moscow and oil and gas extraction autonomous salary for all urban settlementsmeasured by Gini areas of Tyumen Oblast (fig. 4) with the high- index is comparable to interregional inequal- est level of economic development and with a ity in this indicator (0.200–0.220). Dynamics strong social policy. Fantastic rates of change of inequality of urban settlements changed: it of R/P 10% ratioof the income of Muscovites grew during recovery from the crisis of 1998, (from 51 times in 2002 to 41 times in 2007 and and considerably reducedin 2002, when salary to 27 times in 2011) raise a lot of questions. of state employees was significantly increased However, a trend of decrease in intra-regional for the first time (fig. 5). In the following years 94 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015

55 2002

50 2007

45 2011

0 Russia Ural FD Moscow Altai Krai Volga FD Volga Mansi AO Mansi Perm Krai - Jewish AO Central FD Central Nenets AO Nenets Petersburg Tula Oblast Tula Tver Oblast Siberian FD Siberian Kirov Oblast Kirov Oryol Oblast Amur Oblast Amur Southern FD Southern Kursk Oblast Omsk Oblast Omsk Pskov Oblast Pskov Chukotka AO Penza Oblast Penza Irkutsk Oblast Irkutsk Altai Republic Altai Tomsk Oblast Stavropol Krai Stavropol Rostov Oblast Kaluga Oblast Kaluga Lipetsk Oblast Lipetsk Kurgan Oblast Kurgan Tuva Republic St. Komi Republic Komi Primorsky Krai Primorsky Ryazan Oblast Saratov Oblast Saratov Krasnodar Krai Ivanovo Oblast Samara Oblast Samara Tambov Oblast Tambov Bryansk Oblast Oblast Tyumen Vladimir Oblast Moscow Oblast Eastern Far FD Vologda Oblast Vologda Balkar Republic Balkar Sakha Republic Sakha Sakhalin Oblast Sakhalin Kamchatka Krai Kamchatka Buryat Republic Buryat Belgorod Oblast Belgorod Yaroslavl Oblast Yaroslavl Mari El El Mari Republic - Khabarovsk Krai Magadan Oblast Magadan Orenburg Oblast Udmurt Republic Udmurt Voronezh Oblast Voronezh Oblast Kostroma Novgorod Oblast Smolensk Oblast Smolensk Northwestern FD Northwestern Krasnoyarsk Krai Zabaykalsky Krai Leningrad Oblast Leningrad Astrakhan Oblast Astrakhan Kemerovo Oblast Kemerovo Volgograd Oblast Volgograd Ulyanovsk Oblast Khanty Murmansk Oblast Sverdlovsk Oblast Chuvash Republic Kaliningrad Oblast Kaliningrad Novosibirsk Oblast Cherkess Republic Cherkess Republic of of Republic Karelia - Yamalo Chelyabinsk Oblast Arkhangelsk Oblast of Republic Adygea - North North Caucasian FD Republic of of Republic Kalmykia Republic of of Republic Mordovia Republic of of Republic Tatarstan Republic of of Republic Dagestan Republic of of Republic Ingushetia Republic of of Republic Khakassia Nizhny Novgorod Oblast Republic of of Republic North Ossetia Republic of of Republic Bashkortostan Kabardino Nenets Autonomous Autonomous Nenets Okrug Karachay

Fig. 4. R/P 10% ratio in Russian regions (ratio of the income of 10% of the population with thehighest income and 10% of the population with the lowest income), times

the inequality of all urban settlements stabilised, “rocks” of great inequality in salary stimulating and grew again in large cities. Why did differen- migratory inflow. Until large Russian cities, first tiation of large cities on salary amplify, unlike of all, million plus cities, start reducing lag in the whole massif of Russian urban settlements? salary from the federal cities, redistribution of The reason isthat the salary in the federal cities, migratory streams will hardly happen. which have maximum advantages of agglom- Another important aspect is dynamics of erative effect and status, is very different from inequality in salary in the urban settlements the rest of the country,which is more obvious within each region. G. Kulikov’s calculations with a smaller massif of large cities. When the for large cities of the Ural and Volga federal dis- federal cities are excluded, a steady decrease in tricts [6] showed that during economic growth inequality both for all urban settlements, and of the 2000s,differences in salary in regional for large cities is noted. They become more uni- centres and other urban settlements of the reform in a salary, lagging behind Moscow and gion changed in favour of regional “capitals”. St.Petersburg. It means that advantage in salary of”rich” cities The inequality in salary measured by coeffi- of export industry, such as Magnitogorsk, Alm- cient of variations decreased more steadily for the etyevsk, etc., reduced, and lag from regional whole considered period thanks to the advancing centres of urban settlementsof manufacturing growth of salary of state employees, whose share industry and urban settlementswhich lost indus- is higher among theemployed in smaller towns. trial functions grew. During new crisis of 2009, But tendencies of mitigation of inequality in sal- damaging industrial urban settlements most se- ary in urban settlements in general are less ex- riously, these tendencies only amplified. pressed compared to Russian regions. The reason The reasons for the advancing growth of sal- is simple – dynamics of inequality of cities is ary in regional centres is not only state policy(the more influenced by the two Russian capitals. advancing salary increase for the employed in What are the consequences of these trends the budgetary sector, especially in state admin- for mobility of population? Large Russian cities istration with which industrial business cannot become more and more uniform in salary, but, keep up), but also objective tendencies of faster at the same time, their differences from Mos- development of service functions in large cities, cow and St.Petersburg grow. As the result the regional centres, creation of new, better paid federal cities are more and more attractive for jobs there. As theresult industrial cities become migrants. Any attempts to decrease migratory less attractive which stimulates migrations of inflow to two Russian capitals will split uponthe youth to regional centres. They attract migrants Zubarevich N.V., Safronov S.G. 95

0,250

All urban setlements 0,200

All urban setlements excluding Moscow and St.Petersburg 0,150 Large cities

Large cities excluding Moscow and 0,100 St.Petersburg

0,050

0,000 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Fig. 5. Gini index for inequality of average salary by Russian urban settlements Source: calculations based on Rosstat data from smaller urban settlementsof the region sources of income of budgets of developed re- along with migrants from depopulating rural ar- gions – reduced by 13% compared to 2012. eas more and more. The engine is economic fac- The third factor is the policy of the federal au- tor of migrations – aggravation of intra-regional thorities. Since 2012 according to decrees of the inequality of urban settlements in salary. president, salary of workers of the social sphere is raising to reach average regional salary. The Mitigation policy forspatial inequality of main expenses laid down on regional budgets. population income. In the modern world there On the one hand, realisation of these measures are two types of states capable to reduce spatial promotes mitigation of interregional inequality inequality: of population income, but the price is too high – economically developed states with budgets of the majority of regions have no funds strong targeted social policy; for implementation of decrees. Transfers from authoritative and supercentralised the federal budget reduced by 6% (2013 com- political regimes receiving and pared to 2012), it is more and more difficult redistributing huge raw rent. for regions to find financial sources for raising Russia has tendencies of mitigation of in- salary of the employed in the social sphere. Re- terregional differences of population income gional budgets are overloaded with social ob- similar to developed countries of continental ligations, in 2013 the share of social expenses Europe with strong social policy, but factors of reached nearly two-thirds of all expenses. As the mitigation of inequality are different: instead result budget deficit grows (8% of the income of of strengthening targeted social support for the budgets in 2013) regions get deeper and deeper poor, advancing salary increase in the budget- into debts, stability of the budgetary system of ary sector, pensions and social payments to the territorial subjects of the Russian Federation population based on redistribution of oil and gas falls. As regional budgets have no money, it is rent became the main tool.But if the rent ceases possible to execute presidential decrees only by to grow, opportunities to mitigate spatial insignificant reduction of employment in the bud- equality will decrease. getary sector that will negatively affect political Another factor of mitigation of spatial instability and level of support for the power. Re- equality of population income is crisis reces- duction of employment in the budgetary sector sions of economy. In Russia they affect de- creates demand for alternative jobs, especially veloped industrial regions more, sincepoorly in less developed regions, but few jobs are cre- developed territorial subjects of the Russian ated. As the result forecasted growth of unem- Federation receive big and stable transfers from ployment can exasperate interregional inequal- the federal budget. Butthe”margin of safety” of ity in population income. the federal budget decreases, and so do possi- It is possible to expect that in the short term bilities of redistribution. In 2013 the economy the tendency of mitigation of interregional dif- started slipping again, oil superincome did not ferences of population income and salary will grow, receipts of income tax – one of the main interrupt. The main reason is deterioration of 96 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 economic situation in the country and reduction petitive advantages and therefore strengthen of financial resources for redistribution. Spatial inequality between urban settlements. In theory levelling which is carried out by the supercen- the inequality is considered not only as a social tralised control system redistributing raw rent risk, but also as an”engine” of territorial mo- was quite successful on a short time span, but bility of population. But still particular advan- this model gradually becomes less effective. tages of the federal cities suppress competition What is an alternative? On the one hand, of other large cities for investment and human Russia already reached the level of economic resources, even if in the latterit takes less time to development at which growth of interregional reform institutional environment and to improve inequality of population income in the major- conditions and quality of life of population. ity of developed countries stopped. According Research showed that institutional advantages to the World bank [14], resources for levelling of the federal cities slow down development policy emerge at per capitapurchasing power of other large cities of Russia. parity GDP over 10–15 thousand dollars, and in In general, economic inequality of regions Russia this indicator exceeded 20 thousand dol- and cities is not only a problem, but also a de- lars in 2013. On the other hand, decrease in in- velopment factor. Use of this factor depends on terregional inequality in income requires an effi- the policy of the authorities and on the readiness cient and targeted social policy aimed at support of territorial and city communities for competi- for the poor. However, Russian authorities and tion for human and investment resources. In the society areready neither for control of popula- Russian society there is no understanding so far tion income, a sinequanone for targeted support that economic spatial inequality can stimulate for the poor, nor for larger redistribution in fa- development of the whole country. Priorities vour of low-income and often marginal groups of social development are also to be specified – of population whose share among the poor spatial levelling of population income is not the grows in process of reduction in poverty level. end in itself, but a tool of investment into human The inequality of Russian urban settlements capital of less developed regions. Such policy in salary decreases, if the federal cities are ex- increases mobility and adaptability of popula- cluded. Two largest cities of the country – Mos- tion of less developed territories and ensures cow and St.Petersburg – have maximum com- sustainable development of Russia.

References

1. Глущенко К.П. Методы анализа межрегионального неравенства по доходам: учебное пособие / Новосиб. гос. ун-т. – Новосибирск, 2010. 2. Дробышевский С., Луговой О., Астафьева Е. и др. Факторы экономического роста в регионах РФ. – М.: ИЭПП, 2005. 3. Зубаревич Н.В. Мифы и реалии пространственного неравенства // Общественные науки и со- временность. – 2009. – №1. – С. 38–53. 4. Зубаревич Н. Регионы России: неравенство, кризис, модернизация. – М.: НИСП, 2010. 5. Иванов Д.С. Роль сектора услуг в региональном неравенстве занятости и заработной платы в 2000-е годы // Региональные исследования. – 2011. – № 1. – C. 91–98. 6. Куликов Г.К. Крупные города – точки роста Урало-Поволжья // Региональные исследования. – 2008. – № 6. – С. 42–53. 7. Лавровский Б.Л., Шильцин Е.А. Российские регионы: сближение или расслоение? // Экономика и математические методы. – 2009. – Т. 45. – № 2. – С. 31–36. 8. Михеева Н.Н. Анализ дифференциации социально-экономического положения российских регионов // Проблемы прогнозирования. – 1999. – № 5. – С. 91–102. 9. Нефедова Т.Г., Трейвиш А.И. «Сильные» и «слабые» города России // Полюса и центры роста в региональном развитии / Под ред. Ю. Г. Липеца. – М.: ИГ РАН, 1998. – С. 135–143. 10. Нефедова Т.Г., Трейвиш А.И. Города и сельская местность: состояние и соотношение в про- странстве России // Региональные исследования. – 2010. – № 2 (28). – С. 42–57. 11. Обзор социальной политики в России: начало 2000-х. Под ред. Т.М. Малевой / Н.В. Зубаревич. Д.Х. Ибрагимова и др. – М.: НИСП, 2007. 12. Экономико-географические и институциональные аспекты экономического роста в регионах. [О. Луговой и др.] – М.: ИЭПП, 2007. 13. Martin P. The Geography of Inequalities in Europe // Swedish Economic Policy Review. – 2005. – № 12. – P. 83–108. 14. World Development Report 2009.Reshaping economic geography.– World Bank, 2009.(Мировойдо- кладоразвитии 2009.Пересматриваяэкономическуюгеографию. – Мировой банк. 2009). 15. Zubarevich N., Safronov S. Regional inequality in large post-soviet countries // Regional research of Russia (RRR). – 2011. – Vol. 1. – № 1. – Р. 15–26. Kazmin M.A. 97 Kazmin M.A.

LAND MARKET IN POST-SOVIET RUSSIA: TERRITORIAL ASPECTS OF FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Abstract. This article discusses territorial characteristics and current trends of land turnover and land market in Russian regions with case studies of sales transactions, rent and mortgage of land plots. Keywords: land turnover, land market, land ownership, market and non-market transactions with land plots.

Introduction. Success of modern economic data on annual quantity and area of transactions reforms in Russia in many respects depends on for the country in general and for territorial sub- creation and efficient functioning of land rela- jects of the Russian Federation, and also a short tions, an important component of which is the analysis of processes in the market. National turnover of land plots. Land turnover in Russia reports have been published in the country regu- has specific features, and the level of its deve- larly since 1991, but the section “Land Market lopment is in great dependence on natural and and Land Taxation” for the first time appeared social and economic conditions of certain rein structure of the report in 1996 when a short gions. Seasonal fluctuations and significant dif- review of the market situation in Russia that ferentiation of prices depending on location of a year was submitted. The following years saw a plot, development of engineering infrastructure, significant increase in the volume of this section and ecological conditions are inherent to it. due to a richer informational content and a de- The land turnover is accompanied by a tailed analysis, but cost indices are presented in relative complexity of registration of transac- a limited quantity in this report, only at the level tions as it is legislatively defined by a number of the country and of certain federal districts. of formalities, conditions, and norms. Another The national report includes statistical data feature is the existence of a proper serving in- on various categories of transactions – rent of frastructure. As a rule, transactions with land state and municipal lands, sale of rent rights, are carried out by specialised structures – ser- purchase and sale of private, state, and munici- vices of land registry, land management organ- pal lands, inheritance, gift and mortgage of land isations, bodies of state registration. Creation plots, that were united in groups of market and of an effective land turnover largely depends non-market transactions in the course of the on the level of development of financial and analysis. Actually, market transactions include legal infrastructure – bank, insurance, invest- transactions on sale of rent rights and purchase ment divisions, and also of land courts, land and sale of private, state, and municipal lands, notariate, and other institutes. while all other transactions form non-market The objective of the present article is to use of land plots. The research separately anal- detect territorial features of formation and de- ysed transactions with private lands, state lands, velopment of land turnover in Russian regions and municipal lands, and also operations with with different natural and social and economic lands of settlements and non-housing territories. conditions. The fullest data on land turnover was for Information base of research. Now society is the first time published in a national report in obviously experiencing a deficit of information 2003 which became the reference point of the on land turnover and land market, as was repeat- research. Besides statistical materials on the edly stated by Russian leaders. The land market area and number of transactions with land plots is still substantially non-transparent, and many by territorial subjects of the Russian Federation, transactions are carried out based on a specula- this report calculated average annual indicators tive scenario. for the last five years countrywide, by certain A general idea about current level of devel- economic regions, and by subjects of Federa- opment of Russian land turnover is created by tion for 2008–2012. These calculations allowed the data annually published by Federal Regis- to make considerable differentiation in annual tration Service in the state (national) report «On statistical reporting more smooth and to give a the condition and use of lands in the Russian more objective analysis of current trends of de- Federation”. The report has a base of statistical velopment of land turnover. A system of relative 98 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 statistics, reflecting dynamics and specialisation An opposite situation, when minimum area of land turnover, is calculated in order to dem- of lands (less than 1% of the area of a territo- onstrate specifics of land turnover, maps were rial subject of the Russian Federation) was generated based on this statistics. privatised, is typical for the majority of re- According to the state report, in recent years gions of the North Caucasus, the European about 2.8 million transactions with land plots North, and the Far East. According to the data are executed annually in Russia, and the area of Federal Registration Service of 1 January involved in them is equal to 50 million hectares, 2013, the minimum area of private lands (less which makes 3% of land reserves of the country than 10.0 thousand hectares) is recorded in the [6]. This insignificant share is explained by the Chechen Republic, the Republics of Ingushetia, fact that the majority of lands is excluded from North Ossetia and Dagestan, and also in Nenets, market, as they were not involved in the pro- Yamal-Nenets, Chukotka Autonomous Okrugs, cess of denationalisation and privatisation. This and in Magadan Oblast. concerns lands of forest and water fund, nature Watchful attitude to reforming of land rela- protection lands, industry, transport, communi- tions in a number of republics and autonomous cation, defence, and other nonagricultural lands. oblasts developed owing to specific natural con- Land turnover and market incorporate mainly ditions, poor economic development of their ter- lands of settlements and agricultural lands, ritories, national and religious traditions. Public which in total occupy about a quarter of all land authorities of these subjects of Federation did area of the country. These very categories of not intensify processes connected with privati- lands also make a basis of land market which is sation of land as a considerable part of jobs is formed in the country. concentrated in the agrarian sector of economy, which for majority of population is the only Results of land privatisation. The territori- source of income. National traditions and way al analysis of results of privatisation of land plots of life of local population, which consists main- showed that in general across Russia and in many ly of peasants, are in this or that way connected subjects of Federation, state and municipal lands to shared use of lands. still make the majority of total land area. Unlike them, private lands prevail in regions located in Number and area of transactions with most agriculturally developed districts within land plots. Data on the area and number of steppe and forest-steppe natural zones (tab. 1, transactions from 2008 to 2012, aggregated by fig. 1). Thus, more than 60% of total area of sub- economic regions of the country, give a clear jects are privatised in Stavropol Krai, Rostov, idea of land plots in land turnover (tab. 2, 3). Lipetsk, Kursk, Tambov, Saratov, Orenburg, and At that time, the main land market was localised Oryol Oblasts, more than 50% – in Volgograd, in the central and southern parts of Russia, and Voronezh, Tula, and Samara Oblasts. also in large cities and residential suburbs of the

Table 1 Area and structure of lands by ownership in Russian economic regions (1 January 2013) Total area, Private lands State and municipal lands Economic regions mln ha mln ha % of total area mln ha % of total area Northern 147.7 1.6 1.1 146.1 98.9 Northwestern 21.0 3.3 15.5 17.8 84.5 Central 48.2 14.8 30.6 33.5 69.4 Volga-Vyatka 26.5 6.7 25.5 19.7 74.5 Central Chernozem 16.8 9.9 59.0 6.9 41.0 Volga 54.0 25.2 46.8 28.7 53.2 North Caucasus 35.5 15.2 42.8 20.3 57.2 Ural 82.3 20.7 25.2 61.6 74.8 West Siberian 245.4 22.2 9.0 223.2 91.0 East Siberian 415.5 11.0 2.6 404.5 97.4 Far Eastern 616.9 2.4 0.4 614.5 99.6 TOTAL 1709.8 133.0 7.8 1576.8 92.2 Source: [6]. Kazmin M.A. 99 Symbols Share of private lands Share of territorial area in the total subjects of the Russian Federation, %: 1 – to 1; 2 10; 3 – 10 20; 4 20 40; 5 – 40 60; than 60. 6 – more of private, state, Area and municipal lands, thousand hectares: 7 – state and municipal lands; 8 – private 9 – to 100; 10 – 100 1000; – 1000 2000; 11 12 – 2000 5000; 13 – 5000 10000; 14 – 10000-50000; than 50000 15 – more Fig. 1. Land ownership in territorial subjects of the Russian Federation for 1 January 2013 100 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 Table 2 Average annual number of transactions with land plots by Russian economic regions (2008–2012)

including: All transactions market transactions non-market transactions Economic regions % of total % of total % of total thousand thousand thousand – rank – rank – rank ha ha ha occupied occupied occupied Northern 72.1 3.3 - 11 25.7 2.2 - 11 46.4 4.6 - 11 Northwestern 113.9 5.3 - 9 63.2 5.5 - 7 50.7 5.0 - 9 Central 442.0 20.4 - 1 230.6 20.1 - 1 211.4 20.8 - 1 Volga-Vyatka 132.9 6.1 - 7 59.8 5.2 - 9 73.1 7.2 - 7 Central Chernozem 163.7 7.6 - 6 86.4 7.5 - 6 77.3 7.6 - 6 Volga 235.5 10.9 - 4 126.3 11.0 - 4 109.2 10.7 - 4 North Caucasus 239.9 11.1 - 3 155.0 13.5 - 3 84.9 8.4 - 5 Ural 320.9 14.8 - 2 186.4 16.2 - 2 134.5 13.2 - 2 West Siberian 226.1 10.4 - 5 116.9 10.2 - 5 109.2 10.8 - 3 East Siberian 132.3 6.1 - 8 60.8 5.3 - 8 71.5 7.0 - 8 Far Eastern 85.2 3.9 - 10 37.4 3.3 - 10 47.8 4.7 - 10 TOTAL 2164.5 100.0 1148.5 100.0 1016.0 100.0 Source: [2, 3, 4, 5, 6].

Table 3 Average annual area of transactions with land plots by Russian economic regions (2008–2012) including: All transactions market transactions non-market transactions Economic regions % of total % of total % of total thousand thousand ha – rank thousand ha – rank – rank ha occupied occupied occupied Northern 1770.8 6.5 - 6 114.1 3.6 - 10 1656.7 6.9 - 4 Northwestern 314.8 1.2 - 11 123.8 3.9 - 9 191.0 0.8 - 11 Central 1601.8 5.9 - 7 637.9 20.3 - 1 963.9 4.0 - 7 Volga-Vyatka 570.4 2.1 - 10 219.6 7.0 - 6 350.8 1.5 - 10 Central Chernozem 1220.8 4.5 - 8 358.1 11.4 - 3 862.7 3.6 - 8 Volga 2079.8 7.7 - 4 512.0 16.3 - 2 1567.8 6.5 - 6 North Caucasus 770.2 2.8 - 9 339.5 10.8 - 5 430.7 1.8 - 9 Ural 1917.8 7.1 - 5 347.5 11.1 - 4 1570.3 6.5 - 5 West Siberian 5093.7 18.8 - 3 218.9 7.0 - 7 4874.8 20.3 - 3 East Siberian 6429.3 23.7 - 1 175.1 5.6 - 8 6254.2 26.1 - 1 Far Eastern 5359.7 19.8 - 2 93.7 3.0 - 11 5266.0 22.0 - 2 TOTAL 27129.1 100.0 3140.2 100.0 23988.9 100.0 Source: [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. largest agglomerations. That is confirmed by the East Siberian, and Far Eastern economic regions fact that for the last years one-fifth of all opera- accounted for 60% of the area of all operations tions with land plots fell on the Central econom- with land in recent years. Krasnoyarsk Krai, ic region, and together with Ural, North Cauca- Magadan Oblast, Yamal-Nenets, and Chukotka sus and Volga regions this made about 60%. Autonomous Okrug were leaders among the In comparison with the number of executed subjects of Federation, each of them had total transactions, a different situation was observed average annual area of transactions equal to in distribution of areas involved in land turnover more than 1 million hectares (fig. 2). which is explained by inclusion of huge territo- Market and non-market transactions with ries of the rented lands in three eastern regions land plots. Analysing the structure of opera- of the country. So, the share of West Siberian, tions with land plots in the country from 2008 Kazmin M.A. 101 Symbols Share of the area of of the area Share all transactions with land plots in the area of territorial subjects of the Russian Federation, %: 1 – to 0.5; 2 – 0.5-1.0; 3 – 1.0-2.5; 4 – 2.5-5.0; than 5.0. 5 – more annual area Average of transactions, thousand hectares: 6 – to 50; 7 – 50-100; 8 – 100-250; 9 – 250-500; than 500. 10 – more of market – share 11 transactions in the total of transactions, % area Fig. 2. Average annual area of transactions with land plots in territorial subjects the Russian Federation from 2008 to 2012 Average Fig. 2. 102 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 to 2012, it is possible to note that an average from 2003 to 2012 the area of market transac- annual ratio of the number of market and non- tions with private lands grew by 52 times, while market transactions with land is approximately with state and municipal – only by 15 times. The equal. Compared to 2003, by 2012 the number tendency of growth became especially obvious of market transactions grew 3.5 times, while the after the economic crisis of 2008. number of non-market transactions – only twice. Data of the state (national) report present an The majority of economic regions had the main opportunity to analyse the structure of transac- part of executed operations that were purchase tions of purchase and sale in settlements and and sale of private lands and rent of state and outside them in general terms. So, among buy- municipal lands, together making about a half of ers of state and municipal land plots, transac- average annual number of all transactions. tions executed by peasant (farmer) farms and Unlike the number of transactions, most of agricultural organisations for agricultural pro- the area during the period from 2008 to 2012 duction development prevailed. The main buy- belonged to non-market operations. Among ers of land plots in borders of settlements were them the share of rent of state and municipal citizens, using them for individual housing and lands was about three-forths, thus, in compari- dacha (summer houses) construction, expan- son with 2003, the area of market transactions sion of family farms, gardening and vegetable grew by 36 times, while the area of non-market growing, and also legal entities, using them for transactions – only by 1.4 times. In econom- development of nonagricultural functions. The ic region of European North, Siberia and Far situation is the opposite regarding buyers of East, the share of the area of rent was more private lands, the main priorities of citizens and than 90%. In central and northwest European legal entities, according to the published data, Russia purchase and sale of private land plots were connected with development of nonagri- accounted for the greatest share in the area of cultural and non-housing functions. operations with land. Purchase and sale of land plots. The analy- In the structure of market transactions in sis of ranking of economic regions based on the Russia for the studied period, the main part of area of executed market transactions showed the area fell on transactions of sale and pur- that from 2008 to 2012 leading positions were chase of private, state, and municipal lands, at occupied by regions of European Russia – that transactions with private lands had much Central, Volga region and Central Chernozem, higher growth rates in comparison with state which together accounted for about 50% of and municipal land plots. So, during the period the area of all operations of purchase and sale

Table 4 Average annual area of transactions of purchase and sale of land plots by Russian economic regions (2008–2012) including: All transactions transactions with private transactions with state lands and municipal lands Economic regions % of total % of total % of total thousand thousand thousand – rank – rank – rank ha ha ha occupied occupied occupied Northern 90.6 3.2 - 10 81.4 3.5 - 10 9.2 1.7 - 11 Northwestern 115.9 4.1 - 9 102.3 4.4 - 9 13.6 2.6 - 10 Central 620.1 21.7 - 1 523.2 22.5 - 1 96.9 18.3 - 2 Volga-Vyatka 206.2 7.2 - 6 180.3 7.7 - 6 25.9 4.9 - 8 Central Chernozem 332.1 11.6 - 3 289.0 12.4 - 3 43.1 8.1 - 6 Volga 460.2 16.1 - 2 336.9 14.5 - 2 123.3 23.2 - 1 North Caucasus 294.0 10.3 - 5 225.4 9.7 - 5 68.6 12.9 - 3 Ural 322.4 11.3 - 4 269.7 11.6 - 4 52.7 9.9 - 4 West Siberian 198.6 6.9 - 7 152.8 6.6 - 7 45.8 8.6 - 5 East Siberian 143.1 5.0 - 8 109.5 4.7 - 8 33.6 6.3 - 7 Far Eastern 77.2 2.7 - 11 59.3 2.5 - 11 17.9 3.4 - 9 TOTAL 2860.4 100.0 2329.8 100.0 530.6 100.0 Source: [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. Kazmin M.A. 103 of land plots in the country. Large share of these pledged lands, and limited territorial distribu- transactions is also typical for Ural and North tion of this type of transactions. Experts in fi- Caucasus regions. Leaders in the area of opera- nance, land market, and agricultural economics tions of purchase and sale among the Russian specify reasons for insufficient development of regions during this period were the Republic land mortgage that mainly belong to economic of Tatarstan, Voronezh, Rostov, and Saratov and legal sphere: Oblasts, each of which had an average annual insufficient development of land market indicator of the area of transactions more than as a whole; 100 thousand hectares (tab. 4, fig. 3). lack of a uniform technique of market- Analysis of distribution of number of trans- value appraisal of land plots; actions of purchase and sale among subjects insufficient development of the network of Federation revealed a close interrelation of banking institutions engaged in with population size. So, for the studied pe- mortgage lending; riod among leaders in terms of this indicator poor development of land and market were territories around large cities and, first of and financial infrastructures; all, around million-strong cities. So, Moscow, lack of reliable information on condition Leningrad, Rostov, Sverdlovsk, Chelyabinsk, of lands, land owners, and land users; Nizhny Novgorod, Tula Oblasts, Krasnodar lack of experience of long-term loans in Krai, the Republics of Tatarstan and Bashkor- the majority of Russian banks; tostan annually executed on average more than low liquidity of pledged lands and, first 30 thousand transactions of purchase and sale of all, of agricultural lands [7, 9, 10]. of land plots generally for housing and agricul- Modern statistics confirms that mortgage is tural purposes (fig. 4). not the most large-scale transaction with land Rent of land plots. Among non-market trans- plots. In recent years number and area of transactions with land plots an important place is oc- actions of pledge accounted for about 4% of cupied by rent, the share of which for the period all operations with land plots in reporting year. from 2008 to 2012 accounts for three-forth of Analysis of the latest data on changes in number the area of all transactions. The area of lands of transactions and area of lands, pledged for rein rent land turnover in the country constantly ceiving a mortgage loan, shows that the founda- increases. It proves that rent becomes an im- tion of a current trend of their growth was laid portant component of land turnover. Rent area in 2006, that saw a doubling of number of mort- grows generally at the expense of lands located gage operations and tenfold increase in the area outside settlements and, first of all, agricultural of pledged lands in a year. lands, which make more than two-thirds of av- Despite an essential growth of the area of erage annual area of rent transactions, executed pledged lands, their modern massif is much in recent years. Land tenants include agricul- less, than in the beginning of the 20th century. tural organisations, farmer farms, citizens, and According to the state (national) report, about their associations. 150 thousand mortgage operations were made Maximum area of rented land for the period in 2012 in the country, about 2.4 million hect- from 2008 to 2012 fell on east regions of the ares of lands, mainly agriculturally used, was country and European North that is first of all re- pledged, that is more than 30 times less than lated to the use of deer pastures in the conditions the area of pledged lands in imperial Russia for of northern taiga and forest-tundra. These very 1 January 1914. The modern massif of pledged areas are distinguished with a maximum aver- lands occupies only 1.8% of the area of private age area of one transaction (tab. 5). In southern land ownership, while by the beginning of 1914 semidesert and dry steppe regions of the country this indicator was equal to 60%. For that peri- a considerable area of lands is rented for pastur- od pledged land accounted for 483.6 thousand ing of sheep and cattle (fig. 5). manors or 63.8 million dessiatinas (approxi- Pledge of land plots. In recent years Rus- mately 69.5 million hectares) of land [1]. sia saw an active development of pledging In recent years the largest number of mort- land plots in order to receive a loan, however, gage operations with land plots was registered mortgage operations in Russia have not become in agrarian regions and near large cities of Cen- wide-spread yet, what is proved by a small tral Russia, Volga region, and Siberia which is number of mortgage operations, small area of another proof of the need for development of 104 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 Symbols Share of the area of the area Share of transactions and sale of purchase of land plots in the total area of transactions with land plots, %: 1 – to 1.0; 2 – 1.0-10.0; 3 – 10.0-20.0; 4 – 20.0-30.0; 5 – 30.0-40.0; 6 – 40.0-50.0; than 50.0. 7 – more annual area Average of transactions and sale of land of purchase plots in private, state, and municipal ownership, thousand hectares; 8 – state and municipal lands; 9 – private lands; 10 – to 1.0; – 1.0-10.0; 11 12 – 10.0-25.0; 13 – 25.0-50.0; 14 – 50.0-100.0; than 100.0 15 – more Fig. 3. Average annual area of transactions purchase and sale land plots (2008–2012) Average Fig. 3. Kazmin M.A. 105 - Symbols Share of transactions pur Share chase and sale of land plots in the total number of trans - actions with land plots, %: 1 – to 20; 2 – 20-40; 3 – 40-50; 4 – 50-60; 5 – 60-70; than 70. 6 – more annual number Average of transactions purchase and sale of land plots in private, state, and municipal ownership, thousands: 7 – state and municipal lands; 8 – private lands; 9 – to 1; 10 – 1-5; – 5-10; 11 12 – 10-20; 13 – 20-40; than 40 14 – more Fig. 4. Average annual number of transactions purchase and sale land plots (2008-2012) Average Fig. 4. 106 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 Table 5 Average annual number and area of transactions of rent of land plots in reporting year by Russian economic regions (2008–2012) Area of one Number of transactions Area of transactions transaction Economic regions % of total – thousand % of total – thousand ha rank occupied ha rank occupied Northern 25.6 5.9 - 9 1618.0 7.7 - 4 63.1 Northwestern 21.9 5.1 - 10 69.5 0.3 - 11 3.2 Central 60.0 13.9 - 2 407.2 1.9 - 8 6.8 Volga-Vyatka 21.5 5.0 - 11 148.0 0.7 - 10 6.9 Central Chernozem 29.3 6.8 - 7 439.8 2.1 - 7 15.0 Volga 36.2 8.4 - 5 966.5 4.6 - 6 26.7 North Caucasus 26.5 6.1 - 8 268.4 1.3 - 9 10.1 Ural 58.1 13.5 - 3 1224.5 5.8 - 5 21.1 West Siberian 67.8 15.7 - 1 4576.9 21.8 - 3 67.5 East Siberian 49.5 11.5 - 4 6083.1 29.0 - 1 122.9 Far Eastern 35.0 8.1 - 6 5199.2 24.8 - 2 148.4 TOTAL 4314.4 100.0 21001.1 100.0 48.7 Source: [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. this banking sector in order to ensure financing among subjects of the district pledge was most of agriculture and housing construction. Ac- developed in agrarian areas of chernozem zone cording to data for 2012, more than 80% of total (Lipetsk and Voronezh Oblasts), each of them number of transactions of pledge of land plots had more than 100 thousand hectares mort- were the share of territorial subjects of the Rus- gaged. Among leading regions based on the sian Federation which are part of the Central, pledged area were the Volga Federal District the Siberian, and the Volga Federal Districts. (Penza, Saratov, Samara, Orenburg Oblasts, Belgorod, Lipetsk, Nizhny Novgorod, Samara and the Republic of Tatarstan) and the Siberian Oblasts, Krasnodar, Krasnoyarsk, and Stavropol Federal District (Altai and Krasnoyarsk Krais), Krais were among leading regions based on the that had a total cumulative share of area of land annual number of transactions in 2012, in each mortgage equal to about 85% of the total Rus- of them had the number of mortgage operations sian area of pledged land. that exceeded 5 thousand. Minimum area of pledged lands character- In the majority of regions of modern Russia ises subjects of the North Caucasian Federal rather small areas of lands are pledged in order District, given the fact that while the Republic to receive a loan. Agricultural regions located of Ingushetia and the Chechen Republic had a within steppe and forest-steppe natural zones, small number of mortgage transactions, Stav- and also high-urbanised territories around large ropol Krai shows up, where more than 10 thou- cities are generally among territorial subjects sand hectares were pledged in mortgage opera- of the Russian Federation with the largest area tions in 2012. of pledged lands. This is due to a rather high An important indicator characterising de- liquidity of agricultural land plots with fertile velopment level of land mortgage is the share chernozem soils and suburban housing territo- of pledged lands in the total area of privately ries, which can be sold without any serious com- owned land. Based on this indicator, the lead- plications in case a mortgage loan is not paid er among federal districts of the country is the off. On the other hand, land mortgage is insuf- Central Federal District, where in 2012 this in- ficiently developed in a number of the republics dicator was 4.1%. The Far Eastern Federal Dis- of the North Caucasus and on the most remote trict had minimum area of mortgaged lands in northern territories, where private land owner- private ownership of citizens and legal entities. ship is practically absent (fig. 6). Statistical data confirm that agricultural lands The Central Federal District regions show had a much bigger specific weight compared up, where in 2012 about 42% of all lands pledged to housing territories in the structure of lands country-wide were concentrated (tab. 6). So, pledged in order to receive a mortgage loan. This Kazmin M.A. 107 Symbols area of rented Share in the area of all transactions, %: 1 – to 20; 2 – 20-40; 3 – 40-60; 4 – 60-75; 5 – 75-90; than 90. 6 – more annual area Average of transactions rent thousand year, in reporting hectares: 7 – to 25; 8 – 25-50; 9 – 50-100; 10 – 100-250; – 250-500; 11 12 – 500-1000; than 1000 13 – more Fig. 5. Average annual area of rent land plots in reporting year territorial subjects the Russian Federation from 2008 to 2012 Average Fig. 5. 108 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 Symbols of the area Share of transactions pledge of lands in the total area in private ownership, %: 1 – to 0.1; 2 – 0.1-0.5; 3 – 0.5-1.0; 4 – 1.0-2.0; 5 – 2.0-3.0; than 3.0. 6 – more annual area Average of transactions pledge of lands, thousand hectares: 7 – to 0.5; 8 – 0.5-2.5; 9 – 2.5-5.0; 10 – 5.0-10.0; - 10.0-25.0; 11 than 25.0 12 – more Fig. 6. Average annual area of transactions pledge land plots in territorial subjects the Russian Federation from 2008 to 2012 Average Fig. 6. Kazmin M.A. 109 Table 6 Area of lands pledged in order to receive a mortgage loan in federal districts of Russia (2012) Area Transaction Agricultural of private All pledged lands of pledge pledged lands lands

Federal districts number % of total thousand ha thousand ha % of total % of area private lands average area of one transaction, ha thousand ha % of total % of area pledged lands Central 38881 26.1 24657.6 1017.5 41.6 4.1 26.2 912.6 45.0 89.7 Northwestern 6359 4.3 4874.5 43.4 1.8 0.9 6.8 31.2 1.6 71.9 Southern 30130 20.3 19621.0 241.3 9.9 0.8 8.0 198.0 9.8 82.1 North Caucasian 9809 6.6 4679.2 13.4 0.6 1.2 1.4 8.6 0.4 64.2 Volga 31930 21.4 35781.3 693.7 28.3 1.9 21.7 661.9 32.7 95.4 Ural 7181 4.8 9746.8 84.3 3.4 0.9 11.7 51.1 2.5 60.6 Siberian 21750 14.6 31237.1 340.3 13.9 1.1 15.6 154.2 7.6 45.3 Far Eastern 2892 1.9 2404.6 13.3 0.5 0.6 4.6 8.7 0.4 65.4 TOTAL 148932 100.0 133002.1 2447.2 100.0 1.8 16.4 2026.3 100.0 82.8 Source: [6]. is explained by the fact that norms and rules of regions, having different natural and social and pledge of rural territories are better developed economic conditions. legally. The role of agricultural lands in mort- Evaluating the development of land turnover gage operations increases significantly in agrar- in the country, it should be noted that the initial ian regions of the Volga Federal District where stage, till 2008, was characterised by a gradual their share is more than 90% of the total area of growth of number and area of transactions with pledged lands. In regions of the Siberian and the land plots, which significantly amplified after Ural Federal Districts both agricultural and hous- the economic crisis of 2008. In post-crisis years ing lands are pledged with approximately equal growth rates of the area of transactions were shares in order to receive a mortgage loan. much faster than changes in their number. That Average size of a land plot pledged in bank is confirmed by the fact that by 2012, in com- in territorial subjects of the Russian Federation parison with 2008, annual number of transac- in 2012 was about 16 hectares, moreover, in tions of all operations with land plots increased half of regions of the country its area was less almost twice, and their area – 3.2 times. than 10 hectares. Agricultural regions of the The largest absolute increment of the area of Central and the Volga Federal Districts show transactions during this period was observed in up, where average area of pledged land was the Central and Central Chernozem areas which more than 20 hectares. together accounted for more than half of all increment of the area in the country, unlike regions Conclusion. Analysing modern transforma- of the European North, Eastern Siberia and the tion of land market and its territorial features, it Far East where the area of transactions was should be noted that the foundation of its forma- gradually reducing. This situation is explained tion was laid in the mid 1990s when a necessary by different structure of ownership of land plots standard legislative base for transformation of involved in land market. In the first case transac- land relations, privatisation, and denationalisa- tions with private housing and agricultural lands tion of land plots was created in the country. prevailed, and in the second – transactions with Under the existing laws, regulation of land re- rented state and municipal lands. lations is currently under a joint jurisdiction During the studied period increase in the of state and municipal authorities, which is re- area of transactions with land plots in the coun- flected in specifics of land turnover in Russian try occurred due to market transactions and 110 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 mainly due to purchase and sale of lands by transactions, based on their area, only in several citizens and legal entities. This increase took territorial subjects of the Russian Federation. place in all economic regions, thus the share of Among leaders in absolute increment of the four regions of the European Russia – Central, area of transactions of purchase and sale of pri- Central Chernozem, Volga, and North Cauca- vate lands there are both agrarian regions with sus regions accounted for two-thirds of the area high level of agricultural development (Lip- of the growth. The area of non-market transac- etsk, Oryol, Tambov, Voronezh, Rostov, Sara- tions in the country for this period decreased tov Oblasts, and Krasnodar Krai), and Moscow generally due to reduced rent of state and mu- Oblast where the majority of transactions of this nicipal lands. category fell on purchase and sale of land plots Speaking about the market of land plots, it for individual housing construction. should be noted that it developed most intensely Evaluating the process and modern results of in a number of regions of the European Russia land transformations in the country and its areas, (Central, Northwestern, and Volga-Vyatka eco- it should be noted that now Russia is in the very nomic regions) where the share of transactions beginning of formation of an open civilised land of purchase and sale in the total area of all op- market, which is confirmed by statistical data on erations for the studied period was about 40%. significant regional differences in the structure and Market transactions prevailed over non-market dynamics of processes, related to land turnover.

References

1. Анфимов А.М. Российская деревня в годы первой мировой войны (1914 – февр. 1917 г.). – М., 1962. – 383 с. 2. Государственный (национальный) доклад «О состоянии и использовании земель в Российской Федерации в 2008 году». – М., 2009. 3. Государственный (национальный) доклад «О состоянии и использовании земель в Российской Федерации в 2009 году». – М., 2010. 4. Государственный (национальный) доклад «О состоянии и использовании земель в Российской Федерации в 2010 году». – М., 2011. 5. Государственный (национальный) доклад «О состоянии и использовании земель в Российской Федерации в 2011 году». – М., 2012. 6. Государственный (национальный) доклад «О состоянии и использовании земель в Российской Федерации в 2012 году». – М., 2013. 7. Ивасенко А.Г. Анализ зарубежного опыта земельно-ипотечного кредитования // Российское предпринимательство. – 2008. – № 11. – С.103–106. 8. Казьмин М.А. Развитие земельной ипотеки в регионах России // Государственное управление. Электронный вестник. – 2013. – № 41. – С. 47–56. 9. Леппке О.Б. Земельный рынок: проблемы формирования и регулирования // Экономика сель- скохозяйственных и перерабатывающих предприятий. – 2001. – № 1. – С.10–14. 10. Леппке О.Б. Концептуальные проблемы ипотечного кредитования под залог земель сельскохо- зяйственного назначения // Земельный вестник России. – 2003. – № 1. – С.12–22. Kuznetsova O.V. 111 Kuznetsova O.V. (Moscow) PROBLEMS OF EVALUATION OF FEDERAL INVESTMENT POLICY AS FACTOR OF REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Abstract. Possibilities of evaluation of three directions of federal investment in regions are analysed: by direct federal investments (investments into fixed capital), through investment subsidies to regional budgets and through federal transfers to state corporations and companies. Regional aspects of federal policy on creating favourable conditions for investment activity in regions (special economic zones, tax preferences in east regions, etc.) are detected, possibilities of evaluation of tax, customs and administrative preferences, preferential credit conditions in regions are considered. Key words: federal investment, investments into fixed capital, subsidies, state corporations and companies, tax and customs preferences, special economic zones.

Introduction. Transition of Russia to mar- policy as a factor of social and economic devel- ket economy led to radical changes in nature of opment of regions. The reason for thisis both a influence of the state on social and economic de- constantly changing nature of influence of the velopment both for the country in general, and state on regional development, and a number of for certain regions. Soviet planned economy unresolved methodical questions. One of them had all decisions on social and economic de- is aformalisedevaluation of policy conducted velopment, including concerning placement of by the state in all regions of the country. Many production, building of various infrastructure researches succeed inqualitative descriptionof objects,made by the state. These decisions were mechanisms of state influence on development based on the accounting of those factors which of this or that branch of economy or social are traditionally studied in social and economic sphere in regions, in quantitative evaluation of geography: availabilityof natural resources and the scope of such influence based on individual manpower, existence of infrastructure and pos- cases, but implementable approaches to quan- sibilities for its construction, potential trans- titative evaluation of state’s role in social and port expenses forproduct supply, etc. Market economic development of all regions are rather economy has the vast majority of decisions rarely offered. Such evaluation, definitely, gives made by private investors, and influence of a chance to get a more objective understanding the state on economic development turns from of state’s role in regional development. direct into mainly indirect. Therefore, social This is absolutely true for state investment and economic geography of Russia has a new policy,that means policy of both federal, and re- subject for studying – influence of public au- gional (i.e. subjects of the Russian Federation) thorities on social and economic development authorities. There is no formal definition of the of regions, an evaluation of state’s role as a concept “investment policy”in the Russian nor- factor of regional development. mative legal acts. In fact state investment policy Reflecting new requirements of time, scope means both direct state investment, and creation of scientific researches and training programs of conditions for attraction of private invest- for economic geographers change as well. So, ments to national economy and to regions (by in 1997 the faculty of geography at Lomono- means of the same state investments into infra- sov Moscow State University implemented a structure; various measures of financial support project evaluating business climate in Russian for investors – tax privileges, state guarantees, regions,a considerable attention was paid to soft loans,less administrative barriers, etc.). questions of state regulation of regional devel- This article discusses opportunities and opment [3]. Training programs of the depart- problems of quantitative evaluation of the fed- ment of economic and social geography of eral investment policy conducted in regions. At Russia include courses dealing with regional that we consider only those components of this policy, territorial planning, investment com- policy which have obvious differentiation over plex, and a number of other issues. the territory of the country (that is important for At the same time, despite an already con- economic geographers and regionalists). siderable timethat passed since the beginning of market transformations in Russia, there are Evaluation of different forms of federal still a lot of gaps in questions of studying state investment in regions. The first task to be 112 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 solved in the analysis of both federal, and re- nesses and the volume of investments not ob- gional investment policy is a correct delinea- served by direct statistical methods. At that whi- tion of all components of this policy, to avoid lethe absence of the first (investments of small exclusion of important activities of federal businesses) is indicated in all statistics collec- and regional authorities. Allocation of federal tions, the absence of the second is not always in- investments to regions matters most in terms dicated. So, for example, “Russian regions” and of federal investment policy. Distribution of statistics collection”Investments in Russia”give federal money over the Russian territory is the same data, but the absence of investments very uneven, new points of growth are obvi- which are not observed by direct statistical meth- ously formed on the map only thanks to fed- ods is indicated only in “Investments in Russia”. eral investments (such as Vladivostok, Sochi, It is possible to consider investment of small Kazan). On the contrary, measures of federal business in calculations– Rosstat publishes rele- policy aimed at creation of conditions for in- vant data, but much more investments “are lost” vestment activity are mainly uniform all over due to investments which are not observed by the country, though there are some exceptions. direct statistical methods(tab. 1). As we see, in It would seem that federal investments recent years statistics of funding sources of in- should make everything very simple – there is vestments into fixed capital has not considered a statistics of Rosstat on investments into fixed nearly a quarter of the volume of investments, at capital by subjects of Federation. However,in that 20% or one-fifth of all investments are not reality the situation is much more difficult. It is observed by direct statistical methods. possible to identify three vehicles of federal in- Thus, it is possible to calculate volumes of vestment in regions. The first one are federal in- federal investments in regionsbased on Rosstat vestments that we will call direct – funds that go data, only proceeding from the assumption that directly from the federal budget to the facilities the share of the investments which are not ob- in regions1. These funds are reflected in statistics served by direct statistical methods in all invest- of Rosstat as investments into fixed capital, their ments is the same for different funding sources source is the federal budget. However, Rosstat and all subjects of Federation. It is still an open does not publish data on volumes of federal in- question – why Rosstat does not publish data on vestments by regions, but publishes data on to- the volumes of investment into fixed capital at tal volumes of investments into fixed capital and the expense of funds of the federal budget by the structure of investments into fixed capital by subjects of Federation, and only publishes data funding sources. Such data is provided in differ- on the structure of investments. Most likely, this ent editions of Rosstat – in annual collections is a reflection of a general situation with non- “Russian regions. Socio-economic indices”, in transparent distribution of federal money over monthly reports “Economic and social situation the territory of the country. of Russia” with operational data, and in a num- It is possible to get an idea about total ber of others. However, data on the structure of amounts of investments from the federal bud- investments is provided excluding small busi- get on the basis of budgetary reports published

Table 1 Investments into fixed capital by different set of considered enterprises Indicator 2010 2011 2012 2013 (1) Total investments into fixed capital, billion roubles. 9152.1 11035.7 12568.8 13255.5 (2) The same excluding small businesses investments not 6625.0 8445.2 9567.9 9493,4 observed by direct statistical methods, billion roubles. (2) to (1), % 72.4 76.5 76.1 71.6 Share of federal budget in (2), % 10.0 10.1 9.6 9.8 (3) Investments of small businesses into fixed capital, billion n/a 431.6 521.5 n/a roubles. (3) to (1), % n/a 3.9 4.1 n/a (4) Investments of small businesses into fixed capital excluding 258.4 282.0 364.5 388.5 micro-businesses, billion roubles. (4) to (1), % 2.8 2.6 2.9 2.9 Source: created by the author based on Rosstat data.

1 Similar to the term “direct expenditures” proposed in [5]. Kuznetsova O.V. 113 Table 2 Federal expenditures on investments Indicators 2010 2011 2012 2013 Expenditures, billion roubles Total 10117.5 10925.6 12895.0 13342.9 Increase in cost of fixed assets 1091.7 1248.8 1244.4 1338.9 Increase in value of stocks and other forms of equity 330.4 409.8 505.1 314.9 participation Non-repayable transfers to organisations, except for state 363.4 484.3 526.1 524.7 and municipal Subsidies (income of consolidated budgets of territorial 415.0 514.2 573.8 517.6 subjects of the Russian Federation) * Structure of expenditures, % Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Increase in cost of fixed assets 10.8 11.4 9.7 10.0 Increase in value of stocks and other forms of equity 3.3 3.8 3.9 2.4 participation Non-repayable transfers to organisations, except for state 3.6 4.4 4.1 3.9 and municipal Subsidies (income of consolidated budgets of territorial 4.1 4.7 4.4 3.9 subjects of the Russian Federation) * * subsidies are not reflected as a separate line in COSPA, but these data are present in reporting on income of consolidated regional budgets. Source: created by the author based on Federal Treasury data.

in open access by theRussian Federal Treasury. eral investments and are not reflected as those These reports include data not only on a wide- in reporting, but in fact they are and should be spread functional classification of expenditures, considered in the analysis of federal invest- but also on classification of operations of sector ment support for regions. Subsidies to regional of public administration (COSPA) where expen- budgets make about two-fifthsof the volume of ditures are grouped depending on their econom- expenditures on increase in cost of fixed assets, ic contents (tab. 2). and it is a significant amount (tab. 2). Direct federal investments (investments into Data on volumes of subsidies from the fed- fixed capital at Rosstat or increase in cost of eral budget by all regions are present in the fixed assets at Federal Treasury) is, as already reporting on performance of consolidated bud- mentioned above, a vehicle of federal invest- gets of territorial subjects of the Russian Fed- ment into regions. The second vehicle accounts eration which are published in open access on for the majority of subsidies to budgets of sub- the official site of the Federal Treasury. Strictly jects of Federation. The matter is that according speaking, not all subsidies become investments to the Budgetary code of the Russian Federation (but their smaller part), and statistics allows (article 79.1), budgetary investments from the a more detailed approach to the analysis and federal budget can be carried out only into ob- analysis by different types of subsidies. It is a jects which are (or will be after their creation) different matter that it is not always possible to in federal property. Direct federal investments define, whether subsidies are spent on operat- into objects of regional or municipal property ing or capital expenditures (an example of this are forbidden, though in terms of federal sup- are subsidies for support for small and medium port for social and economic development of re- business). But in general subsidies to regional gions it is, certainly,necessary to invest federal budgets are the most open part of federal invest- funds into construction (or repair) of regional or ment into regions. municipal objects (schools, hospitals, etc.). This The third vehicle of federal investment in contradiction is settled with the help of subsi- regions are transfers from the federal budget to dies – target investment transfers to subordinate the organisations. This vehicle emerged thanks budgets2. Formally such subsidies are not fed- to the same logic that created subsidies to re-

2 About the place of subsidies in the interbudgetary relations, their advantages and disadvantages as a type of interbudgetary transfer please see [1.4]. 114 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 gional budgets, the scope of money distributed ects of the company, though JSC RZhD is 100% over the territory of the country is also approxi- federally owned (tab. 3). Therefore, investment mately the same(tab. 2). Funds of this direction policy of state corporations and state companies of federal investment are reflected, first, in the in general can hardly be considered straightfor- article “increase in value of stocks and other wardly as federal investment policy. But federal forms of equity participation”. It includes sub- transfers to such structures for specific projects sidies for capital investments to state unitary en- definitely should be considered. terprises, state-funded and state autonomous institutions. Second, in the article “non-repayable Regional aspects of federal policy on cre- transfers to organisations, except for state and ating favourable conditions for investment municipal”. But this article includes subsidies activity. Activities of federal authorities on for operating purposes, subsidies to state cor- formation of investment climate in the country porations (companies), including in the form of are various, however, if we exclude measures of asset contribution. federal policy connected with federal investment In other words, these are federal investments that we already analysed, there will be just sev- which are not reflected in the reporting as in- eral more measures with an expressed regional vestments, but are carried out through various binding. The majority of federal decisions influ- state corporations and companies. These include encing investment conditions is accepted for the often discussed within a regional perspective- whole country, though consequences of these JSC Osobye ekonomicheskiye zony, Olymp- decisions may be differentin different regions. stroy State corporation, JSC Russian Railways It is possible to evaluate so-called “regional (RZhD), and a number of others. Of course, consequences of not regional decisions” about there is no summary reporting on this direction which L.V. Smirnyagin [2] wrotemany years of federal investment into regions, it is possible ago, however, it is a very complex challenge. only to trace laboriously decisions made on the Federal authorities can create additional con- federal budget (if they have a regional binding) ditions for attracting investors to regions, apart and data of state corporations and companies. from federal investment into infrastructure, by It is also important to remember that invest- granting customs and tax privileges, by intro- ments of state corporations and especially ducingpreferential crediting (including granting state companies (or funds allocated for credits state guarantees on credits), by implementing to business as in case of Vnesheconombank) measures on decreasing administrative barriers. consist not only of transfers from the federal Customs, tax and administrative prefer- budget, but also of the money they earned. And ences to investors, budgetary investments into investment programs of state companies are re- infrastructure are combined in special economic sult of decisions of both federal authorities, and zones (SEZ) created by federal authorities (spe- management of these companies. For example, cific features of functioning and development according to JSC RZhD, only 20–30% ofthe to- of SEZ are considered in details in [1]). The tal amount of capital investments of the compa- Resolution of the Government of the Russian ny are allocated to the projects connected with Federation of 10 June 2013 No. 491 “On the performance of orders of the Government of the approval of Rules of assessment of efficiency Russian Federation, and the rest are”own” proj- of functioning of special economic zones”3 is

Table 3 Capital investments of JSC Russian Railways (billion roubles VAT exclusive) Indicator 2010 2011 2012 2013 (plan) (1) Total 317.4 395.4 480.1 467.5 (2) Projects connected with performance of orders 97.1 84.1 96.6 96.7 of the Government of the Russian Federation (2) to (1), % 30.6 21.3 20.1 20.7 «Own»projects of JSC RZhD 220.3 311.3 383.5 370.8 Source: created by the author based on JSC RZhD.

3 This refers to OEZ created under the federal law “On special economic zones in the Russian Federation” i.e. this resolution does not apply to OEZ in Kaliningrad and Magadan Oblasts, for each of them a separate federal law was adopted. Earlier there was a resolution with the same name of 15 August 2012 No. 833. Kuznetsova O.V. 115 Table 4 Scope of state support for special economic zones (SEZ), billion roubles Volume Volume of budgetary funds** of tax Special economic zones* on SEZ infrastructure and customs privileges from SEZ from SEZ 2012 2012 creation creation Industrial and production SEZ, including 4.17 27.03 1.32 5.63 in the Republic of Tatarstan 3.19 18.67 0.49 2.81 in Lipetsk Oblast 0.37 7.62 0.83 2.82 Technology development SEZ, including 7.21 48.72 0.24 0.84 in St.Petersburg 0.78 7.13 0.05 0.05 in Moscow 3.88 20.04 0.05 0.14 in Moscow Oblast 0.67 10.16 0.04 0.09 in Tomsk 1.88 11.40 0.09 0.55 Tourist and recreational SEZ, including 2.20 10.50 0.00 0.01 in Altai Krai 0.59 3.97 0.00 0.01 in Altai Republic 0.97 2.54 0.00 0.00 in the Republic of Buryatia 0.65 3.86 0.00 0.00 in Irkutsk Oblast 0.00 0.11 0.00 0.00 Port SEZ 0.01 0.06 0.00 0.00 Total 13.60 86.31 1.56 6.47 * For separate SEZ we provide data only on SEZ created in 2005–2007. ** Funds from federal, regional, and local budgets. Separate data on the federal budget are not provided. Source: data of the Ministry of Economic Development of the Russian Federation. important from the point of view of quantitative customsprivileges are published by the Federal evaluation of the scope of state support for SEZ Customs Service (in annual collections “Cus- residents. According to these Rules a number toms Service of the Russian Federation”). Cus- of indicators has to be published by SEZ, includ- toms privileges in Kaliningrad Oblast (tab. 5) ing the volume of tax and customs privileges which are comparable to certain directions used by SEZ residents as well as the volume of of federal investment are, of course, most sig- budgetary investments into SEZ infrastructure. nificant. Compare: in 2012 income tax privileg- And this requirement is fulfilled: at the end of es for SEZ residents in Kaliningrad Oblastwere September 2013 the Ministry of Economic De- 2.85 billion roubles, and in Magadan Oblast – velopment of the Russian Federation published 69.5 million roubles. Table 5 contains data on the Report on results of functioning of special production sharing agreements which are con- economic zones for 2012 and from the beginning sidered to be special taxation treatment. of functioning of SEZ. Currently scope of tax Scope of tax privileges is most likely to be and customs privileges provided to SEZ resi- reflected in the reporting of the Federal Tax dents is rather small (table 4), thus differentia- Service beginning with 2014under the federal tion by SEZ is enormous. The majority of vol- law on tax privileges for investors in the east ume of tax and customs privileges used by SEZ of the country4 which came into force on 1 Jan- residents is the share of industrial and produc- uary 2014. Since it is a new law, we will tell tion zones created in 2005. about it in more detail. This law is valid for the Scope of tax privileges received by SEZ Far EasternFederal District, and also regions residents, including SEZ in the Kaliningrad and of Eastern Siberia – the Republic of Buryatia, Magadan Oblastsis possible to evaluate also Tyva Republic, and the Republic of Khakassia, thanks to the Federal Tax Service which pub- Krasnoyarsk Krai and Zabaykalsky Krai, Ir- lishes in open access reports on tax base and kutsk Oblast. It deals with privileges on income structure of charges on different taxes by sub- taxes and mining for producers, implementing jects of Federation (form No. 5). And scope of investment projects that meet certain require-

4 The federal law of 30 September 2013 No. 267-FZ “On making changes in parts one and two of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation in the part of encouraging implementation of regional investment projects within Far Eastern federal district and individual constituent units of the Russian Federation”. 116 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 Table 5 Amounts of customs privileges, billion roubles Indicator 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total 315.4 436.2 475.2 450.3 SEZ in Magadan Oblast 106.3 136.1 149.9 129.0 SEZ in Kaliningrad Oblast n/a n/a 3.7 4.0 Production sharing agreements 126.9 180.4 182.2 182.1 Source: data of the Federal Customs Service. ments. It should beemphasised that tax privi- Oblast the volume of capital investments has to leges introduced in eastern regions are only for make not less than 150 million roubles, and all production of goods, i.e. investment projects in of it has to be carried out within 3 years. As we services sector or construction of infrastructure see, requirements to minimum volumes of capi- are not subject to preferential taxation. Almost tal investments at which an investor can receive any production of goods is welcomed – only the tax privileges in east regions may consideredto following categories are not subject to tax privi- be the softest. However, and it is an important leges: production and processing of oil, natural feature of privileges in the east of the country, gas, gas condensate, services on transportation the minimum volume of investments can be in- of oil, oil products, gas, gas condensate; produc- creased by the law of a subject of Federation, tion of excise goods (except for cars and mo- as well as additional requirements to invest- torcycles); activity with 0% income tax rate. ment projects can be introduced. For example, Thus, tax privileges do not apply to productions regional authorities can make a decision that an which successfully develop without additional investor has to invest not less than 150 million state support (oil and gas complex) or are harm- roubles and only in certain branches. ful (production of excise goods such as alcohol Participants of regional investment projects and tobacco). Similar approach is realised in the in east regions enjoy federal rate of income tax legislation on SEZ. of 0%. Regional rate of income tax cannot be Requirements to regional investment proj- more than 10% during the first 5 tax periods and ects in the east of the country are also in many cannot be less than 10% during the next 5 tax respects borrowed from the legislation on SEZ, periods. In other words, for regional investment but with some modifications. These require- projects in the Far East within the first 5 years ments are connected, first, with creation of regional rate of income tax can make from 0 to obstacles to prevent east regions from trans- 10%, within the next 5 years – from 10 to 18%, forming into offshores (i.e. territories where but it is up to authorities of subjects of Federa- businessmen register their businesses for receiv- tion to decide in their lawswhat those rates will ing tax privileges, but where they do not con- be. It is to be recalled that today general rate duct actual activity) and/or shifting profit from of income tax in Russia makes 20%, and the the territory of regions. In particular, 90% of tax at the rate of 2% is paid to the federal bud- income of a participant of a regional investment get, and the tax at the rate of 18% is paid to project have to bethe income from realisation of regional budgets. Regional authorities all over goods made as the result of implementation of the country have the right to provide tax privi- this project. Second, requirements to regional leges, reducing regional rate of the tax, but not investment projects applying for tax privileges below 13.5%. are connected with implementation of a mini- Without going into detail, it should be stated, mum volume of capital investments. It has to that in general investors in the Far East are of- be not less than 50 million roubles if these in- fered taxation conditions comparable to taxation vestments are implemented within no more than conditions in special economic zones, but scope 3 years and not less than 500 million roubles if of tax privileges is in many respects put into de- these investments are implemented within no pendence on decisions of regional authorities. more than 5 years. Compare: residents of indus- The first relevant laws were adopted in Yaku- trial and production SEZ have to carry out capi- tia, Khabarovsk Krai, Magadan Oblastthat shall tal investments in the amount not less than 120 serve case studies. All three regions imposed no million roubles, out of it not less than 40 million additional requirements to regional investment roubles – within 3 years. In SEZ in Kaliningrad projects, but lowered income taxrates in dif- Kuznetsova O.V. 117 ferent ways.Yakutia and Khabarovsk Krai – to Federal District”. Such state guarantees were the greatest possible degree – to 0% within the really provided, their volumes by specific proj- first 5 years and to 10% within the next 5 years. ects were specified in orders of the Government And Magadan Oblast – only to 9% for the first of the Russian Federation which are available 5 years and to 13.5% for the next 5 years. in databases of normative legal acts (“Consul- So, today granting of tax privileges by the tantPlus”, etc.). It is a different matter that state federal authorities in such territories is connect- guarantees at successful implementation of an ed with special economic zones and the East of investment project are funds that remain in the the country, granting of customs privileges – so federal budget, therefore, it is not quite right to far only with SEZ. Perhaps, in the near future compare them to federal investments or funds there will be also a federal law “On territories not received by the federal budget as the result of advancing social and economic development of granting tax or customs privileges. and other measures of state support for regions Other federal decisions on creating preferen- of the Far East”. The bill provides for further ex- tial terms of crediting have branch character (i.e. pansion of tax privileges for investors in the Far are adopted to support separate branches or even East, granting customs privileges to them, and enterprises). The majority of these decisions can significant decrease in administrative barriers. be connected with specific regions where the The main methodical problem of quantita- supported enterprises are located, but, as well tive evaluation of the scope of federal support as in case of the analysis of investment strategy for investors by means of tax privileges is the of state corporations and companies, it requires problem of separating consequences of federal laborious work. Actually, todaya quantitative and regional decisions. On the one hand, fed- evaluation of federal measures for creation eral legislation both on SEZ, and on regional in- of preferential terms of crediting by regions is vestment projects in the east of the country are not available for common use. federal initiatives, basic decision on granting tax Along with tax and customs privileges, cre- privileges is federal. Therefore, it is possible to ation of preferential terms of crediting, we have be guided by the above-given data. On the other already mentioned administrative preferences to hand, in both cases parameters of tax privileges investors above, which means creation of sys- depend on regional authorities as well. Situation tem of “one window”, reduced terms for con- in east regions of the country has already been ciliation procedures, less control over activity described, and in SEZ local decisions can extend of the enterprises. Unfortunately, so far this the period of validity of privileges, introduce component of federal investment policy cannot privileges which are not provided for in federal be subject to evaluation by regions at all. legislation on transport tax, extend privileges on income tax. That is not to say that the problem Conclusion. Therefore, as this article of separating consequences of federal and re- shows, there is a two-fold situation with quan- gional decisions is absolutely insoluble – com- titative evaluation of federal investment policy parisons of regional normative legal acts and in regions. On the one hand, the data currently data on tax base and structure of charges on sep- published by various federal ministries and de- arate taxes of the Federal Tax Service can serve partments allow to carry out an evaluation of a basis for an approximate evaluation of contri- several directions of such policy by subjects of bution of regional authorities to tax privileges. Federation: direct federal investments (though But this is already a more complex challenge. with a certain share of approximation); federal Speaking about federal measures for cre- investments carried out through subsidies to ation of special credit conditions for investors, regional budgets; customs and tax privileges the only example of a decision where a specific provided. Rather detailed information is avail- region is named is the Resolution of the Gov- able on special economic zones. On the other ernment of the Russian Federation of 4 May hand, evaluation of a number of components 2011 No. 338 “On granting in 2011–2013 state of federal investment policy in regions is very guarantees of the Russian Federation on cred- difficult or at all impossible. So, information its of legal entities registered and carrying out on a one more direction of federal investment primary authorised activity withinthe North in regions – through state corporations and Caucasus Federal District on implementation of companies – requires gathering and processing investment projects withinthe North Caucasus of a large amount of data. Actually, there is no 118 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 regional information on creation of preferential depends, of course, on federal ministries and terms of crediting in regions, there are no tech- departments. At the same time even those data niques of evaluation of the role of administra- which are available today, are not analysedin tive preferences. fullin scientific researches, and expansion of Increase of availability of information on the circle of used statistical data depends di- regional aspects of federal investment policy rectly on experts.

References

1. Кузнецова О.В. Региональная политика России: 20 лет реформ и новые возможности. – М.: Кн. дом «ЛИБРОКОМ», 2013. – 392 с. 2. Смирнягин Л.В. Оценка региональных последствий деятельности федерального правительства (региональная экспертиза) // Смирнягин Л.В. Общественная география. Федерализм. Региона- лизм: Публикации 1989–2005 гг. – М.: КомКнига, 2005. – С. 36–48. 3. Предпринимательский климат регионов России. География России для инвесторов и предпри- нимателей. Под ред. А.М. Лаврова, В.Е. Шувалова и др. – М.: Начала-ПРЕСС, 1997. – 328 с. 4. Проблемы межбюджетных отношений в России / [Мамедов А. А. и др.]. – М.: Изд-во Ин-та Гай- дара, 2012. – 188 с. 5. Федеральный бюджет и регионы: опыт анализа финансовых потоков / Моск. Центр Ин-та «Вос- ток-Запад». – М.: Диалог-МГУ, 1999. – 235 с.

Makhrova A.G., Kirillov P.L. (Moscow) ’HOUSING DIMENSION’ OF CONTEMPORARY URBANISATION IN RUSSIA1

Abstract. The article covers features of contemporary urbanisation in Russia. Features of stadial urbanisation are revealed based on the analysis of dynamics of population growth and migration of main, mid-size, and small urban settlements. Special attention is paid to infrastructural facilities of the housing stock in urban areas of different size and status as a primary indicator of real urbanisation rate and its reflection of the way of life of the inhabitants of Russian urban settlements. Changes in new housing construction and housing per capita rates are described in terms of residential preferences. Extent of seasonal dacha housing and mid-term working migrations and population pulsation within urban and rural areas are studied. Key words: urbanisation; main, mid-size, and small urban settlements (cities and towns); housing stock; close and remote dachas; population pulsation.

Introduction. During the post-Soviet period was especially typical for studies of Soviet pe- Russian urban settlements went through a dif- riod because of lack of statistics on other indica- ficult way of adaptation to market and global tors [8, 25, 28]. Modern scientists significantly economy in terms of radical changes of institu- expanded the area of researches due to inclusion tional and social and economic conditions and of quite a long list of socio-economic indices simultaneous transition to new cycles and stages both on all urban settlements of the country, of development. As the result of a combination and on large cities [2, 3, 4, 20, 21, etc.] This of features both inherited from the Soviet pe- work analyses dynamics of population size and riod, and acquired in the course of Post-Soviet migratory mobility of population and pays spe- transformations a new model of contemporary cial attention to how indicators of the housing Russian urbanisation is formed which requires sphere reflect specifics of contemporary Russian in-depth studying of different forms and types urbanisation, that, as a rule, remains beyond the of its manifestations. scope of the majority of conducted researches. Traditionally main attention in the analysis Dynamics of population size and migra- of features of Russian urbanisation is paid to tory movement of population: stage of urbanisa- consideration of dynamics of population in ur- tion development. An important feature of the ban settlements of different size and status that Russian urbanisation model inherited from the

1 Research is executed at the expense of the grant of the Russian scientific fund (project No. 14-18-00083 “Geog- raphy of recurrent mobility of population in rural and urban continuum”) of the Institute of geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Makhrova A.G., Kirillov P.L. 119 Soviet period is concentration of population in of them from the lower part of the list became big cities when, having gained a certain critical small urban settlements, and most dynamically population size, cities rapidly increased their growing centres from the top part of the list population [15]. Already by the mid 20thcen- became main urban settlements. In general the tury Russia in its modern borders (and the So- period since the beginning of the 2000s can be viet Union in general) became the territory of characterised as a return to a large urban settle- big cities: more than half of urban population ment stage of development (fig. 1a). of the country lived in centres of population Analysis of dynamics of migratory move- size with more than 100 thousand residents. At ment of population shows that 1991, when main that urban settlements with a smaller population urban settlements showed migratory outflow of size, though they still dominated quantitatively, population, was a “rebound” to crisis deurban- reduced their share in population. During the isation [23]. But by 1995 main centres regained post-Soviet period the tendency of concentra- their attractiveness to migrants though small tion of population in the centres remained, but towns still remained leaders. By 2000 urban was combined with a growth of small towns, settlements lined up in an order, typical for large their increase in number and population size is urban settlement stage when main centres are at mainly related to transition to this group of de- the forefront, and small towns are outsiders. In populating mid-size urban settlements. 2005, after population census of 2002, migratory Among big cities, as well as during the Sovi- increase in population in mid-size or intermediate et period, the largest centres still had the fastest urban settlements became larger, than in main, population growth rates. And, as T.G. Nefedo- and small urban settlements started to experience va’s and A.I. Treyvish’s researches showed, the outflow of population. Formally this can be in- critical amount of 250 thousand people became terpreted as the beginning of polarising U-turn even more expressed [23]. If cities with such stage. However, since 2010 given the results of population are identified as main, and centres last population census, main centres once again with population size of less than 50 thousand became most attractive to migrants (fig. 1b). people – as small, the analysis of three aggre- This sequence of urbanisation stages is quite gated groups (main, mid-size or intermediate, difficult to explain based on “correct” evolution small) makes it possible to study more distinctly of urban settlements with different groups of changes in dynamics of their growth during the population size in a way it is interpreted by the Post-Soviet period. theory of differential urbanisation, as in Russia If population censuses (1989, 2002, 2010) are “rebounds” to other stages are accompanied by taken as reference points, the analysis of popula- skipping of separate stages, and application of tion growth rates by these three allocated groups different techniques shows different sequences shows that, as well as during the Soviet period, of passing of separate stages. These illogical large urban settlement stage of urbanisation was changes of trends which do not comply with observed. But if we use five-year intervals for the modifications of classical schemes connected first decade of the Post-Soviet period, we can see only with impact of wars and other cataclysms that mid-size urban settlements were leaders in are explained, apparently, by imperfection and population growth rates, and the crisis of the ear- changes in techniques of the record of migrants ly 1990s together with natural population decline in Post-Soviet time. resulted in reduction of population size of main Infrastructural facilities of housing stock urban settlements. In general it allows to speak and way of life of citizens. One more important about the beginning of polarising U-turn stage, inherited feature of the Russian urbanisation is signs of which were already observed at the end a special semi-urban-semi-rural way of life of of the Soviet period [22]. population. Its formation is connected with a However, by the end of the 1990s main urban large number of new urban settlements which settlements began to grow, and small ones – to emerged as appendages of industrial enterprises, decrease, and since the beginning of the 2000s and with abundance of small urban settlements main centres regained leading positions which representing transitional type of settlements breaks classical schemes of stadial development based on the nature of building and way of life of urbanisation processes [29]. At that mid-size of population and also with existence even in centres turned out to be urban settlements ex- large urban settlements of massifs of one-story periencing maximum decline in population, part houses of farmstead type on the outskirts [31]. 120 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015

1,8 6,8 main main mid-size mid-size small small 1,2 4,5

0,6 2,3 %

0, 0,0

-0,6 -2,3

-1,2 -4,5 1991-1995 1995-2000 2000-2005 2005-2011 1991 1995 2000 2005 2011

Fig. 1a. Dynamics of average annual rates Fig. 1b. Dynamics of migration growth / decline of growth / decline in population of the Russian in population of the Russian Federation Federation in urban settlements of different size, % in urban settlements of different size, %

Quantitatively this way of life can be evaluated general there is quite an expected dependence based on availability of separate types of mu- between the level of availability of different nicipal infrastructure for the housing stock. types of municipal infrastructure and the size During the Post-Soviet period all statisti- of the urban settlement: the larger urban settle- cally backed-up indicators – specific weight of ment is, the more comfortable it is. Mid-size coverage of cold and hot water supply, bathtubs and small urban settlements, as twenty years (shower), heating, sewerage – had a positive dy- ago, remain centres with the least comfortable namics both for all Russian urban settlements, housing stock, and Moscow, St. Petersburg, and and by centres of different groups of population regional capitals have the best infrastructurally size and status (tab. 1). A powerful contribu- equipped housing. tion to this growth was made by “revolution” in Among indicators considered the most im- municipal services when along with centralised portant indicator which most fully character- systems of engineering infrastructure, as it was ises not only quality of housing, but also way in the Soviet period, autonomous support sys- of life of population, is availability of sewerage. tems were actively introduced (first of all in the In Russia this, according to T.G. Nefedova and sector of private houses which, as it was already A.I. Treyvish, indicator of “household urbanisa- noted, is present in nearly all urban settlements). tion” very accurately marks the border between Nevertheless, despite growth of values of urban and village settlements [23]. So, as of the these indicators, Russian urban settlements are end of 2012 only 5% of rural settlements and still characterised with a rather low infrastruc- 98% of urban settlements were provided with tural comfort of housing. Housing stock is most the sewerage [26]. secured with heating, sewerage, and cold water: Thus in urban settlements sewerage cov- all three indicators exceed 90% (tab. 1). Degree erage level of housing stock is lower, and the of availability of bathtubs (showers) and hot availability level of 90% serves a boundary water is approximately 10 percent lower. In separating urban settlements with a population

Table 1 Dynamics of different infrastructural facilities of housing stock, % Main urban Mid-size Small All urban Availabilityof settlements urban settlements urban settlements settlements 1991 2011 1991 2011 1991 2011 1991 2011 cold water 93.4 95.7 83.2 89.1 65.8 76.4 86.5 90.9 hot water 83.8 89.9 68.3 79.9 46.8 62.4 74.5 83.1 heating 94.0 96.8 85.2 91.8 68.2 82.1 87.7 93.2 bathtub (shower) 87.7 89.7 75.8 80.7 56.6 65.6 79.8 83.5 sewerage 91.9 94.5 81.8 87.1 62.0 73.4 84.4 89.2 Created based on authors’ calculations based on Multistat data. Makhrova A.G., Kirillov P.L. 121 size over 250 thousand people from mid-size ments with sewerage coverage level less than and small though among urban settlements of all 20% which are simply rural areas (fig. 2). groups of population size there are centres with In general more than a third of Russian ur- different level of sewerage coverage of housing ban settlements are “sub-urban settlements” stock (tab. 2). However, there are no main cen- (70-90% of housing are secured with sewer- tres in which this indicator would fall lower than age), “half-urban settlements” (90–99% of 70% though only 10% of them represent urban housing are secured with sewerage) and either settlements of Western type or “true” urban set- urban or rural settlements (50–70% of hous- tlements in which almost all housing (more than ing are secured with sewerage) each account 99%) has water disposal. More than half of rep- for 20% of centres. The share of “true” urban resentatives of this group are urban settlements, settlements makes less than 10% (over 99% of typical for Russian reality, with a small share of housing are secured with sewerage), but typi- private housing and level of availability of sew- cal rural settlements account for just a little erage from 90 to 99% (“half-urban settlement” more than 10% (fig. 3a). Thus, domination of according to T.G. Nefedova) [20]. At that a third urban settlement centres, which do not corre- of main urban settlements of the country has spond to the qualification of “true” or typical sewerage coverage level of only 70–90%, and West European urban settlements based on the it is already difficult to classify such settlements criterion of “household urbanisation”, is obvi- as urban settlement according to standards of ous, but such urban settlements define a visual developed countries; T.G. Nefedova calls them imagery or associative landscape of a typical “sub-urban settlements” [20]. Russian urban settlement. Even the number of Among mid-size urban settlements the share urban settlements, common in Russia, with a of these “sub-urban settlements” reaches already small share of private housing and sewerage half of all centres, and “half-urban settlements” availability level from 90 to 99% is extremely make only about 30%. Besides, there are urban small, and they actually represent rare centres settlements in which only 50–70% of housing in urban settlement of the country. are secured with water disposal, and the specific However, the majority of population (over weight of these either urban or rural settlements 60%) lives in “true” urban settlements and exceeds the share of “true” urban settlements. half-urban settlements, common in Russia, Small urban settlements, in which the share of way of life and accommodation conditions “half- and sub-urban settlements” makes 60%, there meet urban settlement standards or are are even less urban based on sewerage availabil- close to them (fig. 3b). But 40% of population ity level. Thus a fifth of these centres is presented in all other sub- and pseudo-urban settlements by an unclear category of settlements represent- is a very alarming figure showing the potential ing “rural urban settlements” where this indicator of “demographic” compression of urban settle- falls already to 20–50%, and also urban settlements of the country, their inhabitants “vote”

60,0

more than 99% from 90 to 99% from 70 to 90% from 50 to 70% from 20 to 50% less than 20%

45,0

% 30,0

15,0

0,0 Main urban settlements Mid-size urban settlements Small urban settlements All urban settlements

Fig. 2. Structure of distribution of urban settlements of different groups of population size based on sewerage coverage level of housing stock, 2011 122 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015

moremore than than 99% 99% 1,7 1,7 7,4 7,4 moremore than than 99% 99% 12,312,3 fromfrom 90 to 90 99% to 99% 2,0 2,00,1 0,1 7,0 7,0 fromfrom 90 to 90 99% to 99% fromfrom 70 to 70 90% to 90% 19,719,7 fromfrom 70 to 70 90% to 90% fromfrom 50 to 50 70% to 70% 20,820,8 fromfrom 50 to 50 70% to 70% fromfrom 20 to 20 50% to 50% fromfrom 20 to 20 50% to 50% lessless than than 20% 20% lessless than than 20% 20% 22,222,2 31,031,0

40,240,2 35,635,6 а. by number of urban settlements b. by population size Fig. 3. Structure of distribution of urban settlements based on sewerage coverage level of housing stock, 2011

against accommodation conditions in those exceed the level of 1991 and moved from the settlements by leaving them. middle of ranking of urban settlements based Housing construction and per capita hous- on new supply of housing per capita to the first ing: new preferences in settlement. Dynamics hundred. But by the mid 2000s absolute and of housing construction by urban settlements per capita volumes of new supply of housing in of different groups of population size can also Moscow began to decrease due to lack of build- serve a tool for studying preferences of Russians ing sites, housing construction moved to Mos- while choosing places of residence. In planned cow Oblast [1]. By this time the improvement economy and under propiska regime (registra- of economic situation in the country activated tion) new supply of housing per capita was quite housing construction not only in the capital and poorly differentiated between urban settlements its suburbs, but in “million plus urban settle- that is well reflected by indicators of 1991 which ments” and “half-million urban settlements”, varied in the range from 0.3 to 0.35 sq.m/per and also in regional centres. By 2011 this trend capita. Given the lack of construction materials spread to not only the main, but also mid-size and their limited allocation through specialised urban settlements; small urban settlements be- structures of State Planning Committees and came outsiders, where new supply of housing ministries, urban settlements in which large eco- still did not reach indicators of the end of the nomic projects connected with development of Soviet period (tab. 2). new resources, development of military indus- With quite a low volume of new supply of trial complex, construction of large industrial housing the considerable part of urban settle- enterprises, etc. were implemented were leaders ments was not strongly differentiated on this in new housing construction. indicator: almost in 80% of urban settlements it During transition to the market the structure was less than 0.5 sq.m/per capita, exceeding 1 of leaders changed significantly and repeatedly. sq.m/per capita only in 6% of centres. In general By the mid 1990s the crisis saw a decline in the structure of leading urban settlements and housing construction, levelling differences be- outsiders clearly demonstrates modern priori- tween urban settlements even more and having ties of Russians in choosing places of residence, made quite a diverse group of small and mid- reflecting the process of concentration of popu- size urban settlements with a large share of indi- lation in a rather small group of “selected” cen- vidual private housing built by population. tres: largest urban settlements and their agglom- A prototype of new configuration of lead- erations, “rich” oil and gas centres, and urban ing urban settlements and outsiders began to settlements with favourable climatic conditions, manifest itself by the early 2000s at a gradual including resorts [30]. The majority of outsiders strengthening of differences between urban are old industrial urban settlements with a popu- settlements. Moscow started to recover from lation size of less than 50 thousand people with the crisis earlier than others, increased con- a low demand for housing due to an unfavour- centration of effective demand there made the able situation in economy and in social sphere. capital already by the early 2000s significantly However, among them there are representatives Makhrova A.G., Kirillov P.L. 123 Table 2 Dynamics of new supply of housing per capita, sq.m per capita Urban settlements 1991 1995 2000 2005 2011 of different size and status All urban settlements 0.32 0.29 0.23 0.35 0.48 Including: Regional centres 0.30 0.30 0.27 0.42 0.51 Main urban settlements 0.31 0.29 0.26 0.41 0.51 Mid-size urban settlements 0.35 0.28 0.18 0.28 0.50 Small urban settlements 0.33 0.28 0.19 0.20 0.29 Created based on authors’ calculations based on Multistat data. of both satellite urban settlements near Moscow, than 20 thousand people who experienced both and oil and gas centres (Losino-Petrovsky, Kli- maximum depopulation, and maximum migra- movsk, Raduzhny, Muravlenko, Langepas), i.e. tory outflow of population. functional type of the urban settlement, its size Compared to the early 1990s the structure or location are not always a guarantee of getting of leaders and outsiders based on the level of into the group of leaders or outsiders. housing per capita changed considerably. First, An important component of “housing” they include more northern small and mid-size projection of Russian urbanisation is the level urban settlements with decreasing population of housing per capita and its dynamics which- owing to strong migratory outflow (Bilibino, characterise changes of preferences in choos- Pevek, Susuman). Second, there is a new type ing places of residence. During the Post-Soviet of centres where growth of level of housing per period housing per capita grew for urban settle- capita is the result of active housing construc- ments of all groups of population size and station. This type includes rapidly building up tus, but dynamics of this growth was different capitals of Chechnya and Ingushetia – Grozny both in time, and for different groups of urban and Magas, satellite urban settlements of Mos- settlements. cow, and resort urban settlements of the Black As well as on new supply of housing, by the Sea Coast. At that in last two groups growth of end of the Soviet period urban settlement were housing per capita is connected with such a new poorly differentiated on housing per capita. In phenomenon as emergence of second seasonal, the early 1990s it was not much higher in small functionally – “dacha” (country-side), housing urban settlements, than in regional capitals and of the most wealthy segments of population, and in all Russian urban settlements, being lower also with development of the sector of private only than values of Moscow and St. Petersburg. rent housing in resort urban settlements (Ruza, After the period of stressful migrations larg- Zvenigorod, Ples, Anapa, Gelendzhik). est urban settlements of the country, first of all Centres with the lowest level of hous- Moscow, felt a growing pressure of migrants. ing per capita include more urban settlements After an additional revaluation of the current with incomplete demographic transition which population of the capital following the results of challenged old small and mid-size industrial population census of 2002 on nearly 1 million centres, long experiencing decline in popula- people because of unrecorded migration, the tion (Vysotsk, Kupino, Kozelsk, Balabanovo, level of housing per capita, despite an impres- Yeysk). “New” outsiders, are generally small sive amount of housing construction, began to and mid-size urban settlements, but from na- decrease. Census of 2010 revealed nearly 1.5 tional republics of the North Caucasus and million of unrecorded population, therefore, the Siberia (Chadan, Ak-Duvurak, Turan, Shali, level of housing per capita decreased once again Urus-Martan, Karabulak, Nartkala) though they to 18.7 compared to 21.6 sq.m /per capita in include Makhachkala with the population size 2000 (tab. 3). However, in the majority of Rus- of 600 thousand. One more group of newcom- sian urban settlements new housing construc- ers among outsiders is presented by growing oil tion and decline in population led to an increase centres where supply of new housing did not rein housing per capita. But the highest increment sult in an essential increase in the level of hous- of this indicator (49%) was observed among ing per capita given increasing population (Pyt- the smallest centres with population size of less Yakh, Nefteyugansk). Nerchinsk stands apart 124 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 Table 3 Dynamics of housing per capita in Russian urban settlements, sq.m/per capita Urban settlements 1991 1995 2000 2005 2011 of different size and status All urban settlements 16.0 17.7 19.1 20.5 22.3 Including Regional centres 16.0 17.7 19.2 20.2 21.8 Main urban settlements 16.0 17.6 19.1 20.1 21.7 Mid-size urban settlements 15.9 17.5 18.9 20.5 22.6 Small urban settlements 16.2 18.2 19.6 21.5 23.8 Created based on authors’ calculations based on Multistat data. as a representative of the increasing number of between these two areas going across the Volga small and mid-size urban settlements in which district [17]. decline in population is followed by destruction Revival and wide spread of this archaic and withdrawal of old housing stock and degra- practice of pre-revolutionary Russia are in dation of urban environment. many respects connected with a specific feature of market relations in housing sphere Population pulsation and seasonal hous- when, unlike land that bound peasants in im- ing of citizens. However, actual housing per perial time, today this function is carried out capita in different urban settlements signifi- by housing. The course on total privatisation cantly differs from indicators recorded by sta- of housing led to the share of privately owned tistics due to two parallel processes. The first housing (87%) in Russia, as well as in other one is mid-term working migration which countries of the former Soviet Union, being spread more and more widely during the Post- significantly different from the vast majority of Soviet period, especially in the last decade. countries with long traditions of development Unlike the Soviet period when it was most of- in market economy (tab. 4). Absence of a ci- ten implemented in the form of seasonal “extra vilised market of rent housing and more than a work” in construction works or rotation shifts double difference in housing prices in large and to the North, modern mid-term working mi- small urban settlements [13] makes population, gration gets a constant temporality, covering still being formally attached to the place of reg- most various fields of activity, including both istration, move to the work place. In modern traditional, and new types of employment. Russia ownership of housing plays the role of Estimates of scales of mid-term working mi- a new “serfdom”, increasing and then reducing gration differ significantly. Data of population population of urban and rural settlements. surveys on problems of employment conducted Another process causing pulsation or fluctu- by Rosstat shows that 2012 saw the number of ation of population and differences between sta- people working outside their Oblast equal to tistical and real housing per capita are long tra- 2.3 million [17]. Some experts believe based ditions of going to dachas during warm season on the conducted researches that from 20 to 40 that have also become a lifestyle for millions million people are involved in mid-term work- of Russians. In the absence of reliable static ing migration that already essentially changes data, evaluations of number of this seasonal both population of certain urban settlements, population, as well as of mid-term working and level of housing per capita [24]. migrants, strongly differ. Some experts believe Despite certain doubts about the accuracy of that up to a half of all population of urban settle- evaluation of the scope of temporary labor mi- ments of the country owns dachas of different gration based on Rosstat data, it represents quite types [18]. Results of Rosstat surveys show an adequate pattern of its general directions. So, that 10% of households have dacha housing, nearly half of all temporary labor movements i.e. about 15 million people [6]. occurred within the federal districts. Thus the There are other sources which indirectly al- main centre of gravity for mid-term working mi- low to estimate scales of seasonal movements gration, is Moscow and Moscow Oblast, and the of population – results of agricultural census of second largest centre is Tyumen Oblast and its 2006 [5]. They show that the total number of oil and gas districts, at that with a “watershed” garden and dacha noncommercial associations Makhrova A.G., Kirillov P.L. 125 representing the main part of dachas owned by ised cottage settlements which are put up for Russians makes about 80 thousand units with sale (about 1100 settlements as of the begin- nearly 14 million land plots. Developed or ning of 2014). Next leader in development of used plots account for about 80% of them and this format of country housing is suburbs of if we suppose that one garden plot is, at least, St. Petersburg though there are nearly 3 times 3 persons (and at times more as it can be two less constructed or under construction cottage or three generations – senior and their adult settlements there, than in Moscow Oblast. children with grandsons), the total number of Modern cottage suburbs have a considerably seasonal population of the country living in smaller scale than garden and dacha associa- different garden noncommercial associations tions and though currently cottages are more (gardens, vegetable gardens, dachas) makes often used as additional permanent or tempo- about 34 million people. rary housing, they can stimulate suburbanisa- And though the exact number of “dachas” tion and moving of population from urban of Russians is unknown, the results of Rosstat settlement centres [9]. surveys allow to estimate the additional area During the Post-Soviet period deurbanisa- of housing generated by dachas. It is 36.4 sq.m tion, if there was any, was characterised as a per household, increasing from 29 sq.m in temporary phenomenon in the crisis 1990s, small urban settlements to 49.4 sq.m in “mil- that cannot be said about seasonal deurbanisa- lion plus urban settlements”; the same de- tion in the form of “remote” dachniks (owners pendence on the size of urban settlement is of seasonal dachas) connected with their inter- traced in the share of dacha ownership: 6.4 and est in even more remote regions which do not 20.4%, respectively [6]. border on the areas surrounding central urban This dacha or seasonal suburbanisationis settlement any more. “Remote dachas” existed most spread in suburbs of Moscow and St. Pe- back in the Soviet years, having appeared in the tersburg. Nearly 3 million plots within Moscow 1970-80s as garden and dacha communities, Oblast are connected with the existence of sec- and houses in rural areas, including inherited ond housing and seasonal migrations of popula- ones [19]. Remote dachas became especially tion. Potential housing capacity of this network popular in the second half of the 2000s because exceeds 4 million people that increases the of the growing pressure upon natural landscapes number of inhabitants in Moscow Oblast dur- of close suburbs, abundance of cottage settle- ing summer season approximately by 60% [7]. ments and garden and dacha communities, cars In St. Petersburg about 2 million inhabitants or and neighbours, that turns suburbs into a spe- 40% of its population own dachas with garden cial kind of densely populated country options plots [16]. of “multicottage” housing. Remoteness and cost Along with a seasonal suburbanisation, of the house are not as important for owners suburbanisation of “Western” type develops of these extremely remote dachas, as good ecol- (permanent transfer from the urban settlement ogy and attractiveness of the place, though the centre to the suburb) which is connected, first choice of buyers of such dachas is limited to tra- of all, with fast spread of organised cottage ditional rural houses. settlements owing to implementation of new Popularity of remote dachas leads to zones living standards for the most wealthy Rus- of dacha influence of centres of certain regions sians [12]. Moscow was first to form cottage overlapping, though each of these communi- suburbia, then followed St. Petersburg. From ties still has areas of primary concentration. the mid 2000s cottage suburbia started to ap- Field investigations in Pskov Oblast showed, pear in largest million-plus urban settlements that Muscovites “are based” mainly in the sub- in resort zones, first of all, on the coast of the urbs of Pskov (a half ring from the southern Black Sea. By now at least one or two cottage coast of Lake Chudskoye to Izborsk) and in the settlements are constructed or are under con- Pushkinogorsky area “nearby” places related to struction within all large and largest Russian Pushkin, where land is quite expensive. Peters- urban settlements, first of all regional capitals, burgers and residents of Murmansk concentrate and in their suburbs [11]. in more simple places: Opochetsky, Krasnogo- Moscow Oblast is an absolute leader in the rodsky, Palkinsky areas in the South, Gdovsky, country both on the scales of cottage suburbia Strugo-Krasnensky, Plussky areas in the North that is shown, first of all, in number of organ- [10]. Expansion of “foreigners” to Pskov Oblast 126 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 increases every year, first of all, as the result of where almost all housing, both urban, and rural, dacha spread of Muscovites though the number is secured with sewerage. As the result the share of summer residents both from St. Petersburg, of urban population in Russia is significantly and from Murmansk increases (generally at the higher than the part of population that really expense of people of retirement and pre-retire- leads an urban life, and is not simply registered ment age). as citizens (tab. 4). Growing demand for “remote” dachas re- Another distinctive feature of this pseudo flects not only greater scales of seasonal coun- and at the same time large settlement Rus- ter-urbanisation (quasi-counter-urbanisation), sian urbanisation is a low level of housing per but also stability of this process when residents capita of citizens combined with a mass nature of large urban settlements, keeping their regis- of ownership of second dacha housing. Such tration address, change residence throughout model of accommodation – in the apartment in the year. This process of transformation of set- a multi-story building in an urban settlement tlement network manifests in a strong seasonal and at dacha in rural areas during warm sea- pulsation of population size not only in urban son – became even more widespread during settlement agglomerations, but also in territo- the Post-Soviet period that increases the scope ries located far from their borders that also is of seasonal suburbanisation and deurbanisa- not consistent with standard theories of stadial tion. This ideology of “double” accommoda- development of agglomerations [14]. tion, in an urban settlement apartment and at the same time in rural areas at close and re- Conclusion. Contemporary model of Rus- mote dachas, leads to a considerable pulsation sian urbanisation is characterised with large of population of urban settlements and rural urban settlement stage when large urban settle- settlements, at the same time improving liv- ments, where the majority of population lives, ing conditions of citizens, especially in largest have the highest rates of development. Howev- urban settlements. Fluctuation of population er, insufficient infrastructural facilities of hous- and even greater conditionality of differences ing, first of all sewerage, especially in small in the place of residence and way of life are and mid-size urban settlements which prevail strengthened by mid-term working migration quantitatively, bears the evidence of immature which also became common for residents of or marginal character of Russian urbanisation small urban settlements and villages who work when the considerable part of citizens are much in large city centres and their suburbs though closer to rural population based on their way formally they keep their residence. of life. This pseudo-urban settlement urbanisa- Thus, despite all departures from the theory tion separates Russia from developed countries of differential urbanisation, it is most probable

Table 4 Indicators of true urbanisation by countries Specific weight of housing stock equipped with

Share Share of urban of private population, housing,% % sewerage, % % water supply, bathtub % or shower, central heating, % Russia 73.6 74.0 79.0 67.0 84.0 87.0 Belarus 75.1 72.3 74.0 66.9 73.1 87.9 Ukraine 69.0 59.0 61.1 55.7 64.1 93.5 Austria 67.6 99.1 99.9 98.3 89.8 56.9 Greece 56.3 86.5 98.1 92.3 56.3 74.3 Great Britain 90.1 99.9 99.9 99.9 86.9 69.2 Finland 63.9 96.6 98.3 99.1 93.5 59.0 Japan 66.8 90.7 … 95.5 … 61.0 USA 82.3 99.7 99.2 99.7 88.9 68.3 Created based on [27]. Makhrova A.G., Kirillov P.L. 127 that, after “rebound” to a crisis counter-urban- for absolutely different stages and stages when isation in the first half of the 1990s taking into pseudo-urban settlement way of life of consid- account adjustments for underestimation of mi- erable part of population, advancing growth grants during the intercensus period, Russian of large urban settlements, occurs along with urban settlements are at large urban settlement seasonal suburbanisation and deurbanisation, stage of urbanisation. Considering development bears the evidence of a unique model of con- of urbanisation in the 1990s as a manifestation temporary Russian urbanisation which breaks of “crisis urbanisation”, it is already its third typical foreign schemes. start after a crisis, as it already happened twice Thus, given essential differences from uni- in Russia in the 20th century after Revolution / versal model of stadial development of urban- Civil war and the Great Patriotic War [23]. Ac- isation, changes in Russian urban settlement cording to Medvedkov, considering 1991 as system during the Post-Soviet period are pos- transition to the phase of urbanisation that had sible to classify as a certain crisis failure in to begin notwithstanding political shocks [32], the course of an incomplete urbanisation, as a subsequent skipping of stages can be explained natural transition to reurbanisation stage, and with imperfection of the record of migrations. as a unique model representing a combination This interpretation allows to consider modern of processes inherent to different stages. Spe- order “main – mid-sizes – small urban settle- cific features of Post-Soviet urbanisation are ments” both as a manifestation of reurbanisation caused by the features developed in housing: stage, typical for post-industrial urbanism when insufficient infrastructural facilities of housing main urban settlements once again become main and “rurality” of urban settlements, low level points of growth and engines of development of of per capita housing and wide-spread owner- modern economy. However, simultaneous coex- ship of dacha housing, rather high share of own istence and development of processes, typical housing and population pulsations.

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RESEARCH HISTORY

Aguirrechu A.A. (Moscow) ESTABLISHMENT AND EARLY DECADES OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY OF THE USSR (RUSSIA) AT MOSCOW UNIVERSITY: HISTORIC AND GEOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH

Abstract. The article is devoted to the first decades of the Department of Economic Geography of the USSR (currently – the Department of the Economic and Social Geography of Russia) at the Moscow University until its relocation to the Main Building of Moscow State University at Leninskie Gory in 1953. The background conditions for the Department foundation (national economic geography progress and demand for professional economic geographers) are examined. A step by step survey of the Department activity within the period of its establishment, division into area and country studies, and active progress in 1930–1940 are provided. The role of the Department in establishing national economic geography community is shown. Keywords: Economic Geography, USSR, Department, Faculty of Geography, Moscow University, N.N. Baransky.

Introduction. In a more than 260-year long raphy at the Moscow university. Some discov- history of the Moscow university the age of a ered materials connected with the structure of separate department, equal to 85 years, may divisions and positions of the enlisted scien- seem not so great. But, nevertheless, it is a tists may be interpreted ambiguously that will rather large period, in fact, covering two eras in be discussed below. the history of Russia and several generations of Newspaper files of the Moscow university, people living in it. The first stages of establish- stored in the Department of rare books and man- ment and development of the department before uscripts of the MSU Scientific library, were an it was moved, together with faculty of geogra- additional source of information. The newspaper phy, to a new building on Leninskiye Gory in was published since 1927 and was called Pervy 1953 are studied in greater detail in this article. Universitet (First University) back then, since Historic and geographical approach to re- October, 1930 it was called Za Proletarskiye search of the problem means both use of cor- Kadry (For Proletary Specialists), the newspa- responding methods and development of own per got its modern name Moskovsky Universitet technique of research. The later made the au- (Moscow University) in 1937. Rare publications thor to appeal not only to references: to sci- about geographical division in the first years entific articles, memoirs and memoirs of direct of the department give some additional idea participants of establishment of the depart- of separate events and though, the newspaper ment, but also to the fund documents and mate- cannot be used as a documentary evidence, but, rials that the author discovered in recent years owing to the lack of other sources of informa- in various archives: State archive of the Rus- tion, data from it serves an important addition sian Federation (GARF), Central State Archive to available materials, given the fact that it was (CGA) of Moscow, MSU archive, etc. Unfortu- prepared by direct participants of these or that nately, documents connected with the activity actions in real time. of the Moscow university and its divisions at a boundary of the 1920-1930s are few due to the Historic context of establishment of de- fact that, on the one hand, they are “dispersed” partment. Economic and geographical re- across different archives, and, on the other, the searches in Russia originated at the time of document flow during this period was imper- M.V. Lomonosov and V.N. Tatishchev. They fect and surviving documents are scarce. All became more intense by the mid 19th – the early this complicates research though gives hope 20th centuries and were connected with study- for reconstruction of historic facts related to ing of geographical features of population and the history of development of economic geog- economy of the country mainly on the basis of 130 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 statistics. Researches by scientists of thelate V. Bernstein-Kogan “Ocherki ekonomicheskoy 19th – the early 20th centuries were generally geografii” (“Sketches of economic geography”) executed in line with the directions of economic (1925), A.A. Rybnikov “Osnovnye voprosy geography created during this period – branch ekonomicheskoy geografii” (“The main ques- and statistical, commercial geography, and an- tions of economic geography”) (1930), and by thropogeography. other scientists were published in Moscow [19]. In 1884 D.N. Anuchin founded a depart- N.N. Baransky, who started active research ment of geography and ethnography at the in economic geography in 1918, already created Moscow university, but teaching and researches the idea of development of economic geography of this department concerned mainly the natu- by the mid 1920s, giving a key role to regional ral component, i.e. physical geography, and also approach. His book “Ekonomicheskaya geo- anthropogeography. Individual economic and grafiya Sovetskogo Souza. Obzor po oblastyam geographical (in a broad sense of this word) Gosplana” (“Economic geography of the Soviet researches were conducted at different time by Union. Review by State Planning Committee ar- other divisions of the university – by the fac- eas”) was published in 1926. ulty of philosophy, the faculty of law, and some The need for economic and geographi- others. A master thesis prepared at the faculty cal knowledge began to manifest itself at the of law by Wladimir von Dehn,a privatdocent of training of social and political personnel in the the faculty, on the subject “Naselenie Rossii po 1920s. The majority of such higher education dannym 5-y revizii” (“The Population of Rus- institutions organised departments of economic sia according to the 5th Audit”) and defended geography in 1920s. In different years N.N. Ba- in the Assembly hall of the Moscow university ransky headed the department of economic ge- in May, 1902 can serve a characteristic example ography at the Ia.M. Sverdlov Communist uni- of this. At the end of the same year Wladimir versity, was a vice-rector and the rector of the von Dehn was enlisted as an extraordinary pro- Communist University of Toilers of the East. fessor to the Saint Petersburg Polytechnical In- A.N. Rakitnikov was the head of the department stitute at the department of economic geography of economic geography at the Higher School of (most likely, this day marked the establishment Professional Movement of the All-Union Cen- of this department) [21]. This is the first higher tral Council of Trade Unions for some time [8]. education division (department) of economic In the process of carrying out economic and geography in Russia, the first evidence of insti- geographical researches and consistently with tutionalisation of this science. the need for economic and geographical train- The first decade after the revolution became a ing of graduates, universities all over the coun- kind of impetus to the development of new direc- try one by one started to open departments of tions in economic geography. The period of acti- economic geography after the revolution. In vation of economic and geographical researches 1918 Wladimir von Dehn founded a depart- in Russia begins. Development of GOELRO ment of economic geography at the Geographi- (State Commission for Electrification of Russia) cal institute at the Petrograd (later – Leningrad, plan became one of the first large projects for real- nowadays – Saint Petersburg) University, which isation of which those directions were necessary. became part of the Leningrad State University G.M. Krzhizhanovsky was the head of a com- seven years later [2]. mission dealing with economic division of the In 1920 the department of economic geog- country into districts, future eminent economic raphy was established at the Saratov Institute of geographers N.N. Kolosovsky, I.G. Alexandrov, National Economy (since 1925 – a part of the and others participated in this commission. Saratov State University). P.N. Stepanov was At the same time various views on the ways the first head of the department, later he came of development of economic geography itself back to Moscow (in 1937 N.N. Baransky Jr. started to emerge. From the beginning of the managed the department for some time) [16]. century Saint Petersburg saw an active forma- In the same 1920 a department of economic tion of branch and statistical direction under geography and statistics was founded in the Ir- the leadership of Wladimir von Dehn, who kutsk University (K.N. Mirotvortsev, who later published his generalising work “Kurs eko- headed the department of economic geography nomicheskoy geografii” (“Course of Economic at the Voronezh University [7] in 1937, was the Geography”) in 1924. Fundamental works by S. first head of department). Aguirrechu A.A. 131 In 1925 the department of geography headed economic geography at the faculty of ethnology by S.V. Bernstein-Kogan was formed at the fac- (R.M. Kabo, D.A. Kashintsev, and M.I. Silish- ulty of pedagogics at the Second MSU (since chensky were enlisted as non-staff associate 1930 – Moscow State V.I. Lenin Pedagogical professors of this department on economic ge- Institute (MGPI), nowadays – Moscow State ography in 1927) and department of economic Pedagogical University); though it was a general geography and world economy of faculty of geographical department, there was a group of Soviet law (Ya.M. Bukshman and M.I. Galitsky economic geographers including L.D. Sinitsky, were regular associate professors of it) [20]. A.A. Kamenetsky, A.A. Rybnikov, P.N. Stepa- These departments at faculties of social sci- nov, N.P. Nikitin, I.A. Vitver on it. Since 1927 ences, functioning in 1925–1930, actually were N.N. Baransky also became a professor of the analogs of economic and geographical divisions department. But actually the department of eco- of higher education institutions preparing party nomic geography was formed at MGPI in 1934 cadres and economists. [12], though N. N. Baransky mentions a department in the Second MSU in one of his perfor- Establishment of department. In the 1920s mances as “the department of economic geog- geographical division of the faculty of physics raphy formed a little earlier than in MSU” [4, and mathematics still had one department of ge- page 34]. Thus it should be noted that among ography headed by A.A. Borzov which trained the documents of the State Academic Council students on three cycles of disciplines: physical (GUS) of Narkompros (Ministry of Education) geography; human geography; country studies of the RSFSR1 found recently, there is a proto- and local studies [13, p. 54]. The cycle “human col of Presidium of Political and scientific sec- geography” included economic and geographi- tion of GUS of January 1, 1930, according to cal courses, but it was mainly focused on train- which V.M. Chetyrkin’s appointment as asso- ing specialists in migration [15, p. 111]. There- ciate professor of the department of economic fore in 1929 “after a discussion that involved the geography at the Second MSU was confirmed majority of geographical division” a group of [27, l. 105ov]. students addressed N.N. Baransky asking him During the same period economic and geo- to organise a department and to head economic graphical divisions appear in scientific insti- and geographical training at geographical divi- tutions. So, in 1918 Petrograd saw the estab- sion. By then N.N. Baransky was already well lishment of the Industrial and Geographical known in geographical circles thanks to a re- Department of the Commission on Studying of lease of his book, since 1925 he headed editorial Natural Productive Forces (KEPS – the prede- office of geography in “Bolshaya Sovetskaya cessor of SOPS) which was engaged in the eco- Entsyklopedia” (“Big Soviet Encyclopaedia”) nomic and economic and geographical works (BSE) preparing the first edition of BSE, deliv- related to studying of commodity markets, ered lectures in the Second MSU, was an active economic development of the country and its participant of numerous conferences and meet- regions. Nearly 10 years later the department ings where he made reports on economic and got the name of the Geographical Department, geographical perspective. In particular, in 1926 and in 1930 the Geomorphological Institute was he addressed the conference of teachers of eco- created on its base, later renamed to be called nomic disciplines with a report “Ob organizatsii the Institute of Physical Geography, and in kursa ekonomicheskoy geographii” (“On organ- 1936 – the Institute of Geography of Academy isation of a course of economic geography”), of Sciences of the USSR where economic and and three years later, in the spring of 1929 – at geographical researches always played an im- an All-Russian geographical meeting with re- portant role [9]. ports on geographical division of labor and on In the second half of the 1920s there were economic geographical position [5]. The same two departments of economic and geographical year he was one of initiators and editors (togeth- profile at the Moscow university which did not er with S. V. Bernstein-Kogan, A.A. Rybnikov, relate directly to geographical education since and L.D. Sinitsky) of”Ekonomiko-goegra- they were part of other faculties: department of ficheskiy sbornik”(“Economic and geographical

1 The State academic council of Narkomat of education of the RSFSR functioned in 1919–1933 and was engaged in the approval of curricula and courses, teaching staff of higher education institutions. It incorporated several sections, including political and scientific section, a member of which N. N. Baransky was approved (or reapproved) by the order of Narkomat of education of the RSFSR on 14 February 1929 [28, p. 87]. 132 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 collection”) – the first large debatable edition on raphy organised by N. N. Baransky at the geo- the problems of development of economic ge- graphical division of the faculty of physics and ography in the USSR. mathematics of the First MSU in 1929? Most This very moment marks the beginning likely – yes, definitely this should be taken into of modern history of economic geography at account. Studying archival materials will con- the Moscow university that already lasts for tinue as even at this stage we can already speak 85 years. The department founded by N.N. Ba- about emergence of new knowledge of specific ransky not only was engaged in training of spe- features of formation of economic geography cialists of all levels, but also occupied a leading both at the Moscow university, and, in general, position in development of Russian economic in higher education institutions of the country. geography. Unfortunately, today we do not have Years of formation of the department (1929– a documentary evidence of the establishment of 1934) are related to initial formation of its col- department and of the appointment of N.N. Ba- lective and curriculum for students training. ransky as the head of it, which is connected with Leading experts in various directions of eco- difficulties of document flow and reorganisation nomic geography, who previously gave lectures at the Moscow university in the late 1920s. But in other higher education institutions, were en- numerous publications and Nikolay Baransky’s gaged in research activity or worked in various memoirs, his first students at the department – establishments connected with development of direct participants of this event, confirm this fact national economy of the country, were involved which for already more than eight decades has in lecturing at the initiative of N.N. Baransky. not been called into question. In the first year of him heading the depart- Ongoing studying of archival funds (in par- ment N.N. Baransky, an economist by training, ticular, archives of Narkomat of education of a professional revolutionary, the author of the the RSFSR) provide additional information on first works on economic geography within the the reasons for emergence of department of eco- regional direction, employed A.A. Rybnikov, nomic geography at the Moscow university in an agrarian economist, and S.V. Bernstein-Ko- 1929 that do not deny, but rather strengthen the gan, an economist and a specialist in transport, classical version stated above. The case is that who already had their views on the develop- 1929 Presidium of Political-scientific section of ment of economic geography; they worked with GUS actively discussed socio-economic courses N.N. Baransky in the Second MSU and in RA- in curricula of higher education institutions. So, NION (Russian Association of Research and a large meeting on the issue of reform of social Development Institutions of Social Sciences). and economic education took place on 21 De- The first documents at our disposal, connect- cember 1929, which in a certain way summed ed with the names of scientists, are protocols of up previous discussions and decisions (N.N. Ba- the Board of Directors of the First MSU (Octo- ransky participated in the debate on the report). ber 1929) according to which, upon a petition of Decisions made by Presidium of the section ear- the deanery of the faculty of physics and math- lier included a list of social and economic disci- ematics, N.N. Baransky was enlisted as profes- plines mandatory to become part of curricula of sor of the course of economic geography at the higher education institutions. Besides political geographical division (protocol No. 1 of 4 Octo- economy, dialectic materialism, and Leninism ber 1929) [26, p. 5], S.V. Bernstein-Kogan was there was also economic geography. As the an- entrusted to deliver the course “Introduction to nex to the protocol No. 8 of 28 May 1929 there Economic Geography” since 12 October 1929 is a letter addressed “To boards of all higher ed- (protocol No. 3 of 18 October 1929) [26, p. 14]. ucation institutions on social sciences in higher Both appointments were sent to be approved education institutions of all types” in which a by Glavprofobr of Narkompros of the RSFSR. list of social and economic disciplines in spe- Later A.A. Rybnikov was enlisted as professor cial higher education institutions is published of the course “Economic Geography of Agricul- [27, p. 154, 157-159]. So, for geographical (as ture” by the order No. 43 on the First MSU of 8 well as for soil and geological, and biological) April 1930, also with a subsequent approval of divisions the following courses are specified: Narkompros [22, p. 311]. economic geography and political economy. Is In protocols of meetings of Presidium of Po- it possible to consider this an additional reason litical and scientific section of GUS the follow- for emergence of department of economic geog- ing facts about the First MSU were discovered: Aguirrechu A.A. 133 on 26 November N. N. Baransky was approved economic and geographical cycle, with as professor of economic geography (protocol two specialties – economic and geograph- No. 13 of 26 November 1929), S. V. Bernstein- ical and colonisation and migration. This Kogan was approved as professor of the depart- note says that “for the first time in the ment of economic geography (protocol No. 15 USSR an experiment of rational training of 1 January 1930), A.A. Rybnikov was ap- of economic geographers is made”. proved as professor of the course of economic A year later colonisation and migration spe- geography of agriculture (protocol of 31 May ciality was no longer mentioned in the newspa- 1930) [27, p. 2, 105ob, 113]. Positions of the per and in orders on MSU which suggests that three scientists (italicised) in which they were it was closed, since it obviously, according to approved as professors of the First MSU within Yu.G. Saushkin, did not meet the modern re- half a year, as we see, differ (fig. 1) a little. In quirements of training of economic geographers general, it is possible to assume that between ap- [15, p. 111], and the number of students in eco- proval of candidacies of N. N. Baransky and S. nomic geography was increased from 25 to 60 V. Bernstein-Kogan the department of economic in August 1931 [23, p. 36]. geography was established (December 1929) Having invited S. V. Bernstein-Kogan and but the position of A.A. Rybnikov, approved A.A. Rybnikov to lecturing at department, its later, does not provide a clear confirmation of head had”quite certain disagreements on a num- this assumption. Perhaps, this was connected ber of questions, especially on understanding both with different principles of assignment of of the essence of regional direction” with them teachers in higher education institutions, and [3, p. 38]. Baransky had differences in scientific with the lack of a “rigid” binding of some teach- views on development of economic geography ers to departments as to structural divisions of with L.D. Sinitsky as well, who had delivered higher education institutions. lectures at geographical division prior to the The First University newspaper for 1929- establishment of the department. But it did not 1930 confirms only the emergence of the spe- prevent them from having friendly relations: cialty “economic geography” which, according N.N. Baransky even named his third son Leo- to numerous publications of N.N. Baransky dan – in honour of Leonti Danilovich Sinitsky. and his pupils, appeared at the same time as Later more specialists were invited to the the department did. In this regard No. 15(39) of department, some of them were not geogra- the newspaper of 19 January 1930 which men- phers by training, but were already more all tions the specialty in two notes is of a particu- less noticeable in sight of economic geography. lar interest. A note of G. Mirchink “Faculty of In 1930 the I.A. Vitver, a historian by training, geology” on page 3 of the newspaper refers to working with N.N. Baransky in BSE and in the a “cycle of economic geography, divided into Second MSU, a specialist in foreign countries, specialties: a) economic geography, b) coloni- started giving lectures at the department (he sation and migration” (fig. 2). The fact that the completed his transition to MSU later); since specialty “economic geography” is mentioned 1931 N.N. Kolosovsky, a transportation engi- in January 1930 quite confirms its emergence neer, who was engaged in economic division shortly before it, i.e. approximately at the end into districts in the State Planning Committee, of 1929. in development of productive forces of Siberia Page 6 of the newspaper of 22 May 1930 and the Far East, started teaching at the depart- (No. 32-33) has a note “Geographical division” ment. Since 1934 A.N. Rakitnikov, an agrarian (signed with one letter П) which describes in economist, who finished school in France be- more detail teaching in this division. In particu- fore revolution and graduated from the Sara- lar, three directions of training are characterised: tov Agricultural Institute, where he listened to physical geography with three cycles: N.I. Vavilov’s lectures, who worked in expedi- geomorphological, hydrographical, and tions of the People’s Commissariat for Agricul- cartographical; ture and the Academy of Sciences, joined the studies of the Northern region is a spe- department [11]. Besides, lectures at the depart- cial cycle created for the first time for ment were delivered by M.G. Kadek (who was training specialists in studying and ratio- at the same time a deputy director of MSU for nal organisation of extensive spaces of a while), associate professors V.A. Kamenetsky the European-Asian North; (later – head of the department of geodesy and 134 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015

Fig. 1. Fragments of protocol of GUS on approval of N.N. Baransky, S. V. Bernstein-Kogan, and A.A. Rybnikov as professors of the First MSU Source: [27].

cartography), B.M. Kaminsky, N.V. Morozov, 1931 and 1932 brought first graduates to B.I. Urlanis, and later – A.V. Darinsky (former the department, who in many respects defined graduate student of Scientific Research Institute its further development and the destiny of eco- of MSU, and later – a prominent economic ge- nomic geography in general – L.E. Iofa, V.P. Li- ographer in Leningrad), A.G. Kauffman [18], etc. dov, I.V. Nikolsky, M.G. Reyser (Solovyova), Aguirrechu A.A. 135 At the same time in 1929 Scientific Research Institute of Geography of MSU established the sector of economic geography, in which both staff and students of the department conducted research. Scientific Research Institute of Geog- raphy carried out all applied researches, requested by various ministries and state departments and connected with development of the Russian national economy. Later Scientific Research Institute of Geography opened a postgraduate study which trained all degree-seeking students of the geographical division (later – of the faculty of geography) until it was closed (after Scien- tific Research Institute of Geography was closed in 1953 scientific work and postgraduate study were moved to departments). The department at once organised first field internships for students (in terms of works on economic agreements through Scientific Re- search Institute of Geography or through various ministries and state departments) which offered participation of students in field research in various regions of Russia, that gave them an opportunity to study Russian regions com- prehensively and to master economic and geographical methods of research in practice. At the very beginning of the 1930s the first students and postgraduate students of the department (I.V. Nikolsky, A.I. Preobrazhensky, N.N. Ba- ransky Jr., etc.) took active part in large economic projects of Russia – in particular, the creation of Uralo-Kuznetsky Plant. Studying of orders in MSU archive revealed one more interesting fact – since 1 August 1933 the faculty of soil and geography opened the department of technical disciplines (fig. 3), professor N.N. Kolosovsky was appointed its head [24, l. 50ov]. Half a year later, since 1 February 1934 he was relieved of these obligations after his personal application, and professor V.A. Sharkov became the head of the department [25, p. 45]. It is a rather unexpected fact demanding further studying, since neither existence of this department nor its functions were ever mentioned anywhere. In our opinion, judging by its name and the fact that Fig. 2. Fragment of the First University N.N. Kolosovsky was the first head, it played a newspaper of 19 January 1930 Source: Department of rare books and manuscripts role of a “serving” department, focused on such of MSU Scientific library directions of training as technical and economic basics of production, etc., which was extremely S.N. Ryazantsev, Yu.G. Saushkin, A.I. Solovy- relevant and popular in the early 1930s – dur- ov, and others. Some of them stayed to work at ing the active development of national economy. the geographical division and in Scientific Re- Also it is still unknown, till what time it existed search Institute of Geography of the Moscow (it does not occur in orders of 1934 any more), university. that demands further studying of the matter. 136 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 Place of the department and geographical of the department prof. Borzov A.A.” [22, l. education in the structure of MSU in early 112, 112ov]. 1930s. It is difficult to understand the place of Since May 1931 the decision of the Board geographical division in the structure of divi- of Narkompros at the Moscow university liqui- sions of a higher order in the First MSU. The dated bodies of faculty management of the fac- fact is that in 1929 the newspaper repeatedly ar- ulty of physics and mathematics and the faculty gues the need for reorganisation of the faculty of biology and divisions, including geographi- of physics and mathematics and, most likely, it cal, were formed instead of them. The structure started in the beginning of 1930, and this proof geographical division of 24 September 1931 cess lasted for more than half a year. While the (fig. 5) had three more departments apart from above-mentioned note in the First University the department of economic geography: physi- newspaper of 19 January 1930 writes about the cal geography, cartography and geology, and geographical division in the structure of the fac- also offices, laboratory and educational and aux- ulty of geology, an announcement about the re- iliary administrations [29]. ception in new institutes published on 22 May Two years later a Narkompros resolution 1930 mentions the “institute of soil and geogra- of 4 April 1933 restored the faculty system in phy: with the following specialities a) geomor- MSU. At that time the faculty of soil and ge- phology; b) hydrogeography; c) economic geog- ography, which included geographical division raphy; d) colonisation; e) cartography. Studies and the Scientific Research Institute of Geography of the Northern region. Only 60 places”. Thus was formed. N.N. Baransky was appointed the the structural division (institute) appears within dean since 1 May 1933 [24, p. 49-50, 251], and the Institute of biology (former faculty of experi- A.A. Borzov was appointed the dean since July mental husbandry and horticulture). At the same 1934 [25, p. 121]. This structure remained till 1938 time it should be noted that it is possible to see when the faculty of geography was formed. both the faculty of physics and mathematics, and the Institute of biology in various orders on MSU Division of department. The beginning of of the first half of 1930, which confirms a tran- the next period, which took place 80 years ago, sition period and various interpretations of the was connected with a significant event in Rus- events at university. Also it is to be recalled that sian geography – with a well-known Resolution since September 1930 the university changed its of the SNK (Council of People’s Commissars) name: formerly, the First MSU it became simply of the USSR and of the Central Committee of the Moscow State University. All-Union Communist Party (bolsheviks) of On 21 August 1930 there was an order on 16 May 1934 “On teaching geography at el- the First MSU No. 83b, according to which ementary and secondary school of the USSR”. two independent faculties were created out Not only this resolution resulted in transition of the faculty of physics and mathematics: to new programs and textbooks on geography faculty of physics and mechanics (with divi- at school2, but it became an impulse for further sions) and faculty of biology (with divisions fast development of geography and economic of zoology, botanics, soil and geography) [22, geography in particular. N.N. Baransky’s and p. 215]. Less than two months later, on 18 Oc- I.A. Vitver’s fundamental school textbooks tober 1930 there was an order on MSU No. were annually republished (and updated) for 158 approving the list of departments and ed- the next nearly 20 years and in the early 1950s ucational and auxiliary establishments of the were awarded Stalin (State) awards. The staff of faculty of biology, as well as the list of heads the department prepared school textbooks again of these departments (fig. 4). In this order we only several decades later, in the 1990s. can see information on the department for the In the same year the first issue of the first time: “… 23. Department of economic Geo-graphy in school journal (“Geografiya v geography with an office. Head of the depart- shkole”) was published, N.N. Baransky, being ment prof. Baransky”. The previous point in an initiator of creation of the periodical, became the order is the “Department of physical ge- its editor-in-chief3. The journal was not only the ography with the geographical museum. Head main study guide for teachers of geography, but

2 N.N. Baransky was to write a textbook on economic geography of the USSR, and I.A. Vitver – on economic geography of capitalist countries. 3 In 1948–1960 Yu.G. Saushkin was the editor-in-chief of the magazine. Aguirrechu A.A. 137

Fig 3. Fragment of MSU order of 11 August 1933 on establishment of department of technical disciplines Source: [24, l. 50, 50ov]

Fig. 4. Fragment of MSU order No. 158 on approval of the list of departments of faculty of biology Source: [22, l. 112, 112ov] also for nearly 20 years almost the only Mos- the appointment of their heads has not succeed- cow’s specialised geographical periodical in ed yet, but it continues). N.N. Baransky became which key articles, including by leading eco- the head of the first department, and the second nomic geographers, were published4. one was headed by I.A. Vitver. Thus, 80 years Following up upon “global reform” of school ago for the first time Russia got economic geo- education there was also a significant economic graphical departments of country studies, one of and geographical event at the geographical divi- which was devoted to studying of this country5. sion of MSU the same year. The department of Among multiple economic and geographical economic geography was divided into two – de- departments existing since then at universities partment of economic geography of the USSR of the country, only the Belarusian University and department of economic geography of capi- had since 1968 two economic and geographical talist countries (unfortunately, search for the or- departments, with both the name of our country, der on the establishment of two departments and and the foreign world in their names.

4 By the time the magazine emerged, Russia had only one scientific geographical magazine issued in Leningrad – “News of State Geographical society” (since 1940 – “VGO News”). “Moscow University Bulletin” was founded in 1946, and an independent geographical series in it appeared only in 1960, the magazine of the Institute of geography – “News of Academy of Sciences of USSR. Geographical series” was published since 1951. 5 See details on further reforms and new names of departments of economic geography at the MSU in [1]. 138 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015

Fig. 5. Structure of geographical division of MSU of 24 September 1931 Source: [29].

Division of the department into two allowed ment for delivering a course on industrial geog- to expand its teaching staff. During this period raphy, he had spent a lot of years working in the the department of economic geography of the State Planning Committee and SOPS in various USSR employed not only graduates of the first regions of the country, and also in higher edu- years (who at the same time were the staff of cation institutions of Saratov and Moscow [17]. Scientific Research Institute of Geography of In the same 1934 there was a Resolution on MSU), but also other scientists and teachers who academic degrees and ranks according to which previously worked out of the walls of geograph- degrees of the doctor and the candidate of sci- ical division of MSU. So in 1936 P. N. Stepanov, ence were awarded. This department released a graduate of the Saint Petersburg Polytechnic first candidates of geographical sciences in Institute and a professor of the Moscow Power the country who defended theses on econom- Engineering Institute, was invited to the depart- ic geographical mapping under the guidance Aguirrechu A.A. 139 of N.N. Baransky – V.P. Korovitsyn in 1934, was evacuated to Central Asia. Actually the fac- and I.V. Nikolsky a year later. Besides, candi- ulty was divided into two parts – one worked in date’s theses on economic geography in the Moscow, the other – at first in Ashgabat, then first years were defended by A.I. Abramova, in Sverdlovsk (Moscow and evacuation even N.N. Baransky (Jr.), G.T. Grishin, A.I. Preo- had two “parallel” deans of faculty; so in 1941– brazhensky (1937), I.P. Krutikov, A.G. Kuman, 1942 I.A. Vitver exercised functions of the dean S.I. Ledovskikh, S.L. Lutsky, N.I. Lyalikov in evacuation; B.P. Orlov was still the dean in (1938), and others. From the very beginning the Moscow). From February 1941 to fall of 1943, number of theses defended on economic geog- P.N. Stepanov was the head of the department raphy prevailed at geographical division (and due to N. N. Baransky’s illness and the subse- later – faculty) of MSU. Moreover, in the be- quent evacuation of the department together ginning a practice of award of academic degrees with the faculty. without defence of a thesis existed for some Despite difficult military years, educational time. N.N. Baransky and N.N. Kolosovsky and research activity of the department did not were awarded an academic degree of doctor of interrupt. There were small classes of students, geographical sciences without defence of thesis defences of theses were carried out. in 1935, I.A. Vitver was awarded it in 1938. In the first years of the Great Patriotic War Yu.G. Saushkin was awarded an academic de- N.N. Kolosovsky’s activity was the most far- gree of candidate of geographical sciences with- reaching. He was included in the structure of out defence of thesis in 1937, and A.N. Rakit- Commission of SOPS on mobilisation of re- nikov was awarded it in 1938 [6]. sources of the Urals for the needs of the defence In July 1938 the Moscow university under- (organised at the initiative of V. L. Komarov, the went a large structural change. The faculty of President of Academy of Sciences of the USSR), geography was established on the basis of the where he headed a transport and power group faculty of soil and geography, which consisted which was engaged in overcoming the critical of two economic and geographical departments, situation on the railroads of the Urals [10]. In departments of physical geography (soon it was 1942 N.N. Kolosovsky as a part of group of sci- divided into two – general physical geography entists got the Stalin award of the 1st degreefor and physical geography of the USSR), of coun- this work. try studies, of cartography and geodesy, and also Scientific Research Institute of Geography. Post-war years of development of the de- During this period formation of curricula of partment were connected with the arrival as stu- the department went on, fundamental courses dents not only of graduates of schools, but also on basic economic and geographical disciplines of veterans, some of them returned to the faculty [14] started to merge, some of them, though to continue the study they had begun before the modified, have survived until now. As it was al- war, and some others entered the university gen- ready noted, in 1929 the specialty of economic erally in 1945–1948. It was the period when an geography appeared, which was rather far from active development of the department, as well physical geographers in the first decade of the as of the faculty of geography started. functioning. Since 1937 there was a rapproche- In 1945 in Moscow Geografgiz State pub- ment of curricula of physical and economic lishing house of geographical literature was or- geographers due to increase in number of the ganised at the initiative of N.N. Baransky, which non-core courses, important for complex geo- became the main publishing house of scientific graphical education. Division of department in and popular scientific geographical literature. 1934 was the reason for introduction of special- At the same time the Moscow Branch of Geo- ty of economic geography of foreign countries. graphical Society of the USSR (MFGO USSR) The specialty of economic geography in various was opened in the capital – an important centre modifications existed long enough, later it trans- of scientific discussion of Moscow geographers formed into a specialisation. for the following decades. In 1946 a unique periodical – scientific collections of MFGO USSR During the Great Patriotic War activity “Geography questions” – started being issued of the department did not interrupt, but it was at the initiative of N.N. Baransky. For 42 years not so integral, since a number of students and of existence of the series 132 collections were teachers were off at the front, part of faculty published, which became part of gold fund of 140 SPECIAL ISSUE, 2015 the Russian geography. The considerable part in which scientific researches of the staff, stu- of collections is devoted to the main directions dents, and graduate students became more ac- of development of economic geography, eco- tive, and results of numerous expeditions which nomic geographers of the Moscow university covered a considerable part of the country were took the most active part in their preparation. processed and analysed. S.A. Kovalyov, a professor of the department, Throughout the activity of the department was the chairman of editorial board of the col- the main attention was given to improvement lections after N.N. Baransky, and since 1982 this of the curriculum, introduction of new methods post was occupied by professor G.M. Lappo, a of research, search for a correlation between graduate of the department. theoretical and applied directions of economic In 1946, because of his illness, N.N. Ba- geography. About 130 people – veterans and ransky gave management of the department to recent graduates of schools – graduated from P.N. Stepanov, who defended his doctoral the- the department in seven or eight post-war years sis two years earlier. And in 1947 Yu.G. Sau- [15, p. 133]. Many of them joined profile edu- shkin defended his doctoral thesis and a year cational, scientific and applied organisations, later he became the head of the department made an essential contribution to development of economic geography of the USSR. In this of higher geographical education and Russian regard Saushkin gradually reduced, and then economic and geographical science, and were interrupted his activity at the department in actively engaged in the solution of problems of Lenin MGPI (where in different years he was economic development of the country, working the dean, the head of department) and in Geo- in design organisations, various authorities from grafgiz where he was the director, and later the regional to all-union level. Many graduates of editor-in-chief. Having completely concentrat- the late 1940s – the early 1950s became doc- ed on his work as the head of the department tors of science, founded scientific directions and of economic geography of the USSR, Saushkin schools, headed research and pedagogical teams headed it for 33 years, till 1981. not only in the capital, but also in many cities of Moving to a new building of the Moscow the country. university on Leninskiye Gory in 1953 was a The first decades of activity of the depart- major event for the department and the faculty ment, which emerged thanks to the initiative in general. It happened on the eve of the 25th of students of the late 1920s – the early 1930s anniversary of the department. Spacious rooms and N.N. Baransky’s personality, were a power- of top floors of the skyscraper, where the faculty ful incitement for its further development, as a of geography was located, allowed not only to leading centre of training of economic geogra- place the enlarged staff of the department, but phers and place of concentration of scientists, also to create a number of thematic (branch and who made an important contribution to the de- regional) educational and research offices with- velopment of Russian economic geography.

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DATA ON AUTHORS

Aguirrechu Alexander Antonovich – candidate of geographical sciences,senior researcherat Department of Economic and Social Geography of Russia at Faculty of Geography of Lomonosov Moscow State University. E-mail: [email protected] Alekseev Alexander Ivanovich – doctor of geographical sciences, professor at Department of Economic and Social Geography of Russia at Faculty of Geography of Lomonosov Moscow State University. E-mail: [email protected] Baburin Vyacheslav Leonidovich – doctor of geographical sciences, professor, head of Depart- ment of Economic and Social Geography of Russia at Faculty of Geography of Lomonosov Moscow State University. E-mail: [email protected] Bityukova Victoria Rasulovna – doctor of geographical sciences, associate professor at Depart- ment of Economic and Social Geography of Russia at Faculty of Geography of Lomonosov Moscow State University. E-mail: [email protected] Danshin Alexander Ivanovich – candidate of geographical sciences, associate professor at Department of Economic and Social Geography of Russia at Faculty of Geography of Lomonosov Moscow State University. E-mail: [email protected] Gladkevich Galina Ivanovna – candidate of geographical sciences, associate professor at Department of Economic and Social Geography of Russia at Faculty of Geography of Lomonosov Moscow State University. E-mail: [email protected] Goryachko Maria Dmitriyevna – candidate of geographical sciences, associate professor at Department of Economic and Social Geography of Russia at Faculty of Geography of Lomonosov Moscow State University. E-mail: [email protected] Kazmin Mikhail Anatolyevich – candidate of geographical sciences, associate professor at Department of Economic and Social Geography of Russia at Faculty of Geography of Lomonosov Moscow State University. E-mail: [email protected] Kirillov Pavel Linardovich – candidate of geographical sciences, senior researcherat Depart- ment of Economic and Social Geography of Russia at Faculty of Geography of Lomonosov Moscow State University. E-mail: [email protected] Kuznetsova Olga Vladimirovna – doctor of economics, professor at Department of Eco- nomic and Social Geography of Russia at Faculty of Geography of Lomonosov Moscow State University, chief researcher of Institute of System Analysis of Russian Academy of Sciences. E-mail: [email protected] Makhrova Alla Georgiyevna – candidate of geographical sciences, leading researcher at De- partment of Economic and Social Geography of Russia at Faculty of Geography of Lomonosov Moscow State University. E-mail: [email protected] Popov Alexey Aleksandrovich – candidate of geographical sciences, researcherat Department of Economic and Social Geography of Russia at Faculty of Geography of Lomonosov Moscow State University. E-mail: [email protected] Safronov Sergey Gennadevich – candidate of geographical sciences, associate professor at Department of Economic and Social Geography of Russia at Faculty of Geography of Lomonosov Moscow State University. E-mail: [email protected] Savoskul Maria Sergeyevna – candidate of geographical sciences, associate professor, leading researcher at Department of Economic and Social Geography of Russia at Faculty of Geography of Lomonosov Moscow State University. E-mail: [email protected] Shuper Vyacheslav Aleksandrovich – doctor of geographical sciences, professor at Department of Economic and Social Geography of Russia at Faculty of Geography of Lomonosov Moscow State University, leading researcher at Department of Social and Economic Geography of Institute of Geography of Russian Academy of Sciences. E-mail: [email protected] Zubarevich Natalya Vasilyevna – doctor of geographical sciences, professor at Department of Economic and Social Geography of Russia at Faculty of Geography of Lomonosov Moscow State University. E-mail: [email protected]