An analysis of caches from four sites in the Maya lowlands

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Authors Maxwell, David Bruce Saxon, 1964-

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AN ANALYSIS OF CACHES FROM FOUR SITES IN THE MAYA LOWLANDS

by

David Bruce Saxon Maxwell

Copyright © David Bruce Saxon Maxwell 1996

A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the

DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

In the Graduate College

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

1996 UMI Nxunber: 9720568

Copyright 1996 by Maxwell, David Bruce Saxon

All rights reserved.

UMI Microform 9720568 Copyright 1997, by UMI Company. All rights reserved.

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THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA ® GRADUATE COLLEGE

As members of the Final Examination Committee, we certify that we have read the dissertation prepared by David Bruce Saxon Mascwell entitled An An^tTysis of Caches fron Four Sites in the Maya Lovlands

and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

"//Ac

William L. Date

Michael B. Schiffer

Date

Date

Final approval and acceptance of this dissertation is contingent upon the candidate's submission of the final copy of the dissertation to the Graduate College.

I hereby certify that I have read this dissertation prepared under my direction and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement.

^ (Ul/ Dissertation Director Date STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This Dissertation has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requrements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to bonrowers under oiles of the Library. Brief quotations from this dissertation are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reprodi^on of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the copyright holder. 4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The completion of this dissertation would have tieen impossible without the help and encouragement of a numt)er of people. First and foremost, my advisor, Pat Cullsert, is responsible for kindling my interest in Maya archaeology. Pat has always given freely of his time and expertise, and has provided me with a sounding board for ideas - both good and bad - over the years. It was also Pat who suggested the study of caches in the first place, and thus introduced me to a topic with an ovenvhelming, yet largely untouched, data base. Further, Pat's "insider's knowledge" of Tikal provided me with the opportunity to put caches and political history into a much broader perspective than would tie possible with virtually any other researcher. I would also like to acknowlege the other members of my dissertation committee, Bill Rathje and Mike Schiffer. While I saw Bill only infrequently over the years, his enthusiasm has always been contageous, and for that I am grateful. Mike's influence may be subtle throughout the dissertation, but it was his longtime work with formation processes that led me to Arizona in the first place, and his tutelage has led me to look at each aspect of the archaeological record in a different manner. Through the years, a number of other faculty members have contributed greatly to my understanding of anthropology in general, and archaeology in particular, and I would like to acknowledge a debt of gratitude to John Olsen, Jane Undenvood, Mary Ellen Mort>eck, and William Stini; although none of you were directly involved in my dissertation research, your knowledge of other aspects of anthropology have greatly influenced my thinking over the years. A number of fellow students have contributed in many ways to my ability to complete this work, as friends, supporters, providers of information, and critics. I would especially like to thank Angle Huxley, who constantly challenged me to improve; thanks also go to Adam Smith, Patti Cook, Brian McKee, Marie Neupert, Steve Nash, Todd Fenton, Chariie Stevens, Melissa McCormick, JefF Baker, Bill Walker, Axel Nielson, Donn Grenda, Art McWilliams, Chris Doolittle and Shelby Tisdale. Finally, I would like to humbly thank my family, my parents Thomas and Sheilah Maxwell, and especially my sister Susan. Without their constant and undying support and enthusiam, the achievement of this degree would have been categorically impossible. I owe you everything. I would also like to acknowledge the Department of Anthropology for their financial support over the years, both through teaching positions, teaching assistantships and scholarships; also the Graduate and Professional Student council for providing funding for conference travel, and the Graduate Student Research Fund, for supporting my travel to Guatemala. 5

DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to my parents, Thomas and Sheilah Maxwell, and to my sister Susan. 6

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables 15

List of Figures 24

ABSTRACT 26

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 28 Introduction 28 Caches Defined 29 Caches versus burials 33 Caches versus storage pits 37 Caches versus hoards 39 Dedicatory and non-dedicatory caches 40 Expanding the Definition 42 The Need for a Regional Synthesis of Caches 43 The Data 45

CHAPTER 2: ANALYTICAL VARIABLES AND METHODS 46 Introduction 46 Temporal Variables 46 Spatial Variables 48 Definitions of Cache Contexts 50 Descriptive Variables 55 Methods 55 Cache Patterning 55 Material Type Analysis 56 Intrasite Patterning 58 Intersite Patterning 60

CHAPTER 3: INTRASITE PATTERNING AT TIKAL; THE NORTH ACROPOLIS .... 61 Introduction 61 Temporal Patterning 63 Preclassic Deposits 63 Middle Preclassic 64 Artifact Analysis 66 Lithic Artifacts 66 Marine Materials 66 Ceramics 66 Discussion: The Eariy Years of the North Acropolis 67 Late Preclassic 68 Artifact Analysis 70 Lithic Artifacts 70 Marine Materials 71 Terrestrial Fauna 72 7

TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued

Human Remains 72 Ceramics 72 Discussion: The North Acropolis During the Late Preclassic 73 Early Classic 75 Cache Locations 76 Treatment and Descriptive Variables 77 Interior Deposits 79 Patterning by Context Type 81 Artifact Analysis 82 Lithic Artifacts 82 Marine Objects 89 Terrestrial Fauna 95 Human Remains 95 Ceramics 96 Censers 97 Copal 97 Seeds and Organics 97 Mosaic Elements 98 Summary: Eariy Classic Interior Deposits 98 Exterior Deposits 99 Patterning by Context Type 102 Artifact Analysis 109 Lithic Artifacts 109 Marine Objects 130 Terrestrial Fauna 176 Reptile Remains 178 Human Remains 183 Ceramics 186 Censers 190 Copal 190 Organics and Seeds 191 Mosaic Elements 191 Discussion: Tikal during the Eariy Classic 194 The Eariy Classic to Late Classic Transition 197 Late Classic I (Ik) 199 Interior Deposits 201 Patterning by Context Type 203 Artifact Analysis 206 Lithic Artifacts 206 Marine Materials 217 Terrestrial Fauna 248 Human Remains 250 Ceramics 251 Censers 252 8

TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued

Copal 253 Organics and Seeds 254 Mosaic Elements 254 Discussion 255 Exterior Deposits 257 Treatment 259 Patterning by Context Type 259 Artifact Analysis 263 Lithic Artifacts 263 Marine Objects 271 Terrestrial Fauna 284 Human Remains 285 Ceramics 287 Censers 288 Mosaic Elements 288 Discussion 289 Late Classic II (Imix) 290 Interior Deposits 291 Patterning by Context Type 294 Artifact Analysis 296 Lithic Artifacts 296 Marine Materials 302 Terrestrial Faunal Remains 319 Human Remains 321 Ceramics 322 Censers 323 Copal 323 Organics and Seeds 324 Mosaic Elements 324 Discussion 325 Exterior Deposits 326 Treatment 328 Patterning by Depositional Context 329 Artifact Analysis 333 Lithic Artifacts 333 Marine Materials 338 Terrestrial Fauna 346 Human Remains 346 Ceramics 348 Censers 349 Copal 350 Seeds and Organics 350 Mosaic Elements 351 Discussion 351 9

TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued

Postclassic Deposits 354 Interior Deposits 355 Patterning by Context Type 355 Artifact Analysis 356 Lithic Artifacts 356 Marine Materials 357 Terrestrial Fauna 358 Human Remains 359 Ceramics 360 Censers 360 Copal 360 Mosaic Elements 361 Exterior Deposits 361 Patterning by Context Type 361 Artifact Analysis 361 Lithic Artifacts 362 Marine Materials 362 Ceramics 363 Censers 363 Copal 363 Seeds and Organics 363 Mosaic Elements 364 Discussion 364

CHAPTER 4: INTRASITE PATTERNING AT TIKAL: MUNDO PERDIDO 365 Introduction 365 Middle Preclassic Deposits 366 Treatment 367 Patterning by Context Type 368 Discussion: Mundo Perdido During the Middle Preclassic 369 Late Preclassic Deposits 371 Treatment 372 Patterning by Context Type 372 Discussion: Mundo Perdido during the Late Preclassic 374 Eariy Classic Deposits 375 Treatment 379 Patterning by Context Type 379 Artifact Analysis 384 Lithic Artifacts 384 Marine Materials 392 Terrestrial Fauna 396 Human Remains 398 Ceramics 400 Discussion: Mundo Perdido during the Eariy Classic 403 10

TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued

CHAPTER 5: INTRASITE PATTERNING AT UAXACTUN 407 Introduction 407 Late PreclassIc Caches 407 Discussion: Uaxactun during the Late Preclassic 408 Eariy Classic Caches 409 Treatment 410 Interior Caches 410 Patterning by Context Type 412 Artifact Analysis 414 Lithic Artifacts 414 Chert 415 Marine Objects 417 Terrestrial Fauna 417 Human Remains 417 Ceramics 418 Summary: Early Classic Interior Caches 419 Exterior Caches 419 Patterning by Context Type 421 Artifact Analysis 425 Lithic Artifacts 425 Marine Objects 429 Ceramics 430 Discussion 434 Late Classic (I) Caches 438 Artifact Analysis 439 Lithic Artifacts 439 Marine Objects 440 Discussion 441 Late Classic (II) Caches 441 Interior Deposits 442 Patterning by Context Type 443 Artifact Analysis 444 Lithic Artifacts 444 Obsidian 444 Marine Objects 444 Ten-estrial Fauna 444 Ceramics 445 Discussion: Late Classic II Interior Caches 446 Exterior Deposits 446 Patterning by Context Type 447 Artifact Analysis 447 Lithic Artifacts 447 Marine Objects 448 11

TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued

Terrestrial Fauna 448 Ceramics 449 Discussion: Uaxactun in the Late Classic II 450 Summary 451

CHAPTER 6: INTRASITE PATTERNING AT ALTAR DE SACRIFICIOS 452 introduction 452 Late Preclassic 453 Treatment 455 Patteming by Context Type 456 Artifact Analysis 457 Lithic Artifacts 457 Terrestrial Fauna 458 Human Remains 459 Ceramics 459 Discussion: The Late Preclassic at Altar de Sacrificios 461 Eariy Classic 462 Treatment 465 Patteming by Context Type 466 Artifact Analysis 469 Lithic Artifacts 469 Marine Objects 471 Terrestrial Fauna 472 Ceramics 472 Discussion: Altar de Sacrificios during the Eariy Classic 475 Late Classic (I) 478 Patteming by Context Type 478 Artifact Analysis 478 Ceramics 478 Discussion: Altar de Sacrificios during the Late Classic 1 479 Late Classic (II) 479 Treatment 480 Patteming by Context Type 481 Artifact Analysis 484 Lithic Artifacts 484 Marine Materials 490 Terrestrial Fauna 491 Minerals and Pigments 491 Ceramics 492 Discussion: Altar de Sacrificios during the Late Classic (Pasi6n) 493 Terminal Classic and Postclassic 495 Treatment 495 Patteming by Context Type 496 Artifact Analysis 498 12

TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued

Lithic Artifacts 498 Censers 499 Ceramics 500 Discussion: The Tenninal and Post Classic at Altar de Sacrificios ... 501

CHAPTER 7: INTRASITE PATTERNING AT SEIBAL 503 Introduction 503 Middle Preclassic 506 Artifact Analysis 507 Jade 507 Ceramics 508 Discussion; The Middle Preclassic at Seibal 508 Late Preclassic 509 Patteming by Context Type 510 Artifact Analysis 510 Ceramics 510 Discussion: The Late Preclassic at Seibal 511 Early Classic and Late Classic 1 512 Late Classic II 513 Patteming by Context Type 514 Artifact Analysis 515 Ceramics 515 Discussion: The Late Classic (II) at Seibal 516 Terminal Classic 518 Patteming by Context Type 519 Artifact Analysis 521 Lithic Artifacts 521 Marine Objects 524 Censers 524 Ceramics 525 Discussion: The Terminal Classic at Seibal 526 Postclassic 529 Artifact Analysis 529 Ceramics 529 Discussion: Seibal during the Postclassic 530

CHAPTER 8: NORTHERN PETEN REGIONAL COMPARISON 531 Preclassic Deposits 531 Eariy Classic 532 Interior Deposits 532 Artifact Comparisons 534 Obsidian 534 Chert 535 Jade 536 13

TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued

Other Lithic Artifacts 537 Marine Objects 537 Terrestrial Faunal Remains 538 Human Remains 538 Ceramics 539 Other Material Categories 539 Exterior Deposits 540 Comparison by Context Type 542 Artifact Comparisons 546 Lithic Artifacts 546 Obsidian 546 Chert 548 Jade 550 Marine Objects 553 Ceramics 554 Discussion 556 Late Classic I 557 Artifact Analysis 558 Obsidian 558 Chert 559 Jade 559 Marine Objects 560 Discussion 560 Late Classic 11 561 Interior Deposits 562 Patterning by Context Type 563 Artifact Analysis 564 Obsidian 564 Marine Objects 565 Ten-estrial Fauna 566 Ceramics 566 Exterior Deposits 566 Patterning by Context Type 568 Artifact Analysis 569 Obsidian 569 Marine Materials 570 Ten-estrial Fauna 570 Ceramics 571 Discussion 571

CHAPTER 9: PASION REGIONAL COMPARISON 572 Introduction 572 Middle Predassic Caches 572 Late Predassic Caches 573 14

TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued

Eariy Classic Caches 575 Late Classic (I) Caches 576 Late Classic (II) Caches 577 Terminal Classic 579 Artifact Comparison 582 Obsidian Artifacts 582 Chert Artifacts 583 Jade Artifacts 584 Marine Materials 587 Terrestrial Fauna 588 Human Remains 588 Pigments 589 Censers 589 Ceramics 589 Discussion 591

CHAPTER 10: CONCLUSION 593 Goal 1: Understanding Cache Patterning Through Time 593 Goal 2: Understanding Intrasite Spatial Patterning 597 Goal 3; Caches in Historical Perspective 598 Goal 4: Intersite Cache Patterning 603

APPENDIX A; TIKAL NORTH ACROPOLIS CACHES 605

APPENDIX B: MUNDO PERDIDO CACHES 641

APPENDIX C: UAXACTUN CACHES 648

APPENDIX D: ALTAR DE SACRIFICIOS CACHES 655

APPENDIX E: SEIBAL CACHES 663

REFERENCES 668 15

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Chronological Sequence Used in Study 47 Table 3.1: Cache and Problematical Deposit Distribution Through Time 61 Table 3.2: Middle Preclassic Deposits 64 Table 3.3: Ceramics in Middle Preclassic Deposits 67 Table 3.4: Late Preclassic Deposits 69 Table 3.5: Ceramics in Late Preclassic Deposits 72 Table 3.6: Early Classic interior Deposits 79 Table 3.7: Obsidian-Bearing Interior Deposits 83 Table 3.8: Obsidian Artifact Types in Eariy Classic Interior Deposits 84 Table 3.9: Locations of Chert-Bearing Early Classic Interior Deposits 86 Table 3.10: Chert Artifacts in Eariy Classic Interior Deposits 87 Table 3.11: Jade-Bearing Interior Deposits from the Eariy Classic 87 Table 3.12: Jade Artifacts from Early Classic Interior Deposits 88 Table 3.13: Cinnabar in Eariy Classic Interior Deposits 89 Table 3.14: Distribution of Eariy Classic Spondylus sp.-Bearing Interior Deposits 90 Table 3.16: Shell Species in Eariy Classic Interior Deposits 90 Table 3.15: Spondylus sp. Artifacts in Eariy Classic interior Deposits 92 Table 3.17: Terrestrial Fauna in Early Classic Interior Deposits 95 Table 3.18: Ceramics in Eariy Classic Interior Deposits 96 Table 3.19: Censers in Eariy Classic Interior Deposits 97 Table 3.20: Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits 99 Table 3.21: Locations of Exterior Problematical Deposits 101 Table 3.22: Locations of Obsidian Artifacts 109 Table 3.23: Obsidian Artifact Types in Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits 112 Table 3.24: Eariy Classic Exterior Caches Containing Chert Artifacts 117 Table 3.25: Chert Artifacts in Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits 120 Table 3.26: Locations of Jade-Bearing Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits 123 Table 3.27: Jade Artifact Types in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 125 Table 3.28: Cinnabar in Eariy Classic ^erior Deposits 128 Table 3.29: Stingray Spine-Bearing Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits 130 Table 3.30 Stingray Spine Artifact Forms from Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits .... 132 Table 3.31: Distribution of Spondylus sp.-Bearing Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits .. 136 Table 3.32: Spondylus sp. Artifacts in ^erior Deposits 138 Table 3.33: Shellfish Species found in Eariy Classic exterior deposits 141 Table 3.34: Anadara . in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 144 Table 3.35: Anomalocardia sp. in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 145 Table 3.36: Area Imbricata, A. zebra, and A. sp. in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches .. 145 Table 3.37: Brachidontes sp. in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 147 Table 3.38: Cancellaria reticulata in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 148 Table 3.39: Cerithlum in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 149 Table 3.40: Chama in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 150 Table 3.41: Chione cancellata in Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits 151 Table 3.42: Codakia orbicularis in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 152 Table 3.43: Columbella mercatoria in Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits 152 Table 3.44: Conus Shells in Exterior Early Classic Caches 153 16

LIST OF TABLES ~ Continued

Table 3.45: Crepidula aculeata and C. fomicata In Eariy Classic Exterior Caches .. 154 Table 3.46: Cnicibulum sp. Shells in Exterior Eariy Classic Caches 155 Table 3.47: Dinocardium robustum Shells in Exterior Eariy Classic Caches 156 Table 3.48: Lyropecten subnodosus Shells in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 158 Table 3.49: Marginella Shells in Exterior Eariy Classic Deposits 159 Table 3.50: Modulus module Shells in Exterior Eariy Classic Caches 159 Table 3.51: Mulina Shells in Exterior Eariy Classic Caches 160 Table 3.52: Murex Shells in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 160 Table 3.53: Nerita Shells from Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 161 Table 3.54: Noetia ponderosa from Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 162 Table 3.55: Ostrea Shells in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 163 Table 3.56: Plicatula sp. in Early Classic Exterior Caches 165 Table 3.57: Pninum Shells in Early Classic Exterior Deposits 166 Table 3.58: Trachycardium Shells in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 167 Table 3.59: Vermiculan'a spirata and Vermetidae in Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits . 168 Table 3.60: Coral-Bearing Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 172 Table 3.61: S^yozoa-Bearing Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 173 Table 3.62: Pearis and Imitation Pearls in Early Classic Exterior Caches 174 Table 3.63: Terrestrial Faunal Remains in Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits 176 Table 3.64: Crocodile Remains in Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits 179 Table 3.65: Snake Remains in Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits 180 Table 3.66: Turtle Remains in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 181 Table 3.67: Freshwater Snail Shells in Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits 182 Table 3.68: Human Remains in Early Classic Exterior Deposits 183 Table 3.69: Ceramics in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 187 Table 3.70: Ceramics in Eariy Classic Exterior Problematical Deposits 188 Table 3.71: Censers in Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits 190 Table 3.72: Copal in Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits 190 Table 3.73: Organic Objects in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 191 Table 3.74: Mosaic Remains from Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits 192 Table 3.75: Late Classic (Ik) Interior Caches 201 Table 3.76: Late Classic (Ik) Interior Problematical Deposits 202 Table 3.77: Obsidian in Late Classic I (Ik) Interior Deposits 206 Table 3.78: Obsidian Artifacts in Late Classic I Interior Deposits 208 Table 3.79: Locations of Interior Late Classic (Ik) Chert Bearing Caches 209 Table 3.80: Chert Artifacts in Interior Late Classic (Ik) Caches 210 Table 3.81: Locations of Late Classic (Ik) Interior Jade-Bearing Deposits 212 Table 3.82: Jade Artifacts in Late Classic (Ik) Interior Deposits 213 Table 3.83: Cinnabar in Late Classic 1 Interior Deposits 214 Table 3.84: Azurite in Late Classic I Interior Caches 215 Table 3.85: Malachite in Late Classic I interior Deposits 216 Table 3.86: Late Classic (Ik) Stingray Spine Depositional Locations 217 Table 3.87: Stingray Spines in Interior Deposits 219 Table 3.88: Locations of Late Classic (Ik) Interior Deposits with Spondylus sp 221 17

LIST OF TABLES - Continued

Table 3.89 Spondylus sp. Remains in Late Classic (Ik) Interior Deposits 222 Table 3.90: Shell Species in Late Classic (Ik) Interior Deposits 223 Table 3.91: Anadara Shells in Late Classic I Interior Deposits 225 Table 3.92: Area shells In Late Classic I Interior Deposits 226 Table 3.93: Barnacles in Late Classic I Interior Deposits 227 Table 3.94: Brachidontes sp. in Late Classic I Interior Deposits 228 Table 3.95: Chama sp. in Late Classic I Interior Caches 230 Table 3.96: Chione cancellata in Late Classic I Interior Deposits 230 Table 3.97: Crspidula aculeata and C. fomicata in Late Classic I Interior Caches .. 231 Table 3.98: D. robustum in Late Classic I interior Deposits 233 Table 3.99: Glycymeris sp. in Late Classic I Interior Deposits 234 Table 3.100: Mulina in Late Classic I Interior Deposits 235 Table 3.101: A/, ponderosa in Late Classic Interior Caches 236 Table 3.102: Ostrea sp. in Late Classic I Interior Deposits 236 Table 3.103: Pinna in Late Classic I Interior Deposits 237 Table 3.104: Plicatula sp. in Late Classic I Interior Deposits 238 Table 3.105: Vermicularia and Vermetidae in Late Classic I Interior Deposits 240 Table 3.106: Shell Artifacts in Late Classic (Ik) Interior Deposits 240 Table 3.107: Fish Remains in Late Classic I Interior Deposits 242 Table 3.108: Porcupine Fish & Sawfish Remains in Late Classic I Interior Deposits . 243 Table 3.109: Coral in Late Classic I Interior Caches 244 Table 3.110: Bryozoa in Late Classic I Interior Deposits 245 Table 3.111: Gorgonians and Sponge in Late Classic I Interior Deposits 245 Table 3.112: Coquina in Late Classic I Interior Caches 247 Table 3.113: Fibrous Marine Material in Late Classic I Interior Deposits 247 Table 3.114: Terrestrial Fauna in Late Classic I Interior deposits 249 Table 3.115: Human Remains in Late Classic I Interior Deposits 251 Table 3.116: Ceramics in Late Classic I interior Deposits 252 Table 3.117: Censers In Late Classic I Interior Deposits 253 Table 3.118: Mosaic Remains in Late Classic I Interior Deposits 254 Table 3.119: Late Classic (Ik) Exterior Caches 257 Table 3.120: Late Classic (Ik) Exterior Problematical Deposits 258 Table 3.121: Obsidian in Late Classic (Ik) Exterior Deposits 263 Table 3.122: Obsidian Artifacts in Late Classic (Ik) Exterior Deposits 265 Table 3.123: Late Classic (Ik) Chert-Bearing Exterior Cache Locations 267 Table 3.124: Chert Artifact Types in Late Classic (Ik) Exterior Caches 268 Table 3.125: Jade in Late Classic (Ik) Exterior Deposits 269 Table 3.126: Jade Artifact Types in Late Classic (Ik) Exterior Deposits 270 Table 3.127: Late Classic (Ik) Stingray Spine Exterior Depositional Locations 271 Table 3.128: Stingray Spines in Exterior Deposits 272 Table 3.129: Spond^us sp. in Late Classic (Ik) Exterior Deposits 273 Table 3.130: Spondylus sp. Remains in Exterior Deposits 274 Table 3.131: Other Shellfish Species in Late Classic I Exterior Deposits 275 Table 3.132: Area Shells in Late Classic I Exterior Deposits 277 18

LIST OF TABLES - Continued

Table 3.133: Dinocardium robustum in Late Classic i Exterior Deposits 279 Table 3.134: Worked Shell in Late Classic I Exterior Deposits 282 Table 3.135: Corals, Bryozoa, and Gorgonians in Late Classic I Exterior Deposits .. 283 Table 3.136: Terrestrial Fauna from Late Classic I Exterior Deposits 284 Table 3.137: Human Remains in Late Classic I Exterior Deposits 286 Table 3.138: Ceramics from Late Classic I Exterior Deposits 287 Table 3.139: Mosaic Elements in Late Classic I Exterior Deposits 288 Table 3.140: Late Classic (Imix) Interior Deposits 292 Table 3.141: Late Classic (Imix) Interior Problematical Deposits 292 Table 3.142: Locations of Obsidian-Bearing Interior Late Classic Imix Deposits 296 Table 3.143: Obsidian Artifacts in Late Classic (Imix) Interior Deposits at Tikal 298 Table 3.144: Late Classic (Imix) Chert-Bearing Interior Problematical Deposits 299 Table 3.145: Chert Artifact Types in Late Classic (II) Interior Problematical Deposits 299 Table 3.146: Locations of Late Classic (Imix) Jade-Bearing Interior Deposits 300 Table 3.147: Jade Artifacts in Late Classic (Imix) Interior Deposits 300 Table 3.148: Minerals and Pigments in Late Classic 11 Interior Deposits 301 Table 3.149: Late Classic (Imix) Stingray Spine-Bearing Caches 302 Table 3.150: Stingray Material Present in Late Classic II Interior Deposits 303 Table 3.151: Late Classic (Imix) Deposits containing Spondylus sp. Remains 304 Table 3.152: Spondylus sp. Remains in Late Classic (Imix) Deposits 305 Table 3.153: Other Shellfish Species in Late Classic II Interior Deposits 306 Table 3.154: Area Shells in Late Classic II Interior Deposits 308 Table 3.155: Balanus sp. in Late Classic II Interior Deposits 309 Table 3.156: Noetia ponderosa in Late Classic II Interior Deposits 312 Table 3.157: Ostrea sp. in Late Classic II Interior Deposits 312 Table 3.158: Worked Shell in Late Classic II Interior Deposits 314 Table 3.159: Fish Remains from Late Classic II Interior Deposits 315 Table 3.160: Bryozoa in Late Classic II Interior Deposits 317 Table 3.161: Gorgonians and Sponge in Late Classic II Interior Deposits 317 Table 3.162: Fibrous Marine Objects from Late Classic II Interior Deposits 318 Table 3.163: Terrestrial Fauna from Late Classic II Interior Deposits 319 Table 3.164: Human Remains from Late Classic II Interior Deposits 321 Table 3.165: Ceramics in Late Classic II Interior Deposits 322 Table 3.166: Censers in Late Classic II Interior Protilematical Deposits 323 Table 3.167: Organics and Seeds in Late Classic II Interior Deposits 324 Table 3.168: Mosaic Elements in Late Classic II Interior Deposts 324 Table 3.169: Late Classic (Imix) Exterior Caches 326 Table 3.170: Late Classic (Imix) Exterior Problematical Deposits 326 Table 3.171: Late Classic (Imix) Obsidian-Bearing Exterior Deposits 333 Table 3.172: Obsidian Artifact forms in Exterior Late Classic (Imix) Deposits 333 Table 3.173: Late Classic (Imix) Chert-Bearing Exterior Cache Locations 335 Table 3.174: Chert Artifact Types in Late Classic (Imix) Exterior Caches 335 Table 3.175: Locations of Late Classic (Imix) Jade-Bearing Exterior Deposits 336 19

LIST OF TABLES - Continued

Table 3.176: Jade Artifacts In Exterior Deposits 336 Table 3.177: Late Classic 11 Caches containing Stingray Spines 338 Table 3.178: Other Shell Species in Late Classic 11 Exterior Deposits 339 Table 3.179: Human Skeletal Remains from Late Classic II Exterior Deposits 347 Table 3.180: Ceramics in Late Classic II Exterior Deposits 348 Table 3.181: Censers in Late Classic II Exterior Deposits 350 Table 3.182: Locational Variables of Tikal North Acropolis Postclassic Deposits ... 354 Table 3.183: Human Skeletal Remains in Postclassic Interior Deposits 359 Table 4.1: Middle Preclassic Deposits in Mundo Perdido 366 Table 4.2: Middle Preclassic Cache and Problematical Deposit Contexts 367 Table 4.3.: Late Preclassic Cache Locations 371 Table 4.4: Late Preclassic Cache and Problematical Deposit Contexts 371 Table 4.5: Early Classic Deposits from Mundo Perdido 376 Table 4.6: Eariy Classic Depositional Contexts in Mundo Perdido 377 Table 4.7: Obsidian Artifact Frequencies in Eariy Classic PD's 385 Table 4.8: Chert Artifacts in Eariy Classic Problematical Deposits 387 Table 4.9: Jade-Bearing Eariy Classic Caches 388 Table 4.10: Jade Artifacts in Eariy Classic Caches 390 Table 4.11: Minerals and Pigments in Eariy Classic Caches 391 Table 4.12: Minerals and Pigments In Eariy Classic Caches 391 Table 4.13: Spondylus-Beamg Eariy Classic Caches 392 Table 4.14: Spondylus In Eariy Classic Caches 393 Table 4.15: Eariy Classic Shell-Bearing Deposits 394 Table 4.16: Shells in Eariy Classic Deposits 395 Table 4.17: Fauna-Bearing Eariy Classic Deposits 397 Table 4.18: Terrestrial Vertebrate Faunal Remains in Eariy Classic Deposits 397 Table 4.19: Human Remains-Bearing Eariy Classic Deposits 398 Table 4.20: Human Remains in Eariy Classic Deposits 399 Table 4.21: Eariy Classic Ceramic-Bearing Deposits 400 Table 4.22: Ceramics in Eariy Classic Deposits 401 Table 5.1: Cache Frequencies at Uaxactun by Time Period 407 Table 5.2: Eariy Classic Interior Deposits 411 Table 5.3: Chert Artifacts in Eariy Classic Interior Deposits 415 Table 5.4: Ceramics in Eariy Classic Interior Caches 418 Table 5.5: Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits 420 Table 5.6: Obsidian Artifacts in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 425 Table 5.7: Chert Artifacts in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 426 Table 5.8: Jade Artifacts in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 427 Table 5.9: Marine Objects in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 429 Table 5.10: Ceramics In Eariy Classic Exterior Caches 430 Table 5.11: Late Classic (II) Cache Locations 442 Table 5.12: Ceramics In Late Classic (II) Interior Deposits 446 Table 5.13: Obsidian Artifacts in Late Classic (II) Exterior Caches 448 Table 6.1: Altar de Sacrificios Cache Distribution Through Time 453 LIST OF TABLES - Continued

Table 6.2: Late Preclassic Cache Locations Table 6.3: Ceramics in Late Preclassic Caches Table 6.4: Early Classic Caches Table 6.4A: Revised Early Classic Cache Distribution Table 6.5: Chert Eccentric Forms in Early Classic Altar Caches Table 6.6: Early Classic Cache Ceramics Table 6.7: Pasi6n Phase Caches Table 6.8: Chert Artifacts in Pasi6n Phase Caches Table 6.9: Late Classic (Pasion) Eccentric Fonns Table 6.10: Comparison of Eariy and Late Classic (Pasion) Eccentric Forms Table 6.11: Stingray Spines in Pasion Phase Caches Table 6.12: Late Classic (Pasi6n) Caches containing Pigments Table 6.13: Terminal and Post Classic Caches Table 6.14: Terminal and Post Classic Obsidian-Bearing Caches Table 6.15: Ceramics in Terminal Classic Caches Table 7.1: Seibal Caches Through Time Table 7.2: Center and Periphery Cache Distribution Through Time Table 7.3: Jade Artifacts in Middle Preclassic Caches Table 7.4: Late Preclassic Cache Contexts Table 7.5: Ceramics in Late Preclassic Caches Table 7.6: Late Classic II Cache Contexts Table 7.7: Late Classic (II) Cache Ceramics Table 7.8: Terminal Classic Cache Contexts Table 7.9: Jade in Terminal Classic Caches Table 7.10: Censers from Terminal Classic Caches Table 7.11: Terminal Classic Cache Ceramics Table 7.12: Postclassic Cache Ceramics Table 8.1: Depositional Context Frequency at Tikal and Uaxactun Table 8.2: Chert Artifact Types in Eariy Classic Interior Deposits Table 8.3: Exterior Cache Context Distributions at Tikal and Uaxactun Table 8.4: Obsidian-Bearing Contexts at Tikal and Uaxactun Table 8.5: Obsidian Artifact Type Frequencies at Tikal and Uaxactun Table 8.6: Comparison of Chert-Bearing Contexts at Tikal and Uaxactun Table 8.7: Chert Artifect Type Frequencies at Tikal and Uaxactun Table 8.8: Comparison of Jade-Bearing Contexts at Tikal and Uaxactun Table 8.9: Jade Artifect Types at Tikal and Uaxactun Table 8.10: Ceramic-bearing Contexts at Tikal and Uaxactun Table 8.11: Obsidian Artifacts in Late Classic I Stela Caches at Tikal and Uaxactun.

Table 8.12: Chert Artifact Types in Late Classic I Stela Caches at Tikal and Uaxactun

Table 8.13: Late Classic II Interior Deposit Contexts at Tikal and Uaxactun Table 8.14: Obsidian Artifact Types at Tikal and Uaxactun Table 8.15: Late Classic 11 Exterior Deposit Contexts at Tikal and Uaxactun 21

LIST OF TABLES - Continued

Table 8.16: Obsidian Artifacts in Late Classic II Exterior Deposits at Tikal and Uaxactun 569 Table 9.1; Late Preclassic Cache Locations at Altar de Sacrificios and Seibal 573 Table 9.2: Late Classic (II) Cache Locations at Altar de Sacrificios and Seibal 578 Table 9.3: Terminal Classic Cache Locations at Altar de Sacrifidos and Seibal 580 Table 9.4: Obsidian Artifacts at Altar de Sacrificios and Seibal 583 Table 9.5: Chert Artifacts at Seibal and Altar de Sacrificios 583 Table 9.6: Jade Artifacts at Altar de Sacrificios and Seibal 584 Table 9.7: Marine Objects at Altar de Sacrificios and Seibal 587 Table A1: Tikal Sub-Floor Deposits 605 Table A2: Through-Floor Deposits 608 Table A3: Tikal Surface Deposits 612 Table A4: Tikal Deposits with Undescribed Treatment 612 Table A5: Centered Deposits at Tikal 614 Table A6: Burned Deposits at Tikal 617 Table A7: Re-Opened Deposits at Tikal 618 Table A8: Resealed Tikal Deposits 619 Table A9: Stair Deposits at Tikal 622 Table A10: Stairbase Deposits at Tikal 623 Table A11: Stairtop Deposits at Tikal 624 Table A12: Room Deposits at Tikal 624 Table A13: Bench Deposits at Tikal 627 Table A14: Door Deposit at Tikal 627 Table A15: Lintel Deposits at Tikal 627 Table A16: Chultuns at Tikal 628 Table A17: Bedrock Deposits at Tikal 628 Table A18: Platform Deposits at Tikal 628 Table A19: Court Deposits at Tikal 629 Table A20: Construction Fill Deposits at Tikal 630 Table A21: Mask Deposits at Tikal 630 Table A22: Wall Deposits at Tikal 630 Table A23: Terrace Deposits at Tikal 631 Table A24: Stela Deposits at Tikal 631 Table A25: Rare Context Desposits at Tikal 633 Table A26: Mixed Context Deposits at Tikal 634 Table A27: Middle Preclassic Deposits 635 Table A28: Late Predassic Deposits 635 Table A29: Eariy Classic Deposits 635 Table A30: Late Classic 1 Deposits 637 Table A31: Late Classic II Deposits 639 Table A32: Postclassic Deposits 640 Table 81: Sub-Floor Deposits 641 Table B2: Through-Floor Deposits 642 Table 83: Deposits with Undescribed Treatment 642 22

LIST OF TABLES - Continued

Table B4: Centerllne Deposits 643 Table B5: Stair Context Caches 643 Table B6: Stalrbase Context Caches 644 Table B7: Altar Context Caches 644 Table 88: Bench Context Caches 644 Table B9: Chultuns 644 Table B10: Court Context Caches 644 Table B11: Construction Fill Caches 645 Table B12: Mixed Context Deposits 645 Table B13; Platfonn Context Deposits 646 Table B14: Rare Context Deposits 646 Table B15: Room Context Deposits 646 Table B16: Structure Context Deposits 647 Table B17; Wall Context Deposits 647 Table CI: Subfloor Caches 648 Table C2: Through-Floor Caches 649 Table C3: Surface Caches 649 Table C4: Centerline Caches 650 Table C5: Reseated Caches 650 Table C6: Stair Caches 650 Table C7: Stairbase Caches 651 Table C8: Room Caches 651 Table C9: Door Caches 652 Table CIO: Platform Caches 652 Table C11: Structure Caches 652 Table C12: Construction Fill Caches 653 TabteC13: Wall Caches 653 Table C14: Terrace Caches 653 Table C15: Stela Caches 653 Table C16: Altar Caches 654 Table C17: Mixed Location Caches 654 Table D1: Sub-Floor Caches 655 Table D2: Through-Floor Caches 657 Table D3: Surface Caches 657 Table D4: Caches with Undescribed Treatment 657 Table D5: Centerline Caches 658 Table D6: Stair Caches 659 Table D7: Stalrbase Caches 659 Table D8: Platform Caches 659 Table D9: Terrace Caches 659 Table D10: Wall Caches 660 Table D11: Structure Caches 660 Table D12: Construction Fill Caches 660 Table D13: Stela Caches 661 23

LIST OF TABLES - Continued

Table D14: Altar Caches 661 Table D15: Rare (Other) Context Caches 661 Table D16: Mixed Context Caches 662 Table E1; Sub-Floor Caches 663 Table E2: Through-Floor Caches 663 Table E3; Surface Caches 663 Table E4: Caches with Undescribed Treatment 664 Table E5; Table 35: Centeriine Caches 664 Table E6: Re-Opened Caches 665 Table E7: Resealed Caches 665 Table E8: Table S8: Stair Caches 665 Table E9: Platform Caches 665 Table E10: Court Caches 666 Table El 1: Structure Caches 666 Table El 2: Construction Fill Caches 666 Table El 3: Stela Caches 666 Table El4: Altar Caches 667 Table El 5: Rare Context Caches 667 Table E16: Mixed Context Caches 667 24

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1: Cache and Problematical Deposit Frequency Change Through Time .... 62 Figure 3.2; Middle Preclassic Depositional Contexts 65 Figure 3.3: Late Preclassic Depositional Contexts 69 Figure 3.4: Early Classic Interior Depositional Locations 80 Figure 3.5: Early Classic Interior Obsidian-Bearing Deposits 83 Figure 3.6: Early Classic Interior Chert-Bearing Deposits 86 Figure 3.7: Early Classic Exterior Cache Contexts 101 Figure 3.8: Early Classic Exterior Problematical Deposit Contexts 102 Figure 3.9: Early Classic Exterior Obsidian-Bearing Contexts 111 Figure 3.10: Comparison of Distributions of Obsidian Eccentrics and Flakes 115 Figure 3.11: Comparison of Distribution of Obsidian Eccentrics and Debitage 116 Figure 3.12: Distribution of Obsidian Eccentrics and Modified Flakes 116 Figure 3.13: Early Classic Exterior Chert-Bearing Contexts 119 Figure 3.14: Comparison of Frequencies of Chert and Obsidian Eccentrics 122 Figure 3.15: Early Classic Exterior Jade-Bearing Contexts 124 Figure 3.16: Early Classic Exterior Stingray Spine-Bearing Contexts 131 Figure 3.17: Eariy Classic Exterior Spondylus sp.-Bearing Contexts 137 Figure 3.18: Viem7ef/dae specimens by Context 169 Figure 3.19: Large Reptiles in Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits 178 Figure 3.20: Eariy Classic Exterior Contexts Yielding Human Skeletal Remains .... 185 Figure 3.21: Eariy Classic Exterior Ceramic-Bearing Contexts 189 Figure 3.22: Early Classic Exterior Mosaic Element-Bearing Contexts 193 Figure 3.23: Late Classic I Interior Cache Contexts 202 Figure 3.24: Late Classic I Interior Problematical Deposit Contexts 203 Figure 3.25: Late Classic I Interior Obsidian-Bearing Contexts 207 Figure 3.26: Late Classic I Interior Chert-Bearing Contexts 210 Figure 3.27: Late Classic I Interior Jade-Bearing Contexts 212 Figure 3.28: Late Classic 1 Interior Stingray Spine-Bearing Contexts 218 Figure 3.29: Late Classic I Exterior Cache Contexts 258 Figure 3.30: Late Classic I Exterior Obsidian-Bearing Contexts 264 Figure 3.31: Late Classic 1 Exterior Chert-Bearing Contexts 267 Figure 3.32: Late Classic II Exterior Depositional Contexts 327 Figure 4.1: Middle Preclassic Depositional Contexts 367 Figure 4.2: Late Preclassic Depositional Contexts 372 Figure 4.3: Eariy Classic Cache Contexts 378 Figure 5.1: Cache Frequencies at Uaxactun by Time Period 408 Figure 5.2: Eariy Classic Interior Cache Contexts at Uaxactun 411 Figure 5.3: Eariy Classic Exterior Cache Contexts at Uaxactun 421 Figure 5.4: Ceramic Vessel Shapes in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches at Uaxactun .. 433 Figure 5.5: Late Classic II Cache Contexts at Uaxactun 442 Figure 6.1: Cache Distribution Through Time at Altar de Sacrificios 454 Figure 6.2: Late Preclassic Cache Locations 455 Figure 6.3: Eariy Classic Cache Locations 463 Figure 6.4: Revised Eariy Classic Cache Distribution 465 25

LIST OF FIGURES - Continued

Figure 6.5: Pasi6n Phase Cache Contexts 481 Figure 6.6: Pasi6n Phase Eccentric Forms 487 Figure 6.7: Comparison of Eariy and Late Classic (II) Eccentric Forms 489 Figure 6.8: Terminal and Post Classic Cache Contexts 496 Figure 7.1: Selbal Cache Distribution Through Time 505 Figure 7.2: Center and Periphery Cache Distribution Through Time 506 Figure 7.3: Terminal Classic Cache Contexts 519 Figure 9.1: Jade Artifact Types at Seibal and Altar de Sacrificios 585 Figure 9.2: Ceramic Vessel Shape at Seibal and Altar de Sacrificios 591 26

ABSTRACT

Despite a long history of recovery and description, Maya caches have received surprisingly little attention, and detailed analyses and comparisons are lacking. This study analyzes caches from Tikal, Uaxactun, Altar de Sacrificios, and Seibal in relation to where and how these were placed, associated material inclusions, and how these variables change through time. Regional comparison demonstrates remarkable cache dissimilarities at each center; however, comparison with political history indacates that major changes in patterns correlate with periods of political upheaval, wars, and dynastic changes.

At Tikal, caches explode in frequency and degree of elaboration in the North

Acropolis ~ at the expense of Mundo Perdido - immediately following the Uaxactun event of AD 378, and the dynastic change of AD 379. Caches maintain a pattern of placement in exterior areas emenable to viewing by large audiences throughout the Eariy

Classic. This changes dramatically during the Late Classic, following Tikal's defeat by

Caracol in AD 562, which leads to the majority of caches being located in interior areas, and to changes in cache content. Obsidian, jade, and Spondylus shells all decline in frequency, while the use of poisonous marine objects increases substantially. Following the rise of Ruler A in AD 695, caches are once again most common in exterior locations .

Tikal's re-emergence as a major power marks the end of the North Acropolis as a key area for ritual behaviour, and caches show a corresponding decline in elaboration.

Uaxactun remains Tikal's subject for the duration of the Classic period; yet,

Uaxactun caches show few similarities to those of Tikal. Uaxactun's center of cache placement shifts from Group E to Groups A and B simintaneously with the move to the

North Acropolis from Mundo Perdido at Tikal, apparently as a result of Tikal's dynastic 27 change. At Seibal, caches are rare prior to the Terminal Classic, when they undergo a minor flouresence immediately following the collapse of Dos Pilas' empire. Altar de

Sacrificios caches are remarkably stable, and it is notable that the site lacking sudden

and dramatic changes in cache patterns is the only site whose political history shows no

signs of warfare. 28

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Introduction

There have iseen more than 100 years of excavation and analysis of archaeological materials in the Maya lowlands, and the "votive cache," a ritual deposit usually considered an offering, has been part of the Mayanist's vernacular since at least the 1930s. Yet, despite the time depth of the awareness of these deposits, there has never been an attempt to understand caches on a broad scale. Intra-site comparisons are available (and several are discussed below), but inter-site studies are nonexistent.

The primary purpose of this dissertation is to make up for this lack, and to provide both intra- and inter-site analyses for several well-documented and well known Classic period centers.

The specific goals of this dissertation are fourfold. The first is to understand the patterning of caches through time, including changes and stabilities in their content, in the types of contexts used for their setting (such as below carved stelae, in pyramid steps), and their overall frequencies. The second is to understand the spatial patterning of caches within a site. This is done in a non-specific fashion, employing general categories such as Room cache, or Stair cache, to allow for comparison between sites.

Spatial patterning of necessity must be understood through time, and thus is closely linked to the first goal. Also important to the understanding of spatial patterning is the evaluation of changes and stability in cache inclusions in different areas of a given site.

The third goal is to attempt to understand changes and periods of stability in cache patterns (both spatial and temporal) in historical perspective - that is, to attempt to relate 29 cache patterns to the political history of each site included in this study. This is limited in scope somewhat by the highly general goals of understanding spatial and temporal variation, but broad-scale pattems can be placed within a general Maya history. The fourth and final goal is very broad in scope: the comparison of caches from several sites through time. The sites and the reasons for their selection are discussed below.

Caches Defined

In the discussion of Group E at Uaxactun, Ricketson (1937:139) discusses a type of deposit termed cists, used primarily as a means of distinguishing human burials from the interment of skulls in a non-burial, ceremonial context. Ricketson notes that the terni cist

has not been used exclusively for areas containing human remains but also for more or less well-defined areas in the ground or in the rubble of temples, wherein were found objects other than human remains. These objects show that they had been placed with intent, ceremonial or otherwise (Ricketson 1937:139).

Apparently Ricketson considered the intentionality of the deposit to be an important distinguishing characteristic, and used this as a basis to distinguish between cists and caches:

As opposed to cist, the word cache has been used to define a group of objects found scattered formlessly within the earth whenever they are obviously related, as for instance, by their common location beneath a stela. The essential difference between a cist and a cache is the presence of recognizable, tangible boundaries in the case of the former and their absence in the latter (Ricketson 1937:139). it is clear that Ricketson considers caches and dsts to be similar entities, apparently differing due to the degree of formality of the deposit. Given this distinction, it can t>e infen'ed that Ricketson would have attributed caches and cists to different types of 30 behaviour. R.E. Smith (1937:195-196) reiterates the position advocated by Ricketson, distinguishing between caches and cists on the basis of the presence (dst) or absence

(cache) of formal, well-defined boundaries.

Later studies of the Uaxactun material (A.L. Smith 1950) resulted in a different definition. A.L. Smith (1950:91) states that "the tenm cache is applied to one or more objects or an animal that appears to have been buried as a votive offering and not to have been associated with a burial." The concept of a cist is still employed, but it is now used to describe a type of cache, rather than treated as a distinct entity. Thus, the concept of a "votive offering" has displaced the formal setting of the deposit itself as the most important criterion in defining a cache.

In a detailed analysis of caches and burials from Piedras Negras, William Coe

(1959) provides probably the most detailed definition of a cache, and one which is still used, at least impiidtiy, by most Mayanists today. Coe continues in the same vein as

Smith (1950), stressing the "votive" nature of caches rather than their spatial component.

Thus, according to Coe (1959:77)

the term cache fitalics original].- refers to one or more objects found together, but apart from burials, whose grouping and situation point to intentional intennent as an offering. The tenn is customarily used in Maya archaeology in conjunction with the term "votive...."

The primary criterion in recognizing a cache is its nature as an offering, rather than the spatial and structural nature of the deposit itself. This scheme has merit, as it does not require the researcher to distinguish between caches and dsts as two different types of offerings; at the same time it is potentially problematic, as it assumes that all caches are offerings, regardless of their location, depositional nature, content, or context.

Coe (1965:462) later added a further refinement to the definition of a cache - the 31 deposit must be hidden. This is contrasted with offerings which

...may have been simply left in a whole or fragmentary state on the surface of an obsolete structure or superficially intruded into it. Concealment by new construction nevertheless might be considered as incidental and such offerings cannot be classified property as "caches" (Coe 1965:462).

Certainly adding the requirement of being hidden is well in keeping with the dictionary definition of a cache (as a hiding place). However, it seems restrictive within the framework proposed by Coe and A.L. Smith. If a cache is a votive offering first and foremost, then why distinguish it from a surface votive offering? While such deposits are unusual in the Maya lowlands, they are present at centers such as Tikal and Uaxactun, and should not be dismissed as non-caches based solely on their depositional context.

In discussing the caches of Altar de Sacrificios, A.L. Smith (1972) not surprisingly uses a combination of his own (A.L Smith 1950) and Coe's (1959) definition of caches as votive offerings, distinct from burials. A.L. Smith also points out that caches can be utilitarian in nature, with their primary function being for storage (although no such caches were encountered at Altar de Sacrificios). A.L. Smith (1982) applies the same approach to the Seibal caches.

Thus, the worWng definition of caches seems to have been set by the seminal wori< of Coe (1959,1965) and A.L Smith (1950), with later researchers either adopting these definitions verbatim or modifying them as necessary to fit local conditions (e.g.,

Driver 1995). Recent publications such as Tikal Report 14 (Coe 1990) and Pendergast's volumes on Altun Ha (Pendergast 1979,1982,1990) rely on implicit, rather than explicit, cache definitions, all of which seem to fit well within the general framework established by Coe and A.L. Smith. Thus, the ritual nature of caches is emphasized, while their possible storage function is downplayed. 32

Scheie and Freidel (1990:437-438) offer a more spiritual interpretation:

Offerings of precious and powerful objects are common in the record of Maya royal temples. These are typically called dedicatory offerings with the connotation that the objects were given to the gods by the devout to sanctify buildings and can/ed stone monuments like stelae. [Heirioom] objects were principally used in shamanistic rituals perfonned by kings to materialize sacred beings in this worid. The burial of such objects in buildings or carved monuments enhanced their power to function as the pathways of this type of communication and as portals to the other worid. Just as caching of whole objects focussed sacred power, the reciprocal act was to smash and bum objects to release sacred objects prior to scattering or sprinkling. This last kind of termination ritual... was often carried out in the same general cycle as dedicatory rituals.

While Scheie and Freidel may well have a valid point, they offer little evidence to support their interpretations. However, Freidel, Scheie, and Parker (1993:234-235) note

The rituals [the] Maya designed to accomplish these acts of ensouling and tenninating objects and places represent a significant portion of the Classic inscriptions and the archaeological record. In their texts, the Classic Maya described the action of dedication in several ways - "to make proper," "to bless," "to circumambulate" [through the four quarters], "to sense with smoke."" to deposit plates full of offerings," "to set something in the ground."

Glyphic evidence of this nature demonstrates the importance of caches within Maya belief systems, and strongly suggests that many caches are indeed offerings.

For the purposes of this study, a cache is defined as a discrete deposit containing the residue of ritual behaviour. Offerings are probably the most common type of behaviour which will result in a cache deposit, and indeed the majority of the caches known throughout the Maya lowlands are probably offerings of one sort or another.

However, caches may also result from the disposal of ritual objects that have ended their use-life, which Walker (1995) refers to as ceremonial trash. 33

Caches versus burials

Researchers have ail noted the similarities of caches and burials, especially when

circumstance and content cause these two categories to ovedap. Yet these same researchers have seen fit to distinguish between caches and burials, recognizing that

they are probably very different entities. Ricketson (1937:139) describes burials as the

inhumation of human remains in graves, arguing that the diagnostic characteristic of a

burial is the evidence that an entire human body had been interred, even if the skeleton

was incomplete upon excavation. Ricketson contrasts burials with deposits containing

isolated skulls, assuming that the latter had a ceremonial function. This dichotomy is of

considerable importance in interpreting Maya ritual deposits, as burials often contain

ceremonial artifacts, and caches often contain human remains. Ricketson's criterion for

distinguishing between these two types of deposits is fairiy strict, and appears to work

well for the Uaxactun data.

Also dealing with Uaxactun, A.L Smith (1950:88) defines a burial as "...including

everything connected with an interment, i.e.. grave, skeletal material, and associated

objects." It is interesting that A.L. Smith's definition of a cache includes the proviso that

the items found do not appear "...to have been associated with a burial' (A.L. Smith

1950:91). It is apparent from this definition that burials and caches are thought to be

very similar to each other in appearance, context, and by implication, function. Unlike

Ricketson, A.L. Smith does not immediately allow for the presence of human skeletal

remains in caches. However, he does later suggest that Ricketson's criteria are valid:

Burials E21-E23... and A27 should possibly be classified as caches, for they appear to have been votive offerings although they contained human remains. Each consisted of a human skull inside two cache bowls, in three cases placed lip to lip, in the fourth one inside the other inverted over the skull. The vessels are Tzakol orange ware bowls with flaring 34

sides. Three of the skulls were found with the upper two or three cervicals, indicating that they probably were not secondary burials but were of sacrificial victims whose heads had been cut off and placed below the temple floor as an offering (A.L Smith 1950:93).

In discussing the classificatory dilemma resulting from apparent cache deposits containing human remains, Coe (1965:464) notes that

...the only reliable diagnostic... is one's estimate of whether the skull was an object or a person in the minds of those responsible for its curious interment. If the former, the entire disposition constitutes a hidden offering; if the latter, a burial, regardless of incompleteness. Our nomenclature, conditioned by our own beliefs and concepts, may be misleading in attempts to explain ancient Maya behaviour (italics original).

As Coe (1959:77) notes, Uaxactun Burials E21, E22, E23, and A27 should be interpreted as deliberately placed ceremonial offerings, regardless of whether they are classified as burials or caches. This is true because the essence of these deposits is their ceremonial nature, not the nature of their contents. Further, the use of humans in ritual, both as sacrificial victims and as sources of skeletal elements, is known from

Mesoamerican ethnohistories (e.g., Davies 1973), meaning that the presence of human remains in a non-burial ceremonial context should not be surprising. Distinguishing between caches and burials will be even more problematical in the case of human sacrifice with the entire skeleton used in a dedicatory fashion. Coe (1959:77) mentions that such deposits are known from San Jose (Thompson 1939:220). A similar situation occurs at Teotihuacan. Recent tunnelling has revealed several occurrences of apparent human sacrifice, usually of several individuals (Cowgill 1993). Positioning of the skeletal remains (hands bound, etc.) strongly suggests the intentional sacrifice of these

Individuals. Their placement within the Temple of QuetzalcoatI makes it debatable whether these situations should be described as mass interments. Certainly it would 35 appear that these individuals were intentionally killed and placed within this structure, possibly under ritual circumstances. In such a case, these deposits may be better described as caches than as burials (although Cowgill [1993] refers to them as sacrificial burials). The finds of human mandibles used as ornaments provide additional evidence for the use of human remains in probable ceremonial contexts, although the function of these elements is unknown.

Coe (1959) notes that the apparent overiap between burials and caches may reflect an overiap in these concepts among the ancient Maya. This position has recently been championed by Becker (1992), who argues that both burials and caches are analogous, if not entirely functionally equivalent. Becker feels that the construction of etic typological categories will allow us to understand the emic categories used by the

Maya, and that distinguishing between burials and caches may be causing interpretive problems if the Maya themselves did not make such a distinction. The position is presented thus:

Quite obviously, many of the burials at Tikal were "making a ritual statement" while others were simply disposing of the remains of a deceased "person" using a less complex but still prescribed ritual. What we call burials also may have been the means by which the Maya eliminated bodies of "nonpersons," such as those of infants who had not yet been inducted into the society as a "person".... The conceptual continuum that appears to exist between caches and burials among the Classic Maya reflects a cognitive concern not unique to these complex people. Many cultures have a generalized category of "earth offerings," a category within which there may be various conditions that distinguish aspects (or stages) of the whole. Maya caches and burials, at least at Tikal during the Classic period, may not have been two different things, but rather two subsets of a single category called "earth offerings".... (Becker 1992:186).

Becker claims that one of the principal problems in distinguishing between burials and caches comes in dealing with secondary intemients, where it becomes quite possible 36 that the skeletal items encountered may have been deposited as offerings, and thus represent a cache rather than a true burial. Particulariy problematic is the situation where secondary burials are interred in trash deposits, or in areas which eventually are used for refuse disposal - particulariy if refuse is frequently used as construction fill.

Such a practice could result in the deposition of parts of a burial into a context that make the skeleton appear to be part of an offertory (and possibly dedicatory) cache.

Becker suggests that caches and burials be considered as elements of the same conceptual system, which he refers to as Earth Offerings, forming a typological continuum. Similar schemes have been suggested for other societies, such as the

Indus Civilization (Rissman 1988) and Bronze Age Europe (Bradley 1982), and have resulted in intriguing interpretations of the role of buried offerings within the respective socioeconomic systems. Certainly Becker's proposal provides the possibility of leading to a better understanding of how such deposits in the Maya area related to each other, and to the social system as a whole. At the same time, the suggestion is problematic because it is not fully developed. Linking caches with burials is a good idea, as these are cleariy very similar in many ways - both being interred, probably as an aspect of ritual,

and both having contents ranging from virtually nothing to a wealth of elaborate and exotic items. Rather, the problem is that simply suggesting that caches and burials are both earth offerings and demonstrating how the "types" tend to grade into one another has little interpretive value beyond alerting archaeologists to the fact that a simple

typological dichotomy may be forcing them to categorize deposits in a fashion that does not correspond to what the Maya intended. Since Ricketson (1937) originally defined cists and caches as looking like burials without skeletons, this hardly seems a revolutionary idea in Maya archaeology. The question is "what do we do with this 37 continuum?"

A final consideration is more philosophical: if caches and burials do represent variations of the same general concept among the Maya and other cultures, is there any need for the development of methods for distinguishing between these categories?

Becker (1992:185) argues that by constructing the proper etic typology, we can learn the emic categories employed by the Maya. This is similar to the stance championed by Pike

(1967), who views etic research as a "first step" towards understanding emic reality.

I strongly disagree with this perspective, and maintain that prehistoric emic categories cannot be reconstructed through archaeological research. We can guess about how the Maya categorized their worid, but without historical references, we can never know whether our guesses are con'ect. i believe feel that the goal of archaeological research is to create analytically useful categories, rather than to suggest that they reflect an unknowable Maya reality. This is in keeping with Harris' (1977:32-45) views on the importance of etic research, and in general with the perspectives of Steward

(1955) and White (1949). If no informants exist to provide confirmation, it is impossible to know whether emic categories have been recognized and understood.

Caches versus storage pits

In hunter-gatherer archaeology, the term cache is frequently used to describe a group of objects that are thought to have been placed in storage for future use. For example, one recent introductory textbook (Eddy 1991:305) defines a cache as "a group of artifacts stored or hidden in a hole." Binford (1987) discusses how the Alyawara sometimes cache portions of a carcass for future processing. Obviously, in this case caching refers to storing (or hiding) with the specific goal of future retrieval of the 38 object(s). Examples of this type are plentiful in hunter-gatherer archaeology (e.g.,

Richards and Rousseau 1987 discuss the presence of subterranean storage pits on the

Canadian plateau;), and the concept of caches as storage areas seems to be widely accepted. Use of the term cache to imply storage for future use has even been employed to describe the behaviours of early hominids. Potts (1984,1988) describes patterns of non-local lithic materials at Olduvai Gorge as having been cached to aid in future scavenging events.

It is obvious that the term cache has very different meanings to archaeologists working with different societies. Coe (1959:77; 1965:462) was careful to distinguish between the Mesoamericanist concept of a "votive cache" and the more utilitarian

"storage cache' of North American hunter-gatherer archaeology. Coe's (1959:117-118) discussion of North American caches demonstrates quite cleariy that while the same term is used to label both these and Mescamerican ceremonial offerings, two distinctive phenomena are being described. Among hunter-gatherers, caches seem to have existed primarily for the purpose of storing or hiding certain resources (food, lithic material) for later retrieval. On the other hand, Mesoamerican caches are viewed as offerings, with re-opening or later use of the cached objects probably never intended.

Plainly the tenrt cache is used to describe a wide variety of archaeological phenomena that seem to have little in common with each other beyond the idea of being hidden, or placed in a protective or convenient location. Such inconsistency in definition has the potential to result in severe problems in comparability among different researchers. 39

Caches versus hoards

As is discussed above, Maya caches do not appear very similar in function to the storage caches typically described in hunter-gatherer archaeology, particularly in North

America. However, Maya caches have similarities to Old Worid hoards, widely known from Britain (Bradley 1990), Westem Europe (Bradley 1988; Burgess and Coombs

1979), the Roman Empire (Reece 1988), and at least as far east as the Indus Valley

(Rissman 1988). Hoards typically contain metal artifacts, particulariy bronze axes (see

Needham 1988 for a more detailed discussion of metal hoard objects), and are known from a variety of different contexts including water and bog areas, as well as beneath rocks, in pits, and in association with settlements (Bradley 1982). Interpretations of the role of hoards and other similar types of deposits are many and varied (Ban'ett 1994;

Bradley 1982, 1985, 1987,1988,1990; Bradley and Edmonds 1993; Reece 1988;

Rissman 1988), and a detailed discussion is beyond the scope of this research.

However, the similarities between European hoards and Maya caches suggest that a brief discussion of European research may be instructive.

Like caches, hoards have proved difficult to distinguish from other types of deposits containing similar artifacts. Bradley (1982) notes that the same types of

artifacts are found in a variety of contexts, including graves, hoards, water finds (lake or

river bottoms, usually encountered while dredging), and in isolation. Although some of these are interpreted as chance losses, most are considered to be the result of intentional deposition, also like caches. Bradley (1982) argues that, while different in some respects, all these deposits can be interpreted as playing the same role within the social system - that of creating prestige through the destruction of property, in a manner similar to that observed in the Northwest Coast potlatch (Drucker 1939; Piddocke 1965) 40 and in Big man Feasts in Melanesia (Gregory 1980).

Bradley (1987) has suggested that the context of the hoard may t>e useful in distinguishing t>etween votive and utilitarian hoards, with utilitarian deposits more likely to be easily retrievable and possibly even marked. Rissman (1988:210) points out that

offerings are permanently deposited, while hoards are reserved for future recovery, and

should be of a secular quality. This distinction could prove useful for dealing with Maya

caches.

Dedicatory and non-dedicatory caches

Coe (1959:78) observes that caches may be dedicatory or non-dedicatory,

depending on their location. Dedicatory caches are defined as being placed with a

monument (presumably at the time of its installation), or during the constmction period of

an architectural feature that will later cover the cache. These criteria hold regardless of

the axial positioning of the cache. According to Coe, caches can also be considered

dedicatory if they penetrate a floor that is no longer to be used (which is recognized by

the presence of a new structure over the old). In this situation, the cache is considered

dedicatory to the new structure, even though it intrudes into the old one. Becker

(1992:189) elaborates on this idea, suggesting that this may represent the symbolic

"killing" of the old structure as well as the dedication of the new one. Such a cache could

thus be viewed as part of the termination ritual of the old structure, as well as a

dedication ritual for the new one.

Coe distinguishes between dedicatory caches and non-dedicatory caches in

instances where the floor has been penetrated, with a non-dedicatory cache defined as

one which penetrates through a floor which is still in use, and then is resealed. Thus, a 41

non-dedicatory cache can be recognized by the presence of a resealing. A.L. Smith

(1950:93) maices essentially the same distinction, arguing that Uaxactun caches located

in construction fill (and thus deposited during construction) were "certainly dedicatory."

Smith also argues that those caches which penetrated a floor were not dedicatory,

although he (like Coe) offers little justification for this interpretation. Presumably these

are non-dedicatory caches because the structure is already in use. However, no

explanation for the purpose of a non-dedicatory cache is offered by either author. Using

resealing as the sole criterion for the recognition of non-dedicatory caches is problematic

for another reason, primarily that sometimes caches are re-opened and then resealed

(e.g., Coe 1990). While this is not a common occurrence at any site in this study, it does

occur several times. Minimally, the recognition of non-dedicatory caches must take re­

opening into account.

Coe (1959:118-119) argues that the tenm "dedicatory" is used to express the idea

that the cache is "axially positioned, [and] non-intrusive," rendering the tenn "dedicatory"

non-functional. Thus, dedicatory caches are distinguished from intrusive caches, the

latter being caches which were placed through a floor rather than during building

construction or monument erection. This non-functional use of the terni dedicatory is

confusing, and such caches would be better described as simply "axial, non-intrusive."

Becker (1992:188-191), following Adams (1977), offers an interesting twist on the idea of caches being dedicatory to the structure in which they are found. He suggests the possibility that some structures were actually built in commemoration of the burial or cache beneath them. This would be similar to the case from dynastic Egypt, where massive grave stmctures were sometimes constructed to commemorate the individual intenred within them. (Oddly, after suggesting this idea, Becker [1992:191] virtually 42 dismisses it, arguing that the evidence "suggests that many Maya burials may have been viewed... "as offerings to the temples covering them..." rather than the temples serving as offerings to the burials.)

Expanding the Definition

The underiying concept in Maya archaeology is that a cache is an offering, although it is seldom clear to whom or to what these offerings are made. While I believe that many caches represent offerings, it seems unreasonable to assume that no other type of ritual behaviour could produce similar deposits. Caches may often be the residue of ritual behaviour, rather than its central focus. Walker's (1995) concept of ceremonial trash provides a useful example. It is quite possible that some deposits interpreted as caches (or possibly as problematical deposits) contain the buried remains of objects that were once used in ritual.

The deposition of these objects could occur for two primary reasons: (1) As a result of their ritual usage they have become damaged or womout, and are thus at the end of their use-life. They must be discarded, but cannot be disposed of in the same manner or within the same space as other artifacts, possibly due to the "power" they have acquired during ritual use (similar to Mana present among Polynesian royalty, which accumulates through time [J. Undenvood 1993: personal communication]). Thus, they are disposed of in a deposit which looks very much like a votive cache. Walker (1995) refers to this type of deposit as Ceremonial Trash. (2) The intentional disposal of ritual objects is for the intentional temnination of their use-life. This may be accomplished by burning, breaking, or othenwise ritually cleansing the objects (sensu Eliade 1959), or possibly by burial alone. Walker (1995) calls this disposal sacrifice. The primary 43 distinction from ceremonial trash is that the actual use-life of the artifact comes to an end with the act of sacrifice, rather than prior to the intemient. There are numerous examples of possibly sacrificed objects from Maya caches, such as obsidian blades that have their tips removed, broken stingray spines and eccentrics, and shattered or fragmentary ceramic vessels. Indeed, this type of behaviour is very similar to what Scheie and Freidel

(1990:459-460) refer to as Tennination Rituals:

Tennination rituals involving the smashing of artifacts of pottery, jade, and other materials, and the layering of these materials in white earth, are found not only upon the occasion of the permanent abandonment of buildings, but also at their reconstruction.

Refem'ng to certain caches and burials as ceremonial trash does not in itself lead to a better understanding of Maya ritual behaviour. However, if we no longer interpret all caches as offerings, the variability in cache content and particulariy the condition of the cached items may make more sense. Rather than wonder why an offering would consist of a broken pot or fractured jade celt, these deposits may be viewed as the final resting place of ritual objects whose use-life had ended.

The Need for a Regional Synthesis of Caches

The preceding discussion makes it clear that there has been virtually no previous attempt at synthesizing the data and patterning present in Maya caches at a regional scale. This is surprising, given the interest in the reconstruction of ritual (Pohl 1981), and the wealth of available data and the historic perspective it offers. Caches are well documented from a number of sites in virtually all the regions of the Maya area.

Systematic study and intersite comparison should provide infomiation on a number of aspects of the Maya sociopolitical system. 44

First, if we accept caches as the residue of ritual behaviour, a regional synthesis

will provide us with a firmer understanding of how such behaviour changes through time

and space. This should allow for the delineation of areas utilizing the same types of

objects in ritual activities, which may in tum allow for the recognition of change and

stability in behaviour through time and space.

Second, regional synthesis may allow a better understanding of political

interaction and trade. As a wide variety of cache items come from extralocal areas, it

may be possible to map changes in source areas through time, and in relation to ritual

activity. For example, it may be possible to suggest that the decreasing frequency of

obsidian in Late Classic deposits at Tikal is a product of the TikaleHos changing

relationship with either the centers at obsidian sources, or with other centers in control of

trade routes.

Third, given the ongoing translation of Maya glyphs and a new perspective on

history, the study of caches may allow a better understanding of the changes in

behaviour resulting from historic events. Examples would include changing ceremonies

used to dedicate Katun endings, and changing ceremonial behaviour as a result of major

political upheaval. Correlating ceremonial variations with historical events such as dynastic changes and warfare may lend insight into how ritual was used as a tool of political control, as well as how economic systems were altered by such change. Thus, caches can be viewed as a material means of understanding the historic record.

Obviously caches comprise a limited part of the entire social system of the Maya, and will lead to the construction of hypotheses about change and stability. However, the creation of such hypotheses can help to direct future research with other data sets.

Finally, this study was created with the goal of making cache data - which is 45 often reported in widely scattered publications - accessible to other researchers. It is hoped that this study can be used as a springboard for additional research on previously excavated material, and also provide a baseline for future research.

The Data

The analyses undertaken in this study are based entirely upon previously published data, and unfortunately no "hands-on" work could be done. The sites chosen were not picked randomly. Those selected were well excavated and well described.

Additionally, each center in this study has been of demonstrable importance, either historically or archaeologically. Tikal is obviously the most important center included, owing to its size and the quantity of its deposits. Tikal is also crucial for having a lengthy and detailed glyphic record, making it amenable to the correlation of history and material data. Uaxactun is an obvious companion center, especially for its geographic proximity and its historic links to Tikal. In the Pasi<3n region, Altar de Sacrificios was the first major center to undergo large-scale excavation. It also has some of the eariiest glyphic records in the region, although these do not appear to have received much attention from epigraphers at this time. Finally, Seibal was chosen as a companion to Altar de

Sacrificios, partly for its proximity and partly for its extraordinary Terminal Classic component, something which is either lacking or pooriy known at the other centers. 46

CHAPTER 2: ANALYTICAL VARIABLES AND METHODS

Introduction

As an underlying goal of this project has always been to understand change and continuity in cache patterns on a large scale, the methods and variables employed in this endeavour were formulated with this in mind. Thus, they are more amenable to large scale comparisons of massive amounts of data than to minute detail. Further, all the variables had to be appropriate for published data, and thus sufficiently flexible to encompass differences in types and levels of description created by a number of investigators over a span of more than half a century. The number of variables employed is large, and while some are found in all sites, others are center-specific.

However, these are always employed towards the goal of allowing comparability among all sites, even those not included in the present study.

Temporal Variables

For the purpose of general period summaries, no attempt has been made to tie down deposits to a spedfic depositional or construction sequence. Although this is vital for detailed discussions of the relationship between specific historic events and changes in the nature of cache deposits, the immediate goal is to recognize patterns over large periods of time. The Southern Lowland chronology is divided into seven periods of unequal length, and the chronology employed herein follows Culbert (1993:4): 47

Table 2.1: Chronological Sequence Used in Study

Period Date Ceramic Phase Middle Preclassic 800-350 BC Eb/Tzec Late Preclassic 350 BC-AD 250 Chuen/Cauac/Cimi Early Classic AD 250-550 Manik Late Classic I AD 550-700 Ik Late Classic II AD 700-850/950 Imix Terminal Classic AD 850-950 Eznab Post Classic AD 950-1200? Caban

These should be immediately familiar to most researchers, although the distinction between Late Classic I and II requires some justification. This is based primarily on the

Tikal data (see Chapter 3; Coe 1990), where Coe notes several changes roughly corresponding with his Time Sequence 5 (with some overlap into the preceding period).

Coe calls this period the Intennediate Classic, describing it as that time between the end of the Eariy Classic and the onset of the Late Classic. Coggins (1979) had previously proposed an extra division of the Tikal sequence, based on a lack of major construction, an absence of elite goods from the Mesoamerican highlands, and fewer rich burials.

However, Coggins suggests that this period (which she calls the Middle Classic) dates to

AD 480-680, a time of political instability at Tikal; ceramically there is little justification for such a division (T.P Culbert:personal communication 1996).

To improve comparability, all the caches used in this study were dated in accordance with the Tikal sequence presented above in Table 2.1. This required fitting the chronology of each site into the Tikal sequence, often forcing certain deposits into the

Tikal Late Classic (lk)/Late Classic (Imix) scheme. It must be stressed that this was done not in an attempt to redate any deposit, but merely to ensure intersite comparability. 48

Spatial Variables

Cache locations are often very complex, probably as a result of the combination of important symbolic aspects of the ceremonies related to their interment and the interaction of a variety of formation processes (see Schiffer 1976,1987). As a result, the decision of how to classify a cache's location can be difficult, especially in the case of poorly described caches, or those that seem to fall into several different categories at once. The final decisions have been made on the basis of any and all information available, including original written descriptions, maps, profiles, and drawings.

After some experimentation, I decided that the best way to describe a cache's location was on the basis of four separate variables: placement, treatment, context, and description.

The first aspect of cache location is the placement, simply whether the cache is located in the interior or exterior of a structure. This variable seems especially important as it demonstrates whether the cache was interred in a private (inside) or public (outside) area. Presumably such differences would be the product of very different ritual behaviours. One would expect inside caches to result from private rituals, witnessed by only a handful of people, probably nobles and priests. On the other hand, caches in outdoor locations, such as temple platforms, plazas, and the like, could have potentially been witnessed by a multitude of people from all social classes. Adam Smith (1994) argues that increasingly smaller rooms within a ritual structure reflect the desire to limit the number of people given access to important spaces. The presence of caches in small rooms probably indicates that only a handful of people were pennitted to obsen/e the behaviours associated with cache deposition.

The second aspect of the spatial variable is treatment, how the cache was 49

interred. Three kinds of treatment are present in the Maya lowlands: caches could be

simply left on the surface, they could be installed below floors {sub-flooi), or they could

intrude through floors (through-floor). In some unfortunate cases, there is no data

reported on cache treatment. These are mutually exclusive categories, although certain

descriptions made it necessary to judge whether a cache was deposited on the surface

and eventually covered by a floor, or was placed below a floor. A cache was only

classified as a surface deposit if was found in such a context (such as sitting on the floor

of a room), or if the excavator described a buried cache as appearing to have been

exposed for a considerable length of time.

The third aspect of the spatial variable is the context of the deposit. The sample

of deposits used in this study is described using twenty mutually exclusive categories, not

all of which are present at all centers, it is important to note that some of these can

occur in both interior and exterior placements, although these are obviously very different

types of deposits resulting from very different behaviours. For example, Platfomn

deposits can occur as exterior platfonn mounds, or as interior platfomis within a room.

Determining which category best describes a cache is an often subjective

enterprise, especially when the deposit in question seems to fall into two or more

categories. In most cases, the cache was classified according to what appears to be the

primary aspect of the location. Thus, a deposit near a structure but on a Stairbase would

be classified as a Stairbase cache. In cases where no single aspect could be

designated as primary, the category of Mixed was employed.

The final aspect of the spatial variable is the description, which records whether

1. Context is denoted throughout the text by the capitalization of the first letter of the word. 50 the cache was aligned along a staictural Centerline, whether it was Burned (the cache as a whole, not its individual contents), whether the cache had ever t)een Reopened after its initial deposition, and whether the cache had t)een Resealed. Resealing could occur in the case of a through-floor cache, and also in the case of a reopened cache (regardless of whether it was originally through-floor). Unlike the other aspects of the spatial variable, the descriptive categories are not mutually exclusive; it seems obvious that a deposit could potentially have been located along a centeriine, burnt, reopened, and resealed, and that events effecting any one aspect of the description will not necessarily effect any other.

Definitions of Cache Contexts

Stair: The deposit was located somewhere within a staircase, or a single step in the case of interior deposits. This would include caches located immediately below (and some times intruding into) the surface of the staircase, and those deep within the underiying fill. An important aspect of Stair caches is that they must be located within the actual stairs, rather than located at the head or foot of a staircase; this allows for a distinction between Stair caches, and both Stairbase and Stairtop deposits. While the purpose of Stair caches is unclear, at least two possible explanations exist. The Aztecs employed staircases in a symbolic fashion during human sacrifices, with the ascent of a sacrificial victim up a temple staircase representing the ascent of the sun (Caso 1958).

Adam Smith (1994:98), discussing Temple 26 at Copan, suggests that such a stmcture has two distinct areas of ritual praxis - the top of the pyramid and its base. The area separating the two corresponds to a gradient between the most sacred and most profane 51

(following Eliade 1959). Thus, temple stairs form this gradient. The inclusion of caches along such a gradient may relate to the degree of sacredness associated with a given ceremony, particularly if such a deposit was the result of a ceremony designed to ritually cleanse (Eliade 1959) an individual such as an important priest or a ruler, to enable them to enter a sacred place.

Stairtop: This category describes deposits located at the top of a staircase, the landing area. Adam Smith (1994) argues that the top of the staircase was an area of greater ritual importance than the base of the stairs, due to increased visibility and decreased access.

Stairbase: The opposite of a Stairtop cache; caches located within the lower landing area, or base of a staircase. Stairbase (and Stairtop) caches probably reflect similar behaviour to that associated with stairways. However, the Stairbase location is probably less transitional than the stairway itself, and thus may be associated with a completion ritual (or possibly a termination ritual).

Room: This describes caches that were located within rooms of a structure, but could not be associated with a more specific internal feature, such as an altar or a doorway.

As Maya rooms tend not to be very large, it seems possible that many deposits were simply associated with the room, rather than any specific intemal feature of it.

Door: This describes deposits located either below the floor in the middle of a doorway, 52 or sometimes within the door jam area. These probably represent another, but distinctive type of ceremony, possibly associated with transition.

Lintel: Lintel deposits are those found beneath decorative wooden lintels, often used to surround doorways and arches. These are distinguished from door deposits by the specific mention of the lintel structure.

Wall: Two types of deposits can fall under the category of wall: interior walls, usually parts of rooms; and exterior walls, often retaining walls or other structural features. This distinction is made on the basis of placement (inside/outside). Both types of wall deposit are likely related to construction.

Bench: A bench deposit is one that is located below a bench within a room (usually penetrating the floor below the bench itself). The deposit must be in direct association with the bench, with the original description offering no speculation that the bench was added at a considerable time after the installation of the deposit.

Platform: This category primarily describes deposits located in association with construction platforms. In most cases, these are external features, probably well within public view. Occasionally, interior platform deposits are encountered, in association with a raised portion of the room floor. Exterior platform deposits are distinguished from

Stairtop or Stairisase caches by the lack of association with stairs. A cache in a platform immediately adjoining a staircase would be described as a Stairtop or Stairisase cache. 53

Court; This is used to designate caches located in a large open space at ground level.

Plaza, court, and other similar tenms used by different investigators all fall within this category.

Terrace: A terrace is defined as a flat portion on the outside of a stepped pyramidal structure. While very similar to a platform, a terrace will not be found on any structure but a pyramid.

Structure: A category used for dealing with vague descriptions. The cache is obviously located on a major structure such as a pyramid, but the description does not allow one to determine the exact location.

Bedrock: Describes those deposits that are located either within or in direct contact with bedrock. Not surprisingly, these are found primarily in the eariiest periods of occupation.

Chultun: Deposits located within a chultun, a man-made or altered natural depression in the local limestone.

Construction Fill: This category is reserved for those deposits that are specifically described as located within construction fill, and then only if it is not apparent that they were inten'ed in relation to some other aspect of the eventual completed stnjcture, such as a wall or room. Hence, Construction Fill is a "last resort" category, employed only for deposits of known provenience that do not fit elsewhere. 54

Stela: Stela caches are those located beneath or in direct association with any stela,

Including reset stelae. Many deposits are described as being in physical contact with the stela itself, while others are merely in association. No distinction is made between these conditions. These caches undoubtedly represent ritual associated with the erection of stelae, and thus possibly with the history recorded on the stelae. Some caches are associated with uncan/ed stelae, although the reason for the dichotomy in stela types is unclear.

Altar: As with stela deposits, these are caches in direct association with an altar, usually

(but not necessarily) below it. In the case of stela-altar pairs, cache location is described in relation to whichever monument it is direct association. Thus, stela and altar are discrete locations, regardless of whether they are found in pairs.

Mask: This describes any deposit found in direct association with a large stucco or stone mask, usually located on the exterior of a temple or other structure. The deposit need not be in physical contact with the mask, but its provenience must be such that no other category applies.

Rare or Other: The category of "rare" or "other" (sometimes referred to as "unusual") is employed to describe deposits in discrete locations that are exceedingly unusual (usually one of a kind). I believe that a lumping category is more useful than creating a huge number of categories that are only used once. An example of a cache falling within the

"other" category is the single Tikal deposit located within a roofcomb. Mixed: Occasionally deposits are encountered which appear to overlap two or more different locational categories. If no single category can be argued to be primary, the deposit is described as mixed. An example might be a cache that goes through the bottom step of a staircase and its base, but appears to be resting in construction fill.

Descriptive Variables

Center Line: If the deposit was found along the centeriine of a building or other structure, or if it was within reasonable proximity to such a line (defined as within one meter on either side), it was considered a centeriine deposit.

Burnt: If the entire cache location showed evidence of burning (not just the materials within it), it is included in the category of burnt.

Re-Opened: If the description mentions any evidence or suspicion of the deposit being disturbed or intruded at any time prior to contact, the deposit is described as re-opened.

Reseated: Resealed caches usually occur as the result of through-floor treatment.

However, occasionally a cache will be disturbed sometime following its initial intemient, and will be resealed following this behaviour.

Methods

Cache Patterning

An attempt was made to find patterning in cache inclusions which could be used 56 to understand the relationship between cache location and content, and their changes through time and space. Minimally, it is hoped that this will demonstrate whether cache inclusions were highly standardized or highly variable.

Fourteen material classes were recorded as being either present or absent within a deposit. These are (in order of appearance in ail appendices): Obsidian Eccentrics^, all other Obsidian, Chert Eccentrics, all other Chert, Jade, Stingray Spines, Any type of non- shell, non-stingray spine Marine object (such as coral), Spondylus shells, all other Shells.

Ceramics (including whole vessels, potsherds, and censers), Human skeletal remains.

Terrestrial Fauna, minerals and Pigments, and Mosaic Elements (regardless of material).

These are arbitrary dasses representing the most common types of objects found within caches: a fifteenth category, termed "other" was employed for dealing with rare objects that did not fall into the other categories. Such objects often included seeds, textile fragments, unidentifiable organics, and incense.

The results of this procedure were then tallied, and are listed in the appendices.

Using a simple object presence/absence measure to describe each deposit gives an impression of an overall pattem more readily than one utilizing dozens of material classes. In keeping with the rest of the analysis, the primary sorting characteristics employed in this study were (1) temporal designation, and (2) location.

Material Type Analysis

Materials are described in two ways. The first is the number of deposits that

2. The decision to distinguish between eccentrics and all other types of lithic artifacts was made on the basis of perceived degree of difficulty in the manufacture of the object. It would obviously require considerably more skill to manufacture an eccentric lithic than a flake blade or similar object. 57 contained a particular material type, which should give some indication of the number of occasions in which a particular type of artifact was interred. The second is the number of objects of each material type encountered within each deposit. This measure should indicate the intensity with which a particular object type was used in the behaviour associated with its deposition.

A simple example can indicate the need for such a procedure. If, for example, one was comparing raw numbers of jade beads between Eariy and Late Classic deposits, one might find that during both periods there were 50, suggesting a degree of behavioral continuity between the two periods. However, if the beads were recovered from 50 Eariy Classic deposits and only ten Late Classic deposits (holding constant the ratio of jade-bearing to non-jade-bearing deposits), this may suggest a very different behavioral strategy between these two time periods.

Raw counts were obtained for each artifact type and each location in which these were found. Certain categories of artifact could not be quantified, sometirnes due to the nature of the object in question, such as organic objects and many categories of soft- bodied marine objects. On other occasions, the problem lay in the original object description. Certain categories of data, such as lithic debitage and vertebrate faunal remains, were not always quantified.

Raw counts were converted to percentages to improve comparability both within and between sites. This was done for both artifacts and deposits. Percentages are not given when it was deemed unnecessary, such as when only a handful of a given object is present (there seems little need to infonn the reader that one of only three objects equals thirty-three percent), or when the deposit in question represented only a minute fraction of the total number of objects present (for example, a Tikal cache containing a single 58 minimally worked Spondylus sp. valve, when the total sample is well in excess of two thousand such specimens).

Intrasite Patterning

The methods for examining intra-site patterning were applied in several stages.

The first stage was to look at patterning on a gross chronological level ~ using the time period designations described above. Thus, variation In Eariy Classic patteming at a particular center might be the first to be observed. Gross measures were deemed the easiest for broad scale comparisons, which I believe lead to greater pattem recognition.

The second stage examines spatial patteming. This was done by looking at the distribution of deposits from each context in each time period. Next, the distribution of each material class within each location was examined, as was the frequency of each artifact type. The decision was made to make placement — whether the cache was located in an interior or exterior location - the primary sorting variable used in analyzing spatial pattems. This is justified on two counts: first, it is intuitively obvious that the types of locations found in interior deposits are fundamentally different from those found in exterior locations. In those few categories found in both situations, the nature of the location Is quite different. Thus, a room wall is very different from a retaining wall; a single step between rooms is very different from an immense staircase leading to the top of a pyramid. Second, Adam Smith (1994) has demonstrated that there are important social and behavioral differences between interior and exterior locations, and that these probably relate to Maya sociopolitical structure. I believe that the comparison of interior and exterior caches will yield important data useful for understanding the differences and similarities in rituals performed in these different spaces. 59

The final stage of context analysis is looking at the distribution of treatment types

(sub-floor, through-floor, surface), as well as descriptive variables (centered, etc.).

Following this, the frequency of each of the fourteen material types was calculated. This was done to attempt to And pattems, such as an abundance or lack of certain materials.

Once this was completed, each context was available for comparison with other locations, with the same context in another time period, or with the same context at a different site.

After dealing with contexts, each major artifact category was explored in detail.

This practice should allow the future researcher interested In a particular artifact type to have quick and easy access to this infomnation. I also believe that such a procedure would allow for greater insight into the handling of particular material types by the Maya.

Thus, it is possible to see how, for example, different types of obsidian artifacts are distributed through time and locational contexts. Observed pattems and changes in these pattems cannot always be explained; however, the attempt is made whenever the data warrant it. This is especially the case in sudden dramatic increases or decreases in the frequency of a material type (such as jade).

Once the pattems of cache data have been analyzed for each time period at each site, these are discussed in relation to known political history, and sequences of construction. This is done in the hope that pattems can be linked on a gross scale to historical events, and appears to be somewhat successful. This also provides a means for determining which deposits would be of the greatest interest for looking at specific events. 60

Intersite Patterning

The final stage of analysis lies in the comparison of patterns between sites. This is done in much the same fashion as intra-site analysis, looking at gross temporal patterns, context-specific pattems, and finally artifact-specific patterns. The aim is to obtain a "big picture" of cache pattems at different centers, and how these compare with other sites. Similarities and differences in pattems are then examined in light of available political histories for each site, and in some cases, in light of known interactions between centers. 61

CHAPTER 3: INTRASITE PATTERNING AT TIKAL: THE NORTH ACROPOLIS

Introduction

Excavations in the Tikal North Acropolis produced a large number of caches and problematical deposits, along with several chultuns - all of which represent potential ritual deposits, akin to offerings. Such deposits range from the Middle Preclassic through the Postclassic, although the main concentrations are found during the Early and Late

Classic periods. Table 3.1 shows the distribution of caches and other deposits through time.

Table 3.1: Cache and Problematical Deposit Distribution Through Time

Period Caches Cache % PD^ PD% Total Total % MPC 2 1.6 8 8.5 10 4.6 LPC 2 1.6 10 10.6 12 5.5 EC 59 47.6 18 19.2 77 35.3 LC(I) 33 26.6 22 23.4 55 25.2 LC(II) 26 21.0 31 33.0 57 26.1 PC 2 1.6 5 5.3 7 3.2 Totals 124 100 94 100 218 100 1. Chultuns are treated as Problematical Deposits for this table.

The published sample indicates that North Acropolis caching activity was most prevalent during the Eariy Classic, with neariy half of the caches dating to this period. An interesting trend exists with regard to changing relative frequencies of caches and problematical deposits (a designation used to denote a deposit of interest, but neither a cache nor a burial). The number of caches increases dramatically during the Eariy

Classic, and then declines throughout the remainder of the North Acropolis' occupation 62 span. Conversely, the fi^uency of problematical deposits increases steadily from the

Middle Preclassic through the Late Classic II (Imix), and declines only during the

Postclassic (see Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1: Cache and Problematical Deposit Frequency Change Through Time

47.6

MFC LPC EC LC (Ik) LC (imix) PostC Period

• Cache • PD

As "cache" and "problematical deposit" are tenns defined by archaeologists, this pattem may have little meaning. However, a problematical deposit is one which, while not clearly an intentional offering (cache), is not simply a chance occurrence of objects in one place.

The declining number of deposits recognized as offerings, along with the concun'ent increase in "fuzzy" deposits suggests that the degree of care and planning associated with these deposits is also decreasing. This in tum may suggest that these offerings are of lesser importance compared with those inten'ed at eariier times. During the Imix period, the focus of construction (and probably ritual activity) shifts away from the North 63

Acropolis, and the high numt)er of problematical deposits may be related to this shift. If this area was no longer considered important (or as important as it had been), there may have been a corresponding lack of attention given to the installation of offerings.

Temporal Patterning

Patterns in the cache and problematical deposit data are best understood from a diachronic perspective. Thus, the data are presented in this fashion, beginning with the first appearance of caches in the North Acropolis.

Preclassic Deposits

Very few Preclassic deposits are reported in the North Acropolis at Tikal. This may reflect the nature of the excavated sample, with the lack of exposure of Preclassic structures resulting in fewer Preclassic deposits. However, a similar low frequency of deposits is reported for Preclassic contexts in the Mundo Perdido area which has been studied more intensively (see Chapter 4), suggesting low numbers of "ritual" deposits at this time. Further, those deposits dating to this period all show a tendency towards minimal content. Jade, obsidian, chert, and marine materials are encountered in fewer than 20% of all Preclassic deposits at Tikal, possibly reflecting a lack of easy access to these materials, a very different series of activities surrounding deposition, or both. In particular, if these deposits are viewed as containing the refuse produced through ritual behaviour, then it can be suggested that Preclassic rituals either involved few non- perishable materials or did not result in the deposition of such materials in a cache - or that Preclassic cache locations are still largely unknown. 64

Middle Preclassic

The Middle Preclassic (800-350 BC) encompasses the Eb and Tzec ceramic phases (Culbert 1993). Ten deposits (2 caches, 1 chultun, 7 problematical deposits) are known from the North Acropolis during this period, all with exterior placement. These are divided almost equally between Platform, Bedrock, and Construction Fill contexts, with three deposits found in each category; a single deposit was located within a Chultun.

More specific spatial patterning is difficult to find in these data, as treatment is not described for sixty percent of the deposits. Two-thirds of construction fill deposits (both caches) were interred prior to completion of a structure (sub-floor). The only through- floor deposit was situated in a Platform, and was both centered and resealed. Table 3.2 shows the distribution of Middle Preclassic depositional contexts, shown graphically in

Figure 3.2.

Table 3.2: Middle Preclassic Deposits

N %MPC Type Placement Context & Comment Deposits Treatment 2 20 Cache Exterior Const. Fill (SF) 1 10 Chultun Exterior Chultun (SF) 1 10 PD Exterior Platfomi (TF) Centered Resealed 2 20 PD Exterior Platform (ND) 3 30 PD Exterior Bedrock (ND) 1 10 PD Exterior Const. Fill (ND) 65

Figure 3.2: Middle Preclassic Depositional Contexts

40 30 30 30

Q. 10

Construction Fill Platfonn Bedrock Chultun Context

Cache • Chultun • PD

The 3 Platfomi problematical deposits show only minor patterning, with ceramics present in 2 deposits, and rare objects in the third; no other material type is present.

Three Bedrock problematical deposits also show little patterning, with 2 containing human remains, while both stingray spines and ceramics are found in a single deposit each. As these are not fomnally classified as caches, it is difficult to suggest what these deposits represent. The single Chultun contains only potsherds, and thus seems more likely to represent trash fill than any sort of ceremonial deposit. The 2 Construction Fill caches show the highest degree of patteming, with both containing non-eccentric obsidian objects and ceramics. Ceramics are also present in the lone problematical deposit. 66

Artifact Analysis

Lithic Artifacts

Obsidian

Obsidian is a rare component of Middle Preclassic deposits, with only two flake- blades reported, both firom Constmction Fill contexts. This may suggest that these are offerings, although the sample size is insufficient for confidence.

Chert

Chert is present in two Middle Preclassic Problematical Deposits, although it is undescribed in both cases. One comes from a Bedrock context (PD 266), while the other stems from a Platfonn deposit.

Marine Materials

Stingray Spines

Three fragments of a single stingray spine were recovered from a single problematical deposit located within Construction Fill. The fragmentary condition of this specimen, combined with the fact that it seems to represent a single spine, may indicate that it was disposed of in an offering after use. However, it is unclear whether the breakage occurred during its usage, immediately following, or during its disposal.

Ceramics

Ceramics were found in 70% of all Middle Preclassic deposits, although there was never more than a single vessel present. Table 3.3 details the ceramics from this 67 period.

Table 3.3: Ceramics in Rfliddle Preclassic Deposits

N Type Context Treatment Ceramics 1 PD Bedrock Not Desc. 1 Amil vertical-sided vessel, inverted 1 Chultun Chultun Sub-Floor Unquantified Sherds 1 PD Const. Fill Not Desc. 1 Lechugal Incised round-sided bowl, crushed 2 Cache Const. Fill Sub-Floor 2 Siera Red jars 2 PD Platfonn Not Desc. 1 Laguna Verde Incised deep bowl, inverted, broken in situ; 1 Sierra Red straight-sided plate, broken

Middle Preclassic ceramic offerings show some patteming, with the majority of specimens originating in either Construction Fill or Platfonn contexts, and with Sien'a Red vessels the most common type.

Discussion: The Early Years of the North Acropolis

The eariiest version of what would become the North Acropolis was constructed late in the Middle Preclassic, t)etween 400 and 200 BC (Jones 1991:105-106). This construction, known as Stnjcture 5D-Sub-14-3rd was on a low, south-facing platform, and was rebuilt twice prior to being demolished and subsequently replaced by Structure

5D-Sub-1-2nd. Population in central Tikal was at probably 4% of its Late Classic maximum of 62,000, or some 2,480 individuals, along with another 300 in the periphery

(Rice and Culbert 1990:Table 1.4).

Ritual activity seems to have been practiced in the North Acropolis during the

Middle Preclassic, although it would appear to have been a minor center of such 68 behaviour. There are few clear indications of offerings, and these tend toward unspectacular content, especially in comparison with what was to come. Mundo Perdido and the Plaza of the Seven Temples were also both used for the placement of ritual offerings at this time, suggesting a widespread focus of such activity.

Middle Preclassic caches and other deposits show little portent of the types of offerings that would be made during the years of Tikal's political and military power, with typical later inclusion types such as jade, Spondylus and other shell, and other marine objects entirely absent. While both obsidian and chert are present, they are rare inclusions and never encountered in the elaborate eccentric fonns of the Eariy Classic.

Human remains and ten^estrial fauna have also not yet entered the offertory realm, although such later mainstays as stingray spines and ceramics are present.

Lato Preclassic

The Late Preclassic (350 BC-AO 250) includes the Chuen, Cauac, and Cimi ceramic phases (Culbert 1993). Twelve deposits, located in 6 different contexts, date to the Late Preclassic (2 caches, 3 Chultuns, 7 problematical deposits); 11 of these were given exterior placement. Chultun and Construction Fill contexts are the most common, each represented 3 times (see Table 3.4; Figure 3.3). Treatment is not described for 5

(41.7%) of these deposits; however, through-floor and sub-floor contexts are found in almost equal proportions (4 and 3, respectively). The Late Preclassic marks the first appearance of an interior cache in the North Acropolis, a location that becomes more common through time. Table 3.4: Late Preclassic Deposits

N % LPC Type Placement Context & Comment Deposits Treatment 2 16.7 Cache Exterior Const. Fill (SF) 3 25 Chultun Exterior Chultun (ND) 1 8.3 PD Interior Room (ND) 1 8.3 PD Exterior Platfonn (TF) Centered Resealed 1 8.3 PD Exterior Const. Fill (SF) 2 16.7 PD Exterior Rare (TF) 1 Resealed 1 8.3 PD Exterior Mixed (ND) 1 8.3 PD Exterior Mixed (TF) Resealed

Figure 3.3: Late Preclassic Depositionai Contexts

25

(0

c U03 u.0) Q.

Const. Fill Room Platfomi Chultun Rare Mixed Context

Cache • Chultun • PD

The only consistent feature of the 3 Chultun deposits is the presence of 70 potsherds, which may represent nothing more than trash. Rare objects - those that could not be classified in any of the 14 material categories presented in Appendix 1 - are found in 2 deposits, while chert, human and faunal remains are found together in a single deposit. This last may have been a ceremonial deposit, given the mixture of object types.

Three deposits (1 problematical) stem from Construction Fill contexts, all of which contain ceramics (as is true of their Middle Preclassic counterparts). The 2 caches share no other common material classes (see Appendix 1), while the problematical deposit and

1 cache contain rare objects. Again, sample size is insufficient to suggest strong patterning.

Two problematical deposits from the Late Preclassic fall into the category of

Mixed context, and share no common objects. Two additional problematical deposits derive from Rare contexts, and both contain rare objects. However, this seems insufficient to suggest patterning. Three Late Preclassic problematical deposits were resealed. The only similarity within these is the presence of potsherds in 2 of them.

Artifact Analysis

Lithic Artifacts

Obsidian

While obsidian continues to be an uncommon inclusion during the Late

Preclassic, its frequency does increase dramatically over the two specimens recovered from Middle Preclassic horizons. Continuity with the Middle Preclassic is seen in the presence of a single Flake-blade in a Construction Fill context. However, two 71 problematical deposits mark a change. One (PD 35) from a Mixed context holds 13 flakes and blades, while the other (PD 85 from a Rare context) contains 14 flake-blade fragments and flakes, possibly representing an expanded usage of obsidian In offertory contexts. However, this is difficult to support, as there are no Middle Preclassic deposits from comparable contexts.

Chert

Chert is found in relatively large quantities in Late Preclassic deposits, although it seems unlikely that the largest chert-bearing deposit is actually an offering. Chultun 5D-

6 yielded 612 chert pieces, ranging in forni from flakes to fragmentary ovoid bifaces. If this is an offering, it marks a move towards the later practices of including large numbers of lithic objects. However, given the chultun context, it seems just as likely that this is nothing more than a trash deposit holding lithic waste. The other chert-bearing deposit

(PD 35) comes from a Mixed context and held 10 flakes.

Jade

Jade makes its first cache appearance during the Late Preclassic, with a single bead recovered from Construction Fill Cache 168. An additional fragment was recovered from a Mixed context (PD 35).

Marine Materials

Only 2 Late Preclassic deposits housed objects of marine origin. A single

Construction Fill cache contained a Spondylus sp. shell bead and a shell imitation peari. 72 while an Olive shell "tinkler" was recovered from a Mixed context problematical deposit

(PD 35). Also present in this deposit was an imitation pearl. Although both worked shell and imitation pearls are found in later deposits, the Late Preclassic sample offers little suggestion of the degree of marine object use to come.

Terrestrial Fauna

Only a single Late Preclassic deposit held terrestrial fauna. This was Chultun 5D-

6, which yielded some 400 bones attributed to bat. frog, rabbit, dog. and lizard, along with

150 bird bones, and the remains of 200 freshwater snail shells {Pomacea sp.). As noted,

Chultun 5D-6 more resembles a refuse deposit than an offering.

Human Remains

Human remains are reported from a single Late Preclassic deposit. Chultun 5D-6 held 25 undescribed bones.

Ceramics

Ceramics are reported from 83.3% of all Late Preclassic deposits, although many of these contain only sherds (see Table 3.5).

Table 3.5: Ceramics in Late Preclassic Deposits

N Type Context & Comment Ceramics Treatment 1 PD Room (ND) Interior 7 refitting sherds of a Cayatano Trichrome outcurving-side bowl, lip-grooved. Coati variety. 3 Chultun Chultun (ND) Minimally 300 sherds 73

2 Cache Const. Fill (SF) 1 Polvero Black lidded cup; 2 Sierra Red deep bowls, 1 with pressure broken dish as lid; 7 Olla fragments 1 PD Mixed (TF) Resealed 1 Morfin Unslipped bowl; 1 Boxcay Brown miniature jar; 10 sherds of Povero Black jar 1 PD Platform (TF) Centered Cauac sherds Resealed 2 PD Rare (TF) 1 Resealed Undescribed sherds.

Late Preclassic deposits have a greater tendency to contain sherds than did their

Middle Preclassic counterparts. All but a single problematical deposit or chultun contained sherds exclusively, while the two caches, both from Construction Fill, held whole vessels, presumably placed as offerings. Among the more intriguing finds is a

Boxcay Brown miniature jar from Mixed context PD 157, although the role of this vessel is unknown.

Discussion: The North Acropolis During the Late Preclassic

The final replacement of Structure 5D-Sub-14-3rd by Structure 5D-Sub-1-2nd probably occurred early in the Late Preclassic period. According to Jones (1991:106) the

Great Plaza remained unpaved until about 200 BC. Between This time and AD 1, however, the North Acropolis underwent considerable remodelling and expansion.

Initially, Stmcture 5D-Sub-1-2nd was the lone focus of this area north of the Great Plaza, but this was eventually replaced by Structure 5D-Sub-1, which was subsequently joined by Structures 5D-Sub-3, 4, 9, and 12-2nd. By the Late Preclassic. the population of central Tikal had risen to as much as 24% of its eventual maximum, or approximately 74

15,000 individuals, along with another 4,200 in the periphery (Rice and Culbert 1990:

Table 1.4}

About AD 1. the Great Plaza was paved, as was the West Plaza, and some time later, the East Plaza. The North Acropolis continued as a focal point for rebuilding, and later for burials. Some of these burials (particularly Burial 85) have been cited as evidence for new leadership or outside influences in Tikal (Coggins 1975, cited in Jones

1991). Jones notes that the expansion of the North Acropolis during the Late Preclassic seems to antedate the placement of important burials by a few decades. This could possibly indicate intentional funerary construction on the part of some members of the elite.

By the Time of Burial 85 the site center of Tikal had developed its basic pattern: a southward-facing Acropolis covering the burials of important people and crowned with a large pyramidal structure on the north, a multi- room building on the south, and one or more flanking pyramid structures. A wide terrace and stairway and a larger public gathering pavement fronted the hill to the south and in turn was flanked by east and west paved plazas of large size. There is no evidence of paved causeways leading into these side plazas this eariy, but the East Plaza at least is situated as a reasonable temninus for a trail heading up from the east or southeast (Jones 1991:107).

Between AD 200 and 400, a number of major changes were occumng at Tikal.

One was the covering of Structure 5D-Sub-3 with a stairway that led to the top of the

Acropolis from the North Ten-ace. According to Jones (1991), this construction also

resulted in the only major shift in the axis of the North Acropolis throughout its long

occupation. At this same time, we see the first appearance of Manik ceramics and

monument carving in bas-relief. Jones suggests that it was probably at about this time

(possibly slightly eariier, in AD 170), that the first mler of the Tikal lineage would have

been inaugurated. Unfortunately, contemporary historical records are currently lacking. 75 and the earliest rulers of Tikal are known only from later monuments.

Late Preclassic caches show more continuity with those of the Middle Preclassic than with later times, particularly in being infrequently encountered and containing unspectacular materials. Both obsidian and chert continue to be rare commodities

(assuming that Chultun 5D-6 is nothing more than a refuse deposit), as do shells and other marine objects. Jade makes its first appearance, but only in scant quantities.

Terrestrial fauna and human bones are both reported, but in a context more likely a refuse deposit than an offering. Ceramics are also present, but in rather small numbers.

The changes in cache patterns seen In the Early Classic appear to be as rapid as the changes in the political aspects of Tikal's history.

Early Classic

As noted elsewhere (Krejci and Culbert 1993; Maxwell 1995), caches "take off" in frequency and both content richness and diversity during the Eariy Classic, and it is during this time that caches and problematical deposits are found in their highest frequencies at Tikal. Fifty-nine caches are reported, along with an additional 18 problematical deposits, totalling 77 deposits from this period. While this high frequency could be a function of sampling error, it is more likely related to the intensive ritual use of the North Acropolis. During the Eariy Classic, jade, obsidian, chert, shell and other marine materials, all become frequent cache inclusions.

The explosion of cache content variety may relate to the Tikal-Uaxactun event of

AD 378, as well as the dynastic change (Jaguar Paw to Curi Nose) of AD 379 (Laporte and Fiaiko 1993). The heavy emphasis on the North Acropolis for ritual deposits appears directly related to these two events, which sen/ed to move the seat of the 76 dynasty away from Mundo Perdido (where it appears to have been centered during the reign of Great Jaguar Paw) back to the North Acropolis. If indeed this is the case, then two important economic and ritual changes seem to accompany these events.

First, it appears that this lineage establishes better access to exotic materials than had been present previously. Obsidian from the Guatemalan highlands and central

Mexico is known from caches of this period, as are marine objects from the Gulf of

Mexico and the Pacific. Jade is also present, and was presumably transported from the

Motagua Valley. These inclusions suggest that the new dynasty is one with an interest and aptitude for long-distance trade and/or tribute. Curi Nose and his successors seem very capable of acquiring exotic and valuable materials.

Second, the dramatic increase in the number of caches and problematic deposits suggests a change from Preclassic ritual behaviour, and probably from the Jaguar Paw dynasty. Rituals resulting in the creation of a cache were being performed more frequently (although it should not be assumed that ail rituals led to such deposits).

These rituals either required or employed a much wider variety of artifacts than previously, resulting in the sudden appearance of large quantities of jade, obsidian, stingray spines, shell, and other marine objects - along with a wide variety of other objects - at this time.

Cache Locations

The Eariy Classic is dominated by exterior deposits, with 84.4% falling into this category, including 94.9% of all caches (56 of 59). The presence of high numbers of caches in exterior locations may be reflective of ceremonies undertaken in a public area 77

(A.T. Smith 1994), and many deposits were situated in locations where a large audience could witness the ritual and following cache deposition. While far less fi'equent, some deposits are also located in interior areas, suggesting private or perhaps secret ceremonies.

Treatment and Descriptive Variables

The Eariy Classic sees the highest frequency of subfloor caches at the North

Acropolis, with 10 (17.9%), all exterior. Five additional sub-floor problematical deposits are also present (3 interior). It seems likely that subfloor caches are related to construction, and thus probably rituals relating to such behaviour. The Eariy Classic was a time of considerable construction at Tikal (Jones 1989; 1991), and it is unsurprising that such caches exist. However, I suspect that these caches are not the result of dedication ceremonies which would probably be conducted at the time of completion.

Rather, the presence of subfloor deposits would relate to the construction or remodelling of the structure, implying that ritual was involved with these phases of the life history of the structure, and that certain rituals were performed at particular points during the construction process.

The most common treatment for Eariy Classic caches is inserting them through an existing floor, and 32 (57.1%) were given through-floor treatment. The majority of these (29 or 90.6%) were from exterior deposits. An additional 10 problematical deposits

(4 interior) were also given through-floor treatment. The purpose of a through-floor cache is difficult to interpret. Coe (1959) suggests that if a through-floor cache is resealed, it is non-dedicatory, while a dedicatory example is left unsealed. At least some through-floor deposits may have been associated with later remodelling of an existing 78 structure. However, others may have served to alter the nature of the depositlonal space, possibly nfiaking it sacred (see Freidel, Scheie, and Parker 1993). Also possible is the notion of connecting a space currently in use with an earlier time (Scheie and

Freidel 1990; Freidel, Scheie, and Parker 1993), which could be achieved by leaving a deposit unsealed.

A high percentage of Early Classic exterior caches (29, or 52.7%) are located on or very near structural centeriines, as are 7 problematical deposits (4 interior).

Interestingly, no interior caches are centered. Centeriine deposits are probably reflective of astronomical alignments, or a concem with symmetry. However, as only slightly more than half of the Eariy Classic caches are so located, this is difficult to support. If such a practice had been related to symmetry or astronomical alignment, then one would expect all caches to follow the pattern. More detailed analysis will be necessary before this problem can be solved.

Only 1 Eariy Classic cache shows evidence of burning. Although the ceremonial destmction of cache contents by burning may have been practiced, it appears to have been of little importance at this time. Buming may represent a termination ritual (Garber

1989; Freidel, Scheie, and Parker 1993), but more detailed temporal studies must be conducted before this can be confirmed.

Four Eariy Classic caches (7.3%) at Tikal appear to have been re-opened

following their original deposition, along with 5 problematical deposits (2 interior). The reasons for this are unclear, although looting is a definite possibility, especially if this

occun-ed long after the deposition of the cache. However, it is also possible that intrusion was accidental, and related to later construction, remodelling, or even cache

deposition. 79

Twenty-eight Early Classic caches were resealed (48.3%) - including all 3 interior caches, either after through-floor treatment or re-opening. An additional 10 problematical deposits (2 interior) were also resealed. Resealing a through-floor deposit would appear to indicate that the locus was intended to continue in use, especially as there are through-floor deposits that were never resealed. Another possible explanation is maintaining the integrity of the deposit, keeping it in a sacred context away from everyday activity. Either way, these represent non-dedicatory caches following Coe's (1959) scheme.

Interior Deposits

Only 12 Eariy Classic deposits were given interior placement (3 caches), probably indicative of private rituals with limited access (A.T. Smith 1994). Not surprisingly, there is far less variety in interior cache contexts than is seen in exterior deposits. Table 3.6 describes the Eariy Classic interior deposits, shown graphically in Figure 3.4.

Table 3.6: Early Classic Interior Deposits

N % Interior Type Context Treatment Comment Deposits 3 25 Cache Room Thnj-Floor Resealed 1 8.3 PD Room Thru-Floor Centered Re-opened Resealed 2 16.7 PD Room Sub-Floor 1 8.3 PD Lintel SulJ-Floor Centered 2 16.7 PD Wall Not Desc. 1 8.3 PD Stela Thru-Floor 80

2 16.7 PD Stair Thm-Floor Centered 1 Re-opened 1 Reseated

Figure 3.4: Early Classic Interior Depositional Locations

16.7 16.7 8.3 /; a Room Lintel Wall Stela Stair Context

PD PD H 1 1 fs^b-Floor) (Thru-Floor) (Not Desc.)

All interior deposits can be subsumed under Room contexts, with some deriving from more specific locations than others. Seven deposits (58.3%) were given through- floor treatment, implying that these were deposited after completion of the room structure. This is indicative of ritual with restricted access (Rissman 1988, A.T. Smith

1994), assuming that these deposits were placed while the room was in active use.

Alternatively, these could represent termination rituals. The subfloor deposits were apparently placed prior to room occupation, and may relate to a dedication ceremony

(Freidel and Scheie 1989). 81

Patterning by Context Type

Stair Deposits

The 2 Earfy Classic interior stair problematical deposits show a degree of similarity to each other both contain non-eccentric obsidian and chert, potsherds, and rare objects, while both lack chert eccentrics, jade and non-shell marine objects.

However, a number of material types - including obsidian eccentrics, stingray spines,

Spondylus sp. shells, other shells, human remains, ten-estrial fauna, pigments, and mosaic elements - were encountered in only a single deposit, possibly indicating very specific usage relating to particular ceremonies or offerings.

Room Deposits

Although there are only 6 Eariy Classic Room deposits (including 3 problematical deposits), these show a considerable degree of variability, with rare objects being the only type encountered in more than fifty percent. Entirely absent are stingray spines and human remains, implying that these objects were not utilized in this context. The low frequencies of all other object types - coupled with the high frequency of unusual objects

~ suggests that a number of unrelated rituals were conducted in this context.

Wall Deposits

The 2 Eariy Classic interior Wall problematical deposits show remarkably little patterning, having no object type in common, and are similar only in their mutual lack of lithics, stingray spines, Spondylus, human remains, and mosaics. Interior wall deposits may be closely related to room deposits, although their contents are too dissimilar to 82 demonstrate this.

Lintel Deposits

The single Early Classic lintel problematical deposit contains only non-eccentric

obsidian artifacts. The single example of a deposit from this context offers no basis for

comparison, while the contents show no particular similarity with other interior deposits.

Stela Deposits

There is only a single example of a stela in an interior locale at Tikal, and this

comes from the Eariy Classic. This reset stela (Stela 26) shows considerable similarity to

exterior stela deposits (see below), housing non-eccentric obsidian (present in 72.7% of

all Stela caches), non-eccentric chert (present in 54.5%), and Spondylus remains

(present in 45.5%). Also present are censers (the only Eariy Classic example of censers

in a Stela context), potsherds (found in 27.3%), and rare objects (also 27.3%). This

patterning suggests that even a stela reset in an interior locale received a very similar

type of offering to the other stelae at Tikal (see below).

Artifect Analysis

Lithic Artifects

Obsidian

Obsidian artifacts were recovered from several interior locations. These are

described in Table 3.7 (see Figure 3.5), while the distribution of obsidian artifact types is

shown in Table 3.8. 83

Table 3.7: Obsidian-Bearing Interior Deposits

N % Type^ Type Context Treatment Comment 1 33.3 Cache Room Thru-Floor Reseated 2 22.2 PD Stair Thru-Floor 1 Centered 1 Re-Opened 1 Resealed 1 11.1 PD Room Sub-Floor 1 11.1 PD Room Thru-Floor Centered Re-Opened Resealed 1 11.1 PD Lintel Sub-Floor Centered 1 11.1 PD Stela Thru-Floor 1. Percentages are calculated by depositlonal type (cache or problematical deposit), rather than by total number of deposits.

Figure 3.5: Early Classic Interior Obsidian-Bearing Deposits

222

9 20 11.1 11.1

Room Room Stair Lintel Stela Context

Cache PD I—I PD (Sub-Floor) I I (Thru-Floor) 84

Table 3.8: Obsidian Artifact Types in Early Classic Interior Deposits

Location Eccentric Incised Mod. Flake Flake Blade Lancet Room (C) 1(44) Stair (PD) 1(23) 1 (2962) 1 (7) 1(4) Room (PD) 1(2) 1(12) 1(2) 2(13) Lintel (PD) 1 (1) Stela (PD) 1 (101) Totals 3(69) 1(12) 3 (3065) 4(21) 1 (4) Numbers in parenttieses indicate object count.

Flake blades are present ~ although always in low numbers ~ in all interior locations except sub-Stela. The widespread presence of this artifact type indicates that it could be employed for a wide-variety of interior functions resulting in cache deposits; at the same time, the absence of flake blades from neariy half the deposits indicates that this artifact was not a required component of every ritual. The very similar lancet blades are present in only a single deposit (4 specimens) associated with a step (Stair). As

Freidel, Scheie, and Miller (1993) have suggested that lancets were used for bloodletting, the low frequency of this artifact in interior deposits is intriguing, and may suggest that bloodletting was only rarely practiced in such a setting.

Sixty-nine obsidian eccentrics are reported from 1 cache and 2 problematical deposits, all given through-floor treatment. More than half (63.7%) the eccentrics were found within the cache deposit, and the two room deposits (cache and PD) yielded a combined 67%. The frequencies of eccentrics in each deposit show a high degree of disparity, ranging from 2 in the room problematical deposit to 44 in the room cache. This may be interpreted as indicating that there was no standard number of eccentrics required for inclusion in interior deposits at this time. 85

Modified flakes are present in large quantities in interior deposits. The presence of nearly 3000 in a single deposit would seem to suggest that the obsidian itself was considered important, and worthy of a special mode of discard (however, Hayden and

Cannon [1983] demonstrate that dangerous materials tend to be disposed of in distinct locations, and need not be related to ritual).

The function of modified flakes in Maya society is unknown, and although these were probably employed in a wide variety of cutting tasks, the reasons for their inclusion in interior problematical deposits is unclear. One possibility is that these particular modified flakes represent the waste material from the manufacture of other obsidian

artifacts. The presence of flakes may indicate the actual presence of knapping associated with the ceremony leading to deposition. It is possible that these flakes are the result of the production of important artifacts such as eccentrics, and thus require

ritual disposal, although testing this hypothesis would require refitting studies, which are beyond the scope of this research.

Of note is the presence of 12 incised obsidians in a single problematical deposit

located in a room. This artifact type is much more common during the Late Classic (Ik),

and its presence in this context is puzzling. However, this deposit (PD 19/Burial 22) was

re-opened in prehistory and resealed at a later time, possibly following the inclusion of

these artifacts.

Chert

Chert artifacts, referred to as "flint" by Coe (1990), are an uncommon inclusion in

interior caches and problematical deposits. Table 3.9 shows the distribution of chert-

bearing cache locations (shown in Figure 3.6), while Table 3.10 shows the distribution of 86 chert artifact types.

Table 3.9: Locations of Chert-Bearing Early Classic Interior Deposits

N % Totar Type Context Treatment Comment 2 67 Cache Room Thru-Floor Resealed 1 11 PD Room Thru-Floor Centered Re-Opened Resealed 2 22 PD Room Sub-Floor 2 22 PD Stair Thru-Floor Centered 1 Re-Opened 1 Resealed 1 11 PD Stela Thru-Floor 1. Percentages are calculated by depositionai type (cache or problematical deposit), rather than by total number of deposits.

Figure 3.6: Early Classic Interior Cliert-Bearing Deposits

100

80 67.7 S

«*— 60 o c 33.3 0} y 40 22.2 a> Q. 11.1 20 z 0 Room (Cache) Room (PD) Stair Stela Context

Cache PD I—I PD (Sub Floor) I I (Thai-Floor) 87

Table 3.10: Chert Artifects in Early Classic Interior Deposits

Location Eccentric Modified Flake Flake Core Debitage Flake Blade Room (C, TF) 1 (35) 1 (1) Room (PD, TF) 1(3) 1(5) Room (PD, SF) 1 (138) 1(1) Stair (PD, TF) 2 (209) 1(3) 1(2) Stela (PD, TF) 1 (218) Totals 2(38) 2 (209) 3 (357) 1(3) 2(3) 1 (5)

Chert artifacts are uncommon in Early Classic interior deposits, and the chert present comes primarily from Room contexts. Most chert artifacts would require little skill to manufacture, and flakes - both modified and plain - dominate the assemblage. The only exceptions to this are the eccentrics from the two through-floor room deposits.

Jade

Only 4 interior deposits (2 caches) contain jade objects - thus jade is encountered in 25% of all interior deposits, and 67% of all interior caches. Table 3.11 shows the locations of jade-bearing interior deposits, while Table 3.12 shows the distributions of artifact types.

Table 3.11: Jade-Bearing Interior Deposits from the Early Classic

N % TotaP Type Context Treatment Comment 2 67 Cache Room Thru-Floor Resealed 88

1 11 PD Room Thru-Floor Centered Re-Opened Resealed 1 11 PD Wall Not Desc. 1. Percentages are calculated by deposltlonal type (cache or problematical deposit), rather than by total number of deposits.

Table 3.12: Jade Artifects from Early Classic Interior Deposits

Location Bead Mosaic Figurine Fragment Room (Cache) 1(1) 1 (2) 1 (48) Room (PD) 1 (1) Wall (PD) 1(1) Totals 2(2) 1(1) 1(2) 1(48)

Clearly jade artifacts are a very unusual inclusion in Early Classic interior deposits, and there is little variety in form. Only fragments are found in any quantity, and it is difficult to suggest what this might imply.

Minerals and Pigments

Cinnabar is the only pigment reported from Early Classic interior contexts

(detailed in Table 3.13). The only common link between all described cinnabar-bearing interior deposits is the fact that they were given through-floor treatment, although not all were resealed. A discussion of possible ceremonial use of cinnabar is presented below, in the discussion of exterior deposits. 89

Table 3.13: Cinnabar in Early Classic Interior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Description Cache 82 Room Thru-Floor Resealed Traces on Chert Artifacts Cache 98 Room Thru-Floor Resealed Cinnabar-colored fill and dusting on 14 Balanza Black vessels. PD 19 Room Thru-Floor Centered 2 Lumps /Burial 22 Re-Opened Resealed PD 33 Stair Thru-Floor Centered Not Described PD 28 Wall Not Desc. Traces on Bryozoa

Marine Objects

Stingray Spines

Only one interior deposit contains stingray spines. This is a Stair problematical

deposit (centered, re-opened, resealed), and it yielded a single complete imitation spine.

This suggests that stingray spines were of little importance in interior locales at this time.

A detailed discussion of the possible ritual usage of stingray spines is presented below.

Spondyius sp. Shelis

Spondylus sp. shells are not common in interior deposits, and the low numbers of

specimens offers little hint of patterning. However, it is Interesting that 2 of the deposits

contained formed artifacts, rather than unmodified shells or fragments. Tables 3.14 and

3.15. show the distribution of Spondylus-beamg deposits, and of Spondylus artifacts. 90

Table 3.14: Distribution of Early Classic Spondylus sp.-Bearing Interior Deposits

N % Total Type Context Treatment Comment 1 33.3 Cache Room Thru-Floor Reseated 1 11.1 PD Stair Thru-Floor Centered 1 11.1 PD Stela Thru-Floor

Other Shellfish Species

Unmodified shell is reported from 4 interior deposits, including 2 caches. In all cases, these remains come from Room contexts, in deposits given through-floor treatment. Both caches come from the same room. Room 2 of Structure 5D-33-2nd, suggesting that they may have been involved in related rituals, possibly performed by the same people (or members of the same social class or order, such as priests). The PD

(PD 19/Burial 22), was found associated with an apparently disturbed burial - however,

Coe (1990) feels that most of the content of this deposit was not of grave origin. PD

19/Burial 22 was located in Room 1 of Structure 5D-26-1st, and thus has no construction similarity with the two caches.

Several different shell species were recovered from these 3 deposits, and these are listed in Table 3.16.

Table 3.16: Shell Species in Early Classic Interior Deposits

Species C.111 Cache 98 PD 19/Buriai 22 Total Codakia orbicularis Unquantified Plicatula sp. Unquantified Pinna sp. Unquantified Area zebra Unquantified 91

Charhinus sp. Unquantified Latirus sp. 1 1 Murex sp. 1 1 Cancellata reticulata Unquantified Columbella mercatoria 1 Unquantified 1 Oliva cf. spicata 1 1 Cerithium maculosum 2 2 Cantharus sp. 2 2 Unidentified Unquantified

Perhaps the most intriguing aspect of the shell species encountered in interior deposits is the fact that they are almost mutually exclusive, with the only incidence of overlap coming from Columbella mercatoria, a common univalve with widely divergent colors (Dance 1990). Further, all species recovered from the PD/Burial context are bivalves', while all shells from cache contexts are univalves. This suggests a very different use of these specimens in ritual context, although the reasons for such differences are unknown. None of these specimens are considered rare by malacologists.

Vermicularia spirata

The worm-shell colony Vermicularia spirata is reported from only a single interior deposit (PD 28). This was encountered in Room 3 of Stmcture 5D-23-1st, a stmcture probably unrelated to those of the other marine-bearing interior deposits. The single

3. With the possible exception of Charhinus, which I have been unable to find in any shell manual. Table 3.15: Spondylus sp. Artifacts in Early Classic Interior Deposits

Context Spondylus Paired Spine Min. Chips Bead Mosaic Pend. Ear Fig- Perf. Worked Flare Room (Cache) 1(1)' Stair (PD) 1(1) Stela (PD) 1(2) Totals 0 0 0 0 1(2) 1(1) 0 0 0 1(1) 0 1. Globular Bead.

NJCO 93 specimen is undescribed, and its purpose in an offering is unl

Abbot 1961), suggesting probable beach gathering.

Worked Shell

Shell artifacts are an uncommon inclusion in Interior locales, reported from only 4 deposits. These show considerably less patterning than was seen for unworked shells, and the artifact inventory contains only figurines, mosaic elements, and chips.

The figurines are most intriguing, as they both come from deposits in Structure

5D-33-2nd. A shell figurine (species not mentioned) came from Cache 98 in Room 2, while a figurine of Spondylus came from PD 33, found in the step between Rooms 1 and

2 of the same structure. PD 33 was originally designated as a cache, and it seems likely that these two deposits are related in some fashion.

Worked shell fragments are more diverse, with mosaic elements originating in 3 different structures. There are never more than 3 mosaic elements present in a deposit, and only 2 chips (of Spondylus, presumably worked) are reported.

Fish Remains

Fish remains are only reported from a single Room deposit, PD 19/Burial 22.

Present are 10 elements identified as Sawfish (probably Preistis pectinata) spikes

(presumably these are rostral teeth [Michael 1993]), and 17 objects identified as

Porcupine Fish dermal spines (probably Diodon holocanthus or DIodon hystrix -Bohike and Chaplin 1993). Theoretically all of these objects could have been used in 94 bloodletting rituals.

Coquina

According to Rehder, et al (1981:780) "beds of compacted dead shells fonn a rock called coquina...." However, there is also a species of bivalve (Donax variabilis) which is sometimes referred to colloquially as the Coquina shell. Presumably the identification of Coquina at Tikal is referring to the conglomerate, rather than the bivalve.

The only reported example of coquina in an interior locale is from Cache 98 (discussed above), a Room cache. Its inclusion is probably related to the other shells in this cache.

Bryozoa

Bryozoans are colonial, largely marine animals...which occur attached to a substrate. Some species form encrusting plates; others form small delicate fans. The zooecium [colony] may also contain calcium carbonate, and in some species the colony is sufficiently calcified so that it may resemble a small coral (Colin 1978).

The Maya may have classified Bryozoa in a manner similar to coral (which is found in many Tikal caches). The only example of Bryozoa from an Interior deposit comes from a

PD in a Wall context, containing 3 large and 4 small pieces, some with cinnabar traces.

The ritual use of this material is unclear.

Other Marine Objects

In Room deposit PD 19/Burial 22, a single "smooth beach pebble" is reported.

Whether this is actually of marine origin is unclear, although this may explain its inclusion in this deposit. The lithic material was not identified. 95

Terrestrial Fauna

Ten-estrial fauna are not found in abundance in interior contexts, and specimens present are described in Table 3.17.

Table 3.17: Terrestrial Fauna in Early Classic Interior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comments Fauna Cache 98 Room Thnj-Floor Resealed 1 Bone Figurine PD 19/Burial 22 Room Thru-Floor Centered 96 Unidentified Re-Opened 319 Rodent Resealed 19 Bat 2 Rabbit PD 30 Stair Thru-Floor Centered Smalt Mammal Re-Opened Rodent Resealed Bat Alt Unquantified

The single cache comes from a Room context, and housed a bone figurine (presumably faunal). The other deposits all contain bones which (with the possible exception of rabbit) could well be intrusive. As both problematical deposits were re-opened at some point in their history, the presence of intrusives seems all the more likely.

Human Remains

Human remains are reported only once in an Eariy Classic interior deposit, PD

30, a centered Stair deposit given through-floor treatment and resealed. PD 30 was eventually re-opened. The human remains consist of 22 undescribed skeletal fragments,

2 juvenile molars and an additional incisor, possibly from an older individual. The lack of such remains in other interior deposits makes comparison impossible, while the lack of detailed description makes it difficult to suggest whether this represents a disturbed 96 burial or an intentional inclusion of some other type.

Ceramics

Ceramics are surprisingly rare in interior deposits, reported from only a single

cache and 5 problematical deposits (50% total). These are detailed in Table 3.18.

Table 3.18: Ceramics in Early Classic Interior Deposits

N Type Context & Comment Ceramics Treatment 1 Cache Room (TF) Resealed 14 Baianza Black cylinders with lids 1 PD Room (TF) Centered 1 Sibal Buff Polychrome, basal Re-opened ridged tripod plate, broken; 37 Resealed pounds of sherds 1 PD Room (SF) 1 Aguila Red-Orange flaring-sided cache vessel, broken, with sooted interior 1 PD Stair (TF) Centered 6 pounds of sherds Re-opened Resealed 1 PD Stela (TF) 16 sherds 1 PD Wall (ND) 1 Orange flaring-sided bowl, broken

The ceramics from interior deposits, with the exception of those from the single

cache, show surprising diversity both in type and forni, probably suggesting that there

was little regularity in the types of activities leading to their deposition. The lidded

Baianza Black cylinders are identical to those seen in numerous exterior deposits of this

period (see below). 97

Censers

Censer fragments are reported from 4 interior problematical deposits, detailed in

Table 3.19.

Table 3.19: Censers in Early Classic Interior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Description PD19 Room Thru-Floor Centered 1 Burned Ladle Fragment; /Burial 22 Re-Opened Joins specimens from PD Resealed 14. PD 33 Stair Thru-Floor Centered Fragments; Unquantified & Undescribed PD 55 Stela Thru-Floor 1 Fragment, Cylindrical PD 29 Wall Not Desc. 1 Fragment, Undescribed

The small sample of censers and the lack of description offers little chance for interpretation. However, it is notable that all specimens are fragmentary, probably suggesting ritual breakage prior to interment. This would be consistent with Walker's

(1995) notion of a sacrifice occumng at the end of the object's use-life.

Copal

The resin, Copal, is occasionally reported from Tikal caches. During the Eariy

Classic, it is present in a single interior deposit (PD 29, an undescribed Wall deposit), where it may have been used as fuel for the fragmentary censer present.

Seeds and Organics

Seeds were recovered from a single Room cache (Cache 98). While these are unquantified, the deposit was a multi-locus cache, allowing for minimal counts. Present 98 were at least 10 pumpidn seeds, 13 specimens of com (undescribed, presumably cobs or kernels), 10 specimens of cacao, and 7 beans. Seeds are never a common inclusion at any period of Tikal's occupation, making this difficult to interpret. Perhaps this offering relates to agricultural fertility.

Other organic material is also rarely reported from interior deposits. The seed- bearing deposit. Cache 98, is reported as housing undescribed organic materials, while

PD 33, a centered, through-floor Stair deposit contained unidentified grey/black organic materials.

Mosaic Elements

Mosaic elements are surprisingly rare in Eariy Classic interior deposits, reported from only three (2 problematical deposits). Two of these come from Room contexts (both through-floor and resealed, 1 centered and re-opened). All contain shell mosaic elements, although there are only 5 present. The Room cache (Cache 98) also contains

3 mosaic figurines, while the Room problematical deposit (PD 19/Burial 22) yielded a single jade mosaic element. It is apparent that mosaics were of little importance in interior offerings at this time.

Summary: Eariy Giassic interior Deposits

The low frequency of interior deposits in combination with the generally small inclusional assemblages within these suggests that offerings in interior locales were of little importance during the Eariy Classic. While this may relate to the excavated sample,

I am more inclined to feel that it is indicative of a society which practiced most rituals (at 99 least those resulting in caches) in public areas, probably before large audiences. The current sample of interior deposits contains a wide variety of material types. Including most of those seen in contemporary deposits with exterior placement. However, in most cases these are found in smaller quantities than their exterior counterparts. No doubt interior deposits were of some importance, but this would appear to be secondary to

those placed in exterior locales.

Exterior Deposits

The Early Classic is dominated by exterior deposits with 65 reported (including 9

problematical deposits). Probably the aftennath of public rituals, these are found in a

wide variety of contexts, suggesting a number of different behaviours. Exterior cache

locations are shown in Table 3.20 (Figure 3.7), while exterior problematical deposit

locations are detailed in Table 3.21 (Figure 3.8).

Table 3.20: Early Classic Exterior Deposits

N % Type Context Treatment Comment 3 5.4 Cache Stair Sub-Floor 1 Centered 1 1.8 Cache Stair Thru-Floor Centered 1 1.8 Cache Stairtop Sub-Floor Centered 1 1.8 Cache Stairbase Sub-Floor Centered Re-Opened Reseated 12 21.4 Cache Stairbase Thru-Floor 10 Centered 1 Bumed 2 Re-Opened 12 Reseated 1 1.8 Cache Wall Thru-Floor Centered Reseated 100

2 3.6 Cache Platform Sub-Floor 1 Centered 1 1.8 Cache Platform Not Desc. 9 16.1 Cache Platform Thru-Floor 3 Centered 8 Resealed 4 7.1 Cache Court Not Desc. 2 Centered 2 3.6 Cache Court Thru-Floor Centered 1 Resealed 1 1.8 Cache Terrace Thru-Floor 2 3.6 Cache Const. Fill Sub-Floor 1 Centered 9 16.1 Cache Stela Sub-Stela 1 Centered 1 Re-Opened 1 1.8 Cache Stela Not Desc. 1 1.8 Cache Mask Thru-Floor Resealed 1 1.8 Cache Rare Not Desc. 1 1.8 Cache Mixed Not Desc. Centered 1 1.8 Cache Mixed Sub-Floor Centered 2 3.6 Cache Mixed Thru-Floor Centered 1 Resealed

The two dominant locations for exterior caches are Platfomis (12 deposits, 21.4% of all exterior caches) and Stairisases (13 deposits, 23.2% of all exterior caches), a pattern strongly suggestive of ritual performance in areas that are highly visible to the public. StairiDase caches may also indicate rituals of completion, the end of a transition

(assuming stairs are transitional). The fact that the placement of the majority of these deposits penetrates a surface suggests that these are not ceremonies performed during construction, but rather are related to behaviours after construction is completed. Stela caches are also a frequent component of the Eariy Classic, comprising 17.9% of the exterior cache total. These undoubtedly represent ritual associated with the erection of 101

Figure 3.7: Early Classic Exterior Cache Contexts

30 23.2 _ 25 21.5 1 20 2 15 1 10

• Sub-Floor • Thru-Floor • Not Desc.

Table 3.21: Locations of Exterior Problematical Deposits

N % Type Context Treatment Comment 1 11.1 PD Stairtop Sub-Floor Centered Re-Opened Resealed 1 11.1 PD Platform Sub-Floor Centered 2 22.2 PD Platform Thru-Floor 1 Centered 2 Re-Opened 3 33.3 PD Terrace Thru-Floor 2 Re-Opened 3 Resealed 1 11.1 PD Mixed Thru-Floor Resealed 1 11.1 PD Mixed Not Desc. Resealed 102

Figure 3.8: Early Classic Exterior Problematical Deposit Contexts

50

40 33.3 33.3

30

I 20 11.1 11.1 11.1 a. z Stairtop Platform Terrace Rare Mixed

Sub-Floor • Thru-Floor • Not Desc. monuments, and thus possibly with the events recorded on the stelae. Some caches are associated with uncarved stelae, and the reason for the dichotomy in stelae types is unclear at present. No other context is found in abundance during the Eariy Classic.

Patterning by Context Type

Stair Deposits

Early Classic Stair deposits (4 caches) show considerable content variation.

Chert eccentrics and shell (non-Spondylus) are both found in 75% of the deposits, and always together. Obsidian (both eccentric and other forms), Spondylus shells, and mosaic elements are all found in half of the caches, while single caches contain examples of jade, ceramics, and rare items. The ceramic-bearing cache (Cache 144) is devoid of other content. 103

Stairbase Deposits

As the Stairbase is the most common Early Classic exterior cache context at Tikal

(13 deposits) — and second only to Platfomri contexts in overall frequency - the degree of variation in material inclusions is surprising. Only Jade and Ceramics are found with any regularity (10 deposits each, 76.9%) - and two of the ceramic-bearing caches yielded only potsherds. Spondylus and other marine shells are found in 8 deposits each

(61.5%), while stingray spines and non-eccentric chert and obsidian are the only other items reported from more than half of these deposits. The frequencies of other material types are (in descending order): chert eccentrics and rare objects (6 deposits, 46.2%); obsidian eccentrics, terrestrial fauna, and mosaic elements (5 deposits, 38.5%); non- shell marine objects (3 deposits, 23.1%); pigments (2 deposits, 15.4%), and human remains (1 deposit, 7.7%).

Eariy Classic Stairbase caches differ from stair caches in the emphasis on jade and stingray spines, and the use of non-shell marine objects. This suggests a behavioral difference between stairs and Stairbases, although the degree of variability in both probably indicates a wide variety of depositional activities.

Stairtop Deposits

Stairtop deposits are very uncommon at Tikal, and only two are present during the Eariy Classic: a cache and a PO. Both held similar content, with Spondyfus sp. and other species of marine shell present, along with mosaic elements in both deposits.

Other items, including non-eccentric chert, jade, stingray spines, potsherds, human remains, and rare objects were present in one or the other. According to Adam Smith's 104

(1994) model of Maya ritual behaviour, the Stairtop locale should be very important, and it is thus surprising to find so few caches in this area. However, there is no guarantee that the locus of ritual behaviour was also employed for cache deposition. If these particular deposits represent strict offerings, then such ceremonies must have been rare in elevated public contexts. Given the small sample size, it is debatable whether the observed artifact pattern is important.

Court Deposits

Six Eariy Classic caches were encountered in Court locations. These deposits show a certain degree of consistency in content, although there is considerable variability. Jade and shell {non-Spondylus) are encountered in all cases, while

Spondylus and mosaic elements are encountered in five cases. Ceramics, pigments, and unusual objects are found in at least two-thirds of these deposits. Indeed, there are few object classes absent in court deposits, possibly indicating the activities leading to these deposits were quite involved, requiring a wide variety of materials.

Platform Deposits

Fourteen exterior Platform deposits date to Eariy Classic times (three are problematical deposits). These show little strong patterning, with the most common items (non-eccentric obsidian and Spondylus) encountered in only half the deposits.

Jade, shell, and ceramics (3 deposits contain only sherds) were each recovered from

43% of the deposits, while only human remains were absent entirely. This pattern suggests the practice of a wide variety of activities in this context. 105

Terrace Deposits

Four Early Classic Terrace caches are reported, and these show surprisingly little consistency. Potsherds are found in three of these, with non-eccentric chert and obsidian reported from two. Eccentrics, jade, Spondylus, human remains, and pigments are all absent. This suggests little in the way of prescribed offerings for specific locales.

Construction Fill Deposits

The two Eariy Classic Construction Fill caches are united by containing both jade and shell mosaic elements. These are the only common material classes, although obsidian and chert eccentrics, non-eccentric obsidian, non-shell marine objects,

Spondylus, ceramics, tenrestrial fauna, and pigments are all present in one cache or the other.

Wall Deposits

The single exterior Wall cache shows similarities to the interior Wall deposits

(which is surprising, given the differences in the nature of the walls in question), with the presence of jade, marine objects, shell, and unusual objects. This deposit also contains the only lithics (chert eccentrics) found in association with a Wall offering.

Stela Deposits

Eleven Stela deposits are reported from the Eariy Classic, one of which is reset and associated with an interior PD (see above). In contrast to most other exterior locations, Stela deposits show distinct patterning. Lithic artifacts are present in most 106 cases, with chert eccentrics present in 80%, and non-eccentric obsidian present in 70%.

Obsidian eccentrics and human remains are all present in 60% of the deposits, while non-eccentric chert and jade are present in at least 50%. Other object types are more variable, but stingray spines and non-shell marine objects are completely absent. This patteming suggests that most stela dedication ceremonies followed a fairiy strict set of ritual rules, usually involving the inclusion of lithic artifacts (only one cache lacked any lithics, and this was found below an uncarved stela). Marine objects other than shell appear to have been shunned, although the reasons for this are unknown. Certainly lithic and marine objects are found mixed together in many other depositional locations.

Mask Deposits

Only a single cache is found in a Mask context during the Eariy Classic. This

contains chert (eccentric and non-eccentric), jade, non-shell marine objects, Spondylus,

shell, ceramics, mosaic elements, and unusual objects, suggesting a highly elaborate

ritual in association with this deposit.

Rare Context Deposits

Only a single Eariy Classic cache comes from Rare context: Cache 109, located

in the western half of the north base of Str. 5D-26-1st. Unfortunately, excavation error

destroyed much of the deposit's stratigraphy, and its context is unclear. Cache 109

contains chert eccentrics, shell, ceramics, and human remains. The sample size is

insufficient to suggest the presence of a pattern. 107

Mixed Context Deposits

Five Earty Classic deposits (1 PD) come from Mixed Contexts, those which overlap two or more context types. Surprisingly, these show a greater degree of patterning than is present in many locations. Eighty percent of these contain shell and rare objects, while jade, stingray spines, Spondylus, and ceramics, are each found in

60% of all Mixed deposits. Both non-eccentric chert, and ten'estrial fauna are reported from half, while potsherds and pigments are both found in only 20%. This high degree of patterning is very difficult to interpret, especially as the category of "mixed" was created primarily as a catch-all. Whether the observed pattems have any cultural meaning is debatable.

Centerline Deposits

The 29 exterior centeriine caches show a high degree of content patterning, with all material types represented. Shell is the most common material, found in 79% of all deposits, while jade (72%), Spondylus (69%), ceramics (55%), mosaic elements (52%), and unusual objects (52%) are all found in at least half of the deposits. Lithic objects are all found in a fairiy constant proportion (ranging from 38% to 48%), while pigments, human remains, and potsherds are all relatively uncommon. The patterning seen for exterior centeriine caches is suggestive of a highly variable behavioral set, possibly indicating that the positioning of the cache along the centeriine was of only minor importance (this too is reflected by the surprisingly low frequency of such alignments).

Three exterior problematical deposits show no particular patterning. 108

Re-Opened Deposits

Seven Early Classic exterior deposits were re-opened Oncluding 3 problematical deposits). These show a surprisingly consistent pattern. Caches all contain non- eccentric chert, while the majority (75%) contain jade, shell, and ceramics. At least half contain obsidian, eccentrics, Spondylus, human remains, terrestrial fauna, and unusual objects. Only non-shell marine items and pigments are entirely absent from re-opened caches. Problematical deposits all contain potsherds, while non-eccentric chert is common (67%). Obsidian, eccentrics, jade, marine items, ceramics, and pigments are all absent from re-opened problematical deposits.

The pattern observed for caches certainly does not seem to suggest systematic removal of any particular object class. The absence of non-shell marine objects and pigments certainly is insufficient evidence to support the idea of looting in prehistory, as these are not constant cache inclusions in any context. The presence of presumably valuable items such as eccentrics further refutes the notion of systematic looting.

Resealed Deposits

Twenty five Eariy Classic exterior caches were resealed. Jade, Spondylus, shell, or ceramics were found in at least sixty percent of these, with only human remains and potsherds found in extremely low fi'equencies. The wide variety of objects encountered in these resealed caches - coupled with the fact that no object type is found in more than two-thirds of the deposits - makes it difficult to suggest that the act of resealing had anything to do with cache content. Eight exterior problematical deposits showed a rather different pattern, with potsherds present in most cases (87.5%), non-eccentric chert in 109

75%, unusual objects in 62.5%, and non-eccentric obsidians in half. Eccentrics are the only object type that is absent in all cases. The pattern seen in problematical deposits suggests a very different series of activities than those relating to caches. However, it is again debatable whether the act of resealing has any relation to cache content.

Artiftict Analysis

Lithic Artifects

Obsidian

Obsidian artifacts played an important role in ceremony during the Early Classic, and are found in 36 exterior deposits, including 31 caches (55.4%) and 5 problematical deposits (55.6%). Obsidian-bearing exterior contexts are shown in Table 3.22 (see also

Figure 3.9), while Table 3.23 shows the distribution of artifact types.

Table 3.22: Locations of Obsidian Artifacts

N % Total Deposits Type Context & Treatment Comment 2 3.6 Cache Stair (SF) 1 Centered 1 1.8 Cache Stair (TF) Centered 1 1.8 Cache Stairiaase (SF) Centered Re-Opened Resealed 6 10.7 Cache StairiDase (TF) 5 Centered 1 Bumed 6 Resealed 1 1.8 Cache Platform (SF) 4 7.1 Cache Platfomi (TF) 1 Centered 4 Resealed 2 3.6 Cache Court (ND) 1 Centered 110

1 1.8 Cache Court (TF) Centered Resealed 1 1.8 Cache Terrace (TF) 1 1.8 Cache Const. Fill (SF) 7 12.5 Cache Stela (SF) 1 Centered 1 Re-Opened 1 1.8 Cache MaskfTF) Resealed 1 1.8 Cache Mixed (SF) Centered 1 1.8 Cache Mixed (TF) Centered 1 1.8 Cache Mixed (ND) Centered 2 22.2 PD Platform (TF) 1 Centered 2 Resealed 1 11.1 PD Tenrace (TF) Resealed 1 11.1 PD Rare (TF) Resealed 1 11.1 PD Mixed (ND) Resealed

Flake blades are the most commonly encountered obsidian artifact in Early

Classic exterior deposits, reported from 22, and often in very large quantities. Flake blades are found in virtually every exterior context in which obsidian is reported, suggesting that they were utilized in many public rituals which resulted in cache deposition. It is conceivable that flake blades were used for bloodletting by large portions of the audience at a ceremony, and then disposed of following its completion. Among the Aztecs, Caso (1959:67) mentions that during certain rituals"... all the people practiced the rite of self-sacrifice by pricking blood from their ears or other parts of their bodies...." Unfortunately, Caso does not specify the instrument(s) used for bloodletting or how they were disposed of following this activity; however, Aztec legend holds that maguey thorns and needles made from eagle or jaguar bones were used for bloodletting 111

Figure 3.9: Eariy Classic Exterior Obsidian-Bearing Contexts

Sub-Floor • Thm-Floor • Not Desc.

by the God QuetzalcoatI (Caso 1959:22), and Valiant (1944:141) mentions that maguey thorns were used by people doing religious penance.

Obsidian was likely used in bloodletting (Scheie and Freidel 1990), and ceremonies relating to the passage of time seem likely candidates for mass bloodletting activities. At Tikal, such ceremonies undoubtedly relate to the placement of a stela, particularly one marking a katun ending. Substela caches contain an average of nearly

1200 flake blades, although residue studies would be needed to detennine whether any of these artifacts carry traces of human blood. However flake blades were used in ritual context, it is apparent that the preferred fonn was made from obsidian, as these outnumber chert flake blades by slightly more than 900 to 1.

Lancet blades continue to be a rare inclusion, recovered from only a single Table 3.23: Obsidian Artifact Types in Early Classic Exterior Locations

Context Eccentric Ecc. Mod. Flake Unmod. Flake Blade Lancet Core Other Debitage Frag. Flake Stair (sub) 2(11) 1(2) 2(113) 1(55) Stair (thru) 1(30) 1 (134) Stair-Base 1(22) 1 (576) 1 (206) 1(6) (sub-floor) Stair-Base 4(54) 2 (3700) 4(59) 3(16) (thru-floor) Platform 1(7) 1 (158) (sub-floor) Platform 3(19) 1(57) 1 (314) 3(664) 1(35) (thru-floor) Court 1(27) 1(50) 2 (235) 1(17) (not desc.) Court 1(12) 1 (1224) (thru) Terrace 1(1)

Const. Fill 1(2) 1(1) 1 (1718) 1(4) • Stela 6(176) 1(4) 5 (1353) 4(1914) 5(5864) 2(68) 2(3') 1 (165) Mask 1(4) fi^ixed 1 (10) (sub-floor) Mixed 1(16) (thru-floor) Mixed 1(7) 1(2) 1(955) 1 (1350) (not desc.) Platform 1(1) 1 (132) (PD) Terrace 1(3) (PD) Other (PD) 1(83) 1 (503) 1(1) Mixed (PD) 1(1) Totals 22 (353) 3(7) 13 (9666) 10(3019) 22(7236) 1 (10) 9 (146) 3(4) 5(1571) * 1 Chipped Obsidian Sphere; 2 Obsidian Scrapers. 114 deposit containing 10 specimens and devoid of other obsidian forms. If lancets were the only obsidian blade form used for bloodletting, it would suggest that this activity was not practiced on a routine basis in public spaces. The distinction between lancet blades and flake blades appears to be made strictly on the basis of artifact shape (see Kidder 1947), and it may be more useful to perform residue studies on all blade fonns, prior to suggesting any sort of functional distinction.

Eccentrics are the second most common fomn of obsidian in exterior deposits, reported from 22, with 3 also containing fragments. These were found in most contexts, suggesting that their function was not limited to particular areas or types of rituals.

Eccentrics are found in the greatest abundance in Stela deposits, indicating a link with monument erection and its accompanying rituals. While fragmentary eccentrics are reported from three deposits, they are never found in isolation, suggesting that the behaviour associated with the use of these artifacts did not require their destruction or sacrifice (sensu Walker 1995). In other words, eccentric obsidians were seldom ritually broken (sacrificed) prior to deposition in a cache.

Typically assodated with caches containing eccentrics and/or flake blades are large quantities of both modified and unmodified flakes. It seems possible that these represent the waste materials involved in the production of ritual artifacts, although refitting studies would be necessary to confirm this idea. The argument is strengthened, however, by the fact that only a single deposit contains large quantities of flakes but lacks eccentrics or flake blades. Debitage is also mentioned in several deposits,

although it is unclear how this differs from unmodified flakes.

To test this idea without refitting, fi-equendes of obsidian eccentrics are plotted

against frequendes of obsidian flakes (Figure 3.10), debitage (Figure 3.11), and modified 115 flakes (Rgure 3.12).

Figure 3.10: Comparison of Distributions of Obsidian Eccentrics and Flakes

1,000 • •

800 - •

(0 . s a 600 - u. c a •o (0 400 - O • 200 •

• • °() 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Obsidian Eccentrics

Large numbers of obsidian eccentrics are seldom associated with large numbers of unmodified flakes (defined as more than 200 flakes). In fact, only two exterior deposits contain large numbers of flakes and more than 20 eccentrics, while there were 4 deposits containing more than 20 eccentrics and fewer than 200 flakes. The pattern is inconclusive, but suggests that the unmodified flakes were not related to eccentric manufacture.

Obsidian debitage follows a similar pattem, and on only one occasion is a large quantity of debitage found in association with obsidian eccentrics. However, this could be misleading, as debitage was not always fully quantified. 116

Figure 3.11: Comparison of Distribution of Obsidian Eccentrics and Debitage

1,600

1,400

a, 1.200 I 1,000 ^ 800

is(O 600 o 400 200 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Obsidian Eccentrics

Figure 3.12: Distribution of Obsidian Eccentrics and Modified Fialces

3,000

(» 2,500 "re c 2,000 J5 1 1,500 0 "S 1,000 *£ '•X3 1 500

0i*M*^ 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Obsidian Eccentrics 117

The relationship k}etween obsidian eccentrics and modified flakes is intriguing, and difficult to interpret. At their most extreme values, t)Oth artifact types are found in deposits virtually devoid of the other; yet 5 caches contain at least 7 eccentrics and more than 500 modified flakes. Unfortunately, these caches have little in common with one another they derive from 4 different contexts (Stairbase is the only one repeated) and no two come from the same structure. The only shared locational aspect of the majority of these deposits is that all but the Stela cache were located along a centeriine. While this may suggest that these caches - and presumably their contents - relate to some aspect of construction, it offers little reason why there should be a large number of modified flakes in association with eccentrics. If these flakes do represent manufacturing debris, their interment with the finished item was apparently not a common practice.

Chert

Chert is found in 42 Eariy Classic exterior deposits, including 36 caches (64.3%) and 6 problematical deposits (66.7%). Table 3.24 summarizes the exterior locations containing chert artifacts (see Figure 3.13), while the artifact distribution is shown in

Table 3.25.

Table 3.24: Early Classic Exterior Caches Containing Chert Artifacts

N % Total Type Context Treatment Comment Deposits 2 3.6 Cache Stair Sub-Floor 1 Centered 1 1.8 Cache Stair Thru-Floor Centered 1 1.8 Cache Stairbase Sul>-Floor Centered Re-Opened Reseated 118

10 17.9 Cache Stairbase Thru-Floor 8 Centered 1 Burned 2 Re-Opened 10 Resealed 1 1.8 Cache Wall Thnj-Floor Centered Resealed 3 5.4 Cache Platform Thru-Floor 1 Centered 2 Resealed 2 3.6 Cache Platform Sut>-Floor 1 Centered 2 3.6 Cache Court Not Desc. 1 Centered 1 1.8 Cache Court Thru-Floor Centered Resealed 1 1.8 Cache Const. Fill Sub-Floor 7 12.5 Cache Stela Sub-Stela 1 Centered 1 Re-Opened 1 1.8 Cache Stela Not Desc. 1 1.8 Cache Mask Thru-Floor Resealed 1 1.8 Cache Mixed Not Desc. Centered 1 1.8 Cache Mixed Thnj-Floor Centered 1 1.8 Cache Mixed Sub-Floor Centered 1 11.1 PD Stairtop Sub-Floor Centered Re-Opened Resealed 1 11.1 PD Platfonm Thru-Floor Resealed 2 22.2 PD Terrace Thru-Floor 1 Re-Opened 2 Resealed 1 11.1 PD Rare Thru-Floor Resealed 1 11.1 PD Mixed Not Desc. Resealed 119

Figure 3.13: Early Classic Exterior Chert-Bearing Contexts

• Sub-Floor • Thru-Floor • Not Desc.

Chert was most commonly recovered from through-floor Stairbase and sub-Stela contexts. Although a wide selection of artifact forms was present, eccentrics are the most common, reported from 38.5% of all Eariy Classic exterior deposits, and 59.5% of all chert-bearing exterior deposits. Ninety-five percent of all chert eccentrics from the

Eariy Classic derive from exterior deposits (721 of 759). This tendency towards exterior placement for eccentrics is in keeping with that observed for obsidian (83.6% of all obsidian eccentrics were located in exterior contexts), and intimates that rituals utilizing eccentrics were predominantly public in nature.

Comparing the frequencies of chert and obsidian eccentrics in the manner described above may help to detemnine whether these materials were used differently in exterior deposits (see Figure 3.14). Table 3.25: Chert Artifacts in Early Classic Exterior Deposits

Context Eccentric Eccentric Modified Flake Flake Core Other Debitage Fragment Flake Blade Stair (Cache) 2(13) (Sub-Floor) Stair (Cache) 1(9) (Thru-Floor) Stair-Base 1 (124) 1(1) (Cache) (Sub- Floor) Stair-Base 5 (123) 4(73) 3(71) 2(2) 2 (20)' 1(1) (Cache) (Thru-Floor) Wall (Cache) 1(27) (Thru-Floor) Platform (Cache) 1(5) 3(11) (Thru-Floor) Platform (Cache) 1(1) 1(2) (Sub-Floor) Court (Cache) 1(4) 1(3) 1(2) . (Not Desc.) Court (Cache) 1(14) 1 (1050) (Thru-Floor) Const. Fill (Cache) 1 (89) (Sub-Floor) Stela (Cache) 6 (188) 1(3) 4(95) 5 (957) 1(2) 1(1)^ 1(811) (Sub-Stela) Stela (Cache) 1(1) 1(1) (Not Described) Mask (Cache) 1 (214) 1 (1115) (Thru-Floor) Mixed (Cache) 1(1) 1 (515) (Not Described) Mixed (Cache) 1(8) (Thru-Floor) Mixed (Cache) 1(1) 1(2) 1(8) (Sub-Floor) Stair-Top (PD) 1(11) (Sub-Floor) Platform (PD) 1(1) (Thru-Floor) Terrace (PD) 2(3) (Thru-Floor) Other (PD) 1 (497) 1 (142) 1(1)' (Thru-Floor) Mixed (PD) 1(97) (Not Desc.) Totals 25 (721) 2(4) 12 (678) 22 (3969) 1(8) 3(3) 5(24) 2 (812) 1 20 "Specially-formed objects," 16 with "pick-like" ends. 2 1 Flint "Nodule" 3 1 Irregular Biface. 122

Figure 3.14: Comparison of Frequencies of Chert and Obsidian Eccentrics

Chert Eccentncs

Figure 3.14 shows that, for the most part, this is the case, and there are few differences in frequency of either type. Exceptions to this rule do occur in those cases where very large numbers (more than 80) of chert eccentrics are present. These are found in deposits devoid of obsidian eccentrics, and appear to represent a different type of behaviour. In most deposits with smaller numbers of eccentrics (fewer than 40 of either material), both material types are found in comparable quantities.

Unmodified flakes are also a common component of exterior caches. It is suggested above that unmodified obsidian flakes probably do not represent waste material from the production of other artifacts, particulariy eccentrics; however, the pattern of chert flakes seems to suggest the opposite, as 77% of all exterior deposits containing unmodified chert flakes also contain eccentrics. Further, those deposits lacking eccentrics yielded only 6.2% of the unmodified flakes. Even if interior deposits 123 are included, only 13.8% of the unmodified chert flakes come from deposits lacking eccentrics. Thus, I think it quite possible that unmodified chert flakes in Early Classic exterior caches represent waste material from the manufacture of other artifacts, particularly eccentrics. Detailed lithic analysis would be needed to add further support to this notion.

Jade

Jade is often considered to be one of the most -- if not the most - valuable objects in Maya society. At Tikal, jade objects are known from many ritual deposits, such as burials (Krejci and Culbert 1993) as well as caches and problematical deposits. Jade is found in 37 exterior deposits (48.7%), including 35 caches (62.5%) and 2 problematical deposits (22.2%). Table 3.26 shows the locations of Eariy Classic jade- bearing deposits (shown in Figure 3.15), while Table 3.27 shows the distribution of jade arti^ct types.

Table 3.26: Locations of Jade-Bearing Early Classic Exterior Deposits

N % Total Type Context Treatment Comment Deposits 1 1.8 Cache Stair Sub-Floor 1 1.8 Cache Stairtop Sub-Floor Centered 10 17.8 Cache Stairbase Thru-Floor 9 Centered 1 Burned 2 Re-Opened 10 Resealed 1 1.8 Cache Wall Thnj-FIoor Centered Resealed 5 8.9 Cache Platfonm Thai-Floor 2 Centered 4 Resealed 124

1 1.8 Cache Platform Sub-Floor 4 7.1 Cache Court Not Desc. 2 Centered 2 3.6 Cache Court Thru-Floor Centered 1 Resealed 2 3.6 Cache Const. Fill Sub-Floor 1 Centered 5 8.9 Cache Stela Sub-Stela 1 Centered 1 Re-Opened 1 1.8 Cache Mask Thru-Floor Resealed 1 1.8 Cache Mixed Thru-Floor Centered 1 1.8 Cache Mixed Sub-Floor Centered 1 11 PD Rare Thru-Floor Resealed 1 11 PD Mixed Not Desc. Resealed

Figure 3.15: Early Classic Exterior Jade-Bearing Contexts

• Sub-Floor • Thru-Floor • Not Desc. Table 3.27: Jade Artifacts in Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits

Context Bead Pendent Mosaic Ear Figurine Fragment Other Assoc. Assoc. Element Flare Mosaic Pigment Stair (Cache) 1(2) 1(1) 1(1) 1(7) Stair-top 1(22) 1(37) (Cache) Stair-Base 9(23) 2(2) 4 (148) 2(5) 3(3) 4(1331) 1(1)^ 8 3 (Cache) Wall (Cache) 1(2) 1(95) 1 1

Platform 1(1) 1(1) 4(156) 3 (246) KD' (Cache) (Thru- Floor) Platform 1(10) (Cache) (Sut>-Floor) Court (Cache) 3(10) 2(60) 1(1) 1(16) 1(1)' (Not Descrit}ed) Court (Cache) 1(1) 2(119) 1(1) 2(57) 1(1)' (Thru-Floor) Const. Fill 2(3) 1(1) 2(4)» (Cache) Stela (Cache) 2(2) 3 (180) 3 (190) 1(2)" Mask (Cache) 1(1) 1 (130) 1(2) 1(66) 1(1)^ Mixed (Cache) 1(4) 1(22) 1 (160) 1 (22)' 1 (Thru-Floor) Mixed (Cache) 1(14) 1(20) 1(2) 1(4) (Sul>-Floor) Other (PD) 1 (80)" Mixed (PD) 1(1) 1(2) Totals 24(64) 5(5) 20 (858) 5(12) 5(8) 20 (2217) 9(112) 10 4 1.1 Glyphically painted split lx)ulder of jade, copal stained face up. 2.1 Jade disk. 3. Loose (unquantified) jade in matrix. 4. Fragmentary object, unidentified. 5.2 Not described; 1 unmodified jade "lump," 1 unidentifiable object. 6. 2 Fragments of a "jade annular object." 7.1 Hemispherical object. 8. 22 Painted jade pieces. 9. Pieces of twads and ear flares, along with probable mosaic elements. 127

Fragments and mosaic elements are by far the most common form of jade artifact encountered in Early Classic exterior deposits in the North Acropolis. Fragments comprise 67.7% of all jade artifacts, while mosaic elements make up another 26.2%.

Combined, these two forms account for 93.9% of all jade recovered from exterior locales.

Yet, despite the quantities in which these fonns are recovered, both artifact types are found in only 54% of the exterior deposits. Jade fragments are most common in through- floor Stairbase caches, with four deposits yielding 60% of the total (1331 artifacts). No other context accounts for more than 11 % of the jade fragment total. The purpose of including amorphous fragments of jade in cache contexts is unknown; however, the practice does suggest that the raw material itself was of considerable importance, and not just the artifacts manufactured from it.

Mosaic elements are far more evenly distributed throughout different deposits, with no more than 21 % originating in any particular context. Sub-Stela caches house the largest number of mosaic elements (180 or 21%), implying that mosaics were important in stela rituals. However, only 3 of 10 Early Classic stelae contain such artifacts, indicating that their inclusion was not an essential part of Stela-ceremonial activities.

Beads are the third most common form of jade artifact, with 64 specimens present in 24 deposits. Jade beads are a very common inclusion in Stairbase caches, with 23 artifacts (35.9%) stemming from 9 such deposits (75%). Beads are also encountered in 66.7% of all Eariy Classic Court caches, although these 4 deposits yielded only 11 spedmens. Beads are found in relatively large numbers in Mixed contexts, as 2 caches yielded 18 specimens. The function of jade beads is unknown, although they seem logical candidates for decorative use. The Aztecs included jade beads within burials (Caso 1959), where these were employed in the passage of the 128 deceased through the underworld.

Elaborate jade artifacts - such as pendants, ear flares, and figurines - are all encountered in exterior contexts, but are always rare inclusions. Only 5 pendants are present, deriving from 5 different caches in 4 different contexts. Ten ear flares - almost always found in pairs - were also recovered from 5 caches in 4 different contexts. Eight figurines were encountered in 5 caches, although these show a higher degree of patterning than other elaborate jade forms. Three of the figurine-tiearing caches were from Stairbase contexts, while a fourth was from a Court; all bore single figurines. A single Mixed context cache held 4 figurines.

Minerals and Pigments

Cinnabar

Cinnabar is one of the rarest (mineraiogically) pigments used in the Maya area

(Mottana et al. 1978), but is encountered in 10 exterior deposits, including 1 problematical deposit (see Table 3.28). Cinnabar is known in lumps, in powder form, and in undescribed form.

Table 3.28: Cinnabar In Early Classic Exterior Deposits

Deposit Context & Comment Cinnabar Form Treatment Cache 143 Const. Rll (SF) Centered Powder on Shells; also specular hematite Cache 110 Court (NO) Not Described Cache 119 Court (NO) Undescribed, on shells and pumice Cache 77 Court (ND) Centered Undescribed, on shells 129

Cache 81 Mixed (TF) Centered Balanza cylinder stained with Resealed dnnabar Cache 74 Mixed (SF) Centered Bryozoa frequently stained with dnnabar Cache 63 Platform (TF) Centered 1 Lump Resealed PD87 Rare (TF) Resealed Powder, with groundstone Cache 65 Stairbase (TF) Resealed Not Described Cache 186 Wall (TF) Centered Powder Resealed

Thirty percent of the deposits containing cinnabar find this pigment associated with shells, while in 20%, it is associated with grinding stones or possible grinding stones

(pumice), undoubtedly used to produce powder.

It seems logical to assume that a red pigment is symbolic of blood and bloodletting - espedally as these were both obviously important to the Maya (e.g.,

Scheie and Miller 1986; Chase 1989). However, cinnabar may have been consumed as a way of inducing visions. Kaltenmark (1969:121-132) discusses the importance of cinnabar as part of a long-life elixir used by Taoists in China nearly 2000 years ago. This was considered important for purifying the body, and ultimately achieving immortality.

Prolonged indulgence in a certain cinnabar elixir was purported to allow one to "ascend to heaven at the height of the day" (Kaltenmark 1969:132). While the Maya undoubtedly used cinnabar for different cultural purposes than did Taoists, it is conceivable that this does represent a behavioral parallel, and that cinnabar was employed for purposes other than simply pigmentation. 130

Malachite

Malachite is a common mineral (Mottana, et al. 1978), but is reported in only a

single Early Classic deposit, PD 87. This resealed, through-floor deposit contained 1/3

of a cup of lumps and bits, and was located in a Rare context.

Marine Objects

Stingray Spines

Stingray spines, properly refen'ed to as stings (Halstead 1980; Michael 1993), are

known from 16 exterior caches and a single problematical deposit. Table 3.29 shows the

distribution of stingray-spine bearing deposits (see Figure 3.16), while Table 3.30 shows

the distribution of stingray spine types.

Table 3.29: Stingray Spine-Bearing Early Classic Exterior Deposits

N % Total Type Context Treatment Comment Deposits 7 12.5 Cache Stairbase Thru-Floor 6 Centered 1 Burned 1 Re-Opened 7 Resealed 1 1.8 Cache Wall Thnj-Floor Centered Resealed 1 1.8 Cache Platform Thru-Floor Centered 2 3.6 Cache Court Not Desc. 1 Centered 1 1.8 Cache Court Thru-Floor Centered Resealed 1 1.8 Cache Terrace Thru-Floor 2 3.6 Cache Mixed Thru-Floor Centered 1 Resealed 1 1.8 Cache Mixed Sub-Floor Centered 131

1 11.1 PD Stairtop Sub-Floor Centered Re-Opened Resealed

Figure 3.16: Early Classic Exterior Stingray Spine-Bearing Contexts

::: 20

s 10

Sub-Floor • Thru-Floor • Not Desc.

Stingray spines are frequently found in Stairbase contexts, and are reported from

7 such caches. No other context yielded more than 3 stingray spine-bearing deposits.

Intriguingly, these objects are entirely absent from Early Classic stela deposits at Tikal, and remain absent for the duration of the city's occupation. Presumably this indicates that stingray spines were not used in rituals relating to stelae, at least at Tikal.

Stingray spines are generally thought to have been used during ceremonial bloodletting (Scheie and Miller 1986; Scheie and Freidel 1990; Freidel, Scheie and

Parker 1993; Chase 1989). However, it is also possible that these were involved in vision inducement. Stingrays are toxic animals (Halstead 1980), and the toxin is inflicted Table 3.30 Stingray Spines in Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits

Context Whole Fragment Imitation Imit. Frag. Carved Pigment i-iematite Other Stairbase (Cache) 1(1) 3(17) 3(21) 3(23) 2(2) Wall (Cache) 1(1) 1(6) Platform (Cache) 1(1) Court (ND Cache) 2(3) 1(4) 1(1) Court (Thru Cache) 1(3) 1(1) 1(1) Terrace (Cache) 1(3) Mixed (Thru Cache) 1(2) 1(1) Mixed (Sub Cache) 1(2) Stair-Top (PD) 1(2) 1(1) Totals 6(10) 7(23) 6(32) 4(26) 4(4) 0 1(1) 0

MCO 133 upon the victim through the sting. Venom is produced by soft tissues found within the ventrolateral-giandular grooves of the sting itself, although some additional venom may be produced by the integumentary sheath which attaches the sting to the body of the animal. Venom-producing tissue will continue to remain within these grooves even after the integumentary sheath is worn away, and "...a perfectly clean-looking spine can still be venomous" (Halstead 1980:96). Thus, it is plausible that venom would still be contained within a sting - although one would expect it to be weaker - even after the

animal is dead, and that this venom may have been important for ritual.

It can be presumed that the stingrays were caught live, as these animals do not

appear to shed their stings with any regularity other than during attack (Halstead

1980:93). Further, being cartilaginous and quick to decompose, the chances of finding a

dead animal on a tropical beach would be very low. As a result, the poison could be

expected to be reasonably fresh during the eariiest stages of the spine's cultural usage.

Stingrays inflict either laceration or puncture wounds on their victims, and the

teeth of the sting act as barbs, making removal difficult. The venom appears to be

transferred from the ventrolateral-giandular grooves to the victim through the action of

the teeth, either by allowing for exposure of the wound to the toxic area, or by passing

the toxin into the wound. If stingray spines were used for bloodletting among the Maya,

then such a practice would probably have required using the spine for puncturing or

lacerating, in a very similar way to its use by the stingray. Thus, the person perfomning

the bloodletting would be exposed to the toxins of the sting.

Halstead (1980:96) lists the symptoms of stingray wounds as follows; pain (sharp,

shooting, spasmodic, or throbbing), a fail in blood pressure, vomiting, diarrhea, sweating,

rapid heart beat, muscular paralysis, and even death. The area around the wound 134 swells, and goes through a sequence of color changes, beginning as an ashy color, later becoming cyanotic, and then reddening. Assuming that the virulence of the toxin diminishes after the death of the animal, any of these less severe symptoms could easily have been considered important aspects of vision quests or other ceremonies. However, it is debatable whether fresh stings would be used in tongue or penis perforation.

Halstead (1980) notes that most stingray wounds are to the foot and ankle. However, some wounds have been reported in the chest area, and these may result in death. This presumably would be a function of the proximity of the toxin to the cardio-vascular and central nervous systems. If reactions are less severe in the ankle and foot, it may be an indication of the toxins moving slowly through the bloodstream. If this is the case, it would be a definite argument against using such objects to perforate areas with considerable circulation, such as the tongue or penis.

Of particular interest in Early Classic deposits is the high frequency of bone- imitation stingray spines. Imitation spines are almost twice as common as real spines in caches from this period (58 to 33), and are known from almost all the same contexts as real spines. The presence of imitation stingray spines may be an indication of the value and scarcity of the real object. However, given the toxic potential of real spines, it is also possible that these were used to ensure that the sacriftcer would not have to risk death or other damage.

Fragmentary stingray spines are often found, indicating that the original spines were broken, sometimes into many pieces. Seven Early Classic deposits contain spine fragments, and are devoid of whole specimens; these deposits also lack imitation spines, either whole or fragmentary. This indicates a practice of intentional breakage of these objects - presumably at the conclusion of a ritual or at least of the part utilizing stings - 135

and is consistent with Walker's (1995) notion of the sacrifice of a ritual object.

Fragments of real spines (23 fragments in 7 deposits) are far more common than whole

spines (10 spines in 6 deposits), indicating that breakage was an important part of some

rituals. While spine fragments are reported from 4 different contexts (see Table 3.30),

the majority come from Stairbases with through-floor treatment.

Imitation spines are also found in fragmentary condition (4 deposits, 26

fragments), and all but 3 fragments originated in through-floor Stairbase caches,

suggesting that imitations may have served as an acceptable alternative to the real item

when this was unavailable.

Occasionally real stings are modified through carving, although this is an unusual

find with only 4 examples of carved spines reported, all from different deposits (1

problematical). Two Stairbase caches held carved spines, while a third (PD) was located

in a Stairtop. The purpose of carving spines is unclear, especially as none of these

examples are illustrated. Coe (1959) illustrates several carved spines from burials at

Piedras Negras depicting glyphs, and translations of these glyphs may provide insight

into the ritual use of these artifacts.

Deposits containing stingray spines are commonly located on or near a

centeriine. In fact, 82.4% of all spine-bearing exterior deposits were centered (14

deposits), possibly suggesting that the physical alignment of the deposit is important for

spine disposal.

Spondylus sp. Shells

The spiny oyster, Spondylus sp., is a frequent cache inclusion, especially in

exterior deposits. Spiny oyster seems to have been of considerable importance to the 136

Maya, and its remains are found in a variety of forms, including paired valves, isolated spines, chips, beads, mosaic elements, pendants, ear flares, and figurines. Scheie and

Miller (1986) suggest that oyster spines were used in bloodletting rituals.

Thirty-four exterior caches (60.7%) contain Spondylus sp. remains, as do 22.2 percent of exterior problematical deposits (2 deposits). Table 3.31 shows the distribution of Spondylus sp.-bearing deposits (see Figure 3.17), while Table 3.32 shows the distribution of Spondylus sp. artifacts.

Table 3.31: Distribution of Spondylus sp.-Bearing Early Classic Exterior Deposits

N % Total Type Context Treatment Comment Deposits 2 3.6 Cache Stair Sub-Floor Centered 1 1.8 Cache Stairtop Sub-Floor Centered 8 14.3 Cache Stairisase Thru-Floor 7 Centered 1 Bumed 1 Re-Opened 8 Resealed 1 1.8 Cache Wall Thru-Floor Centered Resealed 6 10.7 Cache Platform Thru-Floor 2 Centered 5 Resealed 1 1.8 Cache Platform Sub-Floor Centered 4 7.1 Cache Court Not Desc. 2 Centered 1 1.8 Cache Court Thru-Floor Centered Resealed 1 1.8 Cache Terrace Thru-Floor 1 1.8 Cache Const. Fill Sub-Floor 4 7.1 Cache Stela Sub-Stela 1 Centered 1 Re-Opened 1 1.8 Cache Mask Thru-Floor Resealed 137

1 1.8 Cache Mixed Not Desc. Resealed 1 1.8 Cache Mixed Thm-Floor Resealed 1 1.8 Cache Mixed Sub-Floor Resealed? 1 11.1 PD Stairtop Sub-Floor Centered Re-Opened Reseated 1 11.1 PD Rare Thru-Floor Resealed

Figure 3.17: Early Classic Exterior Spondylus sp.-Bearing Contexts

By far, the most common fomi of Spondylus sp. inclusion is the minimally worked specimen, usually described as having a scraped interior; slightly more than 2000 such specimens are reported from 18 deposits (2 problematical). The presence of scraped interiors in a bivalve species probably indicates that the shells were gathered live, and the animal removed with a minimal amount of cooking. Whether the removal of the Table 3.32: Spondylus sp. Artifacts in Early Classic Exterior Deposits

Context Spond. Paired Spine Min. Chips Bead Mosaic Pend. Ear Fig. Perf. Worked Flare Stair 1(1) 1(2) 1(1) 1(3) 1(1) Stair-Top 1(58) (Cache) Stair-Base 2(8) 1(2) 7 (1942) 3 (214) 4(5)' 1(7) 1(4) Wall 1(1) Platform 1(1) 1(2) 1(4) 2 (192) 2(2) 2(37) (Thru) Platform 1(3) 1(2) (Sub) Court (ND) 2(45) 1(1) 3(8)^ 1(3) Court 1(2) 1(5) 1(4) (Thru) Terrace 1(1)' Const. Fill 1(2) Stela 1(14) 1(1) 1(14) 3(3) 1(4)

Mask 1(1) 1(1) KD' 1(1) Mixed (ND) 1(1) Mixed 1(1) 1(1)» (Thru) CAJ 00 Mixed 1(3) 1(2) (Sub) Stair-Top 1(7) (PD) Other (PD) 1(1) Totals 6(16) 4(8) 2(15) 18 (2010) 10(482) 16 (25) 3(41) 2(4) 1(1) 1(7) 3 (11) 1. SBeac s: 1 Disc; 1 Globular; 1 Subspherlcal; 2 No Described 2. 8 Beads: 3 Subspherlcal; 5 Not Described 3. Specimen has Vermetidae colony attached. 4. 1 Bead: Spheroid 5. 1 Bead: Spheroid

CO CD 140 animal was followed by its consumption is unknown, as too is the location of this behaviour.

Unworked spedmens of Spondylus sp. are rather uncommon, with only 16 reported from 6 caches; half of these came from Stairbase caches, although the meaning of this pattern is unknown. Paired valves of Spondylus sp. are occasionally recovered fi'om caches, although this is a rather rare occurrence during the Early Classic

(4 caches).

Scheie and Miller (1986) contend that Spondylus sp. spines were used for bloodletting. If this was the case, it was not a commonly practiced part of caching rituals, as only 2 deposits contain spines. Intriguingly, these are associated with elaborate deposits - one with a Stela, the other with a Mask. Residue analysis might resolve whether these spines were used for drawing blood.

Spiny oyster is sometimes recovered in the forni of elaborate artifacts, such as beads, pendants, ear flares, and figurines. Beads are the most common of these forms, with 24 recovered from 16 caches. Spondylus sp. beads are known in a minimum of 4 forms during the Eariy Classic: globular, disc, spheroid, and sub-spherical.

Unfortunately, not all specimens are described, and it is impossible to detemriine whether certain types are typically associated with particular contexts. The context with the largest number of bead-bearing caches is the Stairbase, although the largest number of beads come firom court contexts. In all, 9 different contexts contain caches with

Spondylus beads, indicating that this artifact type was used in a variety of different situations.

Other elaborate artifact fonns have more limited distributions. Three Spondylus pendants were recovered from a single Stair cache, and a fourth was found in a Mask 141 context. All the Spondylus figurines derived from a single Stairbase cache, while the single ear flare was reported from a Stair context. Plainly elaborate oyster shell artifacts were an uncommon cache component, and when they are present they tend to be associated with stair areas.

Finally, 482 Spondylus sp. chips are reported from 10 caches. Chips are a mysterious category, in that it Is unclear whether these represent intentionally produced objects, or are simply broken fragments. In either case, the function of these items is unknown. Chips are spread through a variety of contexts, but are most numerous in

Platfonn and Stairbase contexts.

Other Shellfish Species

Unworked shell was recovered in 31 exterior caches (55.4%), along with 2 additional problematical deposits (22.2%), meaning that 51.6% of all Eariy Classic exterior deposits held unmodified shell of some sort. Table 3.33 shows the distribution of

non-Spondylus sp. shell encountered in Eariy Classic exterior deposits.

Table 3.33: Shellfish Species found in Early Classic exterior deposits

Species Cache PD Total Anadara transversa 6(8) 6(8) Anadara (Lunarca) avails 2(3) 2(3) Anomalocardia sp. 3(3) 3(3) Area imbricata 3(7) 3(7) Area zebra 7(17) 7(17) Area sp. 2(3) 2(3) Balanus sp. 2(2) 2(2) 142

Barbatia sp. 1(2) 1(2) Brachidontes sp. 7(32) 7(32) Bulla sp. 2(2) 2(2)

Busycon sp. 2(5) • 2(5) Cancellaria reticulata 3(4) 3(4) Cantharus sp. 2(2) 2(2) Cardita noridana 2(2) 2(2) Cerithium maculosum 3(10) 3(10) Chama echinata 3(4) 3(4) Chama sp. 10 (42) 10 (42) Chione cancellata 6(12) 6(12) Cittarium pica 1(2) 1(2) Codakia orbicularis 5(6) 5(6) Columbella mercatoria 4(4) 4(4) Conus spurius atlanticus 3(3) 3(3) Crepidula aculeata 9(23) 9(23) Crepidula fomicata 3(5) 3(5) Crucibulum sp. 9(22) 9(22) Cyphoma gibbosum 1(3) 1(3) Cyphoma sp. 1(1) 1(1) Dentalium sp. 1(43) 1(43) Dinocardium robustum 7(11) 7(11) Diodora listeri 1(1) 1(1) Diodora cayenensis 1(2) 1(2) Ficus sp 2(3) 2(3) Glycymeris sp. 2(2) 2(2) Lyropectin subnodosus 3(8) 3(8) 143

Marginella probably apicina 4(6) 4(6) Melongena sp. 2(7) 2(7) Modulus modula 3(4) 3(4)

Mulina lateralis 1(4) • 1(4) Mulina guadalupensis 2(9) 2(9) Mulina sp 2(2) 2(2) Murex cf. florifer 1(1) 1(1) Murex pomum 1(1) 1 (1) Murex sp. 2(2) 2(2) Mytilus sp. 1(2) 1(2) Nassarius sp. 1(5) 1(5) Neiita cf. versicolor 1(5) 1(5) Nerita fulgarans 1(3) 1(3) Nerita sp. 8(12) 8(12) Noetia ponderosa 9(12) 9(12) Oliva cf. spicata 3(3)' 3(3) Ostrea sp. 8(19) 8(19) Pectin sp. 1(1) 1(1) Petricola (Rupellaria) sp. 1(2) 1(2) Pinctada sp. 2(4) 2(4) Pinna sp. 1(1) 1(1) Pleuroploca gigantea 1(1) 1(1) Plicatula sp. 9(25) 9(25) Polinices duplicata 1(1) 1(1) Prunum cf. storeria 1(2) 1(2) Prunum labiatum 1(1) 1(1) Prunum sp. 1(1) 1(2) 2(3) 144

Pten'a colymbos 1(2) 1(2) Strombus cranulatus columella 2(2) 2(2) Strombus sp. 2(2) 2(2)

Tellina sp. 2(51) • 2(51) Trachycardium isocardia 8(12) 8(12) Trachycardium muricatum 3(3) 3(3) Trachycardium sp. 2(2) 2(2) Vasum muricatum 1(1) 1(1) Vermicularia spirata 15(40) 1(1) 16 (41) Vermetidae 4(9) 4(9) 1. 2 tinklers

Anadara transversa, Anadara (Lunarca) ovalis

Anadara transversa and A. ovalis are bivalves comnnon in Caribbean waters

(Dance 1990). Both are reported from several Eariy Classic exterior caches, detailed in

Table 3.34.

Table 3.34: Anadara. In Early Classic Exterior Caches

N Context & Treatment Comment A. transversa A. ovalis 1 Stair (TF) Centered 1 0 1 Platform (SF) 0 1 1 Platform (TF) Centered 1 0 Resealed 1 Const. Fill (SF) 1 0 1 Mask (TF) Resealed 1 0 1 Mixed (TF) Centered 1 0 1 Mixed (SF) Centered 3 2 145

A. transversa is the more frequently encountered of the two spedes, although the reasons for this are unclear. That both are found in the same deposit may indicate that the species difference was not recognized by (or was of little consequence to) the Maya.

Anomaloeardia sp.

This common bivalve (Dance 1990) is reported from only three Early Classic caches (3 specimens), outlined in Table 3.35.

Table 3.35: Anomaloeardia sp. in Early Classic Exterior Caches

N Context Treatment Comment Anomaloeardia sp. 1 Stairiaase Thru-Floor Re-Opened 1 Resealed 1 Platform Thru-Floor Resealed 1 1 Mixed Sub-Floor Centered 1

Area imbricaU, Area zebra, Area sp.

Both Area imbricata and A. zebra are common Caribbean bivalves (Dance 1990), and are present in several Early Classic exterior caches, listed in Table 3.36.

Table 3.36: Area imbrieata, A. zebra, and A. sp. in Early Classic Exterior Caches

N Context & Comment A. Imbrieata A. zebra A. sp. Treatment 2 Stair (SF) 1 Centered 0 4 0 1 Stairtop (SF) Centered 0 1 0 1 Stairbase (SF) Centered 2 0 0 Re-opened Resealed 1 Stairbase (TF) Centered 0 1 Resealed 146

1 Platform (TF) Centered 0 2 2' Resealed 1 Mask(TF) Resealed 4 8 0 1 Mixed (TF) Centered 0 1 0 1 Mixed (SF) Centered 0 0 1 1 Stela (SF) Centered 1 0 0 Re-opened 1. Area sp. specimens are beach-wom.

Interestingly, Area zebra and Area imbricata are rarely encountered together in the same deposit during the Early Classic. There is only a single deposit in which this occurs, located in a reseated, through-floor deposit associated with a. Mask. The typical spatial segregation of these two species into separate deposits may indicate that the

Maya considered them different entities.

Balanus sp.

Barnacles are a very common univalve (Dance 1990), but are not a common find in Eariy Classic exterior caches. Only two spedmens are reported, from Stairtop and

Stairbase contexts. Neither barnacle was attached to another specimen, suggesting that they were gathered and deposited for their own merit, rather than appearing as an acddental indusion.

Barbatia sp.

One of the few less-than-common shell spedes (Dance 1990) reported from

Tikal, Barbatia sp, a bivalve, is represented by 2 spedmens from a single cache (Cache

140A), a through-floor Stairisase deposit, which was centered and resealed. 147

Braehidontes sp.

Brachidontes sp. is a common genus of bivalve (Dance 1990), and is encountered with some frequency in Early Classic exterior caches. These are detailed in

Table 3.37.

Table 3.37: Brachidontes sp. in Early Classic Exterior Caches

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Brachidontes sp. Cache 119 Court Not Desc. 1 Cache 134 Mixed Thru-Floor Centered 9 Cache 74 Mixed Sub-Floor Centered 13 Cache 60 Stair Thru-Floor Centered 1 Cache 182 Stair Sub-Floor 1 Cache 65 Stairbase Thm-Floor Resealed 5 (3 Pairs) Cache 75 Terrace Thru-Floor 1

The most intriguing aspect of the distribution of Brachidontes sp. shells is that they are typically found as single specimens, or in specimens reflecting sacred Maya numbers (nine and thirteen). The only exception to this is the three paired valves from

Cache 65. Paired valves are presumably still articulated, indicating they were brought to

Tikal in this condition. This may be indicative of live harvesting, although articulated bivalves can frequently be found on beaches.

Bulla sp.

This common univalve (Dance 1990) is found in only two Eariy Classic caches (2 specimens). One (Cache 87) was a through-floor Platform deposit that had been resealed, while the other (Cache 93) was a reseated, through-floor cache in a Mask 148 context.

Busycon sp.

Busycon is a univalve, and (depending on the species in question) is either common or uncommon in Caribbean waters (Dance 1990). During the Early Classic, shells of this genus are reported from only two exterior caches, containing 5 specimens.

Four shells came from Cache 74, a Mixed context sub-floor deposit located along a centerline. The other specimen was found in Cache 87, a resealed, through-floor

Platform deposit.

Cancellaria reticulata

Cancellaria reticulata is less common than most univalve species reported from

Tikal (Dance 1990 describes it as frequent). Four specimens are reported from three

Eariy Classic deposits, detailed in Table 3.38.

Table 3.38: Cancellaria reticulata in Early Classic Exterior Caches

Deposit Context Treatment Comment C. reticulata Cache 74 Mixed Sub-Floor Centered 2 Cache 140A Stairbase Thru-Floor Centered 1 Resealed Cache 43 Stairbase Thru-Floor Centered 1 Resealed

Cantharus sp.

Cantharus sp. is one of the scarcer univalve spedes encountered at Tikal, with a current distribution ranging from frequent to common (Dance 1990). Only 2 specimens 149 are reported from the Early Classic, coming from 2 separate deposits. One of these

(Cache 186) is from a reseated, through-floor Wall context, located along a centerline.

The other (Cache 93) is also a reseated, through-floor cache, this time from a Mask context.

Cardita floridana

C. floridana is a common bivalve (Dance 1990), but only 2 specimens are known from the Early Classic, both from separate deposits. One came from Cache 140A, a reseated, through-floor Stairbase context deposit located along a centerline. The other was found in Cache 87, another reseated, through-floor deposit located in a Platfonm context.

Cerithium maculosum

Cerithium is a fairly common univalve genus (Dance 1990). Cerithium is reported

from 3 exterior deposits, detailed in Table 3.39.

Table 3.39: Cerithium in Early Classic Exterior Caches

Deposit Context Treatment Comment C. maculosum Cache 74 Mixed Sub-Floor Centered 6 Cache 43 Stairbase Thm-Floor Centered 3 Reseated Cache 65 Stairbase Thru-Floor Reseated 1

Cerithium is one of the few genera of shell at Tikal for which the number of

reported specimens exceeds the number of reported deposits. Why multiple specimens

of this genus are found in most deposits is unclear. 150

Chama echinata, Chama sp.

Chama is a common genus of bivalve, and C. echinata is a common species

(Keen 1958; Wamike and Abbott 1961); thus the presence of these shells in ceremonial deposits is not surprising. Table 3.40 details the locations of Chama-bearing exterior caches.

Table 3.40: Chama in Early Classic Exterior Caches

Deposit Context & Comment Chama Chama sp. Treatment echinata Cache 143 Const. Fill (SF) Centered 4 (2 pair) Cache 62 Const. Fill (SF) 1 Cache 110 Court (ND) 2' Cache 119 Court (ND) 1^ Cache 93 Mask(TF) Resealed 3 Cache 74 Mixed (SF) Centered 3 Cache 138 Platfomn (TF) Centered 1 Cache 63 Platfomi (TF) Centered 2 Resealed Cache 87 Platform (TF) Resealed 1 Cache 136 Stairbase (TF) Centered 7 Resealed Cache Stairbase (TF) Centered 15' 140A Resealed PD87 Rare (TF) 1 5^ 1. Perforated. 2. Perforated hinge, smoothed. 3. Some C. echinata cemented together. 4. 8 immature.

Worked Chama remains are unusual, with only two examples reported. Chama 151 valves are uniformly devoid of any sort of attachment, such as barnacles or gorgonians.

Chione cancellsta

Chione cancsHata is a common Caribbean bivalve (Dance 19d0), although it is not firequently encountered in Eariy Classic deposits. Only six exterior deposits contain examples of complete C. cancellata valves (11 valves), while two additional deposits held fj-agmentary valves (2 specimens). C. cancellata tends to concentrate in two types of contexts, platforms and courts (see Table 3.41), although the reasons for this are unknown.

Table 3.41: Chione cancellata in Early Classic Exterior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Chione cancellata Cache 110 Court Not Desc. 1 Cache 119 Court Not Desc. 4 Cache 134 Mixed Thnj-Floor Centered 2 (1 fragment) Cache 63 Platform Thru-Floor Centered 3 (also unquantified Resealed fragments) Cache 87 Platform Thm-Floor Reseated 1 Cache 57 Platform Sub-Floor Centered 1

Cittarium pica

This common univalve (Dance 1990) is rare in Eariy Classic deposits, and the

only reported specimens (2) come from a single cache (Cache 136). This was a

resealed, through-floor Stairbase cache, located along a centerline. 152

Codakia orbicularis

A common bivalve (Dance 1990), C. orbicularis is reported from five Early Classic exterior caches (6 spedmens). These are detailed in Table 3.42.

Table 3.42: Codakia orbicularis in Early Classic Exterior Caches

Deposit Context Treatment Comment C. orbicularis Cache 93 Mask Thru-Floor Resealed 1 Cache 63 Platform Thru-Floor Centered 1 Resealed Cache 182 Stair Sub-Floor 2 Cache Stairbase Thru-Floor Centered 1 140A Resealed Stela PI Stela Sub-Stela Centered 1 Altar PI Re-Opened Cache 13

Columbella mercatoria

A common spedes of univalve (Dance 1990), C. mercatoria is reported from 4

exterior deposits, each containing single specimens (see Table 3.43).

Table 3.43: Columbella mercatoria in Early Classic Exterior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment C. mercatoria Cache 119 Court Not Desc. 1 Cache 74 Mixed Sub-Floor Centered 1 Cache 132 Stairbase Thru-Floor Centered 1 Re-Opened Resealed PD152 Stairtop Sub-Floor Centered 1 Re-Opened Resealed 153

One intriguing aspect of C. mercatoria usage is the fact that half of ttie specimens are found in deposits that had laeen re-opened at some point following their Initial deposition. This may indicate the inclusion of these specimens at a later date than other materials, although there is little evidence for such behaviour.

Conus spurius atlanticus, Conus sp.

Cone shells are very common in the Caribbean (Warmke and Abbott 1961).

However, they are uncommon in Eariy Classic deposits, with only three specimens reported from separate depositional contexts, detailed in Table 3.44.

Table 3.44: Conus Shells in Exterior Early Classic Caches

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Conus Cache 93 Mask Thru-Floor Resealed 1 Cache 6 Platform Sub-Floor 1 Stela P1 Stela Sub-Stela Centered 1 Attar PI Re-Opened Cache 13

Cone shells are intriguing finds from ceremonial contexts, as many of these animals are poisonous (Halstead 1980:64-66). Poisoning comes through puncture wounds caused by live animals, although it may have been possible to extract the poison from dead specimens. Typical symptoms include numbness and tingling, starting in the area of the wound, and progressing to encompass the entire body, particulariy the mouth and lips. Severe reactions include coma and paralysis, and in some cases death. It seems possible that this poison may have been used by the Maya in rituals. 154

Crepiduia aculeata, Cnpidula fomicata

Both C. aculeata and C. fomicata are common univalves (Dance 1990), and are found with some frequency in exterior deposits, although C. aculeata is by far the more common of the two. Table 3.45 lists the occurrences of these species.

Table 3.45: Crepiduia aculeata and C. fomicata in Early Classic Exterior Caches

Deposit Context & Comment C. aculeata C. fomicata Treatment Cache 62 Const. Fill (SF) 2 1 Cache 93 Mask (TP) Reseated 9 Cache 74 Mixed (SF) Centered 2 Cache 63 Platfonn (TF) Centered 2 Reseated Cache 6 Platform (SF) 2 Cache 60 Stair (TF) Centered 1 Cache 182 Stair (SF) 2 Cache Stairbase (TF) Centered 1 2 140A Resealed Cache 107 Stairtop (SF) Centered 1 Cache 75 Terrace (TF) 3

Crucibulum sp.

Crucibulum sp. Is an uncommon univalve (Wamnke and Abbott 1961), and for this reason it is intriguing that it is found in high frequency in Early Classic deposits, listed in

Table 3.46. 155

Table 3.46: Crucibulum sp. Shells in Exterior Eariy Classic Caches

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Crucibulum Cache 62 Const, nil Sub-Floor 2 Cache 93 Mask Thru-Floor Resealed 6 Cache 63 Platform Thru-Floor Centered 1 Resealed Cache 87 Platform Thnj-Floor Resealed 1 Cache Stairbase Thai-Floor Centered 1 140A Resealed Cache 43 Stairbase Thru-Floor Centered 4 Resealed Cache 10 Stairbase Sub-Floor Centered 3 Re-Opened Resealed Stela P1 Stela Sub-Stela Centered 2 (paired) Altar PI Re-Opened Cache 13 Cache 75 Terrace Thru-Floor 2

Of some interest is the fact that a single deposit (sub-floor, Stairbase, centered) contained paired Crucibulum specimens. As this is a univalve species, the reasons for such behaviour are unknown.

Cyphoma gibbosum, Cyphoma sp.

Cyphoma can be common to rare (Dance 1990), with C. gibbosum a common species, and for this reason unidentified specimens of this genus are interesting. Three specimens of C. gibbosum were reported firom Cache 136, a resealed, through-floor

Stairbase deposit located along a centerline. The single specimen identified as Cyphoma 156 sp. came from Cache 143, a sub-fioor Construction Fill deposit, also located along a centeriine. If this spedmen is C. intermedia, it would mark one of the few appearances at Tikal of a species considered rare by Malacologists (see Dance 1990:99).

Dentalium sp.

Dentalium is a scaphopod (a type of univalve) named for its resemblance to a tooth. Species of this genus are often found in deep water, although some are known from shallow settings, and specimens are occasionally found dead on beaches (Wormke and Abbott 1961:224). The only specimens of Dentalium reported from Tikal come from a single deposit. Cache 143. This is a sub-fioor Construction Fill cache, located along a centeriine, and it contained 43 Dentalium specimens. The large number of specimens from a unique deposit strongly suggests ornamental use. As this shell is never again reported from a Tikal cache, it may be a trade piece.

Dinocardium robustum

Another common marine bivalve (Abbott 1954), valves of D. robustum are reported from seven exterior caches (11 specimens), and single deposits each contain examples of fragmentary specimens and paired valves. These are described in Table

3.47.

Table 3.47: Dinocardium robustum Shells In Exterior Early Classic Caches

Deposit Context Treatment Comment D. robustum Cache 93 Mask Thnj-Fioor Reseated 3 Cache 74 Mixed Sub-Floor Centered 1 Fragment Cache 6 Platfonm Sub-Floor 1 157

Cache 60 Stair Thru-Floor Centered 2 (Paired) Cache 181 Stair Sub-Roor Centered 1 Cache 182 Stair Sub-Floor 2 Cache 75 Terrace Thru-Floor 1

Specimens of O. robustum are most frequently reported from Stair contexts, although there is no definite pattern.

Diodora listen, Diodora cayenensis

While both species of Diodora are common (Warmke and Abbott 1961), both are

very unusual in Early Classic deposits. There are just 2 specimens of D. cayenensis and

a single example of O. listen, both from the same deposit. Cache 143, a sub-floor

Construction Fill cache located on a centertine.

Ficus sp.

This common univalve (Dance 1990), is reported from just two Early Classic

deposits (4 specimens). Two specimens each come from Cache 74 (Mixed context, sub-

floor, centered), and Cache 93 (Mask, through-floor, reseated). Why specimens of Ficus

were placed in pairs is unclear.

Glycymeris sp.

According to Dance (1990), Glycymeris ranges from frequent to common, thus

making it one of the more difficult to find of the bivalve genera reported from Ttkal. Only

two specimens are known from Early Classic deposits, both from different contexts. One 158 was recovered from Cache 74, a Mixed context, centered, sub-floor deposit, and the other from Cache 136, a centered Stairbase cache, resealed, and given through-floor treatment.

Lyropectin subnodosus

L subnodosus is another bivalve species, although I have been unable to determine whether it is considered common. Specimens of Lyropecten are reported from only 3 exterior deposits ~ listed in Table 3.48 - and are frequently wori

Table 3.48: Lyropecten subnodosus Shells in Early Classic Exterior Caches

Deposit Context Treatment Comment L. subnodosus Cache 74 Mixed Sub-Floor Centered 1 (worked) Cache 57 Platfonn Sut)-Floor Centered 3 Cache 136 Stairbase Thru-Floor Centered 4 (Worked) Resealed

The one similarity among these deposits is the fact that all are located along centeriines, although this may be coincidental.

Marginelia probably apicina

M. apicina is a very common species of univalve (Rehder 1981), found in four

Eariy Classic deposits (6 specimens) covering a wide variety of depositional contexts

(see Table 3.49). Two specimens of M. apicina were perforated, presumably for use as ornaments. 159

Table 3.49: Marginella Shells in Exterior Early Classic Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Marginella Cache 143 Const, nil Sub-Floor Centered 1 Cache 81 Mixed Thm-Floor Centered 1 Cache 74 Mixed Sub-Floor Centered 2 PD87 Rare Thru-Floor Reseated 2 (Perforated)

Melongena sp.

Another common univalve species (Dance 1990), there are 7 specimens of

Melongena from two Early Classic deposits. Five shells come from Cache 143, a sub- floor, centerline. Construction Fill deposit. The others were recovered from Cache 132, a through-floor, centerline, Stairbase deposit that had been both re-opened and resealed.

Modulus modula

A common univalve (Dance 1990), M. modula is found in only three Early Classic deposits (4 specimens). These are detailed in Table 3.50.

Table 3.50: Modulus modula Shells In Exterior Eariy Classic Caches

Deposit Context Treatment Comment M. modula Cache Stairbase Thru-Floor Centered 1 140A Resealed Cache 74 Mixed Sub-Floor Centered 2 Cache 93 Mask Thru-Floor Resealed 1

Mullna lateralis, Mullna guadalupensis, Mullna sp.

Mulina lateralis is a common bivalve (Emerson and Jacobson 1976); I have been 160 unable to determine the status of M. guadalupensis. Both fonns are found in Early

Classic deposits, with M. guadalupensis the more common (see Table 3.51).

Table 3.51: Mulina Shells In Exterior Eariy Classic Caches

N Context Treatment Comment M. lateralis M. Quad. M. sp. 1 Mixed Sub-Floor Centered 4 8 1 1 Platfonn Thru-Floor Centered 1 Resealed 1 Stair Thru-Floor Centered 1

The presence of specimens of M. lateralis and M. guadalupensis together in the

same deposit may suggest that the Maya did not distinguish between them.

Murexcf. Confer, Murexpomum

Murex is a genus of univalve common to the Caribbean (Dance 1990), although

specimens of this genus are not common in Tikal ceremonial deposits (see Table 3.52).

Table 3.52: Murex Shells in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches

N Context & Comment M. florifer M. potnum Murex sp. Treatment 1 Mixed (SF) Centered 1 3 Stairbase (TF) Centered 1 2 Resealed 1 Burned 1 Re-opened

Mytilus sp.

Mussels, Mytilus sp., are a common bivalve (Dance 1990), but only 2 specimens

are known from a single Early Classic cache, Cache 63, a centered, reseated, through- 161 floor Platform cache.

Nassarius sp.

Nassarius sp., a univalve, is described as "not common" (Keen 1958). A single

Early Classic cache (Cache 65) contains 5 specimens of this species, the only ones reported from a Tikal. Cache 65 is a resealed, through-floor Stairbase deposit. The rarity of the species may have been a reason for its inclusion.

Nerita cf. versicolor, Nerita fulgarans

Nerita is another common univalve genus (Dance 1990), and is reported exclusively from Early Classic exterior deposits. These are detailed in Table 3.53.

Table 3.53: Nerita Shells from Early Classic Exterior Caches

N Context & Comment N. fulgarans N. versicolor Nerita sp. Treatment 1 Const Fill (SF) Centered 5 2 2 Court (ND) 2 1 Mask(TF) Resealed 1 1 Mixed (TF) Centered 1 Resealed 1 Mixed (SF) Centered 3 2 Stairbase (TF) Resealed 3 3 1 Centered

Noetia ponderosa

A common bivalve species (Dance 1990), Noetia ponderosa is reported from several Early Classic deposits, almost always in complete fonm. Eight deposits contain 162

11 complete valves, wtiile a single valve fragment is known from a separate deposit.

These are detailed in Table 3.54.

Table 3.54: Noetia ponderosa from Early Classic Exterior Caches

Deposit Context Treatment Comment N. ponderosa Cache 74 Mixed Sub-Floor Centered 1 Cache 138 Platform Thru-Floor Centered 1 Fragment Cache 63 Platform Thru-Floor Centered 3 Resealed Cache 87 Platform Thru-Floor Resealed 1 Cache 6 Platform Sub-Floor 1 Cache 181 Stair Sub-Floor Centered 1 Cache 182 Stair Sub-Floor 1 Cache 10 Stairbase Sub-Floor Centered 1 Re-Opened Resealed Cache 75 Terrace Thru-Floor 2

Noetia ponderosa specimens show two distinct types of patterning. First, the majority are found in isolation, as only two deposits contain more than a single specimen.

Second, these shells are concentrated in Platfonn and Stair/Stairbase contexts. While the meaning of this pattern is unknown, it does suggest the use of these in public contexts where large audiences could witness the ritual.

Oliva cf. spicata

Olive shells are another common univalve in the Maya area (Keen 1958), although few are present in caches and only 2 spedmens are reported from exterior 163 contexts. Both of these are worked (described as "tinklers"), and both come from Court contexts (Cache 110 and 119) with undescribed treatment.

Ostrea sp.

A common bivalve (Dance 1990) and species of oyster, Ostrea sp. is frequently reported at Tikal - sometimes as an attachment on another species (although this does not occur in Early Classic contexts). The distribution of Ostrea specimens in Eariy

Classic exterior caches is presented in Table 3.55.

Table 3.55: Ostrea Shells In Early Classic Exterior Caches

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Ostrea Sp. Cache 110 Court Not Desc. 1 (with attachment) Cache 93 Mask Thru-Floor Resealed 5 Cache 134 Mixed Thru-Floor Centered 1 Cache 74 Mixed Sub-Floor Centered 2 Cache 63 Platfomn Thru-Floor Centered 5 (& unquantified Resealed fragments) Cache 6 Platfomn Sub-Floor 1 Cache 60 Stair Thru-Floor Centered 2 (pair) Cache 107 Stairtop Sub-Floor Centered 2

Pectin sp.

Pectin, the scallop, is fairiy common in the Caribbean, depending on the species.

Only a single example is reported from Tikal, from Cache 87, a resealed, through-floor

Platform deposit. 164

Petricola (Rupeilaria) sp.

Petricola sp.. a common bivalve (Dance 1990), is represented by only 2 Early

Classic specimens, both from Cache 93, a Mask context deposit that was resealed after receiving through-floor treatment.

Pinctada sp.

Another common bivalve (Dance 1990), 4 specimens of Pinctada are reported from two exterior deposits. Cache 74 is a Mixed context deposit, located on a centeriine and given sub-floor treatment; Cache 93 is from a Mask context, and was resealed after being intruded through the floor.

Pinna sp.

A common bivalve species (Dance 1990), only a single specimen of Pinna sp. was reported from an exterior context during the Eariy Classic. This comes from Cache

93, a Mask context cache that was given through-floor treatment and then sealed over.

Pleuroploca gigantea

A common univalve (Dance 1990), P. gigantea is represented by a lone specimen from a single Eariy Classic exterior deposit. The shell was recovered from

Cache 136, a resealed, Stairbase cache located along a centeriine and given through- floor treatment. 165

Plicatula sp.

Plicatula is a common bivalve species (Wamrike and Abbott 1961), and is found with some frequency in Early Classic exterior caches at Tikal. Table 3.56 lists the distribution of Plicatula sp. specimens by context.

Table 3.56: Plicatula sp. in Early Classic Exterior Caches

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Plicatula sp. Cache 62 Const. Fill Sub-Floor 1 Cache 77 Court Not Desc. Centered 2' Cache 93 Mask Thru-Floor Resealed 13 Cache 74 Mixed Sub-Floor Centered 2 Cache 87 Platfonn Thnj-Floor Resealed 1 Cache 6 Platform Sub-Floor 1 Cache 182 Stair Sub-Floor 2 Cache 65 Stairbase Thru-Floor Resealed 1 Cache 75 Terrace Thru-Floor 2 1. 2 valves adhering back to back.

Perhaps the most intriguing aspect of the distribution of Plicatula sp. shells is the fact that they were virtually all located in distinct contexts, with only Platforms used on more than one occasion. This suggests that the use of this species was not dictated by the context of the deposit.

Polinices duplicata

A common univalve (Dance 1990), only a single example of Polinices duplicata is reported from an Eariy Classic deposit. This comes from Cache 13, associated with

Stela P1 and Altar P1, a centeriine cache that was re-opened at some point in prehistory. 166

Prunum cf. storeria, Prunum labiatum

Prunum is an uncommon genus of univalve, present in four Early Classic exterior deposits (6 specimens). The rarity of specimens of Prunum in the wild may suggest that these particular ritual specimens were of some considerable value. Table 3.57 shows the distribution of Prunum shells.

Table 3.57: Prunum Shells in Early Classic Exterior Deposits

N Context & Comment P. storeria P. labium Prunum sp. Treatment 1 Stairbase (TF) Centered 0 1 0 Resealed 1 Const. Rll (SF) Centered 2 0 0 1 Mixed (TF) Centered 0 0 1 Resealed 1 Rare (PD, TF) Resealed 0 0 2

Pteiia colymbos

Ren'a is a common bivalve species (Warmke and Abbott 1961), but is found in only a single Eariy Classic exterior cache. This was Cache 60, a centered Stair deposit given through-floor treatment, and it contained 2 valves of Reria colymbos.

Strombus sp., Strombus cranulatus columella

Strombus, or conch, is a common univalve (Abbott 1954), but is surprisingly rare in Tikal deposits. Only two specimens are reported from Eariy Classic exterior contexts, and both were worked. These shells came from Cache 138, a centered, through-floor

Platfonn deposit, and Cache 136, a Stairbase cache, also through-floor and centered

(also resealed). 167

Tellina sp.

Tellina sp. is a common bivalve (Dance 1990) found in considerable numbers in

Early Classic exterior deposits. Rfty-one specimens of Tellina are present, 34 (66.67%)

of which are perforated and came from the same cache, suggesting a necklace or similar

object. The perforated specimens came firom Cache 143, a centerline sufc>-floor

Construction Fill deposit. The remaining 17 (including 2 pairs) were recovered from

Cache 74, a Mixed context deposit, also sub-floor and located along a centerline. The

narrow spatial distribution of these specimens, combined with their relatively high

numbers, would seem to indicate restricted usage of these specimens in ritual context.

Tellina sp. shells were also recovered from later contexts, but never in large numbers.

Trachycardium isoeardia, Trachycardium muricatum, Trachyeardium sp.

Trachycardium is a common bivalve genus (Dance 1990), and specimens are

found with some frequency in Eariy Classic exterior deposits at Tikal. 7. isocanjia is by

far the most common with 12 specimens , while T. muricatum, is represented by only 4;

four specimens are identified as Trachycardium sp.. The distribution of Trachycardium

shells is detailed in Table 3.58.

Table 3.58: Trachycardium Shells in Early Classic Exterior Caches

N Context Treatment Comment Isoeardia muricatum T. sp. 1 Const. Fill Sub-Floor 1 0 0 1 Court Not Desc. 1 1 1 1 Mask Thru-Floor Resealed 0 1 0 2 Platform Thm-Floor Resealed 8 2 3 1 Centered 168

1 Platform Sub-Floor Centered 1 0 0 1 Rare Not Desc. 1 0 0 2 Stela Sub-Stela 2 0 0

While the context distribution of Trachycardium specimens is quite diverse, rt would appear that the preferred location was within Platforms, which account for 63.6% of all specimens of this genus.

Vasum muricatum

A common univalve, V. muricatum is represented by only a single specimen at

Tikal. This comes from Cache 86, a Stairisase deposit that was given through-floor treatment, located along a centeriine, burned, and resealed.

Vermicularia spirata, Vermet'dae

Spiral worm shells are very common in Eariy Classic exterior deposits. These unusually-shaped mollusks are reportedly frequently washed ashore after death

(Warmke and Abbot 1961), suggesting probable beach gathering. Table 3.59 details the distribution of Vemnetidae, while Figure 3.18 show the distribution of specimens by context.

Table 3.59: Vermicularia spirata and Vermetidae in Early Classic Exterior Deposits

N Context & Comment V. Spirata Vermetidae Fragments Treatment 2 Const. Fill (SF) 1 Centered 8 4 7 2 Court (ND) 1 2' 0 169

1 Court (TF) Centered 1 0 1 Resealed 1 MaskfTF) Resealed 1 0 0 1 Mixed (PD. ND) Resealed 1 0 0 1 Mixed (TF) Centered 1 0 0 Resealed 1 Mixed (SF) Centered 7 0 0 1 Platform (SF) Centered 1 0 0 Stairbase (TF) Resealed 9 2 5 4 Centered 1 Stairtop (SF) Centered 1 0 0 1 Stela (SF) Centered 1 0 0 Re^jpened 1 Terrace (TF) 1 1^ 0 1. One attached to Ostrea sp. 2. Attached to Spondylus sp.

Figure 3.18: Vennetidae specimens by Context

25

V. Spirata • Vermetidae • Fragments 170

The pattern observed suggests that Vermicularia spirata shells were used in a very wide variety of contexts, but usually sparingly as the highest number of specimens

found in any one deposit is seven. V. spirata tended to be employed in Stairbase contexts most fi-equently, although both Court and Mixed contexts were also frequent locations. Intriguingly, neariy two-thirds (61.1%) of all worm shel!-t}earing deposits were located along structural centeriines.

Worked Shell

Surprisingly, worked shell is found in more caches than unmodified shell,

reported from 35 exterior caches (62.5%), along with a single exterior problematical

deposit (11.1%); thus 55.4% of all exterior deposits contain worked shell.

Woridng can range anywhere from scraping the interior of a valve to intentional

shaping. I have not examined any of the shells, but interior scraping sounds as though it

may relate to the removal of the soft tissue of an animal, which in turn would suggest that

the shell was gathered live (whether the "scraping" occurred at Tikal is debatable, but

seems unlikely as shellfish tend to spoil and deteriorate very rapidly).

The presence of both woriced and unworiced shells, sometimes separately,

sometimes in the same deposit, yields a variety of possible explanations; (1) All shell-

bearing caches represent a particular ceremonial behaviour that requires the use of one

or more shells, and that any shell would do. (2) Certain ceremonial activities may require

unworiced marine shells, while others require wori^ed spedmens, resulting in the

presence of caches with exclusively worked or unworiced shells. If these ceremonies

were mutually exclusive, another category of ceremony required both woriced and

unworked shells. (3) Deposits containing both worked and unwori

Fish Remains

Fish remains are a rare inclusion in Early Classic exterior deposits, reported from only 2 caches, both from Mixed contexts. These come from two different structures, 50-

25 (probably 3rd) and 5D-33-2nd. Cache 74 (from Structure 5D-25-3rd) is a multi-locus cache, with one ceramic vessel holding 9 small fish vertebrae (unidentified). The other deposit. Cache 134, contained 87 fish vertebrae, which are mostly articulated. The presence of articulated vertebrae suggests that large portions of the fish - if not the entire animal - were included in the deposit.

It is unclear whether the fish were interred whole, indicating their presence primarily as a ritual offering, or whether they were incomplete, possibly suggesting the remains of a ritual meal. No mention is made of whether cranial or fin elements are ever present, although in my experience these are more difficult for the non-specialist to recognize than are vertebrae. As there is no mention of a faunal analyst having identified the vertebrate remains from Tikal, I am disinclined to assume that only fish vertebrae were present just because they are the only element mentioned.

Coral

Coral is reported from nine Eariy Classic exterior caches, with the majority of deposits (7) containing unidentified branching corals. Also present in single deposits are brain and gill coral. Coral was encountered in caches from several different contexts, detailed in Table 3.60. 172

Table 3.60: Coral-Bearing Early Classic Exterior Caches

n Context Treatment Coral Brain Branching Gill Present Coral Coral Coral 2 Stairbase Thru-Floor 2 0 2 0 2 Court Not Desc. 2 0 0 1 1 Ten^ce Thru-Floor 1 0 1 0 2 Const. Fill Sub-Floor 2 0 0 0 1 Mask Thru-Floor 1 1 1 0 1 Mixed Sub-Floor 1 0 1 0

Corals are not described as modified in any fashion, suggesting that they were ritually important in and of themselves. The nature of the ceremonies utilizing coral is unclear at this time, although it is possible that corals were used as an abrasive. Corals can cause severe skin lacerations (Halstead 1980) and may have been used in blood­ letting ceremonies. Although no specific mention is made of the presence of fire coral

{Millepora alcicomis), it is conceivable that such corals may have had ritual usage among the Maya. Fire coral is a type of branching coral that causes localized rashes and skin irritations, which can range from a minor stinging sensation to a shooting, throbbing pain

(Halstead 1980:59). This may have been used as a means of inducing visions.

Bryozoa

Bryozoans (discussed above) are reported from 6 Early Classic exterior deposits containing at least 44 specimens. As Bryozoans sometimes form coral-like structures, they may have been treated in much the same manner as corals by the Maya. The distribution of S/yozoa-bearing caches is presented in Table 3.61. 173

Table 3.61: firyozoa-Bearing Eariy Classic Exterior Caches

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Bryozoans Cache 182 Stair Sub-Floor Sub-Floor 1 Cache 87 Platform Through-Floor Resealed 2 Cache 6 Platfonn Sub-Floor 1 Cache 93 Mask Through-Floor Resealed 3 Cache 134 Mixed Through-Floor Centered 1 Cache 74 Mixed Sub-Floor Centered 29' 1. Some with traces of cinnabar.

Occasionally Bryozoa was found with cinnabar staining, a similar situation to that seen in the single interior Bryozoa-bearing cache. The purpose of such a combination is unknown.

Gorgonians and Sponge

Gorgonians are a type of soft-bodied coral (Kinzie III 1982) found in abundance in the Caribbean, and commonly referred to as sea fans or sea whips. These are reported from 4 Eariy Classic exterior caches - 2 Stairisases, a Platform, and a Mixed context deposit. Sponge is reported firom three of these same deposits, absent in only the platform.

The presence of these softer marine objects in caches is difficult to interpret, although it does suggest relatively rapid movement from the coast. This in turn may be an indication of TikaPs increasing sphere of influence during the Eariy Classic, particulariy during and after the reign of Curi Nose, with porters bringing material from the coast directly to Tikal. It seems unlikely that gorgonians represent anything beyond 174 ofTerings (although symbolism is always a possibility). Sponges, on the other hand, may have been used for their absort)ency, possibly in ceremonies involving transition and transfomriation as these could be used to make water or other liquids disappear and reappear. Sponges could also conceivably have been utilized to clean up after bloodletting, which may explain their inclusion in caches.

Coquina

Coquina, the shell conglomerate, is reported from only a single exterior cache (a

Stairbase). The use of coquina is unclear, although it may have been treated in a manner similar to stucco, which is occasionally reported in Tikal caches.

Pearls

Pearls, presumably marine, are reported from three exterior caches, while imitation pearis are reported on two occasions. Table 3.62 shows the distribution of both peari and imitation peari-bearing caches.

Table 3.62: Pearis and Imitation Pearis in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches

Number Context Treatment Pearl Imit Peari 1 Stair Sub-Floor 0 1 1 Stairbase Thru-Floor 1 0 1 Platform Thnj-Floor 1 0 1 Mixed Sub-Floor 1 0 1 Rare (PD) Thru-Floor 0 1

Pearis may have t)een used as decorative adomments. Their low firequency in ritual 175 deposits suggests that they were either difficult to obtain, or that they were seldom employed in ritual, or possibly both. Intriguingly, there are several deposits of different time periods, including two examples from the Early Classic, of shell imitation pearls. As with imitation stingray stings, the presence of these lends support to the idea that these were very rare and considered valuable.

Other Marine Items

Two exterior Stairbase deposits contained "beach pebbles," presumably named due to water rounding. At least one of these pebbles has barnacles on it, attesting to its marine origin. However, it is debatable whether the pebble or the bamacle was the goal of the collector, as bamacles are reported from several deposits. PD 19/Burial 22 contained a single pebble, while Cache 142 yielded 5.

One mixed context cache contains 'fibrous marine material." However, it is unclear how this identification was made, and if indeed this is marine material, it may be sea weed of some sort. The function of such an object in a ceremonial context is unknown; it may have been transported for its own merit, or possibly as a "wrapper" for a more delicate and valuable marine object.

A single wall cache contained undescritsed sea urchin remains. As these animals are covered with spines, it is conceivable that they were used in blood-letting ceremonies. Sea urchin roe (eggs) are considered a delicacy by the Japanese, and may have been utilized as a ceremonial foodstuff.

Rnally, a single sub-stela cache (Cache 13, beneath reset Stela PI, associated with Altar P1) held fossils which may have been of marine origin. These are described as internal fossil casts (presumably endocasts), with 2 identified as gastropods, and the 176 third unidentifiable. Whether these should be considered of marine origin is debatable,

and their function within a cache is unknown.

Terrestrial Fauna

Despite being present in more deposits (10), terrestrial faunal remains are

reported from a lower proportion of exterior than interior deposits during the Eariy

Classic. Terrestrial ^una seem to have played an important role in Maya ceremony

(Bricker 1989; Pohl 1983). However, the bones found in Tikal deposits are problematic,

as they do not seem to have been identified by a zooarchaeologist; thus the reliability of

the identifications is debatable. Differing degrees of specificity are troubling; many bird

skeletons are identified to subspecies, despite the fact that this is usually determined on

the basis of plumage and song. Quantification is also very inconsistent, making it difficult

to compare deposits. As a result, I am hesitant to make much of any patterning

revealed. Table 3.63 shows the distribution of exterior deposits with non-reptilian,

ten-estrial vertebrate faunal remains.

Table 3.63: Terrestrial Faunal Remains in Early Classic Exterior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Fauna Cache 143 Const. Rll Sub-Floor Centered 17 Rodents, Scorpion' Cache 119 Court Not Desc. 16 Birds (15 Passerines; 1 Jay [Cissolopha sanblasiana) Cache 120 Court Not Desc. Centered 1 Small Mammal (long bone fragment) Cache 241 Mixed Not Desc. Centered 7 Unidentified PD 77 Mixed Not Desc. Resealed 17 Unidentified (some charred) 177

PD 87 Rare Thru-Floor Resealed 1 Large Mammal, 55 Birds, 1 Dog, 111 Dog Teeth (Necklace), 1 Bird identified as a Quetzal {Pharomocims mucino). Cache 64 Stairbase Thru-Floor Resealed 4 large king vultures {Sarcoramphus papa); 1 scariet macaw (Ara macao) Cache Stairbase Thnj-Floor Centered 100 Bird (2 Pygmy Owls 140A Resealed [Glaucidium brasihanum]-, 1 Hummingbird; 1 Large Bill Finch; 1 Oriole Cache 187 Stairbase Thru-Floor Centered 1 Bird (Quail [Colinus Re-opened nigrolgris]) Resealed Stela P11 Stela Sub-Stela 2 Unidentified Altar PI6 Cache 27 PD162 Terrace Thru-Floor Re-opened 12 Unidentified Resealed 1. All cx)nsldered intrusive.

There is surprisingly little spatial patterning of deposits containing fauna. The strongest evidence for specific patterning is the exclusive presence of birds in Stairbase contexts. While birds are known from other contexts (including Court and Rare contexts), no other type of fauna was recovered from the Stairbase caches. If the identifications are correct, then the sheer variety of birds found in these contexts is impressive.

The dog teeth were found in quantity and many were perforated, most likely indicating their use as a necklace. Some specimens, such as the scorpion, may be intrusive, altiiough this is debatable. I am especially dubious of the identification of bat remains by a non-spedalist. 178

Reptile Remains

Reptiles are distinguished here from the other terrestrial fauna partly because certain specimens (such as crocodiles or caiman) are at least partly aquatic, and partly for being non-homoiothemnic. It is possible that the Maya viewed these as very different animals (and their treatment of crocodiles would suggest this), although this is unknown.

Figure 3.19 shows the frequencies of large reptiles in exterior deposits.

Figure 3.19: Large Reptiles in Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits

3.5 3 3 3 iS •« 2.5 0 QL <0 o Q 2 >•— 2 1.5 (I) .o 1 1 1 1 Z 0.5 0i I i Court Mixed Platfomn Stairbase Wall

Crocodile • Snake • Turtle

Crocodiies

Crocodiles, or possibly caiman*, are present in three Early Classic exterior deposits containing four skeletons. Additionally, Coe (1990) believes that Cache 186 may

4. Coe (1990) identifies the animal in Cache 140A as Crocodylus acutus or C. moreleti. It should be possible to distinguish these on the basis of snout shape (Steel 1989). Other specimens are not identified. 179 represent a crocodile burial from which the skeleton was later removed. Crocodiles tend to be treated in a fashion very similar to a human burial, and as a result it is debatable whether such deposits represent the sacrifice of the animal (and thus a cache ritual), or the burial of the body following natural death (and thus a burial ritual).' Crocodiles could conceivably be symbolic of wam'ors or other important individuals who could not be buried at Tikal, or may have been sacred or royal pets. Table 3.64 describes the crocodilian remains found in exterior deposits.

Table 3.64: Crocodile Remains in Early Classic Exterior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Crocodile Cache 120 Court Not Desc. Centered Linear skeleton lacking a skull. Cache 140A Stairbase Thru-Floor Centered 2 Crocodiles of different Resealed sizes. Cache 86 Stairbase Thru-Floor Centered 1 Crocodile, with Iguana Burned vertebra in area of Resealed digestive tract. Cache 186 Wall Thru-Floor Centered Possible crocodile burial Resealed with skeleton removed.

Unlike many types of fauna, crocodile remains show a high degree of locational patteming. All come from deposits located along a centeriine, suggesting a high degree of planning involved with the disposal of these remains. Second, in all described cases, crocodiles were buried in deposits that penetrated through an existing floor. This probably indicates that they were not placed as dedicatory offerings. Finally, three of the four skeletons were recovered fi-om Stairisase contexts. This context was also a common area for bird skeletons (Cache 140A contained both crocodile and bird skeletons), suggesting that animals were an important part of some offerings made in 180

Stairbase locations.

Snakes

Snake remains are found in seven Early Classic exterior caches. Unsurprisingly, the majority of snake remains are vertebrae. Several specimens are identified as

Bothrops atrox asper, the Fer-De-Lance (see Ditmars 1933), and a single spedmen as

Spilotes pullatus mexicanus, the Mexican Rat Snake, which is non-poisonous. Table

3.65 gives the distribution of snake remains in exterior deposits.

Table 3.65: Snake Remains in Early Classic Exterior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Snake Remains Cache 241 Mixed Not Desc. Centered 30 Bothrops vertebrae; additional unidentified vertebrae Cache 134 Mixed Thru-Floor Centered 150 vertebrae and ribs, partly coiled, articulated. Bothrops Cache 5 Platform Thru-Floor Resealed 10 vertebrae, unidentified. Cache 140A Stairbase Thru-Floor Centered 1 Bothrops atrox asper Resealed Cache 142 Stairbase Thru-Floor Centered 1 Spilotes pullatus Resealed mexicanus, incomplete Cache 86 Stairbase Thnj-Floor Centered 3 snakes Bothrops Burned Resealed Cache 186 Wall Thru-Floor Centered 2 sets of vertebrae: 1 Resealed Viperidae, 1 Crotalidae.

Snake remains follow a very similar pattern to that seen for crocodiles: neariy all

the deposits are located along centeriines (85.7%), and all described caches penetrated 181 through existing floors. Snake remains are also most common in Stairbase contexts, although less ovenvhelmingly so than crocodiles.

Turtles

Turtle remains were encountered in five Early Classic exterior caches, described in Table 3.66

Table 3.66: Turtle Remains in Early Classic Exterior Caches

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Turtle Remains Cache 120 Court Not Desc. Centered Clustered remains of Dermatemys mawei Cache 140A Stairbase Thnj-Floor Centered 1 Dermatemys mawei, Resealed carapace up. Cache 142 Stairbase Thnj-Floor Centered 4 Turtle eggs Resealed Cache 86 Stairbase Thru-Floor Centered Headless Dermatemys Burned mawei Resealed Cache 186 Wall Thnj-Floor Centered Unidentified Resealed

The pattem for placement of turtle remains is very similar to that seen for other reptiles, which is unsurprising as they share many of the same deposits. All deposits are located along structure centerlines, and all those described were given through-floor treatment and then resealed. As with the other reptiles, the majority of specimens

(including eggs) are derived firom Stairbase contexts.

The Central American River Turtle, Dermatemys mawei, is a freshwater turtle, growing to about a foot in length (Ditmars 1936:270; Ersnt and Barbour 1989). Coe 182

(1990) has suggested that turtles may have been Inten-ed with crocodiles as

"companions" for the afterlife. This is debatable, although it seems unlikely that these animals would be natural "companions" of any sort, as crocodiles are dangerous carnivores and turtles are not. If anything, the turtles may have represented food for the crocodiles.

Freshwater Snails

Numerous remains of freshwater snail have been reported from exterior deposits, and the majority of these have been identified as Pomaces flagellata. Snail shells are usually complete, and only a single fragment is reported (see Table 3.67).

Table 3.67: Freshwater Snail Shells in Early Classic Exterior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Snail Shells Cache 120 Court Not Desc. Centered 12 Cache 241 Mixed Not Desc. Centered 1 Fragment PD77 Mixed Not Desc. Reseaied 1 Cache 134 Mixed Thru-Floor Centered 1 Cache 140A Stairbase Thru-Floor Centered 53, most in an Aguila Reseaied jar. Cache 86 Stairisase Thru-Floor Centered 7 Burned Reseaied Cache 186 Wall Thru-Floor Centered 11 Reseaied

While marine shells are a frequent offering at Tikal, freshwater spedmens are very unusual; however, they all seem to be deliberate offerings, rather than just substitutions when marine shells were not available. This is espedally the case in a 183 deposit such as Cache 140A, where the specimens are located within a ceramic vessel.

There is little evidence for contextual patteming of snail shells, although the majority of the specimens (70.6%) derived from the two Stairtiase deposits. Coe (1990) has suggested that snails may have been used as "food" for the crocodiles in some cases.

As snail remains are found in only 9.1% of all Eariy Classic deposits, and 100% of those that contain crocodile remains, this seems a plausible argument, although I can find no reference to crocodiles eating snails. Remains of Pomacea are entirely absent after the

Early Classic.

Human Remains

Human remains are reported from 20% of all exterior deposits, and are especially common among Stela caches (60%). At least some specimens probably originate in disturbed burial contexts, and should not be interpreted as deliberate offerings.

However, not all human remains can be explained in this fashion. In many societies, human bones are utilized in ritual, or are maintained in sacred areas (usually for use in ancestor worship). Given our lack of knowledge about Maya ritual, it is difficult to suggest wheUier such behaviors were practiced in prehistory; however, the Aztecs provide examples of the use of human bone in ceremony (such as the X/pe ceremony), and it is possible that similar practices were employed by the Maya. Human remains are described in Table 3.68, and shown graphically in Figure 3.20.

Table 3.68: Human Remains in Early Classic Exterior Deposits

Deposit Context & Comment Human Remains Treatment C 120 Court (NO) Centered 1 Phalanx (may relate to PD 22) 184

P77 Mixed (ND) Reseaied 18 Tibia fragments C 134 Mixed (TF) Centered 6 year old, skull face down, upper vertebrae and scapula aligned Southeast, isolated phalanges, ilium probably present, long bones absent. Head on eccentric, ribs over remains of snake. C109 Rare (ND) 6 long bone firagments, infant P87 Rare (TF) Reseaied 30 cranial fragments, 2 molars; incomplete postcranial skeleton of adult male, other pieces of 2nd adult, some burned C 132 Stairbase (TF) Centered infant phalanx Re-opened Reseaied P 152 Stairtop (SF) Centered Disarticulated, shattered bone of Re-opened female child, age 8. Reseaied S13/C23 Stela (SF) Bone scrap (long bone) S3/C 53 Stela (SF) Disarticulated remains of child, age 6-9 years: calvarium, 3 deciduous teeth, part of upper orbit; 3 adult molars. SP1 Stela (SF) Centered 2-3 juveniles: 2 crania 3-5 years, AP1 Re-opened immature clavicle, mandibular C 13 fragments, ribs, long bones; several adult molars and incisors. SP11 Stela (SF) 1 unerupted human molar AP16 C27 SP2 Stela (SF) 1 Adult upper central incisor A1 C54 SP9 Stela (SF) 8 eroded teeth, permanent, possibly AP5 same individual. C41 185

Figure 3.20: Eariy Classic Exterior Contexts Yielding Human Skeletal Remains

60

46.2 50 o E 40 (0 CO •S 30 c a 20 0) Q. 7.7 10

0 JZ. Court Mi)«d Rare Stairbase Stairtop Stela

Sub-Floor • Thru-Floor • Not Desc.

Six exterior deposits contain isolated human teeth. However, this tells us little about the associated behaviour as a single tooth does not equate with the death of an individual (even adults can loose teeth without dying). It is possible that some of the teeth may have been extracted ceremonially, although there is no evidence for such behaviour.

Post-cranial remains are present in six deposits, although these are not well described. Minimally a single deposit contained axial remains, while at least four yielded appendicular specimens other than phalanges, which were present in three. With the exception of the phalanges, most of these remains probably represent the inclusion of dead individuals. Certainly there could be no other way to obtain axial remains. While many of these were probably removed from existing burials, it is possible that an individual was sacrificed and then placed into a cache (although such a practice would 186 probably be recognized as a burial archaeologically - see Chapter 1). Appendicular remains may have been removed firom living individuals (amputations), although there is nothing to suggest such a practice. Isolated phalanges, on the other hand, could have been removed firom living individuals and included in deposits. Reasons for such a practice would be unknown, although such behaviour is known in other parts of the worid

(the Dani of West Irian [Java] remove phalanges of giris following the war death of a male relative [Heider 1972]).

As detailed studies of the Tikal skeletons are unpublished, it is difficult to suggest which individuals were most likely to be included in caches. At least three deposits contain the remains of adults, while four contained sub-adults (presumably defined as individuals who had not yet stopped growing) and only two held the remains of infants.

The sample size is insufficient to suggest that inclusion of one age group was more likely than another.

Ceramics

Ceramics are common in Eariy Classic exterior deposits, including 34 caches

(60.7%) and 7 problematical deposits (77.8%). Overall, ceramics are found in 63.1% of all exterior deposits. Although there are some fifteen ceramic types present, the majority of deposits contain either Aguila red-orange flaring sided vessels, or Balanza Black cylindrical vessels, or sometimes both. Other varieties are much less common. Table

3.69 describes the ceramic inventory from Eariy Classic exterior deposits, while Table

3.70 describes it from problematical deposits. Figure 3.21 shows the distribution of all exterior ceramic-bearing contexts. For a detailed study of cache ceramics, see Culbert

(1993). 187

Table 3.69: Ceramics in Early Classic Exterior Caches

N Context Treatment Comment Ceramics 1 Const, nil Sub-Floor Centered 1 Large Balanza Black cylinder, with lid 3 Court Not Desc. 1 Centered 13 Aguila Red-Orange flaring-sided vessels, 6 lip-to-lip; 10 Balanza Black vessels, lidded (1 rectangular, 1 cylindrical), 1 undescribed cache cylinder vessel 1 Court Thru-Floor Centered 1 Unknown straight-sided cylindrical Resealed cache vessel, lidded, broken 1 Mask Thru-Floor Resealed 3 Quintal Unsllpped cylindrical variety lidded vessels 1 Mixed Not Desc. Centered 30 sherds: 1 large striated jar, 1 dark brown cylinder and cover 2 Mixed Thru-Floor Centered 2 Balanza Black cylinders, lidded (1 Resealed crushed), underside of 1 lid stained with cinnabar; undescribed sherds 1 Mixed Sut)-Floor Centered 16 Balanza Black lidded cylinders; 1 Aguila Red-Orange flaring-walled vessel 1 Platform Not Desc. 2 Aguila Red-Orange bowls, 1 flanged, 1 Z-angle, one over other, both broken 5 Platfomn Thru-Floor 2 Centered 5 Aguila Red-Orange flaring-sided 4 Resealed vessels, 4 lip-to-lip (2 burned inside), 1 inverted; 2 Balanza Black cylinders, lidded, broken; 1 Balanza Black flaring-sided vessel; 5 Aguila Red-Orange sherds; 1 Unslipped cylinder 1 Rare Not Desc. 1 Unknown cylinder 1 Stair Sul)-Floor 2 Aguila Red-Orange flaring-sided vessels. Upper vessel has black painted profile of human head on unslipped underside 188

8 Stairbase Thru-Floor 6 Centered 16 Balanza Black lidded cylinders; 1 Burned 12 Aguila Red-Orange flaring-sided 1 Re-opened vessels (6 lip-to-iip); 1 Aguila Red- 8 Resealed Orange short-necked jar (pressure broken); 3 Quintal Unslipped flaring- sided vessels (2 lip-to-lip); 1 Quintal Unslipped lidded cylinder; 1 Sibal Buff Polychrome bowl; 1 Tripod vessel, feet removed, inverted; 1 glyphic painted sherd; Unquantified sherds, Including Cimi sherds 1 Stairbase Sub-Floor Centered 2 Quintal Unslipped Vessels Re-Opened Resealed 5 Stela Sub-Stela 1 Centered 1 Aguila Orange flaring-wall low 1 Re-opened bowl; 1 Unknown lidded jar; 1 Unknown lidded cylinder, 1 Unslipped lidded cylinder 31 sherds 1 Wall Thru-Floor Centered 1 Balanza Black lidded cylinder; 1 Re-opened Balanza Black short-necked, thln- walled jar

Table 3.70: Ceramics in Early Classic Exterior Problematical Deposits

N Context Treatment Comment Ceramics 1 Mixed Not Desc. Resealed 1 Basal-Flanged Polychrome vessel; 15 sherds 1 Platform Thru-Floor Centered 23 sherds Re-opened 189

1 Rare® Thru-Floor Resealed 1 Cizay Red-on-Striate outcun/ing- sided bowl; 1 Flor Cream everted rim tetrapod dish; 11 Sierra Red flaring-sided vessels; 2 Povero Black vessels; 1 Boxcay Brown miniature jar; 1 Sis Black-on-Orange outcurving-sided tetrapod plate; 2 Sien^ Red round-sided tetrapod dishes; unquantified Cauac sherds 1 Stairtop Sub-Floor Centered 3 Aguila Orange flaring-sided bowls, Re-opened broken Resealed 3 Terrace Thru-Floor 2 Re-opened 74 sherds Resealed

Figure 3.21: Early Classic Exterior Ceramic-Bearing Contexts

30

^ ^ J' ^ ^

Sub-Floor • Thru-Floor • Not Desc.

5. Coe (1990:346) notes that this deposit, PD 87 was probably intruded, and that "in conventional terms, PD 87 can be spoken of as depositionally "early classic" while some if not all of its content appears to derive from a "protoclassic" inhumation." 190

Censers

Consistent with the trend observed for interior deposits, censers are a rare inclusion in Eariy Classic exterior deposits. Those present are reported in Table 3.71.

Table 3.71: Censers in Early Classic Exterior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Description of Censers PD77 Mixed Not Desc. Resealed 3 Fragments, 1 loop handle, charcoal, copal, buming on sherds. PD 87 Rare Thru-Floor Resealed Unquantified, undescribed fragments, reconstructible. Cache 64 Stairbase Thnj-Fioor Resealed 1 Handle Cache 65 Stairbase Thru-Floor Resealed 2 Fragments, undescribed.

Much like the pattern seen in interior deposits, censers from exterior contexts are always broken, and tend to be found in deposits given through-floor treatment and resealed.

Copal

Copal is reported in three Eariy Classic exterior deposits, two of which contained censer fragments. These are described in Table 3.72.

Table 3.72: Copal in Early Classic Exterior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Description Cache 65 Stairbase Thru-Floor Resealed Bumed copal with jade PD 77 Mixed Not Desc. Resealed Present, with ceramics PD152 Stairtop Sub-Floor Centered Bumed Re-Opened Resealed 191

Organics and Seeds

As in interior deposits, organic remains are not a common find in exterior caches, and are rarely identified. Table 3.73 details the remains reported firom exterior contexts.

Table 3.73: Organic Objects in Early Classic Exterior Caches

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Organics Cache 119 Court Not Desc. 4 unidentified organics: 2 in pots, 1 daric colored. Cache 81 Mixed Thru-Floor Centered Daric organics in pot. Resealed Cache Stairbase Thru-Floor Centered 3 pieces of fmit, 24 pieces of 140A Resealed wood. Cache 75 Tenrace Thru-Floor Organics over shells.

As none of the organic materials have been identified at this time, the only evidence for patterning comes from the treatment of the caches, which is through-floor in all described cases.

Seeds are an especially unusual inclusion in exterior deposits, reported from only

2 caches. The Stairfoase deposit. Cache 140A, contains 50 unidentified, blackened seeds, and 34 squash seeds, while Cache 186 (Wall, centered, through-floor, reseated) held unquantified and unidentified seeds. Little can be said about these remains, other than that seeds do not appear to have been an important component of Eariy Classic caches. However, this may be as much a result of preservation as human behaviour.

Mosaic Elements

Mosaic remains are well represented in Eariy Classic exterior deposits, reported from 28 caches (50%), and 2 problematical deposits (22.2%). Combined, mosaic elements are present in 46.2% of all exterior deposits. Table 3.74 describes the mosaic remains from Early Classic exterior deposits, shown graphically in Figure 3.22.

Table 3.74: Mosaic Remains from Eariy Classic Exterior Deposits

N % Context Treatment Shell Jade Other/Comment 2 3.6 Const. Fill Sub-Floor 3 2 3 Specular Hematite 3 5.4 Court Not Desc. 59 60 5 Specular Hematite 2 3.6 Court Thru-Floor 38 119 1 1.8 Mask Thru-Floor 20 130 2 Specular Hematite; 1 possible shell; 3 possible shale 1 1.8 Mixed Thru-Floor 4 22 1 shattered jade and shell mosaic assemblage 1 1.8 Mixed Sub-Floor 66 20 76 Specular Hematite; 1 slate mosaic plaque fragment 4 7.1 Platform Thru-Floor 83 104 22 Specular Hematite; 1 Pyrite; 52 probable jade 1 1.8 Stair Thru-Floor 2 1 Specular Hematite 1 1.8 Stair Sut>Floor 1 Fragmentary 6 10.7 Stairbase Thru-Floor 114 106 11 Specular Hematite; 4 Figurines; 1 Head; wood and stucco/plaster in two deposits 1 1.8 Stairtop Sub-Floor 16 22 3 5.4 Stela Sub-Stela 52 180 10 Pyrite (oxidized); 51 shell and 133 jade within two containers (1 jar, 1 cylinder). 1 1.8 Terrace Thru-Floor 2 1 1.8 Wail Thru-Floor 1 Figurine 1 11.1 Rare (PD) Thru-Floor V 1 Specular Hematite 193

1 11.1 Stairtop Sub-Floor 7 1 Specular Hematite. (PD) 1. Not quantified, part of deposit of 80 jade t)eads, ear flares, and mosaic elements

Figure 3.22: Early Classic Exterior Mosaic Element-Bearing Contexts

25

///// / /y

Sub-Floor • Thru-Floor • Not Desc.

At present, the most intriguing pattern relating to mosaic elements is the diversity of contexts containing these remains. Of the 12 exterior contexts reported for the Early

Classic (exclusive of treatment), 11 contain mosaic remains of some sort (91.7%). This would seem to indicate that mosaics could be used in offerings in virtually any context, rather than being restricted. Also of note is the fact that jade outnumbers shell in most deposits. There are 466 shell mosaics present in exterior deposits, compared to a minimum of 767 jade mosaic elements - or neariy 65% more jade than shell. The meaning of this dichotomy is unknown. 194

Discussion: Tikai during the Early Classic

The Early Classic Is the most prolific period in Tikal's history, and this is espedally true of the North Acropolis area. Throughout this period, the North Acropolis appears to have been the primary focus of ritual activity, and housed several important burials

(including those of the rulers Curi Nose and Stormy Sky), along with numerous caches and problematical deposits. The population of the Tikal core grew to some 48,000 individuals, along with another 30,000 in the periphery (Rice and Culbert 1990:Table

1.4).

The return of the North Acropolis as the ritual core of Tikal seems to correspond with the dynastic change occurring in AD 379, when Curi Nose becomes the ruler of

Tikal, replacing Great Jaguar Paw. Great Jaguar Paw and his lineage focused their attention on Mundo Perdido, and indeed this is where he was buried (see Chapter 4;

Laporte and Fiaiko 1990). Jones (1991) suggests that the shift away from the North

Acropolis to Mundo Perdido may Indicate a break with the eariier rulers of Tikal.

During the eariiest years of the Eariy Classic, the North Acropolis undergoes a period of steady refurbishment, as opposed to new construction or expansion. Between

AD 200 and 400, Structures 5D-23, 26-1st, 22-4th, and 22-3rd were all remodelled

(Jones 1991). Jones (1991:111) also notes that during the reign of Jaguar Paw, the

Central Acropolis may have been an important area, as a cache vessel from this area

(Str. 5D-46) carries the inscription "his house. Jaguar Paw, Ruler of Tikal, 9th Ruler."

The period around AD 400 was of particular importance at Tikal, and saw considerable architectural remodelling and construction. Jones (1991:111) describes it thus:

A new period of plaza repaving and architectural innovation seems to 195

have occurred around AO 400 with the laying of a new Acropolis floor (Floor 4), a Great Plaza floor (Floor 2B) and the construction of two large structures on the east and west sides of the Great Plaza, later buried by Temples I and 11 (Structures 5D-1-2nd and 2-2nd). The first version of the Great Plaza ball court (Structure 5D-74-2nd) was also built with this floor. The East Plaza probably received a new flooring (Floor 3) around this time, although a strict stratigraphic contemporaneity with the other floors cannot be demonstrated because new ten-acing for the Great Plaza was not built at this time.

It is probably not coincidental that massive construction and remodelling of the

North Acropolis and its immediate environs occurred at this time, as it falls squarely within the reign of Curi Nose, if Curi Nose does indeed represent a break with the eariier dynasty (that of Jaguar Paw) at Tikal, then it would appear that he took it upon himself to reestablish the North Acropolis as the primary center for ritual activity, and correspondingly to add new construction. Burial 10, within Structure 5D-34 at the base of the North Acropolis, has been identified as that of Curi Nose, offering further evidence of his difference with Jaguar Paw, who was buried in Mundo Perdido.

Several authors (particulariy Coggins 1975) have noted that Curi Nose may have been a foreigner, possibly from Teotihuacan or Kaminaljuyu, due in part to the presence of exotic ceramic styles and wares in his tomb, and also to his named father,

Spearthrower Cauac Shield. If this is the case, it may explain the explosion of cache content that seems to follow his rise to power. Whether the inclusions in Tikal caches change to match patterns at Teotihuacan (see Rattray 1992) or Kaminaljuyu is beyond the scope of the present study, but may help to resolve the question of Curi Nose' origin.

Structure 50-34 was complimented with the construction of Structure 5D-32-2nd, and then Structure 5D-33-3rd, giving the North Acropolis three fronting structures (Jones

1991). Stucco decorations on structures were especially impressive between AD 400 196 and 500 (Miller 1986 cited in Jones 1991). Most construction during this time, however, follows established locations and styles.

Curl Nose was succeeded by his son, Stormy Sky, in AD 426. Monuments dedicated to Stormy Sky show a mixture of Maya and Mexican traits, Suggesting that, like his father, Stomny Sky interacted with people and groups outside the Maya lowlands.

Stormy Sky was apparently succeeded by Kan Boar, and later his son Jaguar

Paw Skull (along with another ruler, either Curl Head or unknown). Both of these rulers produced a series of smaller stelae, known as Staff Stelae because the ruler is depicted on each stela holding a staff. These stelae tend to be short in stature, and have cryptic texts stating little beyond the date, the name of the ruler and his parentage statement.

Staff stelae dominate the monument sequence from AD 475 to 514.

The early years of the sixth century AD appear to have been another time of widespread construction projects, which seem to begin around the end of the staff stela period (after AD 514). The North Acropolis, Great Plaza, and East Plaza are all given new floors at this time, and a new platform similar to an acropolis (Platfonn 5E-1) was constructed on the east side of the East Plaza. In the center of this platform was constmcted a pair of four-stainvay pyramids. Jones (1991) suggests that this twin- pyramid structure in the East Plaza may have been constructed to house tun and katun ending ceremonies, a pattem seen in later times at Tikal. However, unlike later twin- pyramid groups constructed for this purpose, those of the East Platform were apparently not abandoned after use, as they show signs of extensive remodelling.

...The constructions associated with these new floors represent a significant transfonmation of architecture and function, apparently dedicating the once-open East Plaza to large public ceremonies. The Plaza appears to have been the seat of the Tikal katun-ending ceremonies for at least a century, until the twin pyramids were replaced by 197

the ball court and the twin pyramid functions shifted to new groups on the roadways leading out from the site core (Jones 1991:114-115).

The sixth century AD was a turbulent time politically at Tikal, and saw a number of oilers (all numbered, but only some named) come and go over a short span of time.

There were seven rulers inaugurated between Jaguar Paw Skull and Double Bird (in AD

537), suggesting considerable internal conflict. The cause of this continuing strife is unknown; however, it sen/ed to weaken Tikal politically and apparently in terms of military might. In 556, Caracol conducted a war against Tikal; in 562 they defeated Tikal, leading to a prolonged period devoid of monument construction.

The Early Classic to Late Classic Transition

Overall, the Late Classic I (Ik) shows an intriguing mix of both change from and continuity with the preceding Eariy Classic. Lithic artifacts show a reduction in prominence, especially in their simpler forms. Flakes, cores, and debitage of both chert and obsidian decrease dramatically in frequency, although eccentrics continue to be encountered. This may suggest that the objects, rather than the lithic materials themselves, are now the focus of the ritual and thus the caching behaviour.

The most substantial change from the Eariy Classic is the movement of caches to indoor localities. Indoor deposits increase in frequency from 15.8% during the Eariy

Classic to 69.1% in the Late Classic I. This is difficult to explain, but probably relates to the Caracol event of 562, possibly to ongoing hostilities with Calakmul, and on a more general level, to the hiatus itself. It would appear that the people of Tikal were not pemiitted to dedicate monuments during this time, which would suggest that elite 198 activities were curtailed, at least in the public sphere. However, rituals may have continued to be perfooned, but in a private locus, and this may explain the preponderance of interior caches and problematical deposits. It seems possible that these were rituals conducted in secret, which would explain both their'location and the changes in material contents, as certain items may not have been readily available.

Jade declines, and continues to remain in decline for the duration of Tikal's occupation. The only classes of jade artifact encountered in any abundance during the

Late Classic I are mosaic elements and broken fragments. This may suggest a scarcity of jade at Tikal, possibly resulting from outside powers (Calakmul, Caracol) restricting access to this resource. Hence, the near-exclusive use of small jade pieces may suggest an attempt to maximize whatever material was available. Estella Krejci

(Personal communication 1995) believes that jade may have been looted in prehistory

from burials and other deposits. If this is indeed the case, the Late Classic I may have been a time of such occurrences. However, the scarcity of jade in Late Classic I and later caches could also be explained as a shift in ritual behaviour away from the use of

jade.

The use of eccentrics, particulariy those of obsidian, declines dramatically.

These seem to be replaced to a great extent by incised obsidian flakes. This may be a reaction to decreased access to obsidian, possibly due to competitive exclusion by the

Calakmul alliance.

One significant change relates to the use of marine materials in caches. The change is seen primarily in the increasing utilization of non-shelled marine invertebrates,

such as coral, gorgonians, and sponge, in caches. The reasons for this change are difficult to explain. Many such materials would be difficult to transport intact from the Gulf 199 of Mexico to the Peten, especially in comparison to shell or stingray spines. The Late

Classic I also shows the highest frequency of caches and problematic deposits containing stingray spines, and has a high proportion of deposits with imitation stingray spines - often both types are found in the same deposit.

Although the frequency of unworked shell increases, there is a decrease in the quantities of worked shell. This may reflect changing ritual behaviors, or possibly a lack of skilled artisans to produce shell artifacts. The reasons for this loss are unclear. Fish are utilized to a greater extent than ever before, and those few identified fish remains suggest that their function was bloodletting, or providing poisons that may have been employed in rituals.

Late Classic I (Ik)

According to Coe (1990), the Intermediate Classic begins in the mid to late AD

500 range, and continues until the late AO 600 range, thus generally corresponding with the Tikal hiatus (Sharer 1994; Willey 1974). The hiatus is characterized by a lack of construction and espedally a lack of dated materials, such as stelae (Scheie and Freidel

1990), and seems to correlate well with the Tikal-Caracol war event of 562. The full ramifications of Caracol's victory in this event are unclear, although dramatic changes in cache patterns are seen during this time. In this discussion, Coe's "Intemfiediate Classic" will be referred to as "Late Classic 1" or "(Ik)," following Culbert (1993).

In rough terms, the Late Classic (Ik) -Coe's Intermediate Classic - corresponds well with the Tikal hiatus. However, there is not a one-to^ne correlation, as several stelae are reported from this period, and these should not be present during the hiatus.

The stelae from this period are all problematic in some way (see Coe [1990] and 200 especially Jones and Satterthwaite [1982] for detailed descriptions of the stelae and their stratigraphic contexts). Two cleariy date to slightly before the hiatus (Stela 10 and Stela

12 both date to 9.4.13.0.0., AD 527 ~ 30 years prior to the hiatus). Stela 18 dates to 396, although the con'esponding cache (Cache 22) is thought to relate to the resetting of this stela at a much later date, falling stratigraphically within Coe's Intemiediate Classic. A similar justification is presented for Stela 4 (Cache 44), which dates to AD 379. Coe also argues that the lithics associated with this cache are more in keeping with a later time period. Thus, of the four can/ed "Intermediate Classic" stelae, two cleariy date from immediately prior to the hiatus, and two were reset at an unknown time, but much later than their inscription date.

The remaining stelae are all uncarved. These include Stela PI 2 (Cache 2); Stela

PI 3 (Cache 11), thought to date to the second quarter of Baktun 9, (approximately AD

600-635 by my calculation); Stela P15 (Cache 50), Stela P17 (Cache 35), thought to date to the third quarter of Baktun 9 (approximately AD 635-650 by my calculation), and Stela

P3 (Cache 44).

Stela P3 (Cache 44) poses a problem. Coe (1990) suggests that this is representative of an Intermediate/Late Classic overiap, and that it must have been set well prior to 9.15.0.0. (AD 745), a position supported by the stratigraphic evidence. Coe argues that this stela is related to Str. 5D-33-1st, which dates this deposit in the range of roughly AD 650 to 700. it also relates to the pavement of Plat. 5D-4-1st-C, dating to between AD 650 and 700, firnily in the later part of Coe's Intennediate Classic.

A total of 33 caches are reported from Late Classic I levels, along with 22 problematical deposits. During the Late Classic I, interior caches become the dominant fonn with 19 deposits (57.5% of all caches), a dramatic change from the pattern 201 observed in the Early Classic, in which exterior locations were the most common. There are an additional 19 interior problematical deposits at this time, meaning that the 38 interior deposits comprise 69.1% of all Late Classic I deposits.

Following Adam Smith (1994), this would appear to represent ^ switch in behaviour from ceremonies performed in areas where a large audience could be accommodated, towards private rituals in highly restricted locations. Another important change is the decline in the number of cache locations employed during this period, possibly representing more restricted ritual behavior.

Interior Deposits

Interior deposits are found in a number of different locations, with many treatments present, interior cache locations are listed in Table 3.75 (see Figure 3.23), while interior problematical deposit locations are described in Table 3.76 (see Figure

3.24).

Table 3.75: Late Classic (Ik) Interior Caches

N % Type Placement Context Treatment Comment 1 5.3 Cache Interior Room Not Desc. 15 78.9 Cache Interior Room Thru-Floor 2 Burnt 1 Re-Opened 14 Reseated 1 5.3 Cache Interior Wail Thru-Floor Reseated 1 5.3 Cache Interior Platform Sub-Floor 1 5.3 Cache Interior Platfomi Thru-Floor Reseated 202

Figure 3.23: Late Classic I Interior Cache Contexts

120

Room Wall Platform

• Sub-Floor • Thru-Floor • Not Desc.

Table 3.76: Late Classic (Ik) Interior Problematical Deposits

N % Type Placement Context Treatment Comment 1 5.3 PD Interior Stair Sub-Floor 2 10.5 PD Interior Stair Thru-Floor Reseated 2 10.5 PD Interior Room Not Desc. 1 Centered 12 63.2 PD Interior Room Thnj-Floor 1 Centered 1 Re-Opened 7 Resealed 1 5.3 PD Interior Door Thru-Floor Bumt Resealed 1 5.3 PD Interior Wall Thru-Floor Resealed 203

Figure 3.24: Late Classic I Interior Problematical Deposit Contexts

Room

Sub-Floor • Thru-Floor • Not Desc

The vast majority of interior deposits (33, 86.8%) were given through-floor treatment, demonstrating their interment after the completion of construction. In fact, only 2 deposits are located in sub-floor contexts (5.3%) indicative of placement during constnjction.

Patterning by Context Type

Stair (Step) Deposits

Three Late Classic I problematical deposits were recovered from Stair contexts.

Two of these (PD 143 and 144) were found in the step between Rooms 1 and 2 of

Structure 5D-22-1st, and are extremely similar to one another. Both contain obsidian 204

(eccentric and non-eccentric), non-eccentric chert, jade, potsherds, mosaic elements, and rare objects, while chert eccentrics, and shell are present in only a single example.

Given the stratigraphic and content similarities between these deposits, it seems likely that they were placed at or near the same time, as aspects of the sanie or very similar rituals. The third problematical deposit, PD 229, is also from Structure 5D-22-1st, but was found between rooms 2 and 3, and its contents are entirely different from the other interior step deposits. In this case stingray spines and other non-shell marine materials were the only objects present. The locations of these three deposits make it seem likely that all three were set at the same time, possibly as different aspects of the same ceremony.

Room Deposits

Room deposits are very common during the Late Classic I. Sixteen caches are present, along with 14 problematical deposits, all exhibiting a wide variety of object types.

Caches are dominated by marine objects, with stingray spines and non-shell marine items found in 75% of the deposits, and always together. This is a substantial change from the preceding period, where stingray spines were absent from Rooms and non-shell marine objects were rare. Also found in more than half of all Room caches were rare or unusual objects, and shell, while jade was present in slightly less than half the caches

(44%). Non-eccentric obsidian is the most abundant lithic form, reported from 37.5% of all caches, while obsidian eccentrics are known from 25%, and chert eccentrics from

12.5%.

The fourteen problematical deposits encountered in Rooms at this time show a markedly different pattern. Non-eccentric obsidian is the dominant object type. 205 encountered in 79% of all deposits. Other objects found in at least 50% of all problematical deposits are rare or unusual objects (64%), shell and marine objects (57% each), potsherds (50%), and terrestrial fauna (50%). Stingray spines, chert eccentrics and censers are found in 43% each.

The pattern observed for problematical deposits at this time is dramatically different from that seen in caches, indicating that different behaviours are producing these different depositional types. These differences strongly suggest that Room problematical deposits from these periods are not simply variants of caches, but rather that they are the remains of a very different type of activity, although it is unclear what type of activity this may represent.

Door Deposits

The single Late Classic I Door problematical deposit bears content very similar to that seen in room caches (see Appendix A), containing non-eccentric obsidian and chert, jade, stingray spines, shell, potsherds, terestrial fauna, and mosaic elements. The single sample, however, offers no basis for comparison.

Wall Deposits

Two interior Wall deposits (1 problematical) are present during the Late Classic I.

These share only marine objects, shell, and unusual objects as common object classes.

Both are devoid of eccentrics, human remains, and mosaics, although the sample size precludes the suggestion of characteristic patterning. 206

Platform Deposits

Only two Platform caches (Caches 14A and 14B) are reported from the Late

Classic I, both from Interior loci. These are found In interior Platform U26, within Room 3 of Structure 5D-34-1st, and are very similar to each other In content - indeed, they may represent different parts of the same cache. However, the limited interior platform sample makes it difficult to be confident in the strength of the observed pattern.

Artifact Analysis

Lithic Artifacts

Obsidian

Obsidian Is present in 63.1% of interior deposits, with 66.7% of all obsidian- bearing deposits coming from Interior locations. The distribution and treatment of obsidian-bearing interior Late Classic (Ik) deposits Is given In Table 3.77 (see Figure

3.25), while artifact forms and frequencies are given In Table 3.78.

Table 3.77: Obsidian in Late Classic I (Ik) Interior Deposits

N % Total Type Context Treatment Comment Deposits 1 5.3 Cache Room Not Desc. 5 26.3 Cache Room Thru-Floor 1 Burned 1 Re-Opened 5 Resealed 1 5.3 Cache Platform Thru-Floor Resealed 1 5.3 Cache Platfomi Sub-Floor 2 10.5 PD Stair Thnj-Floor Resealed 2 10.5 PD Room Not Desc. 1 Centered 207

10 52.6 PD Room Thnj-Floor 1 Centered 1 Re-Opened 5 Resealed 1 5.3 PD Door Thm-Floor Re-Opened Resealed 1 5.3 PD Wall Thru-Floor Resealed

Figure 3.25: Late Classic I Interior Obsidian-Bearing Contexts

100

Room Platform Stair Door Wall

• Sub-Floor • Thru-Floor • Not Desc.

Obsidian is reported from numerous interior deposits, but rarely in large quantities. Flake blades are the most widespread artifact type (found in 13 deposits,

34.2%), yet only 99 are reported. If these were used in blood letting rituals, it would suggest that these were conducted on a much smaller basis than during the Eariy

Classic, with fewer participants. Similariy, both eccentrics and indsed forms are reported from eleven deposits (28.9% of interior deposits; 45.8% of obsidian-bearing deposits). Table 3.78: Obsidian Artifact Types in Late Classic (Ik) Interior Deposits

Context Eccentric Ecc. Incised Incised Mod. Unmod. Flake Lancet Core Other Deb. Frag. Frag. Flake Flake Blade Room 1(1) (Not Desc.) Room 4(46) 4(41) 1(2) 3(26) 2(3) (Thru-Floor) Platform 1(27) 1(13) 1(6) 1(3) 1(3) 1(1) (Thru-Floor) Platform 1(6) 1(15) 1(2) 1(4) 1(1) (Sub-Floor) Stair (PD) 1(1) 1(2) 1(58) 1(1) 1(30) (Thru-Floor) Room (PD) 1(3) 1(7) (Not Desc.) Room (PD) 3(4) 4(12) 2(3) 2(2) 7(88) 2(16) 1 1(1) (Thru-Floor) (11) Door (PD) 1(2) (Thru-Floor) Wall (PD) 1(1) 1(4) (Thru-Floor) Totals 11 (85) 1(2) 11(84) 2(3) 1(7) 5(70) 13(99) 8(79) 4 1(1) 0 (16) 209 but only 85 eccentrics and 84 incised specimens are present, respectively. Six caches contain 92.9% of the eccentrics and 82.1% of the incised fonns found in interior locales, suggesting that the appearance of these forms in problematical deposits may be incidental.

The lower frequencies of all forms of obsidian artifacts seen during Ik times

suggest that obsidian was used sparingly during this period. Possibly Tikal lost access to

sources or trade routes as a result of political turmoil resulting from the Caracol event. It

is also possible that Calkmul or Caracol had taken over Tikal's fonner position within the

trade sphere, and one or both powers were diverting obsidian away from Tikal.

Chert

Chert artifacts decrease in frequency during the Late Classic (Ik), although chert

is found in a higher percentage of interior deposits. Table 3.79 shows the distribution of

interior cache locations (also shown graphically in Figure 3.26), while Table 3.80 shows

the distribution of chert artifact types.

Table 3.79: Locations of Interior Late Classic (Ik) Chert Bearing Caches

N % Total Type Context Treatment Comment Deposits 2 10.5 Cache Room Thnj-Floor 1 Burnt 2 Reseated 1 5.3 Cache Platform Thru-Floor Resealed 1 5.3 Cache Platform Sub-Floor 2 10.5 PD Stair Thru-Floor Resealed 2 10.5 PD Room Not Desc. 1 Centered 210

7 36.8 PD Room Thru-Floor 1 Re-Opened 4 Resealed 1 5.3 PD Door Thru-Floor Burned Resealed 1 5.3 PD Wall Thru-Floor Resealed

Figure 3.26: Late Classic I Interior Chert-Bearing Contexts

80 64.7

J) 60 Q. E(0 CO •S 40 cd> a £ 20

Door Platform Stair Room Wall

Sub-Floor • Thru-Floor • Not Desc.

Table 3.80: Chert Artifacts in Interior Late Classic (Ik) Caches

Location Eccentric Eccentric Modified Flake Debitage Fragment Flake Room (0, TF) 2(29) Platform (0, TF) 1(15) Platform (0, SF) 1(18) Stair (PD, TF) 1(1) 2(52) Room (PD. ND) 1(14) 1(1) Room (PD, TF) 4(6) 1(1) 2(3) 4(5) 1(7) 211

Door(PD,TF) 1(1) Wall (PD) 1(6) Totals 9(68) 2(2) 2(3) 9(79) 1 (7)

Only eccentrics and unmodified flakes are abundant in interior deposits. The high frequency of eccentrics is intriguing, especially as it represents a break with the established Eariy Classic pattern. During the Ik period, the number of interior deposits containing chert eccentrics increases by 350%, while the number of actual artifacts neariy doubles, suggesting very different ritual behavior, with chert possibly acting as a substitute for obsidian at this time.

Unmodified flakes are found in a 23.7% of all interior deposits, although never in high frequencies, and seldom in caches. As these are not typically found with eccentrics, these flakes probably do not relate to manufacturing debris. The function of unmodified chert flakes is unclear.

Jade

As the frequency of interior deposits increases after the Eariy Classic, so too does the incidence of such deposits containing jade. Eighteen interior deposits contain jade (47.4%), and these are evenly distributed between caches and problematical deposits (9 each). Table 3.81 (see also Figure 3.27) shows the locations of interior jade- bearing deposits, while Table 3.82 shows the distribution of artifact types. 212

Table 3.81: Locations of Late Classic (Ik) Interior Jade-Bearing Deposits

N % Total Type Context Treatment Comment Deposits 1 5.3 Cache Room Not Desc. 6 31.6 Cache Room Thru-Floor 2 Burnt 1 Re-Opened 6 Resealed 1 5.3 Cache Platform Thru-Floor Resealed 1 5.3 Cache Platform Sul)-Floor 2 10.5 PD Stair Thru-Floor Resealed 1 5.3 PD Room Not Desc. Centered 4 21.1 PD Room Thru-Floor 2 Resealed 1 5.3 PD Door Thru-Floor Bumt Resealed 1 5.3 PD Wall Thru-Floor Resealed

Figure 3.27: Late Classic I Interior Jade-Bearing Contexts

100

Platform

• Sub-Floor • Thru-Floor • Not Desc. Table 3.82: Jade Artifacts in Late Classic (Ik) interior Deposits

Context Bead Mosaic Figurine Fragment Other Assoc. Assoc. Elements Mosaic Pigment Room (Cache) (Not 1(4) 1 (400) 1 1 Desc.) Room (Cache) 2(5) 4 (183) 6(271) 2 (16)^ 3 1 (Thru-Floor) Platform (Cache) 1(19) 1(55) (Thru-floor) Platform (Cache) 1(12) (Sul)-Floor) Stair (PD) (Thru- 2(4) Floor) Room (PD) (Not 1(25) 1(3) Desc.) Room (PD) (Thru- 1(3) 1(1) 1(4) 1 Floor) Door (PD) (Thru- 1(4) Floor)

Wall (PD) (Thru- 1(2) ' Floor) Totals 2(5) 11 (240) 2(5) 11 (745) 2(16) 5 2 1. 2 Spherical objects, partly polished; 5 carved and incized objects; 4 spherical pieces; 1 hemispherical piece. 214

As Room contexts comprise 78.9% of all interior deposits, it is unsurprising that

63% of interior jade-bearing deposits are located in Rooms. Interior Stairs (steps) are the only other location in which jade is encountered more than once. Both the quantity and variety of jade artifacts increase dramatically in comparison with Eariy Classic interior deposits. Fragmentary specimens and mosaic elements both show dramatic increases in number (> 1000%), while larger artifacts, such as figurines and even beads

only double in frequency, in fact, neariy all jade-bearing deposits contain either mosaic

elements or fragments - and sometimes both - possibly indicating the use of composite

jade artifacts in certain interior rituals. However, this interpretation assumes that jade

fragments were employed in a similar fashion as mosaic elements.

Minerals and Pigments

Cinnabar

Cinnabar is present in 7 Late Classic I interior deposits, a 40% increase over the

Eariy Classic. However, this represents only 18.4% of all interior deposits from this

period, a decrease of 23.3% firom the Eariy Classic, which would seem to indicate that

cinnabar has either declined in importance or become more difficult to obtain. Table 3.83

describes the deposits housing cinnabar.

Table 3.83: Cinnabar in Late Classic I Interior Deposits

Deposit Context & Comment Description Treatment Cache 200 Room (ND) 8 Small Lumps Cache 105 Room (TF) Resealed Powder Cache 190 Room (TF) Resealed Powder on calcite (also Malachite) 215

Cache 191 Room (TF) Burned Traces on marine fibre. Re-opened Reseated Cache 210 Room (TF) Reseated Cinnabar-painted textile PD 17/Cache 70 Room (TF) On 10 marine objects Cache 183 WallfTF) Reseated Powder, with Azurite and Malachite

Cinnabar-bearing deposits are highly patterned, with 85.7% coming from general

Room contexts. Eighty-five point seven percent were given through-floor treatment, and all but one of these (83.3%) was reseated. This would tend to suggest that while cinnabar was not frequently included in deposits, it was incorporated under very specific circumstances.

Azurite

The blue mineral Azurite makes its first appearance during the Ik period of the

Late Classic, and is reported exclusively from interior deposits (see Table 3.84).

Table 3.84: Azurite in Late Classic I Interior Caches

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Description Cache 105 Room Thru-Floor Reseated Powdered (some with Spondyfus shell) Cache 185 Room Thru-Floor Burned 1 Lump Reseated Cache 190 Room Thru-Floor Reseated Traces on sponge Cache 183 Wall Thru-Floor Reseated Powder (with Malachite and Cinnabar)

Like dnnabar. azurite-bearing deposits show a high degree of spatial patterning. 216

All were given through-floor treatment and reseated, and 75% were In Room contexts.

Intriguingly, when azurite is found in direct association with other objects, these are always of marine origin (although sample size is very small), possibly indicating oceanic symbolism.

Malachite

The green mineral malachite had been present in a single exterior deposit during the Eariy Classic, and is found in interior contexts for the first time during the Late Classic

I. Table 3.85 describes the malachite-bearing deposits.

Table 3.85: Malachite in Late Classic I Interior Deposits.

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Description Cache 105 Room Thm-Floor Resealed Powder on marine objects and textiles; specular hematite also present. Cache 190 Room Thru-Floor Resealed Powder mixed with cinnabar Cache 183 Wall Thru-Floor Resealed Small lumps with cinnabar and azurite PD 160 Room Thru-Floor Resealed Lump

Intriguingly, malachite has a spatial distribution identical to that of azurite. and these pigments are found together in three deposits. While malachite is not found with objects of marine origin as frequently as azurite (only a single case), the possibility of oceanic symbolism remains. 217

Marine Materials

Stingray Spines

Stingray spines show a dramatic reversal from the patterning seen during the

Early Classic, as the majority are now reported from interior contexts. Table 3.86 shows the distribution of spine-bearing depositional locations (see also Figure 3.28), while table

3.87 shows the distribution of stingray spine forms.

Table 3.86: Late Classic (Ik) Stingray Spine Depositional Locations

N % Total Type Context Treatment Comment Deposits 1 5.3 Cache Room Not Desc. 11 57.9 Cache Room Thnj-Floor 2 Burned 2 Re-Opened 10 Resealed 1 5.3 Cache Wall Thru-Floor Resealed 1 5.3 Cache Platfonn Thru-Floor Resealed 10.5 Cache Platform Sut)-FIoor 1 5.3 PD Stair Sut)-Floor 1 5.3 PD Room Not Desc. Centered 5 26.3 PD Room Thru-Floor 1 Centered 1 5.3 PD Door Thru-Floor Bumed Resealed

As stingray spines are neariy absent in Eariy Classic interior deposits, there is little basis for direct comparison. However, the patteming in Late Classic (Ik) deposits is quite striking. First, real spines (whole and fragmentary) are neariy 3 times as common as imitation ones, suggesting that Tikal had improved access to coastal areas, possibly as a result of Caracol's influence. 218

Figure 3.28: Late Classic I Interior Stingray Spine-Bearing Contexts

80

70 58.3 « 60 Q. i 50 CO •5 40 I 30 I 20 4.2 10

Door Platfomn Room Stair Wall

Sub-Floor • Thnj-Floor • Not Desc.

Second, fragmentary spines are overwhelmingly more common than whole

specimens. Only 6 deposits contain whole spines, while 18 held fragments, and

fragments represent 86.8% of the spines recovered from this period. If fragments were

produced through ritual sacrifice of the artifact (Walker 1995), then this was a routine

practice during Late Classic (Ik) times.

Third, while the number of imitation spines (whole and fragmentary) more than

doubles from the Early Classic, their overall frequency decreases from 61% of the

collection to only 27%. This, along with the increased numbers of real spines, indicates

either that bone copies were no longer a readily accepted alternative to the real object or

that these were not routinely broken.

Fourth, the number of carved specimens increases substantially, from four

isolated specimens to 54 from 10 deposits. The function of can/ed spines is stili unclear. Table 3.87: Stingray Spines in Late Classic (Ik) Interior Deposits

Context Whole Fragment Imitation Imit. Frag. Carved Pigment Hematite Other Room (ND 1(2) 1(1) Cache) Room (Thru 5(15) 7(73) 3(62) 1(2) 4(6) 1' 1 3 (44)' Cache) Wall (Cache) 1(3) 1(1) Platform (Thru 1(49) 1 (11) 1(12) Cache) Platform (Sub- 2(55) 1(13) 1(13) floor, Cache) Stair (Sub-floor 1(1) PD) Room(PD ND) 1(4) Room (PD Thru) 5(54) 2(14) 2(9) 1 (10)' 1 (11) Door (PD Thru) 1(13) 1(13) Totals 6(18) 18 (249) 7(89) 3(16) 10 (54) 2(10) 1 4(55) 1. Spines are reddened, pigment not identified. 2. 1 bone object (possible imitation spine), 43 scutes. 3 Coated with red cinnabar. 220 although these are now being deposited in large numbers, with deposits containing as many as 13. The recurrence of carved spines in the sacred Maya numbers 9 and 13 suggests the use of ritual artifact sets. Similar patterns are occasionally seen in other material forms, especially chert and obsidian eccentrics, and incised bbsidians.

Fifth, stingray spines are now being deposited with red pigment, although this practice is uncommon. The simplest explanation of this phenomenon is blood symbolism. However, it is also possible that this pattern is the aftermath of ritual activity involving toxins (see above).

Finally, for the first time other parts of the stingray are apparently being included in deposits. In particular, several caches include objects referred to as scutes, which are boney amnour plates (such as those found on a crocodile - See Steel 1989).

Unfortunately, stingrays lack such a structure, rendering their identification dubious; as none of these specimens are illustrated, further clarification is impossible.

Spondylus sp. Shells

Spiny oyster {Spondylus sp.) remains follow the general Late Classic I trend towards deposition in interior locales. Spondylus sp.-bearing interior deposits increase by 233% over the Eariy Classic frequency, to 10 (including 2 problematical deposits).

Table 3.88 shows the locations of these deposits, while Table 3.89 details their contents.

The pattern of Ik period Spondylus sp. usage in interior deposits is considerably different than that observed for the Eariy Classic due to the marked increase in numbers of specimens and deposits. Particulariy notable is the increased variety of Spondylus sp. object types, including both worked and unworiced valves, paired valves, and spines

(worked specimens are discussed below), all categories absent in Eariy Classic deposits. 221

Table 3.88: Locations of Late Classic (Ik) Interior Deposits with Spondylus sp.

N % Total Type Placement Context Treatment Comment 1 5.3 Cache Interior Room Not Desc. 4 21.1 Cache Interior Room Thru-Floor 1 Burned 1 Re-Opened 4 Resealed 1 5.3 Cache Interior Wall Thru-Floor Resealed 1 5.3 Cache Interior Platform Thru-Floor Resealed 1 5.3 Cache Interior Platform Sub-Floor 2 10.5 PD Interior Room Thru-Floor Resealed

Also of interest is the complete absence of elaborate artifact forms, beyond the presence of 2 beads (shape not described). Unfortunately the pattern present offers little insight into behaviour. The increased use of interior locales for caches is in keeping with the

overall change seen during this period, and it seems likely that the artifact distributions reflect little more than this change. The lack of elaborate artifact forms is Interesting, and

suggests that caching behaviour concentrated on largely unmodified specimens. As elaborate forms were never particulariy common during the Eariy Classic, this cannot be

viewed as a major change.

Other Shell Species

While a wide variety of species of shells is reported from the Late Classic I at

Tikal, the vast majority of these come from Interior deposits. This is in direct contrast to

the situation observed for the Eariy Classic, and seems to correspond well with the

general shift towards the placement of deposits in interior locales. Table 3.90 shows the Table 3.89 Spondylus sp. Remains In Late Classic (Ik) Interior Deposits

Context Spondylus Paired Spine Min. Chips Bead Mosaic Pend Ear Fig. Perf. Worked Flare Room 1 (400)' (ND) Room 3(12) 2(5) 2(2) 1(2) 1(2) (Thru) Wall 1(2) 1(1) 1(1) Platfonn 1(5)" 1(5)' 1(5) (Thru) Platfomi 1(1) (Sub) Room 2(11) (PD) Totals 5(15) 3(6) 1(5) 4 (403) 4(18) 1(2) 1(5) 0 0 0 0 1. This total is questionable. Spondylus fragments are mixed with jade, and specific quantities are not reported. 2. 10 spines and chips are present, distribution may differ. 223 distribution of shells in Interior Deposits.

Table 3.90: Shell Species in Late Classic (Ik) Interior Deposits

Species Cache PD Total Anadara transversa 5(12) 5(12) Anadara (Lunarca) ovalis 1(1) 1(1) 2(2) Anomalocardia sp. 1(6) 1(6) Area imbricata 4(13) 2(2) 6(15) Area zebra 5(12) 2(3) 7(15) Area sp. 1(1) 2(2) 3(3) Atrina sp. 1(15) 1(15) Balanus sp. 7(109) 1 (1) 8(110) Brachidontes sp. 5(13) 5(13) Busycon sp. 2 (132) 2 (132) Cancellaria reticulata 1(1) 1(1) Cardium sp. 1(1) 1(1) 2(2) Cerithium sp. 2(4) 2(4) Chama sp. 4(13) 4(13) Chione cancellata 4(12) 4(12) Conus sp. 1(1) 1(1) Crassostrea sp. 1(1) 1(1) Crepidula aculeata 2(9) 2(9) Crepidula fomicata 1(1) 1(1) Crepidula sp. 2(2) 2(2) Crucibulum sp. 1(1) 1(1) Dinocardium robustum 8(22) 3(5) 11(27) Glycymeris sp. 5(9) 5(9) Uthophaga sp. 1 (1) 1(1) 224

Marginella apicina 1(1) 1(1) Melongena sp. 1(2) 1(2) Mulina guadalupensis 2(8) 2(8) Mulina lateralis 1(1) 1(1) Mulina sp. 2(8) 2(8) Murex sp. 1(1) 1(1) Noetia ponderosa 3(6) 3(6) Ostrea sp. 9(62) 5(6) 14 (68) Pinctada sp. 1(1) 1 (1) Pinna sp. 5(10) 1(2) 6(12) Plicatula sp. 4(24) 1(1) 5(25) Polinices duplicata 1(1) 1(1) Strombus cranulatus columella 2(2) 2(2) Tellina sp. 2(5) 2(5) Trachycardium isocardia 3(6) 3(6) Trachycardium sp. 1(1) 1 (1) Vemnicularia spirata 3(9) 1(2) 4(10) Vermetidae 2(5)' 2(5) 1. Minimal count

Anadara transversa, Anadara (Lunarca) ovalis

While both species of Anadara continue to be present during Late Classic I times,

A. ovalis virtually disappears. Table 3.91 shows the distribution of Anadara specimens in

Late Classic 1 interior contexts. 225

Table 3.91: Anadara Shells in Late Classic I Interior Deposits

N Context Treatment Comment A. transversa A. ovalis 2 Room Thru-Floor Resealed 2' 0 1 Bumed 1 Wall Thru-Floor Resealed 1 0 1 Platfonn Sub-Floor 1 0 1 Platform Thru-Floor Resealed 7 1 1 Room Thru-Floor Re-opened 0 1 Resealed 1. 1 specimen had Vermetidae attached.

Given the low number of specimens of Anadara in Late Classic I interior contexts, the degree of variability in their spatial patterning is surprising. The one constant is that all but a single specimen of either species were recovered in a resealed deposit given through-floor treatment. The single specimen with Vermetidae attached that came from the burned Room cache was probably dead at the time of collection, and it is debatable whether one species was targeted over the other, or if this specimen was collected due to the presence of two species.

Anomaiocardia sp.

Specimens of Anomaiocardia sp. are reported from only a single Late Classic I interior deposit, and 6 specimens were recovered from a resealed, through-floor Platform cache. This may represent a change from the Eariy Classic pattern of only interring single specimens of Anomaiocardia, but the sample size is insufficient to be certain. 226

Atrina sp.

Atrina sp., a common bivalve known as the Pen Shell (Abbott 1954), is represented in a single Late Classic I interior cache by 15 fragmentary specimens.

These derive from a single resealed Platform cache that had been given through-floor treatment.

Area imbricata, Area zebra. Area sp.

Specimens of A. imbricata increase in frequency during Late Classic I times, with

15 specimens reported from interior deposits. At the same time, specimens of A zebra decline slightly to 15. Table 3.92 show the full distribution of Area shells in interior deposits.

Table 3.92: Area shells in Late Classic I Interior Deposits

N Context & Comment A. Imbrieata A. zebra A. sp. Treatment 4 Room (TF) 1 Burned 4 (13)' 3(7) 0 1 Re-opened 1 Resealed 1 Wall (TF) Resealed 0 1(1) 0 1 Platform (SF) 0 1(4) 0 1 Platform (TF) Resealed 0 0 1(1) 2 Room (PD. ND) 1 Centered 1(1) 1(1) 2(2) 2 Room (PD. TF) 1 Resealed 1(1) 1(2) 0 1. 3 pairs.

The presence of both A. imbricata and A. zebra in equal frequencies shows a marked change from the Eariy Classic pattem, where A. zebra was neariy 21/2 times as Ill common as A. imbricata. The presence of paired specimens also marks a change, suggesting the collection of live or recently dead specimens.

Balanus sp.

Barnacles are found in the greatest quantity in Late Classic I interior deposits, with 110 specimens reported from 7 caches and a single problematical deposit. Table

3.93 describes their locations.

Table 3.93: Barnacles in Late Classic I Interior Deposits

N Context & Description Balanus Comment Treatment 6 Room (TF) 2 Burned 107 Some specimens attached to: 2 Re-opened Pinna, Area, Ostrea, and Resealed Gorgonians. 1 Wall (TF) Resealed 2 Attached to Area and Chama 1 Room (PD, TF) Resealed 1 Attached to interior of Area

The vast majority (98.1%) of all barnacles come from resealed, through-floor

Room context deposits, indicating a high degree of locational patterning. However, it is occasionally unclear whether the barnacles themselves were the goal of the collectors.

On three occasions, barnacles are found on the interior of another shell, probably indicating the beach collection of the other species.

Brachidontes sp.

The number of Brachidontes sp. shells recovered from Late Classic I interior caches is almost sixty percent lower than was reported from Eariy Classic exterior deposits. Also, no deposit from this period contains more than 5 specimens. These 228 factors combine to suggest either a decreased importance of Brachidontes, or difficulty in obtaining specimens. Resealed, through-floor Room deposits account for 69.2% of all

Brachidontes specimens from interior deposits of this period. Table 3.94 describes the specimens recovered.

Table 3.94: Brachidontes sp. in Late Classic I Interior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Brachidontes sp. Cache 14A Platform Sub-Floor 4 Cache 103 Room Thru-Floor 1 Cache 14D Room Thru-Floor Resealed 5 Cache 185 Room Thru-Floor Burned 1 Resealed Cache 191 Room Thru-Floor Burned 2 Re-Opened Resealed

Busycon sp.

Only two Late Classic I interior caches contain specimens of Busycon sp.; however, these both contain very large numbers of spedmens, accounting for 95.7% of all Busycon sp. shells reported from Tikal caches from all periods. Both deposits were given through-floor treatment and then resealed. Cache 14B, a Platform deposit, contained 102 immature specimens of Busycon sp., while Cache 185, a Room cache, held 30 immature specimens. Specimens of this whelk can attain a size of 8 inches

(Abbott 1954), and the identification of "immature" is presumably made on the basis of the Tikal specimens being much smaller than this. 229

Cancellaria nticulata

Only a single specimen of C. reticulata Is reported during the Late Classic I period. This comes from an interior Platform deposit, Cache 14B, that was given through-floor treatment and then resealed.

Cardium sp.

Only 2 specimens of Cardium sp. are reported from Tikal caches or problematical deposits, and both come from Late Classic I through-floor Room deposits. Cache 199 was resealed, while PD 173 was not. While cockles are a common bivalve, the genus

Cardium is unusual in this area, and is not listed in Vokes and Vokes (1983) survey of the Yucatan peninsula. Andrews IV (1969) suggests it should be classified as

Trachycardium.

Ceritttium sp.

Four specimens of Cerithium are reported firom two resealed, through-floor deposits. Cache 146. firom an interior Platform, held 3 specimens, while Cache 191, a

Room context deposit, held a single shell. Cache 191 was also burned and re-opened.

This is a marked decrease from the 12 specimens reported fi-om the Early Classic

(although only 2 of these were from interior deposits), suggesting a behavioral change.

Chama sp.

The remains of Chama sp. shells are reported from four Late Classic I interior caches, described in Table 3.95. 230

Table 3.95: Chama sp. in Late Classic I Interior Caches

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Chama sp. Cache 14C Room Thru-Floor Resealed 2 Cache 190 Room Thru-Floor Resealed 5 ' Cache 238 Room Thru-Floor Re-Opened 3 Resealed Cache 183 Wall Thnj-Floor Resealed 3 (1 pair)

Chama sp.-bearing deposits are very consistent, as all were reseated after receiving through-floor treatment. Less consistent is the number of specimens deposited, although 75% of the deposits contain odd-numbers of valves.

Chione cancellata

C. cancellata is reported from 4 interior deposits during the Late Classic I. These contained the same number of specimens as reported from Eariy Classic exterior deposits, although this is more likely a result of sampling en'or than intentionality on the part of the Maya. Table 3.96 details the inventory of Chione cancellata specimens.

Table 3.96: Chione cancellata in Late Classic I Interior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Chione cancellata Cache 14B Platform Thru-Floor Resealed 6 Cache 14A Platform Sub-Floor 4 Cache 185 Room Thnj-Floor Burned 1 Resealed Cache 183 Wall Thru-Floor Resealed 1

Intriguingly, 83.3% of the C. cancellata specimens recovered from interior caches 231 come from Platform contexts in Room 3 of Str. 5E)-34-1st, while the remaining specimens both came from Room 2 of Str. 5i>22-1st. This strongly suggests that Chione was used in very specific rituals involving particular places.

Conus sp.

The only example of Conus from an interior Late Classic I context is in Cache

14A, a sub-floor Platform cache. The discussion on Early Classic Conus sp. specimens discusses the possible use of this animal's poison in rituals.

Crassostrea sp.

The Atlantic Oyster, Crassostrea, appears only once at Tikal, in a resealed, through-floor Wall cache (Cache 183). The single specimen is insufficient to suggest any real behavioral differences between the use of this oyster and Ostrea sp. However, as neither is spiny, it seems likely that they were employed very differently than

Spondyius.

Crepidula aculeata, Crepidula fomicaia

Crepidula remains are reported from only 4 interior Late Classic I deposits, a decrease of 60% from their Eariy Classic exterior counterparts. Table 3.97 describes these specimens.

Table 3.97: Crepidula aculeata and C. fomicata in Late Classic I Interior Caches

N Context & Comment C. aculeata C. fomicata C. sp. Treatment 1 Platform (TF) Resealed 6 0 0 232

1 Platform 9SF) 3 1 0 1 Room (TF) Burned 0 0 1 Reseated 1 Room (PD, TF) 0 0 1

Crepidula shells during the Late Classic I are espedally intriguing as they exhibit a distribution virtually identical to that of Chione cancellata. In particular, 6 specimens come from a reseated, through-floor Platform deposit ~ the same one (Cache 14B) that yielded 6 specimens of C, cancellata; 4 specimens of Crepidula were recovered from the same sub-floor Platfonm cache (Cache 14A) that yielded 4 specimens of C. cancellata: finally, a single specimen of Crepidula sp. was found in Cache 185, a Room deposit that yielded a single specimen of Chione. The connection between these shells - if indeed any exists - is unknown. Certainly they bear no resemblance to one another {Crepidula is a univalve [the Slipper Limpet] while Chione is a bivalve [cross-barred Venus]).

Crucibulum sp.

This uncommon univalve virtually disappears during the Late Classic I, with only a

single specimen known from a reseated, through-floor Room context cache (Cache 14D).

Dinocardium robustum

D. robustum shells are found in both their greatest abundance and the most

deposits during Late Classic I times. The numtier of D. robustum-bearing deposits

increases by 57.1%, to 11, white the number of shells increases by 145.5% to 27. Table

3.98 details these deposits. 233

Table 3.98: D. robustum in Late Classic i Interior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment D. robustum Cache 14B Platform Thru-Floor Reseaied 3 Cache 14A Platform Sub-Floor 4 Cache 14C Room Thru-Floor Reseaied 1 Cache 14D Room Thru-Floor Reseaied 3 (1 perforated) Cache 185 Room Thru-Floor Burned 6 Reseaied Cache 191 Room Thru-Floor Bumed 1 (red stained, holding Re-Opened Balanus, jade mosaic, Reseaied and fish vertebrae) Cache 199 Room Thru-Floor Reseaied 2 (1 with red paint smeared on interior) Cache 183 Wall Thru-Floor Reseaied 2 (paired) PD 146 Door Thru-Floor Bumed 1 Reseaied PD160 Room Thm-Floor Reseaied 1 PD138 Wall Thru-Floor Reseaied 3 fragments

Like most shells from Late Classic I interior deposits, specimens of D. robustum

come almost exclusively (85.2% of specimens) from reseated, through-floor deposits.

Glycymeris sp.

Glycymeris sp. increases substantially in number at this time, with 10 specimens

reported from five deposits (see Table 3.99). This accounts for 67% of the specimens of

Glycymeris recovered in Tikal caches and problematical deposits. This may suggest a

behavioral change on the part of the people engaged in cache production, or a shift in

the area from which shells were obtained ~ possibly to a different coastal area with a 234 different microenvironment - or an environmental change favouring Glycymeris over other bivalve species.

Table 3.99: Glycymeris sp. in Late Classic I Interior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Glycymeris sp. Cache 14B Platform Thru-Floor Resealed 2 Cache 14A Platfomn Sub-Floor 1 Cache 14C Room Thru-Floor Resealed 1 (with attached Ostrea sp.) Cache 14D Room Thru-Floor Resealed 2 Cache 185 Room Thru-Floor Burned 3 Resealed

Glycymeris sp. shells share a pattern observed for many species found in Late

Classic I interior deposits, of the majority coming from resealed, through-floor caches.

Additionally, 70% of the specimens come from deposits within the same room.

UthophagB sp.

The only example of Uthophaga sp., a bivalve genus considered frequent to common by malacologists (Dance 1990), comes from Cache 185, a resealed, through- floor Room deposit that had been burned.

Marginella apicina

While M. apicina was only an infrequent feature in Eariy Classic deposits, only a single specimen is known from a Late Classic I interior context. This comes from Cache

14B, a resealed cache given through-floor treatment. 235

Melongena sp.

Two specimens of Melongena sp. are reported from Cache 190, a resealed, through-floor Room deposit. This represents a 50% decrease in both specimen and deposit frequency from the Early Classic, although the sample size is too small to make

anything of this change.

Mulina guadalupensis, Mulina lateralis, Mulina sp.

Specimens of Mulina are found in roughly the same numbers as they were in

Early Classic exterior deposits. The principal changes are the higher frequency of

specimens identified only as Mulina sp., and the virtual disappearance of M. lateralis.

Table 3.100 details the deposits containing Mulina valves.

Table 3.100: Mulina in Late Classic I Interior Deposits

N Context Treatment Comment M. lateralis M. Guad. M. sp. 1 Platform Thru-Floor Resealed 0 0 5 3 Room Thru-Floor 2 Resealed 1 8 3 1 Burned

Murex sp.

Only a single specimen of Murex sp. was recovered from a Late Classic I interior

context. This came from Cache 185, a resealed, through-floor Room context deposit that

had been burned. This demonstrates some continuity with the preceding period, as a

single specimen was recovered from an Eady Classic resealed, through-floor Room

cache. 236

Noetia ponderosa

Specimens of N. ponderosa were found in 9 Early Classic exterior deposits, but this frequency decreases substantially for Late Classic I interior deposits (3). However, while the number of valves per deposit increases, the number of specimens decreases by 50%. Table 3.101 details these deposits.

Table 3.101: N. ponderosa in Late Classic Interior Caches

Deposit Context Treatment Comment N. ponderosa Cache 14B Platform Thru-Floor Resealed 2 Cache 14A Platform Sub-Floor 1 Cache 190 Room Thm-Floor Reseated 3 (1 pair)

Ostrea sp.

Ostrea sp. is found in its greatest quantities in Late Classic 1 interior deposits.

Fourteen deposits contain 66 specimens (see Table 3.102), a 50% increase in the number of deposits, and a 247% increase in the number of valves over those recovered from Eariy Classic exterior deposits.

Table 3.102: Ostrea sp. in Late Classic I Interior Deposits

N Context Treatment Comment Ostrea sp. Attached to 1 Platform Sub-Floor 1 Plicatula sp. 7 Room Thru-Floor 6 Resealed 60(23 1 Glycymeris 2 Burned fragments) 2 Area 2 Re-Opened 1 Melongena 2 Gorgonian 1 Wall Thru-Floor Resealed 1 5 Room (PD) Thru-Floor 2 Resealed 6 2 Area 1 Re-Opened 237

The majority of Ostrea sp. specimens (98.5%) come fi"om through-floor deposits;

97% come from Room contexts.

Pinctada sp.

A single specimen of Pinctada was recovered from Cache 160, a reseated, through-floor cache located in a Room context.

Pinna sp.

Specimens of Pinna sp. were rare during the Eariy Classic, but become much

more frequent in interior deposits from Late Classic I times, which account for 85.7% of

all specimens of Pinna from Tikal caches and problematical deposits. Table 3.103

describes these deposits.

Table 3.103: Pinna in Late Classic I Interior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Pinna sp. Cache 14A Platform Sub-Floor 4 Cache 200 Room Not Desc. 1 Fragment Cache 14C Room Thnj-Floor Resealed 1 (with attached Balanus) Cache 185 Room Thm-Floor Bumed 3 Resealed Cache 190 Room Thru-Floor Resealed 1 Fragment PD 14/C 66 Room Thru-Floor Re-Opened 2 Fragments Resealed

Plicatula sp.

Although the number of deposits containing Piicatula decreases by 50% (from 10 238 to 5), the number of specimens remains the same (25) as seen in the Early Classic. The distribution of Plicatula sp. specimens is shown in Table 3.104.

Table 3.104: Plicatula sp. in Late Classic I Interior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Plicatula sp. Cache 14B Platform Thru-Floor Resealed 15 Cache 14A Platform Sub-Floor 2 (with attached Ostrea) Cache 14D Room Thru-Floor Resealed 4 Cache 185 Room Thru-Floor Burned 3 (grown together) Resealed PD 96 Room Not Oesc. Centered 1

The Late Classic I interior inventory of Plicatula specimens bears one intriguing similarity to that seen in the Eariy Classic (exterior); a single resealed, through-floor cache housing the largest sample of specimens. The Eariy Classic example contains

52% of the Plicatula valves reported from exterior deposits from that time, while the Late

Classic I deposit houses 60% of those from contemporary interior deposits.

Polinices duplicata

A single specimen of P. duplicata was recovered from Cache 148, a resealed, through-floor Platform deposit. This is a very different context than that of the only Eariy

Classic example of Polinices, which was found beneath a Stela.

Strombus cranulatus columella

Only two spedmens of Strombus are reported from Late Classic I interior deposits, and one is fragmentary. Both come from Platfonn contexts (Cache 14A and 239

14B) found in the same room, and may relate to the same ritual.

Tellina sp.

The number of Tellina sp. specimens declines dramatically from the Early

Classic, with only 5 specimens reported, none of which are perforated. Four specimens were recovered from Platform deposit Cache 14B, which was reseated after being given through-floor treatment. The other specimen came from Cache 191, a resealed, through-floor Room deposit that was both bumed and re-opened. The lack of perforated specimens suggests that this species was not used for ornamentation during this period, or (more likely) that such specimens were not included in any excavated ritual deposits.

Trachycardium isocardia, Trachycardium sp.

Specimens of Trachycardium had been common in Eariy Classic exterior deposits. During Late Classic I times, these are restricted to 3 interior deposits, all from

Room 3 of Structure 5D-34-1st. Five specimens of T. isocardia were recovered from

Platform contexts (Caches 14A and 14B), while the single specimens of Trachycardium sp. and r. isocardia came from Room deposit Cache 14D.

Vermicularia spirata and Vemetidae

Vermetidae and Vermicularia spirata worm shells are far less common in Late

Classic I interior deposits than they had been in Eariy Classic exterior contexts. Table

3.105 details their distribution. 240

Table 3.105: Vermicularia and Vermetidae in Late Classic i Interior Deposits

N Context & Comment V. Spirata Vermetidae Fragments Treatment 2 Room (TF) Resealed 8 T 0 1 Bumed 1 Wall (TF) Resealed 0 3^ 0 1 Room (PD, ND) Centered 1 0 1 1. 1 attached to Anadara 2. 1 attached to Area

Specific reasons for the dramatic drop-off in the firequency of Vermicularia from the Eariy Classic to the Late Classic I are unknown, although this is likely related to the general changes associated with the Hiatus and the Caracol event of 562.

Worked Shell

Objects manufactured from shell are reported from a total of 18 Late Classic I interior deposits (47.4%), of which 10 were caches and 8 problematical deposits. A number of types of shell artifacts were encountered, although mosaic elements and chips are the most common. Table 3.106 details the shell artifact inventory.

Table 3.106: Shell Artifacts in Late Classic (Ik) Interior Deposits

Deposit Context Mosaic Chips & Composite Minimally Other Element Spines Form Worked C 105 Room 1^ C14A Platfonnn 1 C14B Platform 5^ 10' C 14D Room 1* C 183 Wall 1' 241

C 185 Room Unquant. C 190 Room Unquant^ 2' C 191 Room 125» Unquant®

C 199 Room • 2^0 C200 Room 400'^ 412 PD 138 Wail 113 PD 143 Stair 3 PD 146 Door 6 V* PD 160 Room Unquant^® 1'® PD 164 Room 2 P17/C7 Room 1 0 PD 172 Room 118 PD96 Room 20 1. 1 Scraped Spondylus sp. valve, interior down, with powdered azurite on surface. 2. Spondylus sp. 3. Mixed Spondylus sp. Chips and Spines, not specifically quantified. 4. 1 Perforated Dinocardium robustum 5. 1 Scraped and polished Spondylus sp. valve. 6. Spondylus sp. chips, unquantified. 7. 2 Spondylus sp. beads. 8. 125 Jade and shell mosaic elements. 9 Spondylus sp. and jade bits, unquantified. 10. 2 Dinocardium robustum shells with red paint smudges on interior. 11. 400 Mixed jade and Spondylus sp. bits. 12. 4 Jade, shell, and hematite figurines. 13. 1 Lightly worked Strombus cranulatus columella shell. 14. 1 Shell figurine. 15. Unquantified loose jade and shell mosaic elements. 16. 1 Jade and shell mosaic head. 17. 1 Spondylus sp. chip. 18. 1 Fragmentary nacreous shell tweezer element.

Despite the diversity of forms, it seems clear that the most common means of creating an object from shell was through the production of mosaic elements or similar 242 small fragments. These, along with jade and sometimes hematite, were then presumably used to produce figurines; the low frequency of recovery of figurines may be due to the decay of organic components (possibly used as glue, or as a base), or may indicate that the elements themselves were used In offerings. The production of s^cific artifacts, such as figurines or beads, from shell is quite unusual, while the presence of minimally worked specimens remains a puzzle.

Fish Remains

Fish remains (usually vertebrae) are found in a high percentage of interior deposits, particulariy caches. Indeed, 12 interior caches (63.2%) and 5 interior problematical deposits (26.3%) contain fish remains, meaning that 44.7% of all Ik interior deposits contain fish remains. Table 3.107 details the contexts in which fish remains were encountered.

Table 3.107: Fish Remains in Late Classic I Interior Deposits

N % Total Type Context & Comment Fish Remains Treatment 9 47.4 Cache Room (TF) 2 Burned Minimally 1185 2 Re-opened vertebrae, many 9 Resealed articulated 1 5.3 Cache Wall (TF) Reseated 43 vertebrae 1 5.3 Cache Platform (TF) Resealed 700 vertebrae 1 5.3 Cache Platform (SF) 265 vertebrae 1 5.3 PD Stair (SF) 1 vertebra 3 15.8 PD Room (TF) 1 Centered 208 vertebrae 1 Re-opened Resealed 1 5.3 PD Wall(TF) Resealed 1 vertebra 243

The frequently large numbers of bones, many of which are articulated, indicates that whole fish were incorporated into offerings on many occasions, a phenomenon that was uncommon during the Eariy Classic. The purpose of such inclusions during the Late

Classic I is unknown, but seems to tie in well with the other non-shell marine inclusions discussed below.

Porcupine Fish and Sawfish

Elements identified as porcupine fish dermal spines are reported from several

Late Classic I Interior deposits. The ceremonial usage of these animals is unclear, although use of their spines for bloodletting is an obvious conclusion. However, it is worth noting that Porcupine fish are toxic when eaten, and the death rate for those who eat them is 60% (Halstead 1980). Hence it is possible that ingestion of the flesh of these fish was practiced ritually, possibly to induce visions, possibly for sacrifice.

Two deposits contain objects identified as Sawfish spikes, which could also have been used in bloodletting. Table 3.108 describes the remains of Porcupine fish and

Sawfish in interior deposits.

Table 3.108: Porcupine Fish & Sawfish Remains in Late Classic I Interior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Porcupine Sawfish Fish Cache 14D Room Thru-Floor Resealed 100 Spines 0 Cache 185 Room Thru-Floor Burned 111 Spines 0 Resealed Cache 190 Room Thnj-Floor Resealed Unquantified 244

PD 14/C 66 Room Thru-Floor Re-Opened 27 Spines 22 Spikes Resealed PD 17/C 70 Room Thru-Floor 6 Spines 3 Eroded Spikes PD 178 Room Thru-Floor 1 Spine

All of these remains come from through-floor Room contexts, suggesting that these were employed in rituals that were not for public viewing, and that these were performed (or at least disposed of) in areas still in active use.

Coral

Coral is reported in 7 Late Classic I interior caches. Contrary to the pattem observed for Eariy Classic exterior deposits, brain coral is the most commonly identified

type. Possible ritual uses of coral are described above. Table 3.109 details coral- bearing deposits.

Table 3.109: Coral In Late Classic I Interior Caches

n Context Treatment Coral Brain Branching Gill Coral Present Coral Coral 1 Platform Sub-Floor V 0 0 0 1 Platform Thru-Floor 2 0 0 0 5 Room Thru-Floor 15 3^ 1^ 1^ 1. Coralline algae, unquantified. 2. Minimal quantity, unquantified.

Bryozoa

As noted above. Bryozoa resemble corals in many ways. The frequency of

6/yozoa-bearing deposits increases slightly over that seen for Eariy Classic exterior 245 contexts, with 8 from Late Classic I interior locales. Like the majority of marine materials from Late Classic I interior locales, most Bryozoa (97.4%) come from resealed, through- floor contexts. These are detailed in Table 3.110.

Table 3.110: Bryozoa in Late Classic I Interior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Bryozoans Cache 14B Platform Thru-Floor Resealed 21 Cache 14A Platform Sub-Floor 2 Cache 14C Room Thru-Floor Resealed 4 Cache 14D Room Thnj-FIoor Resealed 38 Cache 185 Room Thru-Floor Burned 1 Resealed Cache 191 Room Thru-Floor Burned 1 Re-Opened Resealed Cache 183 Wail Thru-Floor Resealed 1 PD 173 Room Thru-Floor 8

Gorgonians and Sponge

Both the soft-coral Gorgonians and sponge are found with some frequency in

Late Classic I interior deposits, frequently together. Table 3.111 shows the distribution of these marine materials.

Table 3.111: Gorgonians and Sponge in Late Classic I Interior Deposits

Deposit Context & Comment Gorgonian Sponge Treatment Cache 14A Platfomi (SF) 4 Pieces Small Pieces Cache 14B Platform (TF) Resealed 1 1 Piece 246

Cache 103 Room (TF) Cluster Disintegrated Cache 105 Room (TF) Resealed Stalk Disintegrated Cache 14C Room (TF) Resealed 6 Pieces 8-9 Pieces Cache 14D Room (TF) Resealed Several Pieces 11 Decayed Lumps Cache 156 Room (TF) Resealed 3 Tendrils Cache 157 Room (TF) Resealed 4 Pieces Clumps of spicules Cache 185 Room (TF) Bumed Unquantified, Disintegrated Resealed on Bryozoa and Coquina Cache 190 Room (TF) Resealed 2 (1 with Disintegrated, Balanus small amounts attached) Cache 191 Room (TF) Bumed Attachment, Re-opened with fused Resealed Ostrea Cache 199 Room (TF) Resealed 2 Lumps Cache 238 Room (TF) Re-opened 3 Unquantified Resealed PD 17/C 70 Room (TF) 1 Lump

The patterning here is very strong: virtually all (13 of 14 or 92.9%) Late Classic I interior deposits were given through-floor treatment. Of these, 84.6% were resealed.

Whatever gorgonians and sponge were being used for (see discussion of possible uses of sponge, above), their disposal was very consistent.

Coquina

Coquina is far more common in Late Classic I interior deposits than during the

Early Classic, present in 9 caches. These are described in Table 3.112. 247

Table 3.112: Coquina in Late Classic i Interior Caches

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Coquina Cache 14A Platform Sub-Floor Unquantified Cache 14B Platform Thru-Floor Resealed 2 Pieces Cache 105 Room Thru-Floor Reseated 1 Piece Cache 14C Room Thru-Floor Resealed 1 Piece Cache 14D Room Thru-Floor Reseated 3 Pieces Cache 185 Room Thru-Floor Burned Unquantified Reseated Cache 190 Room Thru-Floor Resealed Unquantified Cache 238 Room Thru-Floor Re-Opened 3 Resealed Cache 183 Wall Thru-Floor Resealed 3

The pattern for Coquina is very similar to that of gorgonians and sponge: 88.9%

comes from reseated, through-floor deposits. Indeed, Coquina is found together with

sponge and gorgonians in 8 of 9 deposits. How this shell conglomerate relates to these

other objects - beyond being of marine origin - is unknown.

Fibrous Marine Material

Eight Late Classic I interior deposits contain objects described as "fibrous marine

material," although the marine origin of these is unclear. Table 3.113 shows the

distribution of deposits containing marine fibrous material.

Table 3.113: Fibrous {Marine IMaterial in Late Classic I interior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Fibrous Marine Material Cache 14A Platform Sub-Floor Unquantified 248

Cache 14B Platform Thru-Floor Reseaied 2 Pieces Cache 14D Room Thru-Floor Reseaied Miscellaneous; unquantified. Cache 185 Room Thru-Floor Bumed Clustered, unquantified Reseaied Cache 190 Room Thru-Floor Reseaied 2 Clusters Cache 191 Room Thru-Floor Bumed 1 Tuft with cinnabar traces Re-Opened Reseaied Cache 200 Room Not Desc. Small masses PD160 Room Thru-Floor Reseaied 1 Clump

Fibrous marine material follows the same pattern as most marine objects from this period, coming primarily from reseaied, through-floor deposits.

Other Marine Objects

Two sand dollars were recovered from the reseaied, through-floor Wall deposit.

Cache 183. Cache 190, a Room deposit (also through-floor and reseaied) held 2 pearis

This marks the first appearance of sand dollars in a Tikal cache, although their function is unknown. Pearis had been present in Eariy Classic contexts.

Terrestrial Fauna

The most intriguing aspect of Late Classic I terrestrial faunal remains is that they stem almost exclusively from interior deposits. Indeed, 92.3% of all tenrestrial fauna- bearing deposits from this period (including snakes) come from interior locales. These are described in Table 3.114 249

Table 3.114: Terrestrial Fauna in Late Classic I Interior deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Fauna Cache 14B Platform Thru-Floor Resealed 1 unidentified phalanx; unquantifiec( rodent remains Cache 14D Room Thru-Floor Resealed 1 bone pin or needle; 44 unidentified remains; unquantified turtle remains Cache 238 Room Thru-Floor Re-opened 2 unidentified specimens, Resealed thought incidental PD 146 Door Thru-Floor Burned 1 unidentified specimen, Resealed unquantified small mammal remains PD 96 Room Not Desc. Centered 6 unidentified specimens, 2 rodents P 14/C 66 Room Thru-Floor Re-opened 20 unidentified specimens, 2 Resealed large mammals, 36 rodents PD164 Room Thru-Floor Resealed 1 awl fragment P 17/C70 Room Thru-Floor 19 large mammals, 205 rodent bones, 20 bat bones, unquantified frog bones PD 172 Room Thru-Floor Resealed 1 perforator PD 173 Room Thru-Floor 107 bat bones; 1120 bones of small mammals, frogs, birds, rodents, lizard, snake. PD178 Room Thru-Floor 70 rodents, 11 bat, 1 bird {Rhinophymus dorsal!) PD 138 Wall Thru-Floor Resealed 45 small mammals (12 bat, rest mostly rodent)

It is of some interest that 75% of the terrestrial fauna-bearing deposits are not

considered tme caches (two are cache/problematical deposit mixtures), suggesting that

most were not recognized as offerings in the field. Given the lack of detailed description 250 of the fauna, it is unlikely that the taie nature of these remains will ever be understood.

It is also worth noting that reptile remains, which seem to have had some importance in Early Classic deposits, are now virtually absent. There are no apparent crocodile burials from Late Classic I times, and both snakes and turtles are represented in only single deposits. Whether this represents a behavioral shift or sampling error is unknown.

Human Remains

While human skeletal remains were recovered from 7 Late Classic I interior deposits, the nature of these materials differs from those of Early Classic contexts.

Specifically, 71.4% (5 of 7) of the deposits contain nothing but phalanges (fingers or toes) ~ sometimes in quantity, sometimes in isolation. Phalanges are known firom a pair of Early Classic exterior deposits, but this is an unusual find, reported in only 14.3% of all

Eariy Classic deposits. Regardless of whether these phalanges entered these deposits after removal firom a skeleton, a corpse, or a living person, this would seem to indicate a pattern of deliberate mutilation, although the purpose of such behavior is entirely unknown. However, it is of some considerable interest that the pattem of including phalanges occurs during the Ik period, as Chase and Chase (1996) report that phalanges are a common cache item at Caracol during this same period. This would seem to indicate that the people of Tikal had adopted at least part of the Caracol caching pattem at this time, further suggesting that someone from Caracol was in charge of at least certain rituals. The Chases believe that the phalanges were removed from living individuals as "...part of funeral rituals and in rites venerating the dead" (Chase and

Chase 1996:72). Table 3.115 describes the human remains recovered from interior 251 deposits of this period.

Table 3.115: Human Remains in Late Classic I Interior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Human Remains Cache Platform Thru-Floor Resealed 2 Terminal phalanges 14B Cache Platfomi Sub-Floor 4 Phalanges, 1 terminal 14A PD 96 Room Not Desc. Centered 18 Mixed adult and sub-adult bone fragments, 3 adult teeth (2 incisors, 1 canine) Cache Room Thru-Floor Resealed 30 Phalanges, all but 2 tenninal 14D Cache Room Thru-Floor Resealed Phalanges (unquantified), may 199 be human P 17/C Room Thru-Floor Adult teeth (unquantified, 70 undescribed) PD 173 Room Thnj-FIoor Phalanx

Ceramics

Another intriguing change from the Early Classic is the virtual disappearance of

ceramics in caches and problematical deposits. Although ceramics are known from 13

interior deposits (34.2%), not one of these contains a whole vessel. In most cases,

potsherds - often considered incidental to the deposit - are the only ceramic forms

present. The reasons for this change are unknown. Table 3.116 describes the ceramic

assemblage from Late Classic I interior deposits. 252

Table 3.116: Ceramics in Late Classic I interior Deposits

N Context Treatment Comment Ceramics 1 Platfomn Thru-Floor Resealed 13 sherds 4 Room Thru-Floor Resealed Minimally 23 sherds 1 Room (PD) Not Desc. Centered Unquantified polychrome sherds 6 Room (PD) Thru-Floor 1 Re-opened 1 Fragmentary tripod bowl 5 Resealed (unknown type), completed with sherds from matrix; 3 outcurving sided bowl sherds of Zacatal Cream Polychrome; Saxche Orange vessel sherds, 8 Ik sherds, 35 undescribed sherds 1 Stair Thnj-Floor Resealed 3 Sherds

Censers

Censers are a far more common find in Late Classic I interior locales than they were in any type of Early Classic context. In fact, the frequent of censer-bearing interior deposits from this period shows a 62.5% increase over the entire Eariy Classic total.

This would appear to indicate a shift in behaviour, with incense burning becoming more common during Late Classic I times. However, in most cases censer remains are nothing more than isolated fragments, often considered incidental to the deposit. There are only two deposits (PD 180 and PD 138) that seem to represent the intentional deposition of censers, In either whole or fragmentary fonn. Table 3.117 shows the distribution of censer-bearing interior deposits. 253

Table 3.117: Censers in Late Classic I Interior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Description Cache 14B Platform Thm-Floor Resealed 2 fragments, undescribed Cache 14C Room Thru-Floor Resealed 1 incidental fragment Cache 14D Room Thai-Floor Resealed 45 fragments, intmsive PD156 Room Not Desc. 2 fragments, join fragments from PD 180 PD 96 Room Not Desc. Centered Unquantified fragments PD 14/C66 Room Thru-Floor Re-Opened 1 burnt ladle fragment, fits Resealed PD 19 fragments PD151 Room Thm-Floor Resealed 1 fragment, undescribed PD153 Room Thm-Floor 1 fragment, fits PD 180 PD160 Room Thm-Floor Resealed 2 fragments PD164 Room Thm-Floor 1 fragment PD178 Room Thm-Floor 1 ladle fragment, fits PD 177 PD180 Room Thm-Floor Centered 7 censers, whole or neariy whole. 1 fits sherds from PD153 and 156 PD138 Wall Thm-Floor Resealed 16 fragments, most refit; fits PD 134 and PD 96 also

Copal

Copal is a rare feature of Late Classic I interior deposits, reported from only a single Door context (PD 146). Interestingly, there are no censer remains from this deposit. 254

Organics and Seeds

Organics are reported from only a pair of Late Classic I interior deposits, both located in reseated, through-floor Room caches, and both in Room 2 of Structure 5D-26-

1st. The object in Cache 105 is described as a textile, while Cache lC6 is thought to contain leaves.

Seeds are present in only a single Ik interior deposit. Cache 196, a reseated, through-floor Room context cache. This contains 3 squash seeds {Curcurbita moschata) that had been painted blue.

Mosaic Elements

Like many material types, mosaic remains were rare in Eariy Classic interior deposits, but become very common in their Late Classic counterparts. Indeed, mosaics are found in 42.1% of interior deposits, evenly distributed between caches and problematical deposits (8 each). Table 3.118 describes the mosaic remains in Late

Classic I interior locales.

Table 3.118: Mosaic Remains in Late Classic i Interior Deposits

N % Context Treatment Shell Jade Other/Comment 1 100 Platform Thru-Floor 5 19 1 Specular Hematite 1 100 Platform Sub-Floor 1 1 100 Room Not Desc. 1 1 1 Specular Hematite; 4 Figurines 5 33.3 Room Thru-Floor 126' 4' 4 Specular Hematite; 1 Pyrite; 1 Figurine; Stucco 1 100 Door (PD) Thru-Floor 6 4 1 50 Room (PD) Not Desc. 20 25 5 Specular Hematite 255

3 25 Room (PD) Thru-Floor 3 3 1 shell and jade mosaic head; 22 undescribed mosaic elements 2 67 Stair (PD) Thru-Floor 3 4

1 100 Wall (PD) Thru-Floor 2 • 1. Some deposits are not specifically quantified. This is a minimal count

The most significant change in mosaic use from that observed in the Early

Classic is the lower numbers of elements recovered. Early Classic exterior deposits yielded an average of 15.5 shell mosaic elements and 25.6 jade mosaic elements, while interior deposits from the Late Classic I average only 10.3 shell and 3.9 jade mosaic elements. These decreases probably relate to the Caracol event, and possibly a loss of access to trade routes.

Discussion

During the Late Classic (1), interior placements seem to take over the role previously reserved for exterior placements - that of being the most common locus for caching, and also for containing the most materials. This is intriguing not just because of marking a break with the Eariy Classic pattern, but also because of the timing of the onset of this phenomenon within Tikal's political history.

As noted above, the 6th century AD is a time of political tennoil in Tikal, with several changes in rule over a very short period of time. Whether these changes were within a single dynastic line or represented dueling political factions is unclear at this time. But in either case, the consequence was the weakening of Tikal's position within the lowlands, which resulted in Tikal's defeat at the hands of Caracol in AD 562. This in 256 turn brought about the sacrifice of Tikai's ruler at the time (Double Bird), and plunged the center into a period of decline, with no historic monuments recorded for over 100 years.

It has been suggested that the elite of Tikal lost the prerogative of erecting stelae and other historical monuments during this period, and that some existing monuments were even deliberately defaced or destroyed. I believe that the events of this conquest resulted in further loss of privilege for the elites - specifically that of the public performance of cermonies resulting in elaborate caches. The small size of the rooms in the structures of the North Acropolis would necessarily preclude large numbers of people from entering them to witness ceremonies and cache settings. Yet this is where the majority of the caches are placed, indicating that this would have been done before much smaller audiences than would be present at an exterior ritual.

The lack of privilege experienced by the elite is probably also responsible for some of the changes in cache content seen during this period, especially the loss of jade objects and eccentric lithics. The increase in use of certain materials - such as marine objects — is more difficult to explain and would seem to be the result of an improved system of long distance trade. Whether the observed changes in cache content were brought about by the choice of the Tikalenos or were forced upon them by outside rule is unknown.

One must question why, if the Tikal elite lost the privilege of making large public cache displays, are caches found in such quantity during the Ik phase? I suspect that many of the caches dating to this period relate not to display but to rituals designed to bring about a desired end, such as a vision or communication with the gods. Further, I suspect that these rituals were often conducted under private, if not secret, circumstances. This would explain why the majority of the Ik caches were placed in 257 interior locales, as well as the increased use of toxic objects, such as real stingray spines and porcupine fish remains.

Exterior Deposits

Exterior deposits are far less common during the Late Classic (Ik) than they were during the Eariy Classic. Probably as a result of this, exterior deposits are found in only a handful of different locations. Cache locations are presented in Table 3.119 (Figure

3.29), while problematical deposit locations are detailed in Table 3.120.

Table 3.119: Late Classic (lie) Exterior Caches

N % Type Context Treatment Comment 1 7.1 Cache Stair Sub-Floor Centered 1 7.1 Cache Stairtop Thru-Floor Centered Resealed 1 7.1 Cache Stairbase Thru-Floor Centered Resealed 1 7.1 Cache Terrace Thru-Floor Centered 3 21.4 Cache Stela Not Desc. 5 35.7 Cache Stela Sub-Stela 1 7.1 Cache Mixed Surface 1 7.1 Cache Mixed Not Desc.

Several factors indicate a break in behavioral continuity during the Ljite Classic I.

First, Neariy 60% of exterior caches are in assodation with stelae, while other locations are used only haphazardly. Second, it is notable that the majority of exterior deposits are located along centeriines, a fairiy unusual condition for the Ik phase. In fact, exterior deposits comprise 76.4% of all centered deposits during this period. Finally, during the 258

Figure 3.29: Late Classic i Exterior Cache Contexts

70

60

(0 50

<»- 40 o c 0) 30

a M o 0) C a. 7.1 7.1 7.1 10 Z71 0 IZ f IZ stair Stair-Top Stair-Base errace Stela Mixed

Sub-Floor • Thru-Floor • Not Desc. ^ Surfiace

Table 3.120: Late Classic (Ik) Exterior Problematical Deposits

N % Type Context Treatment Comment 1 33.3 PD Stair Sub-Floor Centered Burnt 1 33.3 PD Stair Thru-Floor Centered Resealed 1 33.3 PD Mixed Not Desc. Centered

Early Classic, 39.1% of ail exterior deposits were located in places high on structures

(Platforms, Stairs, Stairtops, or Ten^ces), where rituals could be seen by large audiences (A.T. Smith 1994). During the Late Classic I, this frequency decreases to

29.4%, supporting the idea that there were fewer public rituals resulting in caches at this time. In fact, only 3 Stair deposits are present (5.5% of all deposits), while both Stairbase 259 and Stairtop contexts are represented by only single deposits (a combined 3.6% of all deposits).

Treatment

Through-floor treatment is by far the most common type used during the Late

Classic I, and 37 deposits (17 caches) received such treatment (68.5% of all deposits).

In contrast, there are only 4 sub-floor deposits (1.3%). This pattem may indicate that the majority of ceremonies resulting in deposits were not related to the dedication of construction (following Coe 1959). This is rather surprising, as construction does not seem to have declined as a result of the hiatus (Jones 1991). The majority of through- floor caches are resealed (81.1%), indicating that these areas continue to be used following the completion of the cache ceremony.

Patterning by Context Type

Stair Deposits

Three Late Classic 1 exterior Stair deposits (1 cache, 2 PD) are present in the

North Acropolis sample. These all contain rare objects, but share few other similarities.

Cache 201 and PD 235 are both from Structure 50-33-1 st, but share no content, other than rare objects. This suggests that these deposits had very different purposes. The other PD (PD 22) from Structure 5D-26-1st, held a very wide variety of materials, suggesting little behavioral similarity with the other stair deposits.

In comparing interior and exterior deposits, one finds a considerable degree of overiap, with most items found in both contexts, although the reasons for the overiap are 260 unclear. Interestingly, the only object classes found exclusively in any one placement are all from exterior locations {Spondylus shells, human and faunal remains, whole ceramic vessels).

Stairtop Deposits

Only a single Stairtop cache is present during the Late Classic I period. Its content shows some overiap with the Eady Classic Stairtop deposits, although the total sample size is very small. It does, however, demonstrate that the Stairtop locality was not a prime choice for the placement of offerings. Whether this indicates that this context was not widely used for ritual behaviour (contrary to what A.T. Smith 1994 suggests) is unclear, as it cannot be assumed that all rituals lead to cache deposition.

Stairbase Deposits

The single Late Classic I Stairisase cache was located in Structure 5D-33-2nd,

and held only jade, Spondylus remains, and ceramics. While these are all common

components of Eariy Classic Stairbase caches, the single sample offers no means for

comparison within the period.

Terrace Deposits

Only a single Terrace deposit (Cache 71 of Structure 5D-33-1st) is present during

the Ik phase, making internal comparison impossible. This contains eleven different

types of material objects, making it different in general appearance than those of the

Eariy Classic. 261

Stela Deposits

Eight Stela caches date to the Late Classic I, and these show a similar content pattern to their Early Classic counterparts. Eccentrics are very common (chert in 87.5%, obsidian in 62.5%), as is non-eccentric obsidian (75%). Surprisingly, hon-eccentric chert is absent. Shell and human remains are also common (37.5% each), while jade, non- shell marine objects, Spondylus, ceramics, and mosaics are found in low frequency, and stingray spines continue to be absent.

Mixed-Context Deposits

Three Late Classic 1 deposits (1 PD) are from Mixed contexts. Like those from the Eariy Classic, these do show a degree of patterning (although less impressive).

Sixty-seven percent contain obsidian eccentrics, chert eccentrics, non-eccentric obsidian, shell, and potsherds, while stingray spines, pigments, and unusual objects are absent. The patterning observed shows little consistency with that observed for the preceding period.

Centerline Deposits

As noted, centerilne deposits become unusual following the Eariy Classic. Two interior centeriine problematical deposits are present during the Late Classic (Ik); both contain non-eccentric obsidian, stingray spines, terrestrial fauna, and unusual objects.

However, the sample size is too small to suggest this as strong evidence for patterning.

Seven exterior deposits (3 PD), show some patterning, although again the sample is too small for reliability. Exterior caches contain jade and unusual objects in high frequency 262

(75%), and lack potsherds, human remains, or terrestrial fauna. Problematical deposits show an even stronger pattem, with all deposits containing non-eccentric chert, and potsherds. Only whole ceramics and pigments are absent.

The low number of centeriine deposits from the Late Classic I suggests that this orientation was of little importance at this time. The presence of some patterning may indicate that when centeriine deposits were interred there was at least a degree of prescribed ritual in association.

Re-Opened Deposits

During the Late Classic (Ik), only three deposits (1 problematical) show signs of re-opening. All contain non-shell marine items and shell, and lack non-eccentric chert,

Spondylus, human remains and pigments. The presence of non-shell marine items and absence of Spondylus is consistent with the Late Classic (Ik) in general, and suggests no systematic removal of items from these deposits.

Burnt Deposits

Four Late Classic (Ik) deposits were burnt, 3 interior (1 problematical deposit), and 1 exterior. All of the interior deposits contained jade, stingray spines, shell, and mosaic elements, suggesting some sort of pattem of intentional buming of deposits with certain object classes. It is possible that this buming was practiced with the intention of sacrificing (sensu Walker 1995) objects of a particular material type. 263

Artifect Analysis

Lithic Artifocts

Obsidian

Obsidian continues to t)e an important source material for the production of

ceremonial artifacts, and obsidian objects are found in 65.5% (36 deposits) of ail Late

Classic (Ik) deposits, including 70.6% of exterior deposits. The distribution of obsidian in

different locations is presented in Table 3.121 (Figure 3.30), while Table 3.122 shows the

distribution of different artifact forms.

Table 3.121: Obsidian in Late Classic (Ik) Exterior Deposits

N % Total Type Context Treatment Comment Deposits 1 7.1 Cache Stairtop Thru-Floor Centered Resealed 1 7.1 Cache Terrace Thru-Floor Centered 2 14.3 Cache Stela Not Desc. 4 28.6 Cache Stela Sub-Stela 1 7.1 Cache Mixed Not Desc. 1 7.1 Cache Mixed Surface 1 33.3 PD Stair Thru-Floor Centered Resealed 1 33.3 PD Mixed Not Desc.

As with interior deposits, Ik-phase exterior deposits contain obsidian in very low

frequencies, interestingly, eccentrics are found in all locations, and in virtually all

deposits (nine of eleven). Further, there is an almost identical number of eccentrics

found in exterior contexts (84) as were present in interior deposits (85), although this may

be a result of sampling. Incised fonms, in contrast, are found in only half the number of 264

Figure 3.30: Late Classic I Exterior Obsidian-Bearing Contexts

60

Mixed Stair Stairtop Stela Terrace

• Sulj-Floor • Thru-Floor • Not Desc. ^ Surface

exterior deposits (6), and in very low quantity. This suggests that incised forms were more important in restricted rituals than in those accessible to the public. Also intriguing is the fact that flake blades are known from only two deposits, but in a much higher frequency than the total number reported from interior contexts.

Obsidian eccentrics continue to play an important role in ritual during the Late

Classic (Ik), although there is a considerable decrease in the actual number of artifacts in comparison with the Eariy Classic. While the frequency of deposits containing eccentrics increases slightly (from 32.8% to 38.2%), the number of eccentrics declines by almost sixty percent. This lends support to the notion that obsidian supplies to Tikal had diminished at this time - at least for ceremonial use - espedally since 22.5% of that present was deposited below stelae, and thus prior to the Caracol event of AD 562.

During the Late Classic (Ik), incised obsidians (which were rare during the Eariy

Classic) begin to appear more frequently, and continue to be present on a steady basis Table 3.122: Obsidian Artifact Types in Exterior Late Classic (Ik) Deposits

Context Eccentric Incised Incised Mod. Unmod. Flake Core Other Deb Frag. Flake Flake Blade Stair-Top (Thai- 1(16) Floor) Terrace 1(1) 1(1) 1(2) 1(2) (Thru-Floor) Stela 2(20) 1(1) 1(4) (Not Desc.) Stela 3(18) 2(10) (Sub-Stela) Mixed 1(14) 1(1) 1(5) (Not Desc.) Mixed (Surface) 1(5) 1(4) 1(18) Stair (PD) 1 (10) 1(7) • 1 (279) 1(8) 1(1) (Thru-Floor) Mixed (PD) 1(5) (Not Desc.) Totals 10(84) 6(17) 1(5) 2(9) 1(4) 2 (297) 2(10) 1(1) 1(5) 266 until the Postciassic. This is one of the most dramatic changes in the ritual use of obsidian in the Tikal sequence, and may relate to the changing sociopolitical situation brought on by the hiatus. If Tikal had been subjected to a period of outside domination,

as seems to be the case, then it is possible that this new artifact type was introduced

along with outside ritual behaviours. Additionally, incised obsidians are only indsed

flakes, and would require considerably less raw material to produce than would

eccentrics, suggesting that incised forms were introduced to the Tikal ritual repertoire as

a means of dealing with difficulties in obtaining raw material.

Obsidian flake-blades are reported from 27% of all Late Classic (Ik) deposits,

compared with 34% during the Eariy Classic. However, the number of flake blades

decreases by 94.5% of the Eariy Classic total. As the function of flake blades is

unknown, the significance of this change is unclear. However, it is obvious that whatever

flake blades were used for during the Eariy Classic is only being practiced on a very

small scale in the Late Classic (Ik).

Chert

Much like obsidian, chert artifacts seem to continue to be used in ritual during the

Late Classic I, while at the same time decreasing in frequency. Only 38.2% of Ik

deposits contain chert, a decrease from the 64.5% seen during the Eariy Classic.

Intriguingly, chert is found in almost as many exterior (10 caches, 3 problematical

deposits) as interior contexts, despite the fact that there are more than twice the number

of interior deposits at this time. As cheri; was an unusual find in interior deposits during

the Eariy Classic, this may represent a behavioral change. Table 3.123 shows the

distribution of chert-bearing exterior locations (see Figure 3.31), while table 3.124 shows 267 the distribution of chert artifact types.

Table 3.123: Late Classic (Ik) Chert-Bearing Exterior Cache Locations

N % Total Type Context Treatment Comment Deposits 1 7.1 Cache Terrace Thru-Floor Centered 3 21.4 Cache Stela Not Desc. 4 28.6 Cache Stela Sub-Stela 1 7.1 Cache Mixed Not Desc. 1 7.1 Cache Mixed Sur^ce 1 33 PD Stair Thru-Floor Centered Resealed 1 33 PD Stair Sub-Floor Centered Burned 1 33 PD Mixed Not Desc. Centered

gure 3.31: Late Classic I Exterior Chert-Bearing Contexts

Mixed

• Sub-Floor • Thru-Floor • Not Desc. ^ Surface 268

Table 3.124: Chert Artifact Types in Late Classic (Ik) Exterior Caches

Location Eccentric Modified Flake Other Debitage Flake Terrace (Cache) 1 (24) 1(3)' 1(1) (Thru-Floor) Stela (Cache) 3(21) (Not Described) Stela (Cache) 4(30) (Sufc)-Stela) Mixed (Cache) 1(1) (Not Described) Mixed (Cache) 1(8) 1(1) (Surface) Stair (PD) 1(2) 1(4) (Thnj-FIoor) Stair (PD) 1 (100) (Sub-Floor) Mixed (PD) 1(14) (Not Described) Totals 11 (86) 1(4) 3(115) 1(3) 1(1) 1. 3 Spherically worked "flints."

The number of exterior deposits containing eccentrics decreases by 54% (while ail exterior deposits decrease by 73%). However, exterior deposits contain few non- eccentric chert artifacts, suggesting that exterior ceremonies have been modified considerably since the Eariy Classic. The number of eccentrics decreases by neariy 90 percent, and there are no deposits with an enormous collection of eccentrics. This suggests that complex chert artifacts (such as eccentrics) remain important during this period, while other artifact forms do not, perhaps indicating that certain categories of ceremony have been removed from the repertoire. 269

Jade

Jade is a rare commodity in post-Early Classic deposits at Tikai, and like many others, this change appears abruptly at about the time of the hiatus. The reasons for this are not clear at this time, although the con-elation between jade decline and the hiatus may suggest that jade was primarily a tribute item, and that Tikai lost its tribute sources - and with them, access to exotic goods - following the conquest by Caracol.

The number of exterior deposits containing jade decreases by more than 80% from the preceding period. Even more intriguing is the fact that only one context - Stela

- has multiple deposits containing jade. Table 3.125 shows the locations of jade-bearing exterior deposits, while Table 3.126 shows the frequency of jade artifact types.

Table 3.125: Jade in Late Classic (Ik) Exterior Deposits

N % Total Type Context Treatment Comment Deposits 1 7.1 Cache Stairtop Thru-Floor Centered Resealed 1 7.1 Cache Stairbase Thru-Floor Centered Resealed 1 7.1 Cache Terrace Thru-Floor Centered 1 7.1 Cache Stela Not Desc. 1 7.1 Cache Stela Sub-Stela 1 7.1 Cache Mixed Not Desc. 1 33.3 PD Stair Thru-Floor Centered Resealed 270

Table 3.126: Jade Artifact Types in Late Classic (Ik) Exterior Deposits

Location Bead Mosaic Fragment Other Assoc. Assoc. Element Mosaic Pigment Stairtop (Cache) 1(38) 1(4) 1 . 1 Stairibase (Cache) 1(7) 1 1 Ten^ce (Cache) 1(4)^ Stela (Not Desc.) 1(1) Stela (Sub-Stela) 1(1)' Mixed (Cache) 1 (1) 1(8) 1 (19)' Stair (PD) 1(10) Totals 1(1) 4(57) 2(11) 2(5) 2 2 1. 4 Silhouetted and incised objects of jade (some from shattered beads). 2. 1 unworked bit. 3. 19 Jade bits.

Exterior placements suffer greatly from the decline of jade frequency in Ik deposits; not only does the frequency of deposits drop off dramatically, but the number of objects and artifact types does the same. Complex objects, such as figurines, are virtually laclang, and only a single bead shows any continuity with the preceding period.

Of some interest is the presence of a handfiji of incised jade objects from this period.

Their appearance con-esponds somewhat with the appearance of incised obsidian items, although it cannot be detemiined at present whether these share any design similarities.

Even very small jade objects, such as fragments and mosaic elements are rare finds at this time.

The extremely low numbers of larger jade artifacts, such as beads and figurines - in both interior and exterior deposits - coupled with the continued presence of small pieces strongly suggests that access to jade sources on a major scale ended with the 271

Early Classic. Jade apparently continued to play an important role in ceremony, but could not be obtained in larger pieces in great quantity. Alternatively, it is possible that changes in ceremonial pattern reduced the need for large jade objects and concentrated on smaller items. However, there is less evidence to support such a practice.

Minerals and Pigments

Minerals are extremely uncommon in Late Classic i exterior deposits, with the only example being some powdered cinnabar from Cache 71, a through-floor Ten'ace deposit located along a centerline.

Marine Objects

Stingray Spines

As mentioned above, stingray spines are a very unusual find in exterior contexts

during the Late Classic (Ik). Table 3.127 shows the distribution of exterior contexts

containing stingray spines, while Table 3.128 describes the spines themselves. A

detailed discussion of the changes in stingray spine usage is presented above.

Table 3.127: Late Classic (Ik) Stingray Spine Exterior Depositlonal Locations

N % Total Deposits Type Context Treatment Comment 1 7.1 Cache Terrace Thru-Floor Centered 1 33.3 PD Stair Thru-Floor Centered Resealed

The small sample of stingray spines and related materials in Late Classic I

exterior contexts allows for little understanding of patterns. It appears that imitation Table 3.128 Stingray Spines in Late Ciassic (lie) Exterior Deposits

Context Wl^ole Imitation Imit. Frag. Carved Pigment Hematite Other Ten'ace (Cache) 1 (20)' 1 (20)' 1 (22)=^ Stair (PD) 1(1) 1. 20 specimens total; number of worked specimens unquantified. 2. 22 scutes of a large ray (Dasyatis sayi or Bluntnose Stingray) 273 spines were of little importance in such locations, given the presence of only a single specimen. The stingray remains from the cache, on the other hand, may indicate the intennnent of one or more complete animals. However, this is difficult to support, given the lack of detailed description, and the mention of "scutes," which are not part of the anatomy of a stingray.

Spondylus sp. Shells

In Late Classic I caches, the frequency of Spondylus sp. shells drops off considerably from the Early Classic pattem. This is true of all artifact classes, but is especially apparent in more elaborate forms, such as ear ornaments and figurines.

In keeping with the overall trend of the Late Classic 1, exterior deposits containing

Spondylus sp. remains are uncommon; in fact, only 4 are reported from the North

Acropolis. Table 3.129 shows their distribution, while Table 3.130 details their contents.

Table 3.129: Spondylus sp. in Late Classic (Ik) Exterior Deposits

N % Total Deposits Type Context Treatment Comment 1 7.1 Cache Stairbase Thru-Floor Centered Resealed 1 7.1 Cache Stela Sub-Stela 1 7.1 Cache Mixed Not Desc. 1 33.3 PD Stair Thru-Floor Centered Reseated

Exterior deposits contain very few Spondylus artifacts, and those present show a pattem very different from that seen in contemporary interior locales. Rather, the pattem present for exterior deposits is more in keeping with that seen for Eariy Classic interior Table 3.130: Spondylus sp. Remains in Exterior Deposits

Context Spondylus Paired Spine Min. Chips Bead Mosaic Pend. Ear Fig. Perf. Worked Flare Stairbase 1(2) Stela 1(4) Mixed 1(1) Stair (PD) 1(3) 1 (20)' 1 (20)' Totals 0 0 0 0 1(2) 3(8) 0 1(20) 0 0 1(20) 1. 20 specimens are d escribed as polls ied, perforated, and burnt, representing 7 valves. 275 deposits, an interesting change. The only artifact forms clearly present are chips, beads, and possibly pendants, and none are found in any quantity. The presence of primarily worked specimens suggests that Spondylus sp. remains played a very different role In exterior than interior caching events.

Other Shell Species

The inventory of non-Spondyfus sp. shells in Late Classic I exterior deposits is considerably smaller than that reported from interior locales. These are listed in Table

3.131.

Table 3.131: Other Shellfish Species in Late Classic I Exterior Deposits

Species Cache PD Total Anadara transversa 1(3) 1 (3) Area imbricata 2(3) 2(3) Area zebra 4(6) 1(2) 5(8) Area sp. 1(1) 1(1) Balanus sp. 2(9) 2(9) Brachidontes sp. 2(4) 2(4) Bulla sp. 1(1) 1(1) Busycon perversum 1(1) 1(1) Cardita floridana 1(1) 1(1) Chama echinata 1(2)^ 1(2) Crepidula aculeata 1(2) 1(2) Crepidula sp. 1(1) 1(1) Dinocardium robustum 3(12) 1(1) 4(13) Glycymeris sp. 1(1) 1(1) 276

Marginella probably apicina 1(3)' 1(3) Mulina guadalupensis 1(2) 1(2) Noetia sp. 1(1) 1(1) Ostrea sp. 2(48) •2(48) Petricola (Rupellaria) sp. 2(3) 2(3) Pleuroploca gigantea 2(2) 2(2) Plicatula sp 1(1) 1(1) Tellina sp. 2(2) 2(2) Vermicularia spirata 1(1) 1(1) Vermetidae 2(2) 2(2) 1. Incised. 2. Perforated.

Anadara transversa

Three specimens oi A. transversa were recovered from a single through-floor

Terrace deposit, which had been located along a centerline.

Area imbricata. Area zebra, Area sp.

Specimens of Arcs are considerably less common in exterior than interior locales.

Intriguingly, the majority of exterior Area shells are from Stela contexts (100% of A. imbricata and 62.5% of A. zebra). This suggests not only that Area was employed in dedication ceremonies of some sort, but also that most of the shells of this genus were placed prior to the Caracol event of 562. The distribution of Area shells in Late Classic I exterior deposits is described in Table 3.132. 277

Table 3.132: Area Shells In Late Classic I Exterior Deposits

N Context Treatment Comment A. Imbricata A. zebra A. sp. 1 Stela Not Desc. 2 (Pair) 3 0 2 Stela Sub-Stela 1 2 0 1 Mixed Surface 0 1 0 1 Stair Thru-Floor Centered 0 2 1 (PD) Resealed

Balanus sp.

While barnacles are found in their highest abundance in Ik-period interior

deposits, they are found only in low numbers in exterior locales. This is in keeping with

the pattern seen in the Eariy Classic, where only 2 specimens were reported from

exterior caches. A single Stairtop cache contains 2 fragmentary specimens of Balanus

sp., while a Terrace cache held 7 whole specimens, 1 of which was attached to a

specimen of Pleuroploca. Both caches were given through-floor treatment and centered,

but only the Stairtop deposit was reseated.

Brachidontes sp.

Brachidontes are a rare inclusion in Late Classic I exterior caches, reported from

only two deposits, both containing 2 specimens. These are Cache 180, a resealed,

through-floor Stairtop deposit located along a centeriine, and Cache 71, also through-

floor and centered, and located in a Ten^ce context.

Bulla sp.

Cache 71, a centered, through-floor Terrace deposit, contained the only Late 278

Classic example of Bulla sp.

Busycon perversum

The single Late Classic specimen of B. perversum was recovered from Cache 59, a Mixed context surface deposit.

Cardita floridana

C. floridana is reported only once from a Late Classic deposit; Cache 71, a centered, through-floor Ten-ace cache.

Chama echinata

While Chama is a frequently encountered genus in Early Classic exterior deposits, in Late Classic I times, it is represented by only 2 specimens, both from Stair context PD 22, a resealed, through-floor deposit located along a centerline. One specimen is described as incised.

Crepiduia aculeata, Crepidula sp.

Like many shell genera found in Eariy Classic exterior and Late Classic I interior locales, Crepidula is pooriy represented in Late Classic 1 exterior deposits. Two specimens of C. aculeata and a single example Identified as Crepidula sp. were recovered from Terrace Cache 71. 279

Dinocardium robustum

D. robustum is one of only a handful of shell genera reported from more than two

Late Classic I exterior deposits, described In Table 3.133. These show little evidence of patterning.

Table 3.133: Dinocardium robustum in Late Classic i Exterior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment D. robustum Cache 59 Mixed Surface 1 Stela P13 Stela Not Described 3 Fragments Altar P9 Cache 11 Cache 71 Terrace Thru-Floor Centered 8 PD 22 Stair Thru-Floor Centered 1 Reseated

Glycymeris sp.

The only spedmen of Glycymeris sp. in a Late Classic I exterior cache derives from Cache 71, a centered, through-floor Ten-ace deposit.

Marginalia probably apicina

There are three specimens of Marginella apicina reported from Late Classic I exterior locales; all are perforated. These derive from a Stair context problematical deposit (PD 22). Perforated specimens of M. apicina were also reported from an exterior deposit during the Eariy Classic, although these were not from a stair context.

li/lulina guadalupensis

Cache 71, a Terrace deposit, contains the only examples of Mulina 280 guadalupensis from a Late Classic I exterior cache.

Noetia ponderosa

Noetia was recovered from nine different Eariy Classic exterior deposits, but is reported from only a single such deposit during Late Classic I times. This was Stairtop

Cache 180, a reseated, through-floor deposit located along a centeriine. The single specimen also had attached Vermetidae.

Ostrea sp.

Ostrea is a very common component of Late Classic I interior deposits, but a rare inclusion in their exterior counterparts. Indeed, Ostrea is reported from only two such deposits, although a total of 48 specimens are represented. Cache 180, a resealed, through-floor Stairtop deposit (centered), contained 2 whole valves and 3 fragments;

Cache 71, a Terrace deposit, contained 43 specimens, the largest number of Ostrea valves reported from any Tikal cache. One of these was attached to a specimen of

Pleuroploca.

Petricola (Rupellaria) sp.

Petricola is reported from only two Late Classic deposits at Tikal. Stairtop Cache

180 held 2 specimens, while a ttiird was recovered from Terrace cache 71. Both deposits were centered, and given through-floor treatment. Cache 180 was also centered. 281

Pleuroloca gigantea

Two specimens of P. gigantea were recovered from Late Classic i exterior deposits. Single spedmens are reported from Cache 235, a Mixed context deposit with undescribed treatment, and from Cache 71, a Terrace deposit.

Plicatula sp.

The only example of Plicatula sp. in a Late Classic I exterior deposit comes from

Cache 180, a centerline Stairtop deposit given through-floor treatment and resealed.

TelUna sp.

Tellina sp. was never a common cache inclusion at Tikal (although numerous specimens were recovered from two Early Classic deposits). Two Late Classic I exterior

caches - Caches 180 (Stairtop) and 71 (Terrace) each held a single specimen of this

shell.

Vermicularia spirata, Vermelidae

The spiral worm shell is a very uncommon inclusion in Late Classic I deposits in

general, and was reported from only three exterior locales, each containing only a single

specimen. Vermetidae Is reported from Caches 180 and 71 (Stairtop and Ten-ace, respectively), while a single spedmen of Vermicularia spirata was encountered In PD 22,

a Stair context deposit The Vermetidae specimen from Cache 180 was attached to a

specimen of Noetia. Worked Shell

Worked shell objects are not frequent inclusions in Late Classic I exterior deposits, reported from only five caches and a single problematical deposit (see Table

3.134).

Table 3.134: Worked Shell in Late Classic I Exterior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Worked Shell Cache 235 Mixed Not Desc. 1 Spondylus bead; shell mosaic elements (unquantified) Cache 159 Stairbase Thru-Floor Centered 2 Spondylus chips Resealed Cache 180 Stairtop Thru-Floor Centered Shell mosaic elements Resealed (unquantified) Stela 12 Stela Sub-Stela 4 Spondylus beads Altar P 14 Cache 16 PD22 Stair Thru-Floor Centered 3 unworked Spondylus Resealed beads; 7 mosaic elements; 20 polished, perforated, & burned Spondylus fragments (representing 7 valves); 1 incised Chama echinata fragment; 2 worked shell segments; 3 perforated Margineila apicina.

it is puzzling that the bulk of this Spartan worked shell assemblage would come from a single problematical deposit, and would appear that worked shell was of little importance In exterior locations during this ceramic phase. 283

Fish Remains

Fish remains are present in only a single Late Classic I exterior cache - a marked contrast to the pattern seen for interior deposits. Cache 71, a centeriine Terrace deposit given through-floor treatment, held 50 fish vertebrae, some of which were articulated.

Coe (1990) speculates that these represent 3 individuals. Also present were 20

Porcupine fish dennal spines, clumped together. Possible ritual uses of Porcupine fish have been discussed previously; however, it is worth mentioning that the presence of dermal spines and vertebrae in the same assemblage may indicate that whole (or reasonably whole) fish were being deposited. Identification of the vertebrae would be necessary to confirm this.

Coral, Bryozoa, and Gorgonians

Corals and coral-like materials are very infrequent inclusions in Late Classic I exterior deposits - a marked contrast to the pattern seen for interior deposits. Corals and Bryozoans are reported from only 2 deposits, while Gorgonians were found in only a single cache. Table 3.135 describes these remains.

Table 3.135: Corals, Bryozoa, and Gorgonians in Late Classic I Exterior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Coral Bryozoa Gorgonian Cache 235 Mixed Not Desc. 2 Cache 71 Terrace Thru-Floor Brain 3 1 Attachment (Unquant) PD22 Stair Thru-Floor Coralline Algae 284

Coquina

Coquina, the shell conglomerate, Is reported from only three Late Classic I exterior deposits. Stairtop Cache 180 contained 3 specimens, Tenrace Cache 71 held 5, and a single specimen came from a Stela context (Stela PI 3, Altar P9, Cache 11). The two non-stela caches were both centered and given through-floor treatment.

Other Marine Items

There are few other types of marine materials reported from exterior deposits from this period. Cache 71 (Terrace) held a single sand dollar and some dark brown rotted material that may be of marine origin; Cache 235 (Mixed context) also contained some fibrous material, possibly marine, described only as clumped.

Terrestrial Fauna

Terrestrial vertebrate fauna is rarely reported from Late Classic I exterior deposits, and those reported are primarily reptilian. Table 3.136 details the faunal remains from these deposits.

Table 3.136: Terrestrial Fauna from Late Classic I Exterior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Faunal Remains Cache 235 Mixed Not Desc. 80 vertebrae of Bothrops atrox asper (Fer-de-Lance) 285

PD22 Stair Thnj-Floor Centered 30 pieces of turtle carapace Resealed (Rhinociemys areolata); a few crocodile scutes; unquantified cottontail, bat, rodent; 1 deer metapodial; 2 antler fragments; carnivore canines; 1 quail humerus [Colinus nigrogulanjs)

The low number of exterior deposits housing terrestrial fauna precludes any chance of identifying a pattem of their usage. These offerings do show a certain consistency with their Eariy Classic counterparts, particulariy in ther presence of reptilian remains. Crocodile, turtle, and snake remains are ail present, as they were during the

Eariy Classic; however, the remains are different. The crocodile is represented by only a few scutes (dermal plates), rather than a whole skeleton, and the turtle is a different species (Furrowed wood turtle). Only the presence of Fer-de-Lance shows any continuity with the Eariy Classic pattem.

Human Remains

Human skeletal material is reported from 29.4% of all Late Classic I exterior deposits. Intriguingly, 60% of these deposits are from Stela contexts, a pattem reminiscent of that seen in the Eariy Classic. Table 3.137 details these deposits.

The highly fragmentary nature of this material renders interpretation difficult. It is intriguing that in two of the three deposits with preliminary analysis, the individuals appear to be very young. Sub-adults and infants are also known from Eariy Classic exterior deposits, suggesting that individuals of this age range were used in offerings - possibly as sacrifices - particulariy in Stela contexts. The pattem of human remains 286

Table 3.137: Human Remains in Late Classic I Exterior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Human Remains Cache Mixed Not Desc. 521 small fragments of human 235 bone, 22 teeth; material represents a child of 18-24 months, periiaps deposited whole and contracted, its skull set to the northwest. St P13 Stela Not Desc. 43 pieces of human bone, AP9 including a cranial fragment with C 11 open ectocranial sutures, and a second with young-looking mastoid process, 7 pemnanent unwom human teeth. Considered remains of person aged 7-9 years. Thought to have been interred after defleshing. Stela 12 Stela Sub-Stela 30 probable human scraps, AP14 mostly long bones C 16 Stela 4 Stela Sub-Stela Small unidentified bone Altar 1 fragments, possibly human C25 PD22 Stair Thru-Floor Centered 1 individual (male): cranium, Resealed mandible, teeth, long bones, hands, and feet, alt shattered, burnt, and fragmentary. Teeth very wom, and Ml missing. 1 upper canine comer notched, possibly indicating filing for decoration (incisors too wom to tell). 1 larger, less wom molar suggests second individual. May represent an elaborate cremation burial. usage is very different than that seen in interior deposits at this same time, where phalanges comprise the bulk of the material. This would seem to indicate that interior 287 and exterior deposits served very different purposes, at least with regard to human remains. It should also be noted that the majority of these deposits must have been interred prior to the Caracol event of 562, and thus continuity with the Eariy Classic pattern is hardly surprising.

Ceramics

Ceramics are an unusual inclusion in Late Classic I deposits in general, and are particulariy rare in exterior locales (present in less than 30% of caches and problematical deposits). However, unlike their interior counterparts, ceramics from exterior deposits of this period are not always found in the form of potsherds. Table 3.138 describes the

Late Classic I exterior deposit ceramic assemblage.

Table 3.138: Ceramics from Late Classic I Exterior Deposits

N Context Treatment Comment Ceramics 1 Mixed Not Desc. 16 sherds, including post-Manik polychromes. 2 fit a jar with a charred interior base. 1 Stair Sub-Floor Centered 1 unnamed white cylinder, lidded, with red psuedo-glyphic band. Probably imported. 1 Stair (PD) Sub-Floor Centered 1 Chantouri Black-on-Orange cylinder, Bumed broken 1 Stairbase Thru-Floor Centered 1 unslipped, pooriy fired lidded vessel, Reseated of unknown type 1 Stela Sub-Stela 1 unknown type, oval vessel, broken; 2 bowls (undescribed)

The ceramic assemblage from these deposits seems sufficiently diverse to be described as haphazard. The only hint of patterning is that 60% of the deposits were 288 found in stair and stairbase contexts. However, their respective contents are entirely different from one another, suggesting little relationship. Ceramic usage in exterior deposits is completely different from that seen in the Eariy Classic, where red bowls and black cylinders were the nomri.

Censers

While censers were found with some frequency in Late Classic I interior deposits, this is not true of exterior deposits. The only example is PD 22, a Stair deposit that held unqualified, undescribed censer fragments.

Mosaic Elements

Like many material types common in Late Classic i interior deposits, mosaic elements are a rare find in exterior caches. Indeed, mosaic elements are only reported from 4 such locations, and there are no complete or fragmentary mosaic figurines. Table

3.139 details the mosaic remains recovered from exterior deposits.

Table 3.139: Mosaic Elements in Late Ciassic I Exterior Deposits

N Context Treatment Shell Jade Other/Comment 1 Mixed Not Desc. 4 4 8 total elements, distribution may differ 1 Stairtop Thru-Floor 1 1 38 elements total, including Specular Hematite, distribution not given. 1 Terrace Thru-Floor 2 Specular Hematite 1 Stair Thru-Floor 7 10 Jade described as probable mosaic elements 289

Discussion

The decline of exterior caches in the North Acropolis, combined with the fact that more than half of these (57%) come from Stela contexts, strongly suggests that there were few public rituals resulting in caches performed during the Ik period. Without exception, all the stelae associated with caches date prior to the Caracol event of AD

562, or are entirely uncarved. Thus it seems likeley that these all predate AD 562.

Little is known of the political history of Tikal during the Ik period due to the lack of carved monuments from the hiatus era. Hence, it is still unclear whether Caracol imposed a new ruler, or whether they simply sacked the city and left. However, the lack of historical records from this period combined with the movement of caching activity to interior locales suggests the former was a more likely scenario. Further support comes from Burial 195, dating to either AD 593 or 613. This houses the remains of Animal

Skull, named as the 22nd ruler of Tikal (following Double Bird). However, as Jones

(1991) notes. Animal Skull is not the son of Double Bird, and his father's name glyph is not recognized as that of any member of the Tikal elite. Thus, the possibility exists that

Animal Skull either came from Caracol or was put into power through the influence of this center.

Despite the turmoil of the time, construction in the North Acropolis did not cease with the Caracol event. Rather, Animal Skull seems to have been responsible for a number of remodeling episodes:

Structure 5D-32-1st covering the sealed burial [Burial 195] is contemporary with a new North Acropolis surface (Floor 2). new versions of the southern comer temples on top of the Acropolis (Structures 5D-25 and 27) and the first versions of the northern comer temples (Structures 5D-20 and 21) that complete the eight-temple layout marking the worid directions. The North Terrace was repaved and the front stairway rebuilt. The Great Plaza was paved once again and its eastem terraces entirely 290

rebuilt along with Floor 1 of the East Plaza (Jones 1991:116).

All of these construction projects are tied stratigraphicaliy to Burial 195, suggesting that

Animal Skull was the mler responsible for their construction.

The Ik period was also one of great population expansion in central Tikal

(although the peripheral areas declined somewhat, probably as a response to this).

Central Tikal appears to have acheived a population density of some 59,000 (95% of the peak population of 62,000 [Rice and Culbert 1990; Culbert et al. 1990]), an increase of more than 10,000 people over the Eariy Classic, while the peripheral area had declined to some 20,000 individuals. As the population had not yet reached its peak, it would appear that the Caracol event of 562 had little effect on the non-elite members of Tikal society.

Late Classic II (Imlx)

Although Ruler A appears to be a direct descendant from the hiatus rulers, his accession marics the time of Tikal's re-emergence firom outside domination, and the Late

Classic (Imix). This is an era of constmction of great temples -Temple I and Temple II -

- in the area immediately adjacent to the North Acropolis. A total of 26 caches were recovered from this period, along with 31 problematical deposits'.

The North Acropolis caches of this period suffer in comparison with those of

eariier time periods. While tiie familiar Eariy Classic materials - obsidian, chert, marine

6. In this study, Problematical Deposit 48 (from Stiucture 5D-34, Time Sequence 2 or 2A) is included witiiin tiie Late Classic (Imix) ceramic phase. Although tiiis deposit may actually date to the Terminal Classic, its placement is unclear at this time (see Coe 11990:495] for discussion). 291 materials, jade ~ all continue to be present, they are always found in lower frequencies.

Jade in particular declines, and there are very few examples of elaborate jade objects, such as mosaics and figurines, reported from Late Classic (Imix) caches. Similarly, obsidian eccentrics become quite rare, although chert is fairiy common. Incised

obsidians seem to take the place of obsidian eccentrics, suggesting a change in ritual behaviour that began during Ik times. Marine objects are much less common during the

Late Classic (Imix) than the Eariy Classic, with stingray spines falling off considerably.

However, it is worth noting that while stingray spines in general are rare during Imix

times, imitation spines are virtually absent.

Ail of this suggests that while Tikal is going through a period of resurgence

(reflected particulariy in architecture and stela erection), its elite do not seem to have the

same degree of access to exotic goods that was present during the Eariy Classic.

Possibly trading partners, tribute centers, and access routes which had previously been

controlled by Tikal have not been re-acquired following the hiatus and period of extemal

domination. It is also possible that new rituals requiring fewer exotic objects were being

perfonmed, or that rituals did not necessarily require the caching of objects upon

completion. However, it is recognized that the North Acropolis does not appear to have

been a major center for activity at Tikal during the Late Classic (Imix), and this may also

explain the decrease in both presence and quantity of exotic materials during this phase.

Interior Deposits

There are 12 interior caches and 23 interior problematical deposits dating to the

Imix period in the North Acropolis, and thus 60.3% of the Imix sample was given interior

placement. Table 3.140 details the locations of Late Classic (Imix) interior caches, while 292

Table 3.141 shows the locations of problematical deposits.

Table 3.140: Late Classic (Imix) Interior Deposits

N % Type Context Treatment Comment 7 20 Cache Room Thnj-Floor 2 Re-Opened 6 Resealed 3 8.6 Cache Lintel Not Desc. 2 Re-Opened 1 2.9 Cache Lintel Thru-Floor Resealed 1 2.9 Cache Bench Thru-Floor Centered Re-Opened Resealed

Table 3.141: Late Classic (Imix) Interior Problematical Deposits

N % Type Context Treatment Comment 3 8.6 PD Stair Thru-Floor Centered 2 Burnt Resealed 1 2.9 PD Stairbase Thru-Floor Centered 5.7 PD Room Sub-Floor 12 34.3 PD Room Thru-Floor 2 Centered 2 Burnt 3 Resealed 1 2.9 PD Wall Sub-Floor 1 2.9 PD Bench Thru-Floor Centered Re-Opened Resealed 1 2.9 PD Platform Surface 1 2.9 PD Platfoon Thru-Floor Centered Resealed 1 2.9 PD Rare Not Desc. Roofcomb

Not surprisingly, the majority of the Interior deposits come from Room contexts. 293

However, it is during the (mix period that depositional contexts such as lintels and benches are utilized, although it is unclear whether this pattern is a function of the published descriptions of these deposits allowing for more detailed contextual analysis, or a distinctive type of behaviour. The purpose of interring a cache in association with a lintel may be similar to the role of a stela-cache - an offering relating to some aspect of the carvings. The bench appears to have been set immediately following the interment

of the associated cache, possibly as a means of sanctifying the area prior to use (Eliade

1959; Freidel, Scheie, and Parker 1993).

Imix interior caches were frequently given through-floor treatment (75%), as were

problematical deposits (78.3%). While 88.9% of these caches are resealed, the same is

true of only 38.9% of problematical deposits. Thus, fewer than half of all interior deposits

(42.9%) were resealed, suggesting that they were interred in areas that were not to be

used further, possibly indicative of termination rituals.

Only 3 Imix interior problematical deposits were given sub-floor treatment,

suggesting that these were interred during some aspect of construction. The paucity of

such treatment at this time reflects the decreasing importance of the North Acropolis for

new construction and ritual, particulariy in the years following Ruler A (Jones 1991).

Imix interior deposits were situated along center lines only 25.7% of the time

(caches 11.1%, problematical deposits 34.8%), and 17.4% of interior problematical

deposits show signs of buming. Intriguingly, 41.7% of all interior caches show signs of

re-opening, although the purpose of such behaviour is unclear. Only a single interior PD

was re-opened. 294

Patterning by Context Type

Stair Deposits

During the Late Classic (Imix), three problematical deposits derive from interior

Stair contexts. The only consistent component of these deposits are potsherds, which may well have been incidental to their deposition. There is no substantial patterning.

Stairbase Deposits

The single Imix period interior Stairbase problematical deposit shows little similarity with exterior Stairbase deposits (see below). PD 190 contains non-eccentric chert, stingray spines, ten'estrial fauna, and potsherds; of these, only stingray spines are found in any quantity in exterior Stairbase deposits.

Room Deposits

Late Classic (Imix) Room caches show a pattern similar to that seen during the preceding period. As before, the emphasis is on marine objects and shell, although in lower frequencies (4 caches each). Rare or unusual objects are found in even greater abundance (5 caches), while stingray spines are less common. Interestingly, lithic items

(other than jade and non-eccentric obsidian) are virtually absent.

Room context problematical deposits from this time show a different pattern, somewhat similar to that of the preceding period. Ten'estrial fauna - which had been common but not ovenwhelming previously - becomes the most common component of problematical deposits, recovered from neariy 80%. This seems indicative of a behavioral change. Non-eccentric obsidian is reported from 64% of problematical 295 deposits - an increase of 6% over the preceding period. Rare or unusual objects also increase in frequency, from 47.4% to 57%, while stingray spines are found in identical frequency (43%), suggesting a degree of behavioral continuity. Most other object types are found only infrequently, with obsidian eccentrics and Spondylus shells absent entirely.

Lintel Deposits

As a subset of Room caches. Lintel caches show a surprisingly high degree of content patterning. Of four Late Classic (Imix) deposits, 3 contain stingray spines, shell, pigments, and unusual objects. Objects of marine origin and terrestrial fauna are also present, while all other object classes are lacking. This is a rare example of a locale with an apparently tightly prescribed offertory inventory.

Bench Deposits

There are two Late Classic (Imix) Bench deposits (1 problematical) at Tikal.

These have only a single material type in common - unusual items. This fact, combined with the very small sample size, make it seem unlikely that there was a prescribed pattern of behaviour associated with deposits interred in association with Benches.

Wall Deposits

A single Late Classic (Imix) problematical deposit was located in an interior Wall.

This deposit contains only potsherds, making it strikingly similar to an Eariy Classic PD containing potsherds and unusual objects. 296

Platform Deposits

Three problematical deposits were located in Platforms during the Late Classic

(Imix), with two of these from interior locations. The only visible pattem is a lack of content in two deposits (interior and exterior), suggesting little behavioral continuity or similarity.

Rare Context Deposits

The only Late Classic II interior deposit from a Rare context, PD 43, which

contains only rare or unusual objects. In this case, the contents are the shale backings

of two incomplete pyrite plaques.

Artifect Analysis

Lithic Artifacts

Obsidian

Obsidian is encountered in equal numbers of interior and exterior deposits (15)

during the Late Classic (Imix). Table 3.142 shows the distribution of interior locations

housing obsidian, while Table 3.143 shows the variety of artifact types encountered.

Table 3.142: Locations of Obsidian-Bearing Interior Late Classic Imix Deposits

N % Total Type Context Treatment Comment 2 16.7 Cache Room Thru-Floor 1 Resealed 2 8.7 PD Stair Thru-Floor Centered Burnt 1 Resealed 297

8 34.8 PD Room Thru-Floor 2 Centered 2 Burnt 2 Resealed 1 4.3 PD Room Sub-Floor 1 4.3 PD Bench Thru-Floor Centered Re-Opened Resealed 1 4.3 PD Platform Surface

As through-floor room deposits are the most commonly employed form of interior context at Tikal, it is unsurprising that these contain the greatest variety of obsidian artifact types. It is worth noting, however, that the obsidian artifact inventory for interior deposits is largely devoid of forms that would require a high degree of skill to manufacture, suggesting that interior rituals have shifted away from the display of impressive obsidian artifacts. Also intriguing is the fact that most forms are found in very small quantities, with only modified flakes encountered in large numbers. This may reflect a continuation of the shortage of obsidian for ceremonial purposes postulated for the Late Classic (Ik).

Chert

In interior locations, chert artifacts are reported only from problematical deposits; there are no chert-bearing interior caches during the Imix period. Table 3.144 shows the distribution of interior deposit locations, while table 3.145 shows the distribution of chert artifact types. Table 3.143: Obsidian Artifact forms in Interior Late Classic (Imix) Deposits

Context Eccent. Ecc. Incised Incised Mod. Unmod. Flake Lancet Core Other Frag. Frag. Flake Flake Blade Room 1 (18) 1 (10) 2(7) (Tlim-Floor) Stair (PD) 1(34) 1(1) 2(40) 1(3) (Thru-Floor) Room (PD) 1(2) 2(17) 1(14) 1(6) 3(4) 2(2) (Thru-Floor) Room (PD) 1(9) 1(2) 1(3) (Sub-Floor) Bench (PD) 1(1) 1(7) 1(12) 1(1) (Thru-Floor) Platfonn 1 (107) 1(3*) (PD) (Surface) 2 Fragmentary Points; Obsidian Disk. 299

Table 3.144: Late Classic (Imix) Chert-Bearing Interior Problematical Deposits

N % Total Type Context Treatment Comment 2 8.7 PD Stair Thnj-Floor Centered Burned 1 Resealed 1 4.3 PD Stairbase Thnj-Floor Centered 6 26 PD Room Thru-Floor 2 Centered 2 Burnt 2 Resealed 1 4.3 PD Room Sub-Floor 1 4.3 PD Bench Thru-Floor Centered Re-Opened Resealed 1 4.3 PD Platfomi Surface

Table 3.145: Chert Artifact Types in Late Classic (II) Interior Problematical Deposits

Location Ecc. Eccentric Modified Flake Flake Debitage Fragment Flake Blade Stair 2(14) Stairbase 1(1) Room (Thnj) 2(19) 1(1) 2(2) 2(8) 1(1) 1(1) Room (Sub) 1(3) Bench 1(3) Platform 1 (123) Totals 2(19) 1(1) 4 (128) 5(25) 2(2) 1(1)

While chert is found in 34.3% of all Late Classic (Imix) interior deposits, it is never found in large quantities, and only modified flakes are represented by anything resembling a large assemblage. This would seem to suggest that chert no longer plays 300 a major role in ritual at this time, marking a behavioral change from the preceding Ik period. The frequency of chert-bearing interior deposits has declined by 10%, and the number of eccentrics by neariy 78%.

Jade

The decline in jade use for ceremonial contexts begun during Ik times continues

during the Imix. Indeed, only 13 deposits contain jade (22.4%), neariy half the Late

Classic I frequency. The majority of jade-bearing deposits (10 deposits, 76.9%) are from

interior locales, although only 30% of these are actually caches. Table 3.146 shows the

locations of jade-bearing deposits, while Table 3.147 shows the frequencies of each

artifact type.

Table 3.146: Locations of Late Classic (imix) Jade-Bearing Interior Deposits

N % Total Type Context Treatment Comment 3 25 Cache Room Thru-Floor 1 Re-Opened 1 Resealed 1 4.3 PD Stair Thru-Floor Centered Bumt 4 17.4 PD Room Thru-Floor Resealed 1 4.3 PD Bench Thru-Floor Centered Re-Opened Resealed 1 4.3 PD Platfomfi Surface

Table 3.147: Jade Artifacts in Late Classic (Imix) Interior Deposits

Location Bead Mosaic Fragment Assoc. Assoc. Element Mosaic Pigment Room (Cache) 1(1) 1(3) 2(21) 1 1 301

Stair (PD) 1(1) Room (PD) 1(1) 1(5) 3(60) Bench (PD) 1(22) 1(21)

Platform (PD) 1 (2) 1(1) 1(4) • Totals 3(4) 4(31) 8 (107) 1 1

Continuing the trend observed during )k times, there are very few examples of elaborate jade artifacts - indeed, beads are the most complex form encountered. Beads are found in almost the same frequency as the preceding period, while mosaic elements decrease by 87%, and fragments decrease by 85.6%. These decreases suggest either that jade sources lost during the hiatus were never renewed, or that this material was no longer employed in rituals involving the North Acropolis.

Minerals and Pigments

Cinnabar is reported from 41.7% of all Late Classic II interior caches, and is an especially frequent inclusion in Lintel caches (75%). Both Malachite and Azurite are also reported from this period, but in much lower frequencies. Malachite is reported from only a single problematical deposit, while azurite is found in a cache and a PD. Table 3.148 details the distribution of minerals from these deposits.

Table 3.148: Minerals and Pigments in Late Classic II Interior Deposits

N Context & Comment Cinnabar Malachite Azurite Treatment 1 Bench (PD, TF) Centered Powder' Powder Re-opend Resealed 302

3 Lintel (ND) 2 Re-opened Lumps; undescribed over seeds, stingray spines, marine fiber

2 Room (TF) 1 Resealed 9 Lumps; powder Powder on on organics; orgainics coating on obsidian eccentrics 1. Other material (Red Cuprite) also present. Only reported instance of such material in a Tikal deposit.

Marine Materials

Stingray Spines

Stingray spines are considerably less common during Imix times then they were during the preceding period, with the combined real/imitation frequency decreasing by

57.3% (from 393 to 168). Table 3.149 shows the distribution of spine-bearing cache locations, while table 3.150 shows the types of material present.

Table 3.149: Late Classic (Inriix) Stingray Spine-Bearing Caches

N % Total Type Context Treatment Comment 3 25 Cache Room Thru-Floor 1 Re-Opened 2 Resealed 3 25 Cache Lintel Not Desc. 2 Re-Opened 1 4.3 PD Stairbase Thnj-Floor Centered 6 26.1 PD Room Thru-Floor 1 Resealed 1 4.3 PD Bench Thnj-Floor Centered Re-Opened Resealed 1 4.3 PD Platform Surface 303

Table 3.150: Stingray Material Present In Late Classic II Interior Deposits

Context Whole Fragment Imitation Imit Frag. Carved Bench (PD) 0 17 0 0 1 Lintel 12 39 0 0 9 Platform (PD) 0 2 0 0 0 Room 10 3 0 0 1 Room (PD) 0 13 4 0 4 Stairbase (PD) 1 0 0 0 0

Beyond the decrease in stingray spine frequency, the most dramatic change seen during (mix times is the frequency of imitation spines. Only 2 deposits (both room problematical deposits) contain imitation spines, and only 4 spines are present, a 96.2% decrease from Ik times. Thus, the pattern of decreased reliance on imitation spines begun during the Late Classic I has continued with dramatic effect. Apparently the coastal access enjoyed during the period of Caracol domination was not lost entirely after the overthrow.

The practice of sacrificing spines (sensu Walker 1995) has also continued, as nearly twice as many deposits (11) contain fragments as contain complete specimens

(6). However, the ratio of whole-to-fragmentary specimens has changed from the preceding period, to 1:17.1 (from 1:7.2). Thus, while the sacrifice of spines continues to be important, its importance seems to have diminished.

Also notable is the decrease in the number of can/ed spines, with only 13 stemming from 6 deposits, and only a single deposit contains more than 1 specimen (a lintel cache, containing 9). This may represent the vestigial use of a ritual set, similar to that seen during Ik times. 304

Other stingray parts are reported in caches from this period, including the aforementioned scutes, tubercles, denticles, and material thought to be pieces of skin.

Tubercles are small projections around the shoulders and down the dorsal midline of a ray; whether these are present in the hard tissue of the animal is unclear. Denticles are tooth-like stnjctures on the skin, known from some species of shari

Spondylus sp. Shells

Spondylus sp., a frequent cache inclusion during the Eariy Classic, is almost completely absent during the Late Classic II, reported from only 5 deposits (2 caches).

This marks a continuation of the decline begun during Late Classic (Ik) times.

Table 3.151 shows the distribution of deposits containing Spondylus sp. remains, while

Table 3.152 details the forms present

Table 3.151: Late Classic (Imix) Deposits containing Spondylus sp. Remains

N % Total Type Placement Context Treatment Comment 1 8.3 Cache Interior Room Thru-Floor 1 4.3 PD Interior Stair Thru-Floor Centered Bumed 1 4.3 PD Interior Bench Thru-Floor Centered Re-Opened Reseated 1 4.3 PD Interior Platform Surface Table 3.152: Spondylus sp. Remains in Late Classic (Imix) Interior Deposits

Context Spondylus Paired Spine Min. Chips Bead Mosaic Pend. Ear Fig. Pert. Worl

There is a minimal amount of patterning present in Imix-period Spondylus sp. remains. A wide variety of forms are present, although always In small quantities. The biggest change from Ik times is the virtual disappearance of minimally worked specimens, which may be an indication that beach specimens are now being used. With the exception of beads, most artifact forms are employed in only one or two contexts, possibly indicating that particular forms were important to particular caching activities.

However, as none of these contexts was used more than once, it is impossible to suggest whether this is an actual pattern.

Other Shellfish Species

Marine shells decline somewhat in frequency in interior deposits by Imix times, reported in only 15 caches and 8 problematical deposits (65.7% of all interior deposits).

Although four new species appear in these deposits {Fissurella tardadensis, Musculus

lateralis, Periploma sp., and Tectarius muricatus), the number of species reported

declines by 37.5% in comparison with Ik period interior deposits. Table 3.153 lists those

reported from deposits of this age.

Table 3.153: Other Shellfish Species in Late Classic II Interior Deposits

Species Cache PD Total Anadara (Lunarca) ovalls 1(1) 1(1) Anadara (Lunarca) transversa 2(4) 2(4) Anomafocardia sp. 1(1) 1(1) Area zebra 2(3) 1(1) 3(4) Area imbricata 1(1) 1(1) Area sp. 1(1) 1(1) 307

Balanus sp. 2(26) 2(2) 4(28) Brachidontes sp. 1 (6) 1 (6) Chama sp. 1 (3) 1(3) Chione cancellata 1(1) 1 (1) 2(2) Crepidula aculeata 1(2) 1 (2) Dinocardium robustum U2y 1(1)' 2(3) Diodora listen 1(1) 1 (1) Fissurella tardadensis 1 (1) 1(1) Glycymen's sp. 1(1) 1(1) Mulina lateralis 2(3) 1(1) 3(4) Musculus lateralis 1 (6) 1 (6) Noetia ponderosa 3(5) 1(1) 4(6) Ostrea sp. 4(23) 2(24) 6(47) Pen'ploma sp. 1(1) 1 (1) Plicatula sp. 1(1) 1(1) Reria probably colymbos 1(1) 1 (1) Tectarius muricatus 1(1) 1 (1) Trachycardium sp. 1(1) 1 (1) Vermetidae 1(1) 1 (1) 1. Paired, perforated.

2. Fragment

Anadara (Lunarca) ovalis, Anadara (Lunarca) transversa

A. ovalis is represented in Late Classic II interior deposits by a single specimen recovered from a Lintel deposit with undescribed treatment. Two problematical deposits yielded 4 specimens of A. transversa. Three came from PD 141, a centered, re-opened, 308 and resealed through-floor Bench context deposit; the other specimen was recovered from a Platform surface deposit. This represents a 63.6% decline in A. transversa and a

50% drop in A. ovalis from the numbers found in Late Classic I interior deposits.

Anomalocardia sp.

The only Late Classic II specimen of Anomalocardia sp. was recovered from a re­ opened Lintel cache with undescribed treatment. Anomalocardia was never found in any great frequency in Tikal deposits.

Area imbricata, Area zebra, Area sp.

While never especially common, specimens of Area were recovered with some frequency from Early Classic and Late Classic I deposits. By Imix times, only 7 Area shells are present in only 4 interior deposits. Table 3.154 describes these.

Table 3.154: Area Shells in Late Classic II Interior Deposits

N Context & Comment A. Imbricata A. zebra A. sp. Treatment 2 Room (TF) 1 Resealed 0 1 1 1 Lintel (ND) Re-opened 0 2' 0 1 Bench (PD. TF) Centered 1 1 1 Re-opened Resealed 1. Paired

Balanus sp.

Barnacles are the only type of shell found in any frequency in Late Classic II interior deposits. Five deposits (including two problematical deposits) yielded a total of 309

28 specimens, a 74.5% decline from the quantity recovered from Late Classic i Interior deposits. Table 3.155 describes these deposits.

Table 3.155: Balanussp. in Late Classic II Interior Deposits

N Context Treatment Description Balanus Comment 1 Room Thru-Floor Resealed 16 Some attached to Noetia 2 Lintel Not Desc. 1 Re-Opened 12 Some attached to Resealed Area, tieach pebble 1 Bench Thru-Floor Centered 1 Attached to Noetia (PD) Re-Opened ponderosa Resealed 1 Platform Surface Resealed 1 (PD)

Brachidontes sp.

Six valves of Brachidontes sp., some paired, were recoverd from Cache 118, a

Lintel deposit with undescribed treatment.

Chama sp.

Chama sp. was represented by only 3 valves (including a pair) in Late Classic 11

interior deposits. These specimens all came fi'om Cache 175, a resealed, through-floor

Room deposit.

Chione cancellata

Two spedmens of C. cancellata were recovered from Late Classic II interior

locales. One specimen was found in Cache 118, a Lintel context, and the other came 310 from PD 54, a Platform deposit with surface treatment.

Crepidula aculeata

Specimens of Crepidula are common in Early Classic deposits at Tikal. By Imix times, however, their frequency is very low. Only two specimens are reported for interior deposits in this period, both from PO 141, a Bench context deposit that was centered, re­ opened, and resealed after receiving through-floor treatment.

Dinocardium robustum

Three valves of D. robustum were encountered in Late Classic II interior deposits.

A single fragmentary specimen was recovered from Bench context PO 141. Room context Cache 175 yielded the other two, which were paired and perforated. A single perforated specimen was also recovered from a Late Classic I Room cache.

Diodora listeri

The only example of D. listeri irom an Imix context is a single shell from PO 141, a resealed, through-floor Bench deposit that was centered and re-opened.

Fissunlla tardadensis

Fissurella tardadensis, a common univalve (Dance 1990; Warmke and Abbott

1961) makes its only appearance in a Tikal ritual deposit in PO 54, a Platfonn deposit with surface treatment. 311

Glycymeris sp.

There is an 88.9% decrease In the number of specimens of Glycymeris found in

Late Classic II interior deposits in comparison with those of Ik times. The lone specimen comes from Lintel Cache 49A. which was re-opened.

Mulina lateralis

M. lateralis had been virtually absent in Late Classic I interior deposits, which were dominated by M. guadalupensis and Mulina sp. Late Classic II interior deposits contain M. lateralis exclusively, and 4 specimens were recovered from 3 deposits. Two of these (Caches 118 and 49A) are from Lintels, while the other (PD 141) is from a

Bench context.

Musculus lateralis

Musculus lateralis, a common Bivalve (Dance 1990; Abbott 1954), is reported from only a single cache at Tikal. Six valves of M. lateralis were recovered from Cache

49A, a Lintel context deposit that had been re-opened.

Noetia ponderosa

Valves of N. ponderosa are reported from 4 Late Classic II interior deposits. This represents a 33.3% increase over the Ik period in the number of interior deposits containing this species, and no change in the number of valves. Table 3.156 describes these deposits. 312

Table 3.156: Noetia ponderosa in Late Classic II interior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment N. ponderosa Cache 118 Lintel Not Desc. 1 Cache 49A Lintel Not Desc. Re-Opened 3(1'Pair) Cache 175 Room Thru-Floor Resealed 1 PD 141 Bench Thru-Floor Centered 1 Re-Opened Resealed

Ostrea sp.

Ostrea sp. is the most common shellfish species recovered from Late Classic II deposits, interior or exterior. Four caches and 2 problematical deposits from interior locales yielded 47 specimens of this genus; these are described in Table 3.157

Table 3.157: Ostrea sp. in Late Classic II interior Deposits

N Context Treatment Comment Ostrea sp. Attached to 2 Lintel Not Desc. 1 Re-Opened 7 4 attached to Area 2 Room Thru-Floor Resealed 16' 1 attached to Noetia 1 Bench (PD) Thru-Floor Centered 14 6 attached to Re-Opened Diodora listen Resealed 1 Room (PD) Thru-Floor Resealed 10 1. 15 Fragments.

Despite the fluency of Ostrea sp. in Late Classic II interior deposits, this still represents a 30.9% decrease in valves from Ik period interior deposits, and a 57.1% 313 decline in deposits.

Perip/oma sp.

Pen'ploma is a common Caribbean bivalve (Dance 1990), which makes its only

Tikal cache appearance in Cache 229, a reseaied, through-floor Room deposit.

Plicatula sp.

There is only a single specimen of Plicatula sp. reported from a Late Classic II interior deposit. This comes from PD 141, a reseaied, through-floor Bench deposit that

was centered, and re-opened.

Pteria probably colymbos

Pteria, absent since the Eariy Classic, makes a minor re-appearance in a Late

Classic II interior cache. The lone specimen comes from Cache 175, a reseated,

through-floor Room deposit.

Tectarius murcatus

The Beaded Periwinkle is a probably common bivalve in the Caribbean area

(Warmke and Abbott 1961), but is known from only a single Tikal offertory deposit:

Cache 239, a reseaied, through-floor Room context cache that was re-opened in

prehistory.

Trachycardium sp. 314

A single specimen of Trachycardium is reported from PD 141, a reseated, through-floor Bench context deposit located along a centerline. PD 141 had been re­

opened in prehistory.

Vennetidae

The only example of Vermetidae from a Late Classic II interior deposit comes

from Lintel Cache 49A. A single specimen of Verwetidae was recovered from this

cache, where it was attached to an Area valve. This is the only example of Verwetidae

from an Imix-phase cache.

Worked Shell

Worked shell is reported from 7 Late Classic 11 interior deposits, 5 of which

(71.4%) are problematical deposits. These are described in Table 3.158.

Table 3.158: Worked Shell in Late Classic 11 Interior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Worked Shell Cache 174 Room Thru-Floor 1 Spondylus bead; 1 scraped and polished Spondylus valve Cache 175 Room Thru-Floor Resealed 9 mosaic elements; 2 perforated Dinocardiuw robustuw valves PD 141 Bench Thru-Floor Centered 8 mosaic elements; 4 shell Re-opened figurines; 1 fragmentary shell Resealed figurine PD54 Platform Surface 9 mosaic elements; 1 Spondylus cylinder bead PD145 Room Thru-Floor Resealed 1 mosaic element 315

PD174 Room Thru-Floor 1 shell tinkler (unidentified) PD 59 Stair Thru-Floor Centered 1 Sponcfy/us figurine Burned

Beyond their concentration in Room context through-floor deposits, worked shells from Imix-period interior locales exhibit very little patterning. Mosaic elements are the most common artifact fonn, yet are reported from only 57% of all deposits. It is intriguing that worked shell accounts for most of the Spondylus remains from this period.

Fish Remains

Fish remains are reported from 11 Late Classic 11 interior deposits: 5 caches

(41.7%, a 21.5% decrease from Late Classic I interior frequencies) and 6 problematical deposits, (26.1%, a 0.47% decrease from the Ik frequency). The majority of the remains continue to be unidentified vertebrae, although Porcupine Fish dermal spines are reported from two Room caches. Table 3.159 describes the deposits containing fish remains.

Table 3.159: Fish Remains from Late Classic II Interior Deposits

N % Total Type Context & Comment Fish Remains Treatment 2 66.7 Cache Lintel (ND) Re-opened 281 vertebrae 3 42.9 Cache Room (TF) 1 Re-opened 156 vertebrae Resealed 16 Porcupine Fish dermal spines 1 100 PD Bench (TF) Centered 35 vertebrae Re-opened Resealed 1 100 PD Platform (S) 5 vertebrae 316

4 33.3 PD Room (TF) 1 Resealed 61 vertebrae 3 Porcupine Fish dermal spines

Not only is there a significant decrease in the number of deposits containing fish remains, but the actual number of bones decreases substantially. Late Classic I interior deposits contained a minimum of 2403 vertebrae, compared to only 538 in Late Classic II times, a decrease of 77.6%. Reasons for this decrease are unclear, but probably relate to the growing disuse of the North Acropolis for ritual deposits. Porcupine fish denmal spines also decrease in frequency, fi-om 34 to 19 (44.1%), probably for the same reason.

Coral

Coral is reported from only two Late Classic II interior deposits. Lintel deposit

Cache 118 held 4 pieces of coral, including brain and branching corals; Room Cache

175 contained a single piece of brain coral. The reasons for the 71.4% decline in the frequency of coral-bearing interior deposits (in comparison with Ik-period deposits) is unknown.

Bryozoa

Bryozoans are a more frequent depositional inclusion than coral, reported from 7 deposits, a slight decrease (12.5%) from their frequency in Late Classic I interior deposits. Table 3.160 describes these deposits. 317

Table 3.160: Bryozoa in Late Classic II Interior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Bryozoans Cache 47A Lintel Not Desc. Re-Opened 17 Cache 174 Room Thnj-FIoor 1 Cache 175 Room Thnj-FIoor Reseated 4 Cache 229 Room Thnj-Floor Resealed 2 PD 141 Bench Thru-Floor Centered 1 Re-Opened Resealed PD54 Platform Surface 2 PD 176 Room Thru-Floor 2

The number of specimens of Bryozoa decreases substantially, from 76 to 29 (a

61.8% decrease), possibly indicating that these objects are more difficult to obtain, or alternatively, that they are of less importance for North Acropolis offerings.

Gorgonians and Sponge

Both gorgonians and sponge are relatively rare finds in Late Classic II interior

deposits, with the fonner reported from 5 deposits, and the latter from 4. Table 3.161

describes these deposits.

Table 3.161: Gorgonians and Sponge in Late Classic II Interior Deposits

Deposit Context & Comment Gorgonian Sponge Treatment Cache 118 Lintel (NO) 2 Unquantified Cache 47A Lintel (ND) Re-opened 1 2 Kinds Cache 174 Room (TF) 12 1 318

Cache 175 Room (TF) Resealed 2 1 Cache 229 Room (TF) Reseated 1 0

Gorgonians and sponge are found together in 80% of Late Classic interior caches, and are concentrated entirely in Lintel or Room deposits. This patterning suggests highly spedalized use of these materials in offerings at this time.

Fibrous Marine Objects

Fibrous marine materials are reported in four interior deposits from this period, a

50% decrease firom the preceding Ik period. These deposits are described in Table

3.162.

Table 3.162: Fibrous Marine Objects from Late Classic II interior Deposits

Deposit Context & Comment Fibrous IMarine H/lateriai Treatment Cache 49A Lintel (ND) Re-Opened 3 kinds, undescribed Cache 174 Room (TF) 1 Lump, undescribed Cache 229 Room (TF) Resealed Undescribed PD139 Room (TF) Resealed Hard, tan, clumped material

Other Marine Objects

Coquina, the shell conglomerate, is reported from three Late Classic II interior deposits, all caches. Two Lintel offerings (Caches 118 and 49A) yielded 5 pieces, while

Room deposit Cache 229 contained a single specimen. This mari

Lintel context Cache 118 yielded 5 water-rounded limestone pebbles, which are conceivably of marine (or possibly riverine) origin. It also contained unquantified remains of lime-producing algae.

The only other possibly-marine object from a Late Classic II inferior deposrt is a fossil shell from Platform context PD 54.

Terrestrial Fauna! Remains

The pattern of terrestrial fauna being recovered largely from interior deposits, which began in Late Classic I times, continues into Imix times (where 94.4% of all fauna- bearing deposits are located in interior areas). Intriguingly, terrestrial fauna is reported from neariy half (48.6%) of all interior deposits of this period, an increase of 17% over the preceding period. This presumably indicates that terrestrial fauna is becoming a more important aspect of interior offerings at this time. However, as with the preceding period,

the bulk of these remains come from problematical deposits, rather than true caches -

88% of the fauna-bearing deposits are problematical. Table 3.163 describes these

deposits.

Table 3.163: Terrestrial Fauna from Late Classic 11 Interior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Fauna Cache 237 Lintel Thru-Floor Resealed Rodent remains, unquantified, considered intrusive Cache 239 Room Thru-Floor Re-opened Thousands of small Resealed mammal and rodent bones. 320

PD 141 Bench Thru-Floor Centered 25 small mammals; Re-opened unquantified rodent bones Reseated PD54 Platform Surface Frog (unquantified, considered intrusive); 1 bone needle; 1 worked bone object; unquantified snake remains, probably intrusive PD 139 Room Thru-Floor Resealed Unquantified small mammal remains. PD 145 Room Thru-Floor Resealed 2 small mammal bones PD15 Room Thru-Floor 73 rodent bones; 13 bat bones PD16/ Room Thru-Floor 20 rodent bones Cache 69 PD 174 Room Thru-Floor 125 rodent bones; 20 bat bones PD 176 Room Thru-Floor 125 rodent bones In 2 dusters PD177 Room Thm-Floor 20 rodent bones PD18/ Room Thru-Floor 13 rodent bones; additional Cache 73 unidentified, unquantified bones PD183 Room Thru-Floor 1097 rodent bones; 243 bat bones; 1 bird t {Rhinophrynes dorsali) PD184 Room Thru-Floor 967 rodent bones; 491 bat bones PD31 Room Sub-Floor 16 bones of rodent, bat, rabbit, and lizard {Ctenosaura cf. similis) PD 59 Stair Thnj-Floor Centered 16 rodent bones Burned PD190 Stairbase Thru-Floor Centered 25 tx)nes, mixed rodent and bat 321

The most intriguing pattem within these remains is that most deposits (82.4%) contain fewer than 200 bones, while three held 900 or more. All three come from

Structure 5D-32-1st, Room 1, suggesting that these deposits are closely related.

However, the other deposits from this room, PD 177 and PD 190, held only a small number of faunal remains, making this pattem less clear. More detailed identifications and analysis would be necessary to determine whether any stronger patterning is present.

Human Remains

Human skeletal remains are quite uncommon in Late Classic II interior deposits, reported from only four (all problematical deposits). Intriguingly, these show no signs of maintaining the pattem of including isolated phalanges begun in the preceding Ik period.

Rather, the human remains from Imix interior locales appear primarily to be disturbed burials, although how the disturbance occurred is unknown. Table 3.164 details the human material from these deposits.

Table 3.164: Human Remains from Late Classic II Interior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Human Remains PD141 Bench Thnj-Floor Centered 1 Patella Re-opened Reseated PD54 Platform Surface 2 Teeth, undescribed 322

PD 139 Room Thru-Floor Resealed 62 fragments including: 2 upper incisors and canine; right distal humenjs, scapula, clavicle; 1 cervical and 10 thoracic vertebrae; right calcaneus, 5 metacarpals, 11 tarsals, 3 intenmediate phalanges. Considered female, age 14-15 years; possibly a second individual. PD31 Room Sub-Floor atlas, femur head; other epiphyses. Considered adult; material calcined.

Ceramics

Ceramics are reported from 11 Late Classic II interior deposits, of which 81.8% are problematical deposits. Like the preceding period, the vast majority of these ceramic remains are sherds, suggesting either the intentional breakage of vessels, or more likely the inclusion of ceramic waste from other contexts. Table 3.165 details the ceramic inventory of Late Classic II interior deposits.

Table 3.165: Ceramics in Late Classic II Interior Deposits

N Context Treatment Comment Ceramics 2 Room Thru-Foor 1 Re-opened 1 Ucum Unslipped miniature jar, (Cache) 1 Resealed lidded; 5 Manik sherds 1 Platfonn Thru-Floor Centered Unquantified sherds Resealed 3 Room Thru-Floor 2 Centered 1 Zacatel Cream Polychrome bowl 2 Bumed sherd; 17 sherds (7 small and 1 Resealed weathered) 1 Room Sub-Floor Unquantified sherds 323

3 Stair Thru-Floor Centered 5 small body sherds; 17 variegated 2 Burned sherds; 34 undescribed sherds, 2 Reseated some with cross links to Pds 59, 60, &54 1 Wall Sub-Floor 1 Palmar Orange Polychrome vessel sherd (large); 1 Zacatel Cream Polychrome sherd, large

Censers

Censers are reported from five Late Classic II interior problematical deposits, always in fragmentary form, and rarely described. These show little other patterning, although the dense concentration of remains in the Platform context is intriguing.

Censer-bearing deposits are listed in Table 3.166.

Table 3.166: Censers in Late Classic II Interior Problematical Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Description PD141 Bench Thru-Floor Centered 2 censer fragments; copal Re-opened present Resealed PD54 Platfonn Surface 343 fragments, including human effigy and ladle forms PD177 Room Thru-Floor 1 ladle fragment PD60 Room Thru-Floor Centered 10 fragments Burned PD 59 Stair Thru-Floor Centered 11 fragments Burned

Copal

Copal is reported from only a single Late Classic II interior deposit, PD 141. This 324 bench deposit also contained censer fragments, suggesting the two were used together.

Organics and Seeds

Organic material is reported from a single Late Classic II interior deposit, while seeds were present in three. These remains are divided between Lintel and Room contexts, and are described in Table 3.167.

Table 3.167: Organics and Seeds in Late Classic II Interior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Organic/Seeds Cache 118 Lintel Not Desc. 1 Squash seed, cinnabar covered {Cucurbits pepa) Cache 49A Lintel Not Desc. Re-opened 2 unidentified seeds; 1 pod {Jatropha or Cnidosulus sp. Cache 61 Room Thnj-Floor Resealed Brown leaves Cache 174 Room Thru-Floor 1 possible acom; 2 unidentified

Mosaic Elements

Mosaic elements are very unusual inclusions in Late Classic II interior deposits, while complete or fragmentary mosaic figures are unknown. Those present are detailed in Table 3.168.

Table 3.168: Mosaic Elements in Late Classic II Interior Deposts

N % Context Treatment Shell Jade Other/Comment 2 28.6 Room (C) Thru-Floor 9 3 5 Specular Hematite; 1 Pyrite 1 100 Bench Thnj-Floor 20 22 1 Specular Hematite (PD) 325

1 100 Platform Surface 9 1 1 Pyrite (probable (PD) mosaic element) 2 16.7 Room Thru-Floor 1 5

The average number of shell and jade mosaic elements per deposit show changes in comparison with those from Late Classic I interior locales. The average number of shell mosaics per deposit is only 6.5, a decrease of 36.9%; the average number of jade mosaics increases by 30.1% to 5.1.

Discussion

Imix-period interior deposits show some continuity with their Ik-period predecessors, but for the most part demonstrate a decline in materials, both in variety and quantity. This is true of virtually every material category examined above, and is highly suggestive that interior locales had become far less important (if not substantially less common) for placing deposits than they had been previously.

I have suggested above that interior locales became an important area for secret ritual activities during the Ik period. If this was the case, it does not seem to have continued on into the Imix, and logically would not have been necessary. Tikal appears to regain its independence from Caracol at this time (and exacts revenge over it and

Calakmul - see below), suggesting that there would be little need for elites to practice secret ceremonies on a routine basis. The reason for the continued predominance of interior locales in the North Acropolis is best explained by the notion that the center of ritual activity had moved elsewhere, and only minor ceremonies were performed in this precinct during and following the rule of Ah Cacao. 326

Exterior Deposits

While interior deposits are still most common during the Late Classic (Imix), there is a 29.4% increase in exterior deposits over the Ik period total, suggesting an increase in the frequency of public ritual at this time. Table 3.169 shows the distribution of exterior caches, while Table 3.170 details the locations of problematical deposits. Figure 3.32 groups these data.

Table 3.169: Late Classic (Imix) Exterior Caches

N % Type Context Treatment Comment 2 14.3 Cache Stairbase Thru-Floor Resealed 1 7.1 Cache Rare Sub-Floor 1 7.1 Cache Rare Thru-Floor Centered Resealed 1 7.1 Cache Stela Not Desc. 8 57 Cache Stela Sub-Stela

Table 3.170: Late Classic (Imix) Exterior Problematical Deposits

N % Type Context Treatment Comment 1 12.5 PD Stair Surface 1 12.5 PD Stairisase Surface 1 12.5 PD Platform Not Desc. 1 12.5 PD Stela Sub-Stela 1 12.5 PD Mask Not Desc. 1 12.5 PD Rare Not Desc. 1 12.5 PD Rare Sub-Floor 1 12.5 PD Mixed Thnj-Floor Centered Re-Opened 327

As with interior contexts, exterior deposits are dominated by caches associated with a single depositional location. During the Late Classic (imix), more than half of all exterior deposits were placed in association with stelae, while no other location represents more than 12.5% of the total. This suggests a wide variety of different ritual behaviours.

While the frequency of exterior deposits increases in comparison with Ik deposits,

Figure 3.32: Late Classic II Exterior Depositional Contexts

70

60 52.2

3 50 ,o 40 o o 30

10 I- 4.3 4.3 4.3

Mask Mixed Platfomi Rare Stair Stairbase Stela

• Sub-Floor • Thru-Floor • Not Desc. ^ Surface

the frequency of caches in elevated and visible contexts - those most amenable to

viewing by large audiences - declines dramatically. Only two Imix deposits (8.3% of all

extemal caches) are in elevated locations, suggesting that cache deposition performed 328 before large audiences (A.T. Smith 1994) had become very rare. However, there are nearly as many stela caches from the Late Classic (imix) as the Early Classic (the height of Stela caching in the North Acropolis), and it seems probable that these would have been public ceremonies. Thus, there does appear to be an increase in the frequency of

deposits placed in public contexts during the Imix period.

Treatment

Through-floor treatment is unusual in Imix exterior deposits, with only 17.4% of ail

deposits receiving this treatment (20% of caches, 12.5% of problematical deposits). Sub-

floor deposits are also uncommon (2 deposits, 1 cache), although sub-stela deposits are

very frequent. Interestingly, 25% of all exterior problematical deposits were located on

the surface. These would appear to be good candidates for evidence of termination

rituals.

All Imix exterior through-floor caches were resealed. Only 4 deposits (2 caches)

were located on center lines, a lower frequency than found for interior deposits, although

why interior deposits would be more likely to be centered is unknown. Only a single

exterior problematical deposit was re-opened. As this represents a burial/problematical

deposit combination, it seems likely that the intrusion created the problematical deposit,

rather than effecting it No exterior deposits show any signs of burning. 329

Patterning by Depositional Context

Stair Deposits

A single Late Classic (Imix) Problematical Deposit (PD 40) was encountered in an exterior Stair context, and contained only the fragmentary remains of a single pot. While this may represent an offering of some type, it bears only superficial resemblance to Ik- period Stair context problematical deposits, as these both contain material types other than potsherds.

Stairbase Deposits

Late Classic (Imix) Stairbase deposits are unusual (only four are present), and show virtually no patterning. Only stingrays spines and other marine objects are encountered in more than one deposits, while Spondylus, human remains, mosaics, and unusual objects are entirely absent. Interior deposits seem to contain a different object inventory than exterior deposits, although sample sizes are too low to suggest patterning.

Platform Deposits

The single exterior platfonn problematical deposit is discussed above, in the section on interior deposits.

Stela Deposits

Eleven Late Classic li Stela deposits (1 PD) show a high degree of content conformity. Chert eccentrics are found exclusively in caches, representing 72.7% of all 330 deposits, while ceramics are the only other material type found in more than half.

Obsidian eccentrics are reported from only two deposits (18.2%), while non-eccentric lithics are rather sparce — obsidian is recovered from 36.4% of Stela deposits, while chert is reported from only 18.2%. Jade was recovered from only a single deposit, while marine objects - Including shells and stingray spines - teaestrial fauna, human remains, mosaic elements, and pigments are entirely absent.

This suggests that offerings related to Stela dedication were highly regulated during Late Classic II times; there were probably specific rules about which types of items could be included (such as chert eccentrics), and which types were to be excluded, such as marine objects and fauna.

Rare Context Deposits

Four Late Classic 11 exterior deposits are from Rare contexts (including 2 problematical deposits). These show little similarity to one another, with censers and rare objects the only material types found in more than one deposit (censers are present in both problematical deposits, while rare objects are found in one cache and one pd).

Mixed-Context Deposits

A single Late Classic (Imix) burial/problematical deposit comes from a mixed locale, and contains obsidian eccentrics, human and non-human bone, and unusual items. 331

Centerline Deposits

During the Late Classic (Imix), centeriine deposits continue to be infrequent.

Nine centered deposits (8 problematical) are reported, and these show some consistency (all problematical deposits contain potsherds), along with a high degree of variability. Only non-eccentric obsidian and chert, and unusual objects are found in more than half the cases, while only obsidian eccentrics are entirely absent. This pattern suggests that interior centeriine deposits were interred with a haphazard ritual context, with no particular prescribed objects included. Centered exterior deposits from the Late

Classic (Imix) are very unusual, with only four reported (2 problematical). These show little patterning, save the fact that three deposits (including both problematical deposits) contain human remains. Only obsidian eccentrics and unusual objects are found in at least half of the deposits, while non-eccentric obsidian and chert, as well as mosaics, are entirely absent.

Re-Opened Deposits

Seven Late Classic (Imix) deposits (2 problematical) were re-opened, and these show considerably less patterning than those of eariy periods. Only unusual objects

(71%) and shell (57%) are found in more than half the deposits, and both chert

eccentrics and Spondylus are absent. Chert eccentrics tend to be common during the

Late Classic (Imix), suggesting a possibility of removal - although the presence of

obsidian fonms would tend to counter this position. Spondylus is unusual during this time

period, and its absence is not especially surprising. The low frequencies of most other

object types suggest no strong patterning. 332

Re-Sealed Deposits

During the Late Classic (Imix), fifteen interior deposits were resealed (7 problematical). Resealed caches show only a slight degree of patterning, with 75% containing unusual objects. No other material type is found in even half the cache deposits, and eccentrics, chert, Spondylus, and human remains are absent entirely.

Seventy-one percent of problematical deposits contain unusual object types. Potsherds are found with the same firequency, while non-eccentric obsidian is present in 57% of cases. Only obsidian eccentrics and Spondylus are absent from the problematical deposits.

There seems to be a greater degree of consistency in Late Classic (Imix) resealed caches, as none of these contain eccentrics or chert, and a large portion include unusual objects. However, the low frequencies of all other object types is indicative of their infrequent inclusion. More object types are found with fi'equency in problematical deposits, although it is debatable whether this is a factor relating to resealing.

Three Late Classic (Imix) exterior caches were resealed. In all cases these contain stingray spines and non-shell marine objects, while most contain eccentrics, jade, shell, and pigments. This may be evidence for a stronger prescribed set of cache inclusions, possibly relating to resealing, but the sample size is too small to support this idea.

Burnt Deposits

During the Late Classic (Imix), 4 problematical deposits were burnt. All contain 333 non-eccentric obsidian and potsherds, while 3 contain non-eccentric chert. The only other material types were chert eccentrics, jade, Spondylus, censers, fauna, and unusual objects, with only censers represented on more than one occasion.

Artifect Analysis

Lithic Artifects

Obsidian

Table 3.171 shows the distribution of Late Classic (Imix) exterior locations containing obsidian, while Table 3.172 shows the distribution of obsidian artifact types.

Table 3.171: Late Classic (Imix) Obsidian-Bearing Exterior Deposits

N % Total Type Context Treatment Comment 2 14.3 Cache Stairbase Thru-Floor Resealed 1 7.1 Cache Stela Not Desc. Centered 8 57.1 Cache Stela Sub-Stela 1 7.1 Cache Rare Thru-Floor Centered Reseated 1 7.1 Cache Rare Sub-Floor 1 12.5 PD Stela Sub-Stela 1 12.5 PD Mixed Thru-Floor Centered Re-Opened

Table 3.172: Obsidian Artifact forms in Exterior Late Classic (Imix) Deposits

Location Ecc. Incised Incised Flake Lancet Core Frag. Blade Stairbase (TF) 1 (2) 1(10) 1(3) Stela (ND) 1(8) Stela (SF) 2(12) 5(42) 1 (9) 334

Rare (TF) 1(3) Rare (SF) 1(1) Stela (PD, SF)) 1(2) Mixed (PD. TF) 1(1)

Obsidian artifacts in Late Classic (Imix) exterior contexts are most commonly associated with stelae. Continuing the trend begun during Ik times, eccentrics are found in low numbers, possibly having been replaced by incised fonns in many ceremonies.

This is likely the case in stela rituals, where incised forms are now five times as common as eccentrics. No obsidian artifact form is ever encountered in large quantities in exterior deposits, and forms other than incised or eccentric are very unusual.

These data provide some interesting contrasts with interior contexts at this time.

First, interior contexts are almost completely devoid of eccentrics, with only two fragmentary specimens reported from a single deposit. Thus, all complete eccentrics are from exterior locations (33% of all exterior obsidian-bearing deposits contain eccentrics).

Second, fonns such as flake blades, and both modified and unmodified flakes which are common in interior deposits are virtually unknown in exterior contexts. Rituals performed in exterior contexts were very different than those perfomied in interior locations, at least

with regard to obsidian. The overiap of incised forms (57% exterior, 43% interior) shows

a behavioral connection between these contexts, while the frequency of indsed

obsidians is suggestive of continuity from Ik times.

The Late Classic (Imix) obsidian pattern suggests a decrease in the usage of this

material for ritual behaviour. Three explanations are possible for this phenomenon: (1)

obsidian, particulariy in its less elaborate forms, was no longer considered important for

ritual; (2) Obsidian was still important, but was seldom employed in rituals involving the 335

North Acropolis; (3) The hiatus had served to destroy trade or tribute routes to obsidian produdng areas, and the basic raw material could no longer be obtained in large quantities.

Chert

Late Classic (Imix) chert-bearing caches are more common in exterior than interior contexts, marking a change from the preceding Ik period. 59.1% of exterior

deposits contain chert objects, compared to only 34.3% of interior deposits. Table 3.173

shows the distribution of chert-bearing exterior locations, while Table 3.174 shows the

distribution of artifact types.

Table 3.173; Late Classic (Imix) Chert-Bearing Exterior Cache Locations

N % Total Type Context Treatment Comment 1 7.1 Cache Stairtsase Thru-Floor Resealed 1 7.1 Cache Stela Not Desc. 1 Centered 57.1 Cache Stela Sub-Stela 1 7.1 Cache Rare Thru-Floor Centered Resealed 1 7.1 Cache Rare Sub-Floor 1 12.5 PD Mixed Thru-Floor Centered Re-Opened

Table 3.174: Chert Artifect Types in Late Classic (Imix) Exterior Caches

Location Eccentric Eccentric Modified Flake Other Debitage Fragment Flake Stairi3ase 1(2) Stela (ND) 1(1) Stela (SF) 8(55) 1(4) 1(1) 1(75) 1(2) 336

Rare (TF) 1 (10) Rare (SF) 1(4) Mixed 1(1)' Totals 11 (68) 1(4) 2(5) 0 1(1) 1(2) 1 Unquantified, undescribed "commonplace" chert artifacts..

During the Late Classic (Imix), Stela locales are the dominant area for caching of chert objects, accounting for 64.3% of ail deposits (9 of 14). Further, the majority of chert artifacts are included in Stela deposits, accounting for 83.3% of all exterior eccentrics

(whole and fragmentary), as well as all debitage and unmodified flakes. It seems apparent that most exterior rituals involving chert revolved around stela placement.

Jade

Jade is exceedingly uncommon in exterior deposits, reported in only 3 caches

(13.6%), marking a 57% decrease from Ik times. Locations of these deposits are listed in Table 3.175, while Table 3.176 lists the artifact types present.

Table 3.175: Locations of Late Classic (Imix) Jade-Bearing Exterior Deposits

N % Total Type Context Treatment Comment 1 7.1 Cache Stairisase Thru-Floor Resealed 1 7.1 Cache Stela Sub-Stela 1 7.1 Cache Rare Thru-Floor Centered Resealed

Table 3.176: Jade Artifects in Exterior Deposits

Location Bead Ear Flare Fragment Other Stairbase 1(1)' Stela 1(1) 1(1) 337

Rare 1(3) 1(1) 1(1)' Totals 1(3) 2(2) 1 (1) 2(2) 1. Faceted object 2. Worked jade spheroid.

While there are very few jade artifacts from exterior deposits, the most intriguing

change from the preceding Ik period is the re-appearance of more complex artifact

forms. The two ear flares found in exterior placements mark the first appearance of this

artifact type since the Eariy Classic. At the same time, very small artifacts, such as

mosaic elements and fragments, are very unusual. Given the low frequency of jade, this

hardly suggests a return of the jade-intensive ceremonies seen during the Eariy Classic.

However, it may suggest that jade was regaining importance in public rituals.

Minerals and Pigments

Minerals and pigments are quite rare in Late Classic 11 exterior deposits.

Cinnabar is reported from only two caches, while malachite is also present in one of

these. This is very much in keeping with the pattern of exterior caches begun in Ik times,

where pigments were a rare inclusion. Cache 131 (Rare context) contained 5 distinct

lumps of cinnabar, and had dnnabar sprinkled over its contents; it also contained 3

pieces of a yellow-green mineral identified as jarosite with sulfur. Stairbase Cache 47

had cinnabar powder all over the bottom of the repository, along with malachite in both

lump and powder form. Both of these deposits were given through-floor treatment, and

resealed; Cache 131 was also centered. 338

Marine Materials

Stingray Spines

Possible ritual uses for stingray spines are discussed above. Only a handful of

Late Classic 11 exterior locales contain stingray spines. These are listed in Table 3.177.

Table 3.177; Late Classic II Caches containing Stingray Spines

N % Total Type Context Treatment Comment 2 14.3 Cache Stairisase Thru-Floor 2 Resealed 1 7.1 Cache Rare Thru-Floor Centered Resealed

Rare context Cache 131 held 45 whole and fragmentary unmodified spines, which Coe (1990) feels probably represent 20 complete specimens. The stairbase caches yielded a total of 21 fragmentary spines representing 7 or 8 individuals (Cache

47), and a single complete specimen (Cache 48). Thus, treating fragments as separate specimens, Late Classic II exterior caches yielded more than three times the number of specimens as their interior counterparts (67 compared to 20). Even if Coe's estimates of numbers of whole specimens are employed, the number (28 or 29) is neariy 50% greater than that found in interior deposits. The observed pattern suggests two things; (1) that stingray spines became more important in public than private rituals following the ascent of Ah Cacao; and (2) that the intentional breakage of stingray spines - Walker's (1995)

"sacrifice" - was of some importance at this time, presumably after the ritual use of these objects. 339

Spondylus sp. Shells

Spondylus sp. shells are a rare inclusion in Imix period exterior deposits, reported only in a single Rare context cache. Cache 131, a reseated, through-floor deposit located along a centeriine contained three Spondylus shell beads.

Other Shell Species

Marine shells are an unusual commodity in Late Classic (Imix) exterior deposits; those present are detailed in Table 3.178.

Table 3.178: Other Shell Species in Late Classic II Exterior Deposits

Species Cache PD Total Anadara (Lunarca) ovalis 1(1) 1(1) Area zebra 1(1) 1(1) Balanus sp. 1 (21) 1(21) Brachidontes sp. 1(3) 1(3) Busycon contrarium 2(7) 2(7) Cantharus sp. 1(1) 1(1) Chama sp. 1(1) 1(1) Conus sp. 1(1) 1(1) Crepidula aculeata 1(2) 1(2) Dinocardium robustum 1(1) 1(1) Lyropectin subnodosus 1(1) 1(1) Mulina guadalupen^'s 1(4) 1(4) Murex sp. 1(1) 1(1) Noetia ponderosa 1(2) 1(2) Olh/a cf. spicata 1(1) 1(1) 340

Ostrea sp. 2(39) 2(39) Plicatula sp. 1(2) 1(2) Polinices duplicata 1(3) 1(3) Strombus cranulatus columella 1(1) 1(1) Trachycardium mun'catum 1(1) 1(1)

Anadara (Lunarca) ovalis

The single specimen of A. ovalis comes from Cache 131, a Rare context deposit that was centered, given through-floor treatment, resealed, and eventually re-opened.

This is the first example of A. ovalis in an exterior location since the Early Classic.

Area zebra

The genus Area is represented by only a single specimen in a Late Classic II exterior deposit. This is a single specimen of A. zebra recovered from a resealed, through-floor stairbase deposit (Cache 47).

Balanus sp.

Barnacles are much better represented in exterior than interior deposits of the

Late Classic II period. A single Stairisase cache (Cache 47) contained 21 specimens, some of which were attached to a single Area zebra valve. This is the greatest number of barnacles encountered in an exterior deposit at any time in Tikal's occupation.

Brachidontes sp.

Rare context Cache 131 held the only 3 specimens of Brachidontes recovered 341 from an exterior deposit in Late Classic II times.

Busycon contrarium

Busycon contrarium is a common whelk (Dance 1990), and one which makes its only appearance in Tikal caches in exterior deposits of the Imix period. Rare context

Cache 131 yielded 6 specimens, while Stairbase Cache 49 held a single shell. Both deposits were resealed after receiving through-floor treatment. Cache 131 was also centered. Prior to these deposits, the genus Busycon had always been represented by indeterminate specimens, or by 8. perversum.

Cantharus sp.

The only specimen of Canthams sp. from a Late Classic deposit at Tikal comes from an Imix period exterior Rare context cache (Cache 131).

Chama sp.

The general Late Classic trend of Chama being a rare cache inclusion continues with Imix-period exterior deposits. The only specimen comes from Rare context Cache

131, a deposit that was centered, given through-floor treatment, and then resealed.

Conus sp.

The second of only two Late Classic appearances of a cone shell comes from

Rare context Cache 131. Possible ritual use of these shells is discussed in the Eariy

Classic section. 342

Crepidula aculeata

After being found as both C. fomicata and C. aculeata in Early and Late Classic I times, the genus Crepidula is represented exiusively by C. aculeata in the imix ceramic phase. Two specimens were recovered from Rare context deposit. Cache 131.

Dinocardium robustum

Dinocardium becomes very rare during the Late Classic, with only a single specimen recovered from a Late Classic II exterior deposit. This came from Cache 131, a Rare context deposit.

Lyropectin subnodosus

L subnodosus makes its first appearance since the Early Classic in Rare context

Cache 131. In keeping with the Eariy Classic pattern, this specimen came from an exterior location.

Mulina guadalupensis

M. guadalupensis was the only species of this genus recovered from a Late

Classic I exterior deposit, and this trend continues into Late Classic II times. Four specimens were found in Stairiaase Cache 47.

Murex sp.

Murex makes its first appearance in an exterior deposit since the Eariy Classic in

Rare context Cache 131. This is one of only two spedmens of Murex recovered from a 343

Late Classic deposit, regardless of placement.

Noetia ponderosa

The Imix period sees Noetia following the general Late Classic trend of being a rare exterior inclusion. In this case, two specimens were recovered from Stairbase

Cache 47, the opposite to the location of the A/oetfa-bearing deposit of the Ik period.

0//va of. spicata

A single Oliva "tinkler" was encountered in Mixed context deposit Burial 8/PD 49, the first reported example of such an object in a problematical deposit or cache since the

Eariy Classic. However, as this obviously comes from a disturt^ed burial, it does not indicate a retum to the use of these items in offerings.

Ostrea sp.

Osfrea is by far the most commonly encountered genus of the Imix period, regardless of the placement of the deposits in question. Ostrea shells are reported from only two exterior deposits of Late Classic II times. Interestingly, these yielded 40 valves, or more than 85% of the number recovered from six interior deposits of the same period.

The bulk of these (87.5%) came from Rare context Cache 131, while the remainder (two attached to Noetia) were recovered from Stairbase Cache 47.

Plicatula sp.

The only examples of Plicatula from a Late Classic II exterior deposit are two 344 specimens from Stalrbase Cache 47, which was given through-floor treatment and reseated.

Polinices duplicata

P. duplicata is a rare inclusion in Tikal caches and problematical deposits, with only 5 specimens reported from the entire occupation span of the North Acropolis. Sixty percent of these come from a single Late Classic II exterior deposit. Rare context Cache

131.

Strombus cranulatus coiumella

Strombus makes its first appearance in an exterior cache since the Eariy Classic in Rare context Cache 131. This is the only appearance of conch in an Imix-period cache.

Trachyeardium muricatum

Stairbase Cache 47 yields the first specimen of T. muricatum in a Tikal north

acropolis cache since the Eariy Classic.

Worked Shell

Shell artifacts are not a common feature of Late Classic II exterior deposits, and

these are reported from only two deposits. Rare context Cache 131 yielded 3 Spondylus beads, mentioned above, while Burial 8/PD 49 produced a single Oliva tinkler. It seems

apparent that worked shell was not an important part of exterior offerings of this period. 345

Fish Remains

Fish remains are rare in Late Classic II exterior deposits, reported from only two.

Rare context Cache 131 contained some 200 vertebrae, often articulated into groups of

5. The two Stairbase deposits, Caches 47 and 48 yielded 19 and 88 vertebrae, respectivley. This is a marked increase over the 50 vertebrae recovered from a single

Late Classic I exterior deposit, but still suggests that fish vertebrae were of little importance in exterior offerings.

Coral

Coral was recovered from only two Late Classic II exterior caches. A single piece of brain coral was encountered in Rare context Cache 131, while Stairbase Cache 47 yielded 2 pieces identified as hard, branching coral. This pattern shows only slight change from that of Ik-period exterior deposits, in the addition of branching corals.

However, corals were rarely used in Late Classic exterior deposits.

Bryozoa

Bryozoa were reported from only a single Imix-period exterior deposit. Stairbase

Cache 47 yielded 6 pieces of this material.

Gorgonian and Sponge

Both gorgonians and sponge were recovered from two Late Classic II exterior deposits. Rare context Cache 131 yielded unquantified gorgonian remains and a small amount of sponge; Stairbase Cache 47 contained unquantified gorgonians and a single 346 piece of sponge. This continues the pattern of placing both materials in the same offering, noted for interior deposits of this period.

Other Marine Objects

Single specimens of coquina were recovered from Stairisase Cache 47 and Rare context Cache 131, with the specimen firom the former exhibiting a gorgonian attachment. Cache 47 also contained 2 pieces of lime-producing algae, while Cache 131 held a single sand dollar, 2 kinds of fibrous marine material, and a single peari. Both of these Items were present in Ik-period deposits, although all were given interior placement.

Terrestrial Fauna

Only a single Late Classic II exterior deposit yielded terrestrial faunal remains, and as these come from a disturbed burial context (Burial 8/PD 49), it seems unlikely that they represent an offering in the dedicatory/votive sense. Present were a single Jaguar ungual phalanx (claw), and bones of opposum, spider monkey, peccary, and rodent.

Based on the sample available, it seems safe to conclude that tenrestrial animals were not included in exterior offerings during the Imix period.

Human Remains

Human skeletal remains are an uncommon inclusion in Late Classic I! exterior deposits, reported from only four (3 PD, including a disturbed burial). The only tie-in to the pattern for exterior deposits of the Ik period is the presence of bones in a Stela 347 context. Table 3.179 describes the human material recovered from Imix-period exterior deposits.

Table 3.179: Human Skeletal Remains from Late Classic II Exterior Deposits

Deposit Context & Comment Human Remains Treatment Burial 8/ Mixed (TF) Centered Human skull (male, 35-45 years of PD 49 Re-opened age), in upright position, with evidence of frontal flattening. Portions of basicranium and face missing. Mandible present. 7 pieces of longbone, closely grouped, material in SE comer of deposit. PD 226 Platform (ND) Incomplete tibia, thought to belong to a small adult. Other human parts may have been present. PD 48 Rare (ND) Centered Mass of human bones mixed with censer fragments. 12 adult vertebrae; several complete mandibles; sacrum; rib fragments; several basicrania. Originally labeled Burial 7 (deleted). SP10 Stela (SF) Centered Long bone fragments and teeth AP6 recovered from small depression C31 (possible excavation) in front of the stela (see Coe 1990:779)

The highly fragmentary nature of these remains, combined with the fact that three-quarters of these deposits are problematical rather than caches, leads me to suspect that few of these bones represent offerings. The material from Burial 8/PD 49 is plainly a disturbed burial, while the other problematical deposits are more puizling. The lone tibia in PD 226 could represent almost anything, especially as it is unclear whether other human remains were present. The mass of bones from PD 48, however, is more intriguing, especially in the presence of several mandibles and basicrania. While this 348 may represent nothing more than redepostted material from several dlsturioed burials, it is somewhat similar to the omamentai mandibles reported by Cowgill (1993) from the

Temple of Qetzalcoatl at Teotihuacan mentioned previously. This could conceivably represent a large-scale human sacrifice, although more detail on the remains and their spatial positioning would be necessary to support such a conclusion. The Stela-context material is difficult to interpret due to the lack of description, but appears at least superficially similar to the pattern of human remains seen in Ik-period stela deposits.

Ceramics

Ceramics are found in 50% of Late Classic II exterior deposits, an increase of

18.5% over their interior counterparts. Intriguingly, ceramics are known from two-thirds of all Stela caches at this time, a marked increase over the Ik-period frequency. Stela deposits account for 73.7% (14 of 19) complete vessels from Imix-period caches and problematical deposits. Table 3.180 describes the ceramics from Late Classic II exterior deposits.

Table 3.180: Ceramics in Late Classic II Exterior Deposits

N Context Treatment Comment Ceramics 1 Mask (PD) Not Desc. 50 weathered Manik^ sherds (bowl and jar) 1 Mixed (PD) Thru-Floor Centered Minimally 516 sherds Re-opened

2. Stratigraphically, PD 117 falls within the Imix period (Structure 5D-23-1st: Time Sequence 2A, in Coe [1990]). 349

1 Platform Not Desc. Unquantified Eznab' sherds (PD) 1 Rare Thnj-Floor Centered 1 Tinaja Red-Orange lidded Resealed cylinder, broken; 1 Ucum Unslipped lidded jar. 1 Stair (PD) Surface 1 Aguila^ Red-Orange flaring-sided vessel, base missing, parts nested. 6 Stela Sub-Stela 1 Unknown type flaring-sided bowl; 4 Unknown type rectangular bowls; 4 Unknown type cylindrical vessels, shattered; 6 Unknown type cylinders (1 pulverized); 2 Unknown type vessels; 2 Unknown type rectangular vessels.

The most significant differences between the ceramics of Late Classic I and II exterior deposits is the high number of Stela-context deposits reported in the latter, discussed above. Comparing Imix-period interior and exterior deposits, the latter are intriguing for the presence of complete vessels, a phenomenon virtually unreported from interior contexts. While both bowls and cylinders are reported, neither is found in near the quantity reported for Eariy Classic exterior deposits, possibly due to the declining use of the North Acropolis for ceremonial deposits, and possibly also due to a continued disinterest in including ceramics in offerings.

Censers

Like their interior counterparts, censers from Late Classic II exterior deposits

3. This deposit, PD 226, dates to the Late Classic ll-Terminal Classic boundary, and its exact chronological position is unclear.

4. PD 40, like PD 117, is from Structure 5D-23-1st:Time Sequence 2A; Coe (1990) mentions its location below a tree root, which may have lead to disturbance. 350 consist only of fragments, and show little spatial patterning, with only Rare context deposits reported more than once. As this category is more of a catch-all than a distinct type of spatial location, this has little meaning, Table 3.181 lists the censers recovered from these deposits.

Table 3.181: Censers in Late Classic li Exterior Deposits

Deposit Context Treatment Comment Description PD117 Mask Not Desc. 1 Loop-handled cover, burnt PD 48 Rare Not Desc. Centered Unquantified fragments, mixed haphazardly with human bones PD270 Rare Sub-Floor 27 Fragments. Mix of burnt resin/charcoal on beds of stone in censers PD 171 Stairbase Surface 160 Fragments, crushed and packed into soil. Could not be refit. Stela P83, Stela Sub-Stela 1 Fragment, undescribed. Altar P24, Cache 56

Copal

Only a single Late Classic II exterior deposit appears to contain copal. This is

Rare context PD 270, which has a burnt mix of charcoal and resin over rocks amongst shattered censer fragments.

Seeds and Organics

The only plant material reported from a Late Classic 11 exterior location is 6 351 squash seeds from Rare context Cache 131.

Mosaic Elements

Mosaic elements are extremely rare in Imix-period exterior deposits. The only reported specimen - a single pyrite piece ~ comes from Mixed context Burial 8/PD 49, a disturbed burial. Thus, it appears that mosaic elements were not employed in exterior offerings on the North Acropolis at this time.

Discussion

The Imix period sees the re-emergence of Tikal under Ruler A, Ah Cacao, or Lord

Chocolate, who acceeded in AD 682. Coggins (1975) has suggested that this represents a break in the Tikal dynastic sequence, but Jones (1991) notes that Lord Chocolate's father. Shield Skull, is listed as a Tikal ruler. Indeed, Jones argues that the period between the Caracol event of AD 562 and the inauguration of Ruler A

...is one of continuity as a new Tikal rulership again became integrated into the older traditions. At its beginning, the first ruler, Animal Skull, reigned for at least a katun and was buried in front of the North Acropolis beside the tombs of distinguished Eariy Classic sovereigns. At the end of it. Ruler A declared himself the 260-tun reincarnation of the spirit of Stormy Sky.... The integrative process is similar to that effected by Stomiy Sky himself so many years before (Jones 1991:118).

Ruler A was a profident builder and wamor, who linked himself directly to Stormy Sky, the Eariy Classic Ruler, and Ruler A's Structure 5D-33-1st covered Stormy Sky's funerary temple, along with Stela 31. This structure was placed in the center of the south face of the North Acropolis, and served to end the use of the North Acropolis as a funerary stmcture (Sharer 1994). Based on the low frequency of caches dating to this period and 352 their generally unimpressive content, it would appear that this act also brought an end to the North Acropolis as a site of important ritual activity.

In AD 695, for the dedication of Temple I, Ah Cacao raided Site Q/Calakmul and captured its ruler. Jaguar Paw. This raid was timed to fall exactly 13 katuns after the last date on Stormy Sky's Stela 31, which celebrates Tikal's conquest of Uaxactun (Scheie and Freidel 1990). Jaguar Paw and another noble from Site Q were apparently kept on display at Tikal for a short time prior to their sacrifice. This act undoubtedly re­ established Tikal's position as one of the most powerful centers in the lowlands. It would also have served to bring to an end the power of Caracol over Tikal, as it would appear that Caracol and Site Q were allied (Sharer 1994).

Massive construction occun'ed throughout the site core beginning with Ruler A and continuing through the end of the Late Classic. Ruler A constructed two dated Twin

Pyramid groups (3D-1 and 5C-1, dating to AD 692 and 711, respectively), along with a western entrance road which was built and then rebuilt prior to AD 711 (Jones 1991:119).

Ah Cacao was also responsible for Stnjctures 5D-52-2nd, 5D-54-2nd, 5D-61, and 5D-58, along with the East Plaza marketplace complex, and of course Temples I and II (Jones

1991:119). Following Temple I, little constnjction was done in the Great Plaza or North

Acropolis, although the East Plaza was remodeled, and the marketplace quadrangle completed. Both the final version of the Maler and Mendez causeways appear to date to

Ah Cacao. Ruler A died shortly before the inauguration of Ruler B in AD 734, and is buried in Temple I.

Ruler B was also a prolific builder, indeed probably the most prolific in Tikal's history.

With Temple IV at 9.15.10.0.0 (AD 741), Temple VI at 9.16.15.0.0 (AD 353

766) and Twin Pyrmaid Group 3D-2 at 9.16.0.0.0 (AD 751), all at the ends of the three causeways leading out from the site center, these large and highly public constructions which follow Temple I make Ruler B (AD 734 to 768) rather than Ruler A the most prolific builder of his era.

Despite the profusion of massive construction attributable to Ruler B, Jones

(1991:120) states that

...most of the forms which he used to create the impressive aspect of "metropolitan" late Tikal were already begun in previous reigns: the Twin Pyramid Groups, the Great Temples, the grand causeways, the stone- roofed market buildings, the grand Central Acropolis palaces. There is little that is tnjiy innovative in these later construction projects, in spite of their massive scale, and there is correspondingly no indication of dynasitc intrusion in the hieroglyphic records after than of Animal Skull and Burial 195.

Ruler C, who acceeded in AD 768, was also responsible for large scale construction in the late eighth and early ninth centuries, including Temple III (AD 810), and Twin Pyramid Groups at AD 771 and 790. At the height of the Imix period, the population of central Tikal was 62,000 (Rice and Culbert 1990:Table 1.4), while the periphery of the site housed some 20,000. However, by the Temiinal Classic, these figures drop substantially, to some 8600 in the central area, and another 6000 in the periphery.

Despite the revitalization of Tikal under the aegis of Ah Cacao, the North

Acropolis was being utilized less for ritual purposes, and the sealing with Structure 5D-

33-1 st seems to have effectively brought this behaviour to an end. There are very few caches in the North Acropolis dating to the era of Ah Cacao or later, suggesting that either this practice was discontinued, or moved to another area of Tikal which has not yet been investigated. Temple IV in particular seems a likely choice for such behaviour during the reign of Ruler B. 354

Exterior caches from this time are generally found in Stela contexts, as this context accounts for more than half. However, the majority of these are from beneath uncarved stelae, making it difficult to interpret their age. No cache-bearing stela cleariy dates to the reign of Ah Cacao, although one, Stela 5, dates to the time of Ruler B.

Another, Stela 11, is very late in the Late Classic sequence (AD 879), and records the last named Tikal ruler. The high proportion of Stela caches among exterior deposits suggests that public display was still an important function of the Great Plaza.

Postclassic Deposits

Seven deposits (2 caches, 5 problematical deposits) date from the Postclassic period at Tikal. These show only modest spatial patterning, with two deposits recovered from Structure 5D-1st, and two others from Structure 5D-22-1st. However, in both cases, one deposit was from an interior locale, while the other was exterior. Table 3.182 details the placements, contexts, treatments, and descriptive variables of North Acropolis

Postclassic deposits at Tikal.

Table 3.182: Locational Variables of Tikal North Acropolis Postclassic Deposits

Deposit Placement Context Treatment Comment Cache 37 Interior Stair Sut)-Floor Centered Cache 129 Exterior Stairbase Thru-Floor Reseated PD 134, Interior Room Not Desc. Centeriine Burial 200, Bumed Burial 201 Re-Opened PD41 Interior Room Surface Centeriine Bumed PD 51/ Unit Interior Room Not IDesc. Bumed 37 355

PD 38 Exterior Stairbase Surface PD 42 Exterior Door Surface

Postclassic deposits show the highest percentage of surface treatments of the entire North Acropolis assemblage, at 42.9% (3 of 7). However, all of these are problematical deposits, making their interpretation difficult. Two of these three contain either potsherds or rare objects. The only other material type is chert in a single deposit.

No other type of treatment is reported for a Postclassic deposit more than once, with the exception of undescribed.

Interior Deposits

Patterning by Context Type

Stair Deposits

A single Postclassic interior cache was located in a Step context. Cache 37 contained only rare objects - four blue-painted globular lumps of copal. This is unlike any interior Stair Deposit from an eariier time period.

Room Deposits

Three Postclassic problematical deposits came from Room contexts. However, these are entirely dissimilar in ternis of content. PD 134, which relates to disturiDed

Burials 200 and 201, contains a very wide variety of material types - lacking only

Spondylus shells, pigments, and rare objects. PD 41, on the other hand, yielded only potsherds. PD 51/Unit 37 is thought to represent the remains of an individual who died in situ, rather than a burial. The only objects present are human bones. It seems unlikely 356 that any of these deposits was created as an offering or as a place to dispose of ritual objects.

Artifact Analysis

Lithic Artifacts

Obsidian

All the obsidian from Postclassic interior deposits connes from the Room context

PD 134, Burial 200, Burial 201 deposit. This disturbed burial contained 10 eccentrics,

2445 modified flakes, a single lancet, and a single ground and chipped sphere. As this does not appear to relate to an offering, comparison with eariier burial content would probably be more fixiitful than comparison with caches.

Chert

In the same ^shion as obsidian, all chert artifacts from Postclassic interior deposits stem firom the disturised burial PD 134, Burial 200, Burial 201 deposit. This contained 18 eccentrics - 14 of brown chert, 3 of white chert - a single modified flake,

322 flakes, and 1 core.

Jade

Jade is reported only in small quantities in Postclassic interior deposits, and all the material derives from the disturbed burial deposit PD 134, Burial 200, Burial 201.

The single cylindrical bead, 3 mosaic elements, and 3 small fragments thus seem unlikely to be related to either an offering or the disposal of ritual objects. 357

Minerals and Pigments

The traditional dnnabar, malachite, and azurite are all absent in Postciassic deposits. However, two interior deposits do contain pigments of some sort, although none are identified. Cache 37, a Stair deposit, held 4 blue-painted lumps of copal; PO

134, Burial 200, Burial 201, a Room context disturbed burial deposit, contained some pieces of red-painted plaster and flooring. In neither case does the pigment appear to have been a specific offering, thus indicating a break with the Classic period.

Marine Materials

All marine materials recovered from Postciassic contexts in the North Acropolis

were encountered in the disturt>ed Room deposits PD 134, Burial 200, Burial 201. While

these are unlikely to represent anything beyond grave offerings, they are included for

completeness.

Stingray Spines

Stingray remains are reported from only a single Postciassic deposit, the

disturised burial Room deposit PD 134, Burial 200, Burial 201. This held unquantified

fragmentary specimens of worked and unworked stingray spines. Also present were 2

objects identified as "scutes" (see above). These are probably grave offerings of some

sort.

Shell

A number of shells were recovered from PD 134, Burial 200, Burial 201, a 358 disturbed Room context deposit. Shells were not found in any other Postclassic interior deposit in the North Acropolis. PD 134, Burial 200, Burial 201 contained the following species of shell; 1 Area imbricata fi^gment; 1 pair of Area zebra with attached Ostrea sp. and Balanus sp.; 5 loose Balanus sp.; 1 Chama sp. with 5 attached Balanus sp.; 3

Columbella mercatoria; 2 Crepidula aculeata] 1 Ostrea sp.; 2 unidentified univalves, 1 fragmentary; and 1 Vermicularia spirata.

Worked Shell

Several specimens of worked shell were recovered from PD 134, Burial 200,

Burial 201. These included: 2 Possible mosaic elements, a drilled "tinkler" fragment and a second fragmentary Oliva sp. that may have been part of a tinkler, and a shell imitation peari pendant. Like the other materials from this deposit, these were probably grave inclusions.

Other Marine Objects

PD 134, Burial 200, Burial 201 also contained a single fish vertebra and an isolated piece of Bryozoa.

Terrestrial Fauna

All fauna in Postclassic interior deposits came from the disturised burial deposit

PD 134, Burial 200, Burial 201. The following materials were present; 202 rodent bones, unquantified remains of frog and bird (slender long bones), 1 unidentified bone, and a single pendant, a double-perforated bone tube. As this is a disturbed deposit, it is 359 possible that the rodent and frog bones were intrusive.

Human Remains

Human skeletal remains were recovered from two Postciassic interior deposits;

PD 134, Burial 200, Burial 201, and Rare context deposit PD 51/Unit 37. These are described in Table 3.183.

Table 3.183: Human Skeletal Remains in Postciassic Interior Deposits

Deposit Context & Comment Human Remains Treatment PD 51/ Rare (ND) Burned Partial skeleton under deep structural Unit 37 debris. Mature male, lacking skull, vertebrae, pelvis, hands, and feet. Remainder in good condition. Most bones in room's southwest part, with rib fragments and patella to northeast. (Originally burial 46, now voided). PD 134 Room (ND) Centered 248 whole and fragmentary pieces; B200 Burned ribs; 1 calcaneus; 2 metatarsals; 1 B201 Re-opened patella; vertebrae; humeral and tibial epiphyses; innominates; teeth. Suggests 1 male ca. 17 years, second person <15.5 years old. Also; adult vertebrae; scapulae; metacarpals; phalanges; 1 adult molar (worn).

There is little doubt that PD 134 represents a disturbed burial or multiple burial,

and that this is the source of the bulk of the human remains (the phalanges may be unrelated, base on the pattern of phalanx use in Ik-period interior deposits). PD 51 AJnit

37, however, is more confusing. Coe (1990) feels that this represents the remains of a person who entered a room and died there, and he attributes the missing elements to

animal scavenging, or the collection of valued body parts. If this does represent the 360 locus of a death, animal scavenging is not a plausible explanation of the missing bones.

Carnivores will scavenge human remains (Horwitz and Smith 1988), but the selection of elements does not suggest a non-human agent. Coe (1990) proposes that the bones in

PD 51/Unit 37 may belong to a partial skeleton from another burial, possibly Skeleton A of Burial 22.

Ceramics

Ceramics are reported from 2 Postclassic interior deposits. PD 41, a Room context surface deposit, held a single broken ixpop Polychrome tripod plate, that fits to fragments of PD 42. PD 134, Burial 200, Burial 201 yielded 4 Saxche Orange

Polychrome barrel-shaped bowls; 1 Saxche Orange Polychrome lateral-ridged tripod plate with a bumt interior; and sherds of a partial 1/3 of a weathered Zacel Black outcurving-sided tripod plate, along with some incidental Manik sherds. The Saxche sherds show variable degrees of weathering, suggesting different exposures following breakage.

Censers

Postclassic interior deposits are devoid of censers, save for 50 fragments found

In PD 134, Burial 200, Burial 201. Some of these fit spedmens from PD 138 and PD 96.

Copal

As mentioned previously, 4 pieces of blue-painted copal (thought to have been placed on sticks) were recovered firom Stair Cache 37. 361

Mosaic Elements

The only mosaic elements from a Postclassic interior deposit are 2 of shell and 3 of unidentified material from PD 134, Burial 200, Burial 201. Thus, these probably represent grave goods rather than cache contents.

Exterior Deposits

Patterning by Context Type

Stairbase Deposits

Two Postclassic deposits were recovered from Stairbase contexts: Cache 129 and PO 38. These deposits show no relationship with one another, as no material type is common to both. Cache 129 is similar to Late Classic II period Stairisase deposits, as it contains obsidian and chert eccentrics, jade, marine materials, censer and potsherds, and mosaic elements. PD 38 yielded only wood charcoal and Ramon seeds.

Door Deposits

A single Postclassic problematical deposit was recovered from a door context.

PD 42 was found just outside a door of Structure 5D-2-1st, although the only content consisted of a fragmentary Ixpop Polychrome plate with lumps of copal and a chert biface blade. The fragmentary plate fit fragments from the collapse debris of Room 2 of

Structure 5D-33-1. 362

Artifact Analysis

LIthIc Artifects

Obsidian

Obsidian was recovered from only a single Postclassic exterior deposit.

Stairbase Cache 129 contained 9 eccentrics. While obsidian eccentrics are known from

Stairbase deposits throughout the utilziation of the North Acropolis, these are the only examples of obsidian from a Postclassic exterior locale.

Chert

Chert is reported from 2 of the 3 Postclassic exterior deposits. PD 42, located just outside a Door, held a single biface blade, while Stairbase Cache 129 yielded 6 eccentrics and 2 flakes. It is intriguing that the only definate Postclassic cache context to contain eccentrics had both obsidian and chert specimens.

Jade

The only jade artifacts reported from a Postclassic exterior deposit came from

Stairbase Cache 129, which held 4 mosaic elements. Jade is a very rare inclusion in

Postclassic deposits, regardless of their placement.

Marine Materials

The only Postclassic exterior deposit containing items of marine origin is Cache

129, from a Stairbase context. This deposit held a single small piece of branching coral, and 6 shells: 1 Area zebra, 1 Crepidula aculeata, 1 Dinocardium robustum and 3 Ostrea 363 sp. Ail of these are known from the Classic period.

Ceramics

Ceramics are reported from three Postciassic exterior deposits, although 2 of these contain nothing more than sherds. Door deposit PD 42 contains fragments of an

Ixpop Polychrome tripod plate that fit the remains of a specimen from Room PD 41

(discussed above). The Stairbase deposits. Cache 129 and PD 38, held 33 sherds. It does not appear that ceramics were an important item for offerings during the

Postciassic. Indeed, ceramics are uncommon in exterior deposits anytime after the Eariy

Classic.

Censers

Stairbase Cache 129 contained a single censer fragment, the only such example in a Postciassic exterior deposit.

Copal

Copal lumps adhered to the Ixpop Polychrome tripod plate fragment recovered from PD 42, located just in front of a Door.

Seeds and Organics

The only organic remains from a Postciassic exterior deposit are some unquantified, carbonized Ramon seeds from Stairbase deposit PD 38. The origin of these is unclear, as this deposit is not bumed. 364

Mosaic Elements

As with interior deposits, mosaic elements are a rare feature of Postclassic exterior deposits. The only reported specimens are 4 of jade in Stairbase deposit Cache

129.

Discussion

By the Postclassic, the population of central Tikal had returned to its Middle

Preclassic level of 2400 individuals, along with another 300 in the periphery (Rice and

Culbert 1990:Table 1.4). Both construction and monument carving ground to a halt by

A.D. 900. Postclassic caches and problematical deposits are, for the most part,

unspectacular and appear to have only minor relation to their predecessors. While a

wide variety of material types are employed, all materials are found in low numbers (with

the exception of those stemming from disturibed Burials 200 and 201), suggesting only a

hint of the fomrier glory of the North Acropolis assemblage. 365

CHAPTER 4: INTRASITE PATTERNING AT TIKAL: MUNDO PERDiDO

Introduction

The Lost World, or Mundo Perdido, is a pyramid-plaza complex located to the south of the Tikal North Acropolis. Excavations were conducted in Mundo Perdido by the

Proyecto Nacional Tikal (Institute de Antropoligia e HIstona) under the direction of Juan

Pedro Laporte from 1979 to 1982 (Laporte 1989; Laporte et al, 1992; Laporte and

Valdes 1993; Laporte and FiaIko 1987; 1995). This research has paid particular attention to the smaller structures in the peripheral area south of Mundo Perdido (see particularly Laporte 1989; Laporte, et al. 1992), especially those in Group SC-XVI and its surrounding area (Appendix MP1 provides a list of published caches and problematical deposits from the PNT project), along with the main plaza of Mundo Perdido and the adjacent Plaza of the Seven Temples. The probably ceremonial nature of these areas, combined with their proximity to the North Acropolis, should improve comparability with the analysis of caches from the North Acropolis itself.

To date, published accounts exist for at least 56 deposits from Mundo Perdido, including 40 caches, 14 problematical deposits, a single chultun, and one basurero

(refuse pit). These range from the Middle Predassic to the Late Classic/Terminal Classic boundary in age, although the majority are derived from Early Classic or eariter contexts^".

10. This is probably a product of the published sample available to me, rather than a true phenomenon of ancient Maya behaviour. 366

Middle Preclassic Deposits

Eiglit possible ritual deposits were recovered from Middle Preclassic contexts in

Mundo Perdido (see Laporte and Valdes 1993), of which 7 are classified as problematical deposits. The earliest deposits, those of pre-Mamom times (prior to 600

B.C.) are divided almost equally between the Plaza of the Seven Temples and the rest of the Mundo Perdido area, centered around the Great Pyramid Str. 5C-54, and are detailed in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Middle Preclassic Deposits in Mundo Perdido

Deposit Ceramic Phase Structure Location P PNT-012 Pre-Mamom Str. 50-88 Plaza of 7 Temples P PNT-006 Pre-Mamom near Str. 5D-87 Plaza of 7 Temples P PNT-013 Mamom Str. 5D-84 Plaza of 7 Temples P PNT-017 Mamom near Str. 5C-54 Mundo Perdido P PNT-008 Mamom North of Str. 5C-54-1 Mundo Perdido PPNT-011 Mamom South of Str. 5C-54 Mundo Perdido P PNT-016 Mamom South of Str. 5C-54 Mundo Perdido C PNT-028 Mamom/Tzec Near Sacbe Mundo Perdido?

Middle Preclassic deposits tend to show highly consistent contextual patterning, with most deposits coming from court or mixed contexts. Table 4.2 details the locations of each deposit, also shown graphically in Figure 4.1. 367

Table 4.2: Middle Preclassic Cache and Problematical Deposit Contexts

N % Type Placement Context Treatment Comment 4 50 PD Exterior Mixed Sub-Floor Pit dug into bedrock; 1 Centered 2 25 PD Exterior Court Sub-Floor 1 12.5 PD Exterior Court Not Desc. 1 12.5 Cache Exterior Rare Not Desc. Near Sacbe

Figure 4.1: Middle Preclassic Depositional Contexts

70 50 60 w 50 37.5 .o 40 c 0) 30 u 12.5 V 20 Q. 10 0 Court Mixed Rare Context

PD Cache sub-floor Not Desc.

Treatment

There is little variability in the types of treatment employed on Middle Preclassic deposits in Mundo Perdido. Seventy-five percent of the deposits fi-om this period (all problematical deposits) were given sub-floor treatment, while the remainder were not 368

described. The sub-floor deposits showed only a moderate degree of patterning, with

two-thirds containing ceramics, and half yielding terrestrial fauna. Of the other inclusions, only shell {non-Spondylus) was encountered on more than one occasion.

Shell, ceramics, and human remains were all recovered from the two undescribed

deposits. The present data suggest that during the Middle Preclassic, treatment had little

relation to content.

Patterning by Context Type

Court Deposits

Three Middle Preclassic Problematical Deposits were found in Court contexts, all

in the Plaza sun-ounding the Great Pyramid, Structure 50-54. All are of pure Mamom

ceramic contexts, indicating an age between 550-300 B.C. (Laporte and Valdes 1993).

However, little can be said of their content, as two were still awaiting analysis at the time

of publication. The third is described in only very general terms, and yielded ceramics,

snail shells, ceramic figurines, lithic materials, and animal bones.

Rare Context Deposits

The lone Middle Preclassic cache (Cache PNT-028) was situated in a Rare

context, located in the access platfomn of the Sacbe of Mundo Perdido. Although the

contents of this deposit are not fully described, ceramics of the Sien'a and Zapote groups

were present, along with an unidentified shell and cranial fragments (presumably

human). It is unclear whether the shell is of marine or terrestrial origin. 369

Mixed Context Deposits

Four problematical deposits fall into the Mixed category, and these are all very similar to one another. In all cases, these are deposits found in cavities excavated into the limestone bedrock but closely related to structures, and three were located in the

Plaza of the Seven Temples. Further, most share very similar content: all housed ceramics, including potsherds, ceramic figurines, and bone (either worked or unworked).

Three contain shell (either landsnail or undescribed), and three contain undescribed lithics. More detailed content description is needed to determine whether these similarities are merely superficial.

Discussion: Mundo Perdido During the Middle Preclassic

The Middle Preclassic deposits from Mundo Perdido and the Plaza of the Seven

Temples are fairiy consistent in their locations, with an emphasis on sub-floor Court deposits in surrounding Structure SC-54, while the Plaza of the Seven Temples tends to yield Mixed context deposits cut into bedrock, inclusions are more difficult to assess, but ceramics are a common component. Lithics, shells, ten'estrial fauna, and human remains are all present, while items such as stingray spines or jade appear to be absent.

Construction within Mundo Perdido appears minimal during the Middle Preclassic.

While there is evidence for occupation eariy in the Eb phase (between 700-600 B.C.), architecture does not appear until the Late Eb, between 600-500 B.C. (Laporte and

Fiaiko 1990:33).

The Late Eb remains include a radial pyramid (5C-54-1st) situated to the west of a rectangular platform (5D-84/88-1st) across a small plaza. The anrangement appears to 370 be a prototype of the Commemorative Astronomical Complex (like Group E at Uaxactun), which seems to have had its origins in a calendrical ritual. This architectural concept became formalized during the Tzec phase (500-250 B.C.) when a new version of the radial pyramid (5C-54-2nd) and a new East Platform (5D-84/88-2nd) were constructed, both of them considerably greater in volume and height. During the renovation of the buildings the east-west axis, which would become the norm for the complex, was ritually established through the deposition of burials without associated offerings (PNT-002 and

003), located below the summit platform of the radial pyramid. They do not appear to be elite burials, although their location had ritual significance (Laporte and Fiaiko 1990:33-

35).

The presence of both burials and caches, along with the astronomical alignments of the Great Pyramid and East Platfonn are good evidence for the ritual use of Mundo

Perdido during the Middle Preclassic. The caches and problematical deposits from this phase of Mundo Perdido's usage differ from their North Acropolis contemporaries, particulariy in the choice of contexts. While the Mundo Perdido assemblage is concentrated in Court and Mixed contexts, those from the North Acropolis equally divided between Platforms, Construction Fill, and Bedrock. While there is plainly a similarity between the North Acropolis Bedrock deposits and the Mixed context deposits of Mundo

Perdido, the remainder suggest different behaviours, especially in the choice of elevated locations in the North Acropolis. The inclusions appear similar due to an emphasis on ceramics; however, this is difficult to determine due to the still largely undescribed materials from Mundo Perdido. 371

Late Preclassic Deposits

Seven deposits from the Mundo Perdido area date to the Late Preclassic, including three caches and a chultun. The location of these deposits is detailed in Table

4.3, while their contexts are described in Table 4.4 and shown graphically in Figure 4.2.

Table 4.3.: Late Preclassic Cache Locations

Deposit Ceramic Phase Structure Location P PNT-014 Early Chicanel Str. 6C-27 South of main Mundo Perdido area P PNT-015 Early Chicanel East of Str. 5C-Sub- Plaza Alta 1 C PNT-015 Late Chicanel Near Str. 5C-49 Plaza Alta Chultun 5C-8 Late Chicanel Northeast of Plaza Alta P PNT-002 Cimi West Plaza, south sector Cache PNT- Clmi Str. 5D-86-7 Plaza of 7 Temples 010 Cache PNT- Cauac Plaza Alta, north sector 013

Table 4.4: Late Preclassic Cache and Problematical Deposit Contexts

N % Type Placement Context Treatment Comment 2 28.6 Cache Exterior Court Not Desc. 1 14.3 PD Exterior Court Not Desc. Bumed Floor 1 14.3 Chultun Exterior Court Sub-Floor 1 14.3 PD Exterior Platform Not Desc. 1 14.3 Cache Interior Room Not Desc. 1 14.3 PD Exterior Mixed Sub-Floor 372

Figure 4.2: Late Preclassic Depositionai Contexts

80 57^ (0 60 ? I*— ° 40

14.3 14.3

Room Platform Court Mixed Context

PD Cache I— Chuitun 1 1 Sub-floor Not Desc.

Treatment

There is a superficial change in predominant treatment from the Middle to Late

Preclassic in the Mundo Perdido area, with sub-floor deposits decreasing to only a single example. However, all other Late Preclassic deposits have undescribed treatment, making such a pattem meaningless.

Patterning by Context Type

Court Deposits

The two Court caches are similar to each other in their location (both from the north sector of the Plaza Alta, near Str. 50-49), and in the presence of ceramics - both held fragmentary ceramic vessels. Cache PNT-015 also contained material identified as 373 textile, of vegetal origin and spiral form. Chultun 5C-8 was located near the two court caches, and like them, contained ceramic vessels. Also present were a snail shell, and a fragment of a grinding stone. The single court problematical deposit does not appear to be an offering of any kind and is devoid of content; however, the associated floor appeared to be completely burned..

Platform Deposits

The single Late Preclassic problematical deposit from a Platform context (PD

PNT-014), is actually located outside of Mundo Perdido, in a small platform just to the south. Its content is not described in detail, although potsherds, projectile points, and figurines are all mentioned. Additionally, this deposit seems to have been associated with a hearth, although the relationship between the two features is unclear.

Room Deposits

The only reported interior cache firom the Late Preclassic at Mundo Perdido is

Cache PNT-010, found in Chamber 3 of Structure 5D-86-7, In the Plaza of the Seven

Temples. This cache was found in association with a burial (Burial PNT-021), and both were apparently disturt)ed during a later period of remodelling. The only items remaining in this cache were some jade fragments, a Spondylus sp. shell, and a tetrapod vessel with mammifonn supports. From the short description of this deposit, it is unclear how it was distinguished from the associated burial. 374

Mixed Context Deposits

Unlike the Middle Preclassic, where Mixed context deposits were the most common form, during the Late Preclassic only a single such deposit is reported from the

Mundo Perdido area. Problematical Deposit PNT-002 was found in a cavity within the limestone bedrock (also similar to the Middle Preclassic deposits), in the south sector of the West Plaza. Present were numerous potsherds (4,862 pieces), and unquantified fragmentary deer bones. Also present were 2 tripod plates (with mammiform supports) decorated in the Usulatan style, in red over a red base (Caramba type).

Discussion: Mundo Perdido during the Late Preclassic

The Late Preclassic deposits show continuity with the Middle Preclassic, particulariy in the importance of the Court context. However, this period also sees the first use of a man-made elevated context (Platform) and an interior context, suggesting some changes. The artifact inventory is again difficult to assess, although ceramics continue to dominate, while jade makes its first appearance.

Constmction accelerated during the Late Preclassic, with particular attention given to the Great Pyramid (Structure 5C-54) and the East Platform (Stnjcture 5D-84/88).

Further renovation of the pyramid (5C-54-3rd) and East Platform (5D-84/88-3rd) in the Chuen phase (250-100 B.C.) indicates the completion of a preestablished ritual cycle. The radial pyramid again increased in volume, but it now included monumental masks as decoration, flanked by auxiliary staircases.... It was just after these developments when the causeway which gave access to Mundo Perdido from the northeast was formalized as the principal means of communication with the recently developed area of the North Acropolis. The enlargement of Mundo Perdido continued during the Cauac phase (100 B.C. to A.D. 250) through the levelling of areas that fonmed plazas and open spaces, a massive expansion of the radial pyramid (5C- 54-4th), and the construction of three temples on top of the East Platform 375

5D-84/88-4th). The temple In the center (5D-86-4th) had two jaguar masks conforming with the established axis (Laporte and Fiaiko 1990:35).

The Late Preclassic at Mundo Perdido shares some similarities with the North Acropolis, such as the first cache/problematical deposit appearance of jade, and the first interior placement of such a deposit. However, while a wide variety of North Acropolis contexts are employed for deposition, only a handful are utilized in Mundo Perdido, suggesting a continuing difference in the nature of the rituals performed in each area. This is further supported by evidence from the burials in each area, as noted by Laporte and Fiaiko

(1990):

From the Late Preclassic period differences between the deposition of burials are evident at Mundo Perdido and the North Acropolis. At Mundo Perdido burials were placed ceremonially in conformance with the established axis. But at the North Acropolis, beginning with the Chuen phase, burials of men, women, and children have an elite connotation related to later vaulted tombs.... The luxury offerings included ceramic vessels, marine materials, and traces of wall paintings; based on the pattern of such elite goods, it is evident that the ruling lineage preferred to inter its members in this location. It is not yet possible to identify the specific lineage to which the persons in the eariy North Acropolis tombs belonged (Laporte and Fiaiko 1990:35).

Early Classic Deposits

As is seen in the North Acropolis (see Chapter 3), the greatest number of deposits from the Mundo Perdido area date to the Eariy Classic. In fact, the Proyecto

Nacional Tikal has published descriptions for fully half as many Eariy Classic caches and problematical deposits from Mundo Perdido as were encountered in the University of

Pennsylvania project in the North Acropolis. The Lost Worid has yielded a minimum of

34 caches and 4 problematical deposits dating from the Eariy Classic. Table 4.5 details the locations of these deposits, while Table 4.6 describes the contexts of Eariy Classic deposits (shown graphically in Figure 4.3).

Table 4.5: Early Classic Deposits from Mundo Perdido

Deposit Ceramic Structure Location Phase C PNT-007 Manik 1 Str. 5D-86-5 Plaza of 7 Temples C PNT-009 Manik 1 Str. 5D-83-5 Plaza of 7 Temples C PNT-012 Manik 1 East of 50-54 Plaza Alta C PNT-014 Manik 1 North of 50-54 Plaza Alta, near 5D-77 C PNT-001 Manik 2 Str. 50-54 Great Pyramid C PNT-002 Manik 2 Str. 50-54 Great Pyramid C PNT-008 Manik 2 Str. 5D-86 Plaza of 7 Temples C PNT-071 Manik 2 Str. Sub-09 Group 60-XVI C PNT-037 Manik 2 Str. Sul>17 Group 60-XVI C PNT-067 Manik 2 Str. Sub-08 Group 60-XVI C PNT-036 Manik 3A Str. Sut)-47 Group 60-XVI 0 PNT-070 Manik 3A Str. Sub 25 & Sub 41 Group 60-XVI C PNT-072 Manik 3A Str. Sub-04 Group 60-XVI C PNT-049 Manik 3A Str. Sub-48 Group 60-XVI C PNT-043 Manik 3A Str. Sub-48 Group 60-XVI C PNT-048 Manik 3A Str Sub-26 Group 60-XVI C PNT-050 Manik 3A Str. Sub-23 Group 60-XVI 0 PNT-051 Manik 3A Altar Sub-48 Group 60-XVI C PNT-057 Manik 3A Aguada Madeira C PNT-023 Manik 3B Str. Sub-62 Group 60-XVI C PNT-026 Manik 3B Str. Sub-75 Group 60-XVI C PNT-042 Manik 3B Str. Sub-84 Group 60-XVI 0 PNT-040 Manik 38 Str. Sub-51 Group 60-XVI 377

C PNT-053 Manik 3B Str. Sub-83 Group 60-XVI 0 PNT-046 Manik 3B Str. 6D-19 Group 6D-5 C PNT-044 Manik 3B Str. 6D-20 Group 6D-5 0 PNT-054 Manik 38 Str. 6D-20 Group 6D-5 C PNT-032 Manik 38 Str. 60-34 Group 60-11 0 PNT-034 Manik 38 Str. 60-32 Group 60-11 C PNT-035 Manik 38 Str. 60-32 Group 60-11 C PNT-039 Manik 3 Group 6D-20 P PNT-019 Manik 2 Str. Suk)-07 Group 60-XVI P PNT-031 Manik 2 Str. Sut)-75 Group 60-XVi P PNT-023 Manik 38 Str. Suk)-84 Group 60-XVI P PNT-022 Manik 38 Str. Sub-80 Group 60-XVI

Table 4.6: Early Classic Depositlonal Contexts in Mundo Perdido

N % Type Placement Context Treatment Comment 2 5.9 Oache Interior Altar Sub-Floor 1 2.9 Oache Interior Bench Not Desc. 4 11.8 Oache Exterior Oonst. Fill Not Desc. 1 2.9 Oache Exterior Oonst. Fill Sub-Floor 1 2.9 Oache Exterior Mixed Sub-Floor 1 2.9 Oache Exterior Platform Sulj-Floor 1 2.9 Oache Exterior Platform Thru-Floor 3 8.8 Oache Exterior Plaza Not Desc. 1 Oentered 1 2.9 Oache Exterior Rare Not Desc. 1 2.9 Oache Interior Room Sub-Floor 1 2.9 Oache Exterior Stair Sub-Floor Centered 378

1 2.9 Cache Exterior Stairbase Not Desc. 3 8.8 Cache Exterior Structure Sub-Floor 2 5.9 Cache Exterior Structure Thru-Floor 11 32.4 Cache Exterior Structure Not Desc. 1 2.9 Cache Exterior Wall Not Desc. 1 2.9 Cache Exterior Wall Sub-Floor 1 25 PD Exterior Mixed Not Desc. 1 25 PD Exterior Platform Not Desc. 1 25 PD Exterior Rare Sub-Floor 1 25 PD Interior Room Not Desc.

Figure 4.3: Early Classic Cache Contexts

60 _ 50 47.1 (Q ,2 40

Bc 30 a> H 20 14.7 0) 8.8 10 5.9 5.8 2.9 2.9 ia ^ ^ /

Sub-Floor ^ Thru-Floor • Not Desc. 379

Treatment

Early Classic caches and problematical deposits received a wider variety of treatments than their predecessors, with sub-floor and through-floor treatments both present, although undescribed treatments comprise 63.2% of all Eariy Classic deposits.

Twelve deposits (2 problematical) were given sub-floor treatment. Eight of these contain ceramics (66.7%), while jade is the only other material type reported in more than three deposits. The two caches given through-floor treatment are completely lacking in common content. As in the Middle Preclassic deposits, it appears that there is little relationship between through-floor treatment and cache content.

Patterning by Context Type

Stair Contexts

Only a single cache from the Mundo Perdido area was recovered from a Stair context. This was Cache PNT-047, from Structure Sub-26 in Group 6C-XVI. While a number of different inclusion types were recovered - including jade, Spondylus and other shells, ceramics, and rare objects (mica) - there are no other caches of this context type for comparison.

Stairbase Contexts

Cache PNT-049, from Structure Sub-48 of Group 6C-XVI, is the only Stairbase cache in the Mundo Perdido sample. This deposit is of particular importance to Tikal's history as it contained the famous limestone ball-court marker (see Laporte 1989;

Laporte ef a/1992). While North Acropolis caches occasionally yield inscribed stone, 380 this find is unique in that it is not a monument fragment and probably originally unrelated to the offering. The ballcourt mariner - which is Central Mexican in appearance (see

Laporte 1989; Figure 115; Laporte and Fiaiko 1990;53) ~ has an inscription relating to the Tikal-Uaxactun event of AD 378, and mentions Smoking Frog and Spearthrower Owl, a person thought by some to be the brother of Smoking Frog. Also found in this deposit was a bone burin, an unworked Spondylus shell, and an stucco anthropomorphic head.

Altar Context Caches

Two caches from Mundo Perdido (PNT-043 and 051) are derived from what may be an Altar context. These are described (Laporte et al 1992;35) as having been

deposited during the covering of the Altar of Sub-48. These are the only caches reported

from Altar contexts in Tikal as none are present in the North Acropolis.

The caches are quite dissimilar, and there are no overiapping inclusional

categories, indeed, Cache PNT-043 contained nothing but ceramics, while Cache PNT-

051 held jade, Spondyfus and other shell, and terrestrial fauna - but lacked ceramics.

Laporte et al (1992) argue that these caches were intenred at the same time, along with

Burial PNT-153, suggesting that each deposit may have played a different part in the

same ritual.

Bench Context Deposits

Caches found in association with Benches are rare at Ttkal, and only a single

such deposit was reported from the Mundo Perdido investigations. This deposit. Cache

PNT-067, is described as "...located in relation to the mutilated bench of Structure Sub- 381

08" (Laporte 1989:205 ~ translation by the author). Cache PNT-067 yielded only a fragmentary tripod plate.

Court Context Caches

The two Early Classic Court caches found in the Mundo Perdido area are very similar to one another. Both were found in the Plaza AHa located between the Great

Pyramid and the Plaza of the Seven Temples, and both contain nothing but ceramics

(PNT-012 contained the remains of 5 ollas, while PNT-014 held a basal-flanged red plate). This shows strong continuity with Court context deposits of the Late Preclassic, which also all contain ceramics (exclusively in 2 of 3 cases).

Construction Fill Caches

Five Early Classic caches in the Mundo Perdido area were recovered from contexts within Construction Fill, and these show only moderate continuity with one another. Eighty percent yielded ceramics, while 60% held shell (non-Spondylus). Single deposits also yielded jade, human remains, terrestrial fauna, pigments, and unusual objects (Cache PNT-040 contained a single bead, of undescribed material). It is worth noting that the jade, fauna, and pigments were all found within the same deposit (Cache

PNT-007). Thus, there is a notable lack of inclusional variety in most Construction Fill caches From the Mundo Perdido area.

Mixed Context Deposits

Three Eariy Classic deposits (including 1 problematical deposit) fall into the 382 category of Mixed context. Two (Caches PNT-001 and 002) were found within the Great

Pyramid, Str. 5C-54, while the third (PD PNT-031) came firom Edifice Sub-75 of Group

6C-XVI. The two caches are very similar to one another, as both held ceramics, which were augmented with pigments in one case (Cache PNT-002). The problematical deposit also contained ceramics (potsherds and a figurine), along with a number of other material types, including shell ornaments (non-Spondylus), terrestrial ^una, human remains, bone artifacts, and lithic artifacts of an unspecified raw material. The similarities between the caches suggests that these may be related to similar behaviours, while the problematical deposit appears quite different.

Platform Caches

Three Eariy Classic caches from Mundo Perdido were recovered from Platfomi contexts. However, these show a surprising lack of similarity with one another, as jade is the only material type found in more than one deposit, reporited from two. The disparity of material inclusions, combined with the fact that all deposits came from different structures (encompassing 2 different structural groups), indicates that there was little consistency in the nature of offerings related to Platform contexts in the Mundo Perdido.

Rare Context Deposits

At Mundo Perdido, three Eariy Classic deposits were recovered from contexts best classified as "Rare" or "Other." Cache PNT-042 was recovered from within a stone box associated with Structure Sub-84 in Group 6C-XVI; Cache PNT-057 was recovered from the area of the Aguada Madeira, and PD PNT-019 was found in a cavity 383

[Hoquedad\ within the natural rock associated with Edifice Sub-07 in Group 6C-XVI.

As these three deposits show little contextual similarity to each other, it is unsurprising that they also lack content affinities. All three contain ceramics of some sort, although Cache PNT-057 is devoid of content beyond a single censer. The other two deposits also both contain shell {non-Spondylus) and rare or unusual objects which bear little relation to each other (PNT-042 contains sulphur while PD PNT-019 yielded slabs of mica). The three Rare context deposits appear to have little relation to one another.

Room Deposits

Two Eariy Classic deposits (1 PD) were recovered from within Rooms. Cache

PNT-071 was encountered in Room 2 of Structure Sub-09 in Group 6C-XVI, while PD

PNT-022 was found in the chamber of Structure Sub-80 of the same group. The two deposits have no common inclusions, with the cache yielding ceramics and human remains exclusively, and the PD containing non-eccentric obsidian and chert, shell (non-

Spondylus), terrestrial fauna, and fragments of grinding stones.

Structure Deposits

By far the most common Eariy Classic cache context in Mundo Perdido is the

Structure, a category used to classify incompletely described deposits. Thirteen caches are reported from Structure contexts, thus accounting for 38.2% of the Eariy Classic total.

The most intriguing aspect of these deposits is the fact that very few material types are encountered in high frequency. Ceramics are the most common inclusion, reported from 384 more than half of the deposits (8 caches, 61.5%), and one of these contains nothing but censers. Jade and Spondylus are both reported from 4 caches (30.8%), while shell and non-eccentric obsidian and chert are all reported from 2 caches (15.4%), seldom together. Human remains, terrestrial fauna, pigments, and grinding stones were all reported in single caches.

Although Structure contexts are the most common location of caches during the

Eariy Classic, the lack of content similarity is not surprising, due to the catch-all nature of this classification.

Wall Context Deposits

Two deposits (1 PD) came from retaining walls in Mundo Perdido. Cache PNT-

034, in Group 6C-11 yielded only ceramics, while PD PNT-023, in Group 66C-XVI contained non-eccentric obsidian and chert, along with terrestrial fauna and grinding stones.

Artifect Analysis

Lithic Artifacts

Obsidian

Obsidian Is a rather unusual commodity in Mundo Perdido deposits, as it is entirely absent prior to the Eariy Classic, and then is found in only four - two caches and two problematical deposits (5.9% of caches, 50% of problematical deposits, 10.5% of total). The caches are not closely related In space (Cache PNT-032 comes from

Structure Sub-34 in Group 6C-11, while Cache PNT-048 is ft-om Str. Sub-28 in Group 385

6C-XVI), although both are from general Structure contexts.

The artifacts in these caches are complimentary, although made from different material. Cache PNT-032 yielded a single fragmentary prismatic blade of grey obsidian, while Cache PNT-048 yielded a prismatic blade of green obsidian, along with a fragmentary miniature black blade (presumably also obsidian). The spartan use of obsidian in caches in Mundo Perdido is surprising, especially in light of its abundance in

Eariy Classic caches of the North Acropolis. As there are more than 30 Eariy Classic deposits known from Mundo Perdido, I doubt that this low frequency is a result of sampling error; instead it would seem to represent a very different, if unknown, behaviour.

Problematical deposits PNT-022 and 023 are both from Group 6C-XV1, although from different areas within it. Further, PD PNT-022 was located within a Room, while

PNT-023 was in an exterior retaining wall. Thus, there is only minimal locational similarity between these two deposits. However, their artifact assemblages are quite similar, and very impressive in comparison with the obsidian-bearing caches from this area (although modest in comparison with many from the North Acropolis). Both deposits contained grey and green obsidian, with the grey material much more common.

Table 4.7 compares the frequencies of artifact types in these two deposits.

Table 4.7: Obsidian Artifact Frequencies in Early Classic PD's

ArtifectType PD PNT4)22 PD PNT-023 Total Core (Grey) 1 1 2 Prismatic Blade (Grey) 32 20 52 Sub-Prismatic Blade (Grey) 0 1 1 Flake (Grey) 3 0 3 386

Projectile Point (Grey) 1 2 3 Knife (Grey) 2 0 2 Prismatic Blade (Green) 8 6 14 Knife (Green) 0 1 1 Totals 47 31 78

The similarity of forms and frequencies in the two problematical deposits suggests that these represent similar behaviours to one another, and very different behaviours than were involved in the deposition of the caches. The presence of green obsidian is intriguing, as it undoubtedly comes from the Pachuca source north of

Teotihuacan. If Mundo Perdido did indeed house an enclave of Teotihucanos (which

6C-XVI may represent — see Laporte 1989), then the presence of this material may be related to them. However, green obsidian is also known from the North Acropolis, and also in low frequencies. Thus, its presence in Mundo Perdido is indicative of little beyond trade with Teotihuacan, either direct or indirect. Also of note is the complete absence of eccentric forms in the Mundo Perdido assemblage. This would also tend to suggest different ritual behaviour associated with cache deposition than was present in the North

Acropolis.

Chert

Much like obsidian, chert is not a frequent cache inclusion in Mundo Perdido, although it is reported in a lone problematical deposit dating to the Middle Preclassic.

Five Eariy Classic deposits, including 2 PD's, yielded chert (8.8% of caches, 50% of

PD's, 13.2% of total deposits). Intriguingly, none of the chert-bearing caches include 387 obsidian, although this is present in the two problematical deposits.

The three caches show little spatial relation to one another, all coming from different structural groups (Cache PNT-008 firom Str. 50-86; Cache PNT-054 from Group

6D-5; Cache PNT-072 from Structure Sub-04 of Group 6C-XVI). Contextually there is also little specific similarity, although the latter two deposits were both found in general

Structure contexts, with Cache PNT-008 deriving from a Platform.

Like the obsidian inventory from Eariy Classic caches, the quantity of chert

Implements is very low, showing a marked contrast with the North Acropolis. Cache

PNT-072 contained a single scraper, while PNT-054 held 2 large points (11.8 and 17.5 cm in length, respectively), along with some unquantified, undescribed flakes. The material in PNT-008 cannot be assessed as it is described only as various chert implements. The pattern suggests that, much like obsidian, chert was not widely

employed in rituals resulting in caches in the Mundo Perdido area.

The two problematical deposits (PD PNT-022 and 023, mentioned above) show a

very different pattern, although this is rendered less clear by the fact that the lithic

material is never identified. Thus, I am assuming it is chert. Table 4.8 compares artifact

forms and frequencies.

Table 4.8: Chert Artifacts In Early Classic Probiematical Deposits

Artifect Type PD PNT^)22 PD PNT-023 Total Core 9 0 9 Flake 26 13 39 Nodule 1 10 11 Raederas 2 4 6 Scraper 1 2 3 388

Sub-Prismatic Blade 0 1 1 Projectile Point 4 1 5 Bifacial Axe 3 0 3 Chisel 1 0 1 Knife 4 0 4 Polishing Stone 4 0 4 Totals 55 31 86

Intriguingly, PD PNT-023 has an identical 31 pieces of both chert and obsidian, although it is unclear whether this is meaningful. It is also worth noting that, as was seen for obsidian, eccentric forms are completely absent. This too is intriguing, as these were very common In the North Acropolis during the Eariy Classic. The chert assemblages seen in these problematical deposits appear utilitarian (rather than ritual), although it is difficult to suggest what they might indicate.

Jade

Jade (including greenstone and albite) is the third most common inclusion in

Mundo Perdido (after ceramics and Spondylus), recovered from 10 caches (29.4% of caches, 26.3% of total deposits). These are listed, along with their location and context, in Table 4.9.

Table 4.9: Jade-Bearing Eariy Classic Caches

Cache Context Structure Treatment PNT-007 Const. Fill Str. 5D-86-5 Not Described PNT-008 Platfomi Str. 5E)-86 Not Described 389

PNT-030 Platfomi Str. Sub-49, Group 6C-XVI Subi-Floor PNT-036 Structure Str. Sub-47, Group 6C-XVI Not Described PNT-042 Rare Str. Sub-84, Group 6C-XV1 Stone Offering Box PNT-045 Structure Str. Sub-27, Group 6C-XVI Sub-Floor PNT.046 Structure Str. 6D-19, Group 6D-5 Not Described PNT-047 Stair Str. Sub-26, Group 6C-XV1 Sub-Floor PNT-048 Structure Str. Sub-26, Group 6C-XVI Not Described PNT-051 Altar Altar Sub-48, Group 6C-XVI Sub-Floor

Although jade-bearing deposits in Mundo Perdido are spread over 3 distinct structure groups, the majority of the deposits (70%) stem from Group 6C-XV1, the probable area of the Teotihuacan enclave. It is interesting that none of the deposits from the area of the Great Pyramid (5D-54) contained any jade artifacts, suggesting a pattern of ritual behaviour different from the rest of Mundo Perdido.

Beads were recovered from more caches than any other type of jade artifact in the Mundo Perdido area, present in 90% of all jade-bearing deposits. Interestingly, the only jade-bearing cache lacking beads (Cache PNT-046) came from Group 6D-5 - the only jade-bearing deposit in that group. Beads from the two caches from the Plaza of the

Seven Temples (PNT-007 and 008) are described only as greenstone, rather than jade, and their material source is unclear. Three jade ear-flares were recovered from 2 caches, always with beads, while 5 adomos were encountered in a single deposit. Table

4.10 describes the jade objects recovered in Mundo Perdido Caches. 390

Table 4.10: Jade Artifects in Early Classic Caches

Deposit Jade Objects Cache PNT-007 Unquantified beads of green stone Cache PNT-008 Unquantified greenstone beads Cache PNT-030 2 ear ornaments of albite/jadeite (9 cm diameter) - one fragmented; 2 biconically drilled teads of the same material. Cache PNT-036 1 jadeite bead with a biconical perforation. Cache PNT-042 3 jadeite/albite beads with spots of iron oxide, hematite, and limonite. Cache PNT-045 1 circular albite [a coloriess/white prismatic rock crystal] bead with biconical perforation and traces of burning; 1 fragmentary ear flare with 2 incomplete perforations. Cache PNT-046 5 very small jade adomos or paraphernalia Cache PNT-047 3 beads of albite/jadeite, with biconical perforation. Cache PNT-048 1 jadeite/nephrite bead with biconical perforation Cache PNT-051 1 cylindrical jade bead with biconical perforation.

Like the other types of lithic artifacts, the use of jade in Mundo Perdido caches is quite different than that seen in the North Acropolis. The Mundo Perdido assemblage is completely lacking in forms such as figurines and particularly in mosaic elements - a very large component of the North Acropolis assemblage. While the presence of jade beads and a small number of ear flares is very similar, it is debatable whether this has anything to do with these materials being present at Tikal. Jade beads are a common object throughout much of Mesoamerica, and their presence in both the North Acropolis and Mundo Perdido is probably related more to a pan-regional cultural behaviour than to local events. 391

Minerals and Pigments

Minerals and pigments - particularly cinnabar ~ are a frequent feature in North

Acropolis caches. However, these materials are relatively uncommon in Early Classic caches of Mundo Perdido, reported in only four (11.8% of caches, 10.5% of total deposits). These are listed in Table 4.11.

Table 4.11: Minerals and Pigments in Early Classic Caches

Cache Context Structure Treatment PNT-002 Mixed Str. 5C-54 Not Described PNT-007 Const. Fill Str. 5D-86-5 Not Described PNT-042 Rare Str. Sub-84. Group eC-XVI Stone Offering Box PNT-048 Structure Str. Sub-26, Group 6C-XVI Not Described.

The few mineral/pigment-bearing caches are spread through Group 6C-XVI (The

Teotihuacano enclave), the Plaza of the Seven Temples, and the Great Pyramid, suggesting little spatial patterning. Further, all four caches come from different contexts.

All deposits contain cinnabar or unidentified red pigments, while some also contain other materials. These are described in Table 4.12.

Table 4.12: Minerals and Pigments in Early Classic Caches

Deposit Minerals and Pigments Cache PNT-002 2 Aguila Red-Orange dishes, lip-to-lip, containing cinnabar and other specular particles in their interior Cache PNT-007 traces of cinnabar 392

Cache PNT-042 Plate with cinnabar, an olla containing cinnabar and sulphur adhered to the wall... all positioned over the base; 2 Spondylus pendants with traces of red pigment; 3 jadeite/albite beads with spots of iron oxide, hematite, and limonite. Cache PNT-048 1 jadeite/nefrite bead with red pigment

Marine Materials

Stingray Spines

While Stingray Spines are an important component of North Acropolis offerings throughout most of its occupation, this is not the case for Mundo Perdido. Only a single cache (PNT-008) contained spines, which are unfortunately unquantified in Laporte and

Fiaiko (1987). Presumably these were used in trance-inducing rituals of bloodletting and poisoning, although there is little evidence to support or refute this position. The available evidence suggests that Stingray spines were far more important in rituals in the

North Acropolis than in Mundo Perdido.

Spondyius sp. Sheils

Spondylus shells - both worked and unworked - are a common constituent of

Early Classic caches in Mundo Perdido, reported in nine (26.5% of caches, 23.7% of total deposits). Table 4.13 lists the Spondy/as-bearing caches of Mundo Perdido.

Table 4.13: Spondyfus-Bearing Eariy Classic Caches

Cache Context Structure Treatment PNT-030 Platform Str. Sub-49, Group 6C-XVI Sub-Floor PNT-036 Structure Str. Sub-47, Group 6C-XVI Not Described 393

PNT-042 Rare Str. Sub-84, Group 6C-XVI Stone CDffering Box PNT-047 Stair Str. Sub-26. Group SC-XVI Sub-Floor PNT-048 Structure Str. Sub-26, Group 6C-XVI Not Described PNT-049 Stairbase Str. Sub-48, Group 6C-XVI Not Described PNT-050 Structure Str. Sub-23, Group SC-XVI Through-Floor PNT-051 Altar Altar Sub-48 Group 6C-XVI Sub-Floor PNT-072 Structure Str. Sub-04, Group SC-XVI Not Described

Intriguingly, 100% of the Spondylus-bearing caches came from Group 66C-XVI with none from the Plaza of the Seven Temples or the Great Pyramid. This suggests that within Mundo Perdido, the use of Spondylus in caches was regulated and perhaps restricted to the Teotihuacan enclave. There is little evidence for contextual patterning, however, with only the general Stmcture context employed on more than one occasion.

The actual assemblage of Spondylus shells is dominated by pendants, which comprise 11 specimens. There are no other artifact forms, and only 3 specimens of unworked shell are present. Table 4.14 lists the Spondylus remains present in Mundo

Perdido Caches.

Table 4.14: Spondylus in Early Classic Caches

Deposit Spondylus Remains Cache PNT-030 3 Spondylus pendants Cache PNT-036 1 Spondy/us pendant Cache PNT-042 2 Spondylus pendants with traces of red pigment Cache PNT-047 1 Spondylus pendant with 2 perforations Cache PNT-048 2 Spondylus pendants, each with 2 perforations Cache PNT-049 1 Spondy/us shell 394

Cache PNT-050 1 Spondylus pendant Cache PNT-051 1 Spondylus pendant Cache PNT-072 2 unworited Spondylus shells (1 fragmentary)

The pattern obser/ed among Mundo Perdido cached Spondylus shells is markedly different than that present In the North Acropolis. Pendants are rare or entirely absent in the North Acropolis, and yet are the dominant form in Mundo Perdido.

Conversely, mosaic elements are paramount in the North Acropolis assemblage, and lacking in Mundo Perdido. As with the other materials analyzed, this suggests a very different pattern of ritual behaviour in these two areas of Tikal.

Other Shells

A number of Eariy Classic deposits contained shell species other than Spondylus, although the majority of these are unidentified. A total of 9 caches (26.5%) and 3 problematical deposits (75%) yielded other shells (typically described only as caracoles

(snail shells) and concha (generic shells). Thus, non-Spondylus shells were recovered in

31.6% of all Eariy Classic deposits. Table 4.15 lists the shell-bearing deposits of the

Early Classic.

Table 4.15: Early Classic Shell-Bearing Deposits

Cache Context Structure Treatment PNT-007 Const. Fill Str. 5D-88-5 Not Descrit)ed PNT-009 Const. Fill Str. 5D-83-5 Not Described PNT-026 Platfomi Str. Sub-75, Group 6C-XVI Through Floor PNT-042 Rare Str. Sub-84, Group 6C-XVI Stone Offering Box 395

PNT-046 Structure Str. 60-16, Group 6D-5 Not Oescritsed PNT-047 Stair Str. Sub-26, Group eC-XVI Sub-Floor PNT-051 Altar Altar Sub-48, Group 6C-XVi Sub-Floor PNT-053 Const. Fill Str. Sub-83, Group 6C-XV1 Not Described PNT-072 Structure Str. Sub-04, Group 6C-XVI Not Described PD PNT-019 Rare Str. Sub-07, Group 6C-XVI Sub-Floor PD PNT-022 Room Str. Sub-80, Group 6C-XVI Not Descrit>ed PD PNT-031 Mixed Str. Sub-75, Group 6C-)CV1 Not Described.

While shell-bearing deposits are found in a number of different areas of Mundo

Perdido, they are most common in Group 6C-XV1 (75% of all deposits). Shell-bearing deposits are also spread over a variety of different context types, with the most common being constnjction fill (3 caches, 25% of total deposits). Rare and general Structure contexts are each reported on two occasions. This may suggest that shells were used in dedication caches.

Shells are found in both worked and unworiced forms, although unworked specimens appear to outnumber their worked counterparts. Snaii shells tend to be unworked, although it is difficult to interpret the presence of both worked and unworked generic shells (concha). Table 4.16 lists the shells found in each deposit.

Table 4.16: Shells in Early Classic Deposits

Deposit Shells Cache PNT-007 marine shells and shell beads Cache PNT-009 24 snail shells Cache PNT-026 Complete bivalve shell, 965 land snails 396

Cache PNT-042 2 shells and unwori

North Acropolis, primarily due to the Infrequency of identified specimens in the former.

The North Acropolis assemblage is intriguing primarily because of its diversity - high numbers of species with low numbers of examples of each. Without specific identifications for the Mundo Perdido material, it is impossible to suggest whether the

North Acropolis pattern holds true in this area.

Terrestrial Fauna

Terrestrial vertebrate faunal remains were recovered in 8 Eariy Classic deposits, including 4 problematical deposits (11.8% of caches, 100% of problematical deposits,

21.1% of total deposits). This is the only material type in which the ratio of caches and problematical deposits is equal, suggesting that a great many fauna-bearing deposits could not be cleariy recognized as caches. A similar phenomenon was present in the

North Acropolis, indicating some continuity between these areas. Unfortunately, this 397 continuity may relate as much to the bias of excavators as it does to Maya behaviour.

Mayanists seem reluctant to identify deposits as caches if they house animal bones,

although I have no idea why. Table 4.17 lists the fauna-bearing deposits in Mundo

Perdido.

Table 4.17: Fauna-Bearing Early Classic Deposits

Cache Context Structure Treatment PNT-007 Const. Fill Str. 5D-86-5 Not Described PNT-008 Platfomi Str. 5D-86 Not Described PNT-046 Stnjcture Str. 6D-19, Group 6D-5 Not Described PNT-051 Altar Altar Sub-48, Group 6C-XVI Sub-Floor PD PNT-019 Rare Str. Sub-007, Group SC-XVI Sub-Floor PD PNT-022 Room Str. Sub-80, Group 6C-XYI Not Described PD PNT-023 Wall Str. Sub-84, Group SC-XVI Sub-Floor PD PNT-031 Mixed Str. Sub-75, Group SC-XVI Not Described

The eight fauna-bearing deposits are intriguing in that they show little spatial

patterning, with all come from different contexts. Five of the eight (62.5%), including all

the problematical deposits, come from Group 6C-XVI, while the Great Pyramid itself is

devoid of fauna-bearing deposits. Table 4.18 describes the contents present in each

deposit.

Table 4.18: Terrestrial Vertebrate Faunal Remains in Early Classic Deposits

Deposit Terrestrial Vertebrate Fauna Cache PNT-007 Animal bones; bone beads Cache PNT-008 Worthed bone fragments: bone beads 398

Cache PNT-046 1 fragment of worked bone and multiple remains of bird or rodent Cache PNT-051 A cluster of small bones and the skull of a small animal PD PNT-019 Worked bone; osseous remains of animals PD PNT-022 Objects of bone; 4 perforated disks, 1 t>ead, and firagments of a burin, 1 spatula, and a bone tube PD PNT-023 Fragmentary bone utensils: 1 spatula, 2 burins/punches, 1 disk, 3 crania [human?] with traces of erosion PD PNT-031 Bone artifacts; Animal bones

The presence of bone artifacts ~ both tools and beads - makes the Mundo

Perdido faunal assemblage very different from that seen in the North Acropolis. Bone tools were quite rare in North Acropolis deposits, and bone beads were entirely absent

(and are absent in all other caches in this study). As none of the animal bones are identified or quantified, comparison with the North Acropolis is impossible.

Human Remains

Human remains are occasionally reported in Mundo Perdido caches, although this is a much less common occurrence than in the North Acropolis. Only 4 deposits (1 problematical deposit) in Mundo Perdido contained human remains (8.8% of caches,

25% of problematical deposits, 10.5% of total deposits); these are listed in Table 4.19

Table 4.19: Human Remains-Bearing Eariy Classic Deposits

Cache Context Structure Treatment PNT-053 Const. Fill Str. Sub-83, Group 6C-XVi Not Described PNT-054 Structure Group 6D-5 Not Described PNT-071 Room Str. Sub-09, Group 6C-XVI Sub-Floor 399

PD PNT-019 Rare Str. Sub-07, Group GC-XVI Sub-Floor

Human remains-bearing deposits tend to cluster within Group 6C-XVI, the

Teotihuacan enclave, and no such deposits are encountered in the Plaza of the Seven

Temples or the vicinity of the Great Pyramid. There is no contextual similarity between these deposits.

The actual human bones encountered in these deposits tend to be minimal, and are described in Table 4.20

Table 4.20: Human Remains in Early Classic Deposits

Deposit Human Remains Cache PNT-053 1 plate with 8 bones, some of a human foot Cache PNT-054 1 deteriorated cranium (Individual 1 of PD PNT-021). Cache PNT-071 A cluster of human infant bones that indicate a primary burial, without defined position, but probably flexed, with an east-west orientation; head possibly to the east. PD PNT-019 osseous human remains

The lack of detailed description of the human remains in these deposits makes

them difficult to interpret. The presence of an infant is intriguing, as this was found in

several deposits in the North Acropolis, and may suggest some sort of behavioral

continuity. The deteriorating cranium is also interesting, although its association with PO

PNT-021 cannot be assessed at this time. Although classified as burials, "Skull caches"

are probably present in Group E at Uaxactun (see Chapter 5), but are rare in the North

Acropolis; the cranium in Mundo Perdido may relate to the structural similarities between

Group E and Mundo Perdido. The objects identified as the remains of a human foot are 400 difficult to interpret, although they suggest mutilation of either a sacrificial victim, a corpse, or a burial. The human remains from the problematical deposit cannot be interpreted.

Ceramics

Ceramics are by far the most common type of material encountered in Mundo

Perdido Eariy Classic caches and problematical deposits. Ceramics are present in 24 such deposits (63.2%), including 22 caches (64.7%), suggesting that they were an important form of offering. Ceramics were also extremely common in the Eariy Classic in the North Acropolis, and indeed at all other centers included within this analysis. Table

4.21 lists the ceramic-bearing deposits, while Table 4.22 describes their ceramic content.

Table 4.21: Early Classic Ceramic-Bearing Deposits

Cache Context Structure Treatment PNT-001 Mixed Str. 5C-54 Sub-Floor PNT-002 Mixed Str. 5C-54 Not Described PNT-007 Const. Fill Str. 5D-86-5 Not Described PNT-008 Platform Str. 5D-86 Not Described PNT-009 Const. Fill Str. 5D-83-5 Not Described PNT-012 Court Plaza Alta Not Descrit}ed PNT-014 Court Plaza Alta Not Described PNT-023 Structure Str. Sub-62, Group GC-XVI Not Described PNT-032 Structure Str. 6C-34, Group 6C-11 Sub-Floor PNT-034 Wall Str. 6C-32, Group 6C-11 Not Described PNT-035 Structure Str. 6C-32, Group 6C-11 Not Described PNT-037 Const. Fill Str. Sub-17, Group 6C-XVI Sub-Floor 401

PNT-039 Structure Corriental Quadrant, Not Described Group 60-20 PNT-042 Rare Str. Sub-84, Group 6C-XVi Stone Offering Box PNT-043 Altar Str. Sub-48, Group SC-XVI Sul>-FIoor PNT-044 Structure Str. 6D-20, Group 6D-5 Sul>-Floor PNT-046 Structure Str. Group 60-5 Not Described PNT-047 Stair Str. Sub-26, Group 6C-XVI Sub-Floor PNT-048 Structure Str. Sub-26, Group 6C-XVI Not Described PNT-053 Const. Fill Str. Sub-83, Group 6C-XVI Not Described PNT-067 Bench Str. Sub-08, Group 6C-X\/I Sub-Floor PNT-071 Room Str. Sub-09, Group 6C-XV1 Sut>-Floor PD PNT-019 Rare Str. Sub-07, Group 6C-XVI Sub-Floor PD PNT-031 Mixed Str. Sub-75, Group 6C-XVI Not Described

Table 4.22: Ceramics in Early Classic Deposits

Deposit Ceramics Cache PNT-001 2 Lip-to-lip pots (these could pertain to a type of Manik complex that uses red slip, or a type of undesignated red. possibly Aguila red-orange, Red Slip variety) Cache PNT-002 2 Aguila Red-Orange dishes, lip-to-lip; A complete plate and a large fragment lacking a base, both Aguila Red-orange. Cache PNT-007 12 plates of Aguila Red-Orange, 8 found in lip-to-lip pairs; The pieces that sensed as stoppers had their bases decorated with painted or black-outlined glyphs.... Also included were 2 ceramic disks without perforation. Cache PNT-008 1 Cylindrical vase Cache PNT-009 2 Pairs of lip-to-lip Aguila red-orange plates Cache PNT-012 5 Ollas (utilitarian or Quintal Unslipped), very fragmentary Cache PNT-014 1 Red, basal-flanged plate 402

Cache PNT-023 1 Polychrome vessel (complete) with fragmentary pedestal support Cache PNT-032 1 Inverted tripod plate. Near the cache was an abundance of Manik 3B ceramics {Basurero PNT-004). Cache PNT-034 2 Inverted pots, one over the other Cache PNT-035 1 Vase. Cache PNT-037 1 Open plate on its base; 1 inverted serving dish Cache PNT-039 2 Vessels, upright Cache PNT-042 1 Plate with carbon in the interior, containing another plate with cinnabar and textile marks (imprints?); 1 oUa all upright Cache PNT-043 1 Plate with an annular base, placed upright Cache PNT-044 1 Bowl, inverted and fractured Cache PNT-046 Large bowls, one of which served as a stopper/lid for the other Cache PNT-047 2 Pots, lip-to-lip, fragmentary Cache PNT-048 1 Pot, very fragmentary and crumbling Cache PNT-053 1 Plate Cache PNT-067 1 Fragmentary tripod plate Cache PNT-071 1 Fragmentary tripod plate, upright PD PNT-019 Fragments of ceremonial and domestic ceramics PD PNT-031 1 Fragmentary solid figurine.

Ceramics are found in all areas of Mundo Perdido, although ceramic-bearing caches are found in the greatest abundance in Group 6C-XVI. As this area has the greatest number of Eariy Classic deposits, the frequency of ceramics in this area comes as no surprise. Contextually, ceramic inclusions are widespread, and no context is devoid of pottery. Unsurprisingly, the most abundant ceramic-bearing context is the

Stnjcture - yet only slightly more than half of these (8 of 13) yields ceramics. This 403 indicates that while ceramics were a common offertory inclusion, they were by no means ubiquitous.

Ceramic offerings vary widely. The most common type included in offerings is the lip-to-lip pair, with 18 such specimens (30.5% of all identified vessels) included in 5 deposits. Ollas were also common, with 6 present in 2 deposits. Tripod vessels were infrequent, with only 3 reported, all in separate deposits.

The high proportion of lip-to-lip specimens is consistent with the pattern observed

in the North Acropolis, and indeed throughout much of the lowlands. While the reasons

for placing pots into this position is unknown, it was apparently an important part of

setting an offering, at least under certain circumstances. There is only modest

contextual patterning of the Mundo Perdido lip-to-lip vessels, as two deposits were in

Mixed contexts, two were in Construction Fill, and the fifth was in a Stair.

Discussion: Mundo Perdido during the Early Classic

It is apparent from the preceding discussion that the caches from Mundo Perdido

are quite different from their North Acropolis contemporaries. North Acropolis caches

typically contain a greater variety of materials, usually in greater quantities, and tend to

employ a different series of contexts (most notably, sub-Stela). This is suggestive not

only of different ritual behaviours being performed in these two areas, but also of Mundo

Perdido being of lesser importance for such practices. Much like the explosion in North

Acropolis cache content and variety, this can be linked to the Tikal-Uaxactun event of AO

378, and the dynastic shift of AD 379.

The North Acropolis falls out of favour as an area for elite burials between about

A.D. 250 and A.D. 400, with the only elite burials dating to this period coming from 404

Mundo Perdido (Laporte and Fiaiko 1990). These have been attributed to members of the lineage of Great Jaguar Paw, including Great Jaguar Paw himself, and are an intriguing find as they are unique in a Peten Commemorative Astronomical Complex

(Laporte and Fiaiko 1990). Indeed, Laporte and Fiaiko (1990:35) note that a lack of burials is a typical feature of such complexes, and suggest that "the preference for locating its dynastic funerary site in the Commemorative Astronomical Complex may indicate activities descriptive of this lineage."

The period between AO 250 and 300 (Manik 1) saw considerable construction and remodelling within Mundo Perdido. Structures 5D-77-1 and 5D-82-1 were built in the northeast comer of the complex, while construction in the southern area resulted In the

South Plaza, which became an important focus of construction between AD 300 and 378

(Laporte and Fiaiko 1990). At the same time, a fifth version of the Great Pyramid

(Structure 5C-54-5) was completed, and the East Plaza (Structure 50-84/88-5) was remodelled, and the "...plan of the East Platform closely resembled the con-esponding structure in Group E at Uaxactun" (Laporte and Fiaiko 1990:39). Construction continued through the Manik 2 period (AD 300-378), including work at Structure 50-86-6 between

AD 300 and 350, and later, concentrating on Structures 50-86-7, Structure 5D-84-6, and

Structure 50-88-6 - all of which contained or covered burials.

However, after the Tikal-Uaxactun event, the use of Mundo Perdido changed, and it ceased to function as an area of elite or royal burial. This appears to have happened as a result of the dynastic change of AD 379, with Curi Nose replacing Jaguar

Paw.

In the ceremonial precincts of Tikal, no other Eariy Classic tombs of the Jaguar Paw lineage are known after those found at Mundo Perdido. Soon after the events surrounding the death of Jaguar Paw III on 8.17.1.4.12 405

(A.D. 378), a relocation of the Linage to Uolantun may have taken place, since Stela 1 (8.18.13.5.11) from that site represents a person who exhibits Jaguar Paw iconography (Laporte and Fiaiko 1990:45).

With the accession of Curi Nose - and the apparent seating of Smoking Frog on the throne of Uaxactun - a new era had begun at Tikal, and the caches changed dramatically to show it. However, most of this seems to be confined to those deposits housed in the North Acropolis, which is apparently where the new dynasty chose to focus ritual behaviour. This would presumably have been done as a means of re-establishing the importance of a ceremonial area favoured by earlier rulers.

Diverse discoveries realized in Group 6C-XVI support an association with the lineage of Smoking Frog, which became a dynasty upon his inauguration. A number of collateral functions of the lineage identified by the Ma' Cuch [the dynastic line which replaced that of Jaguar Paw] title have been determined, some of them related to the ball game. Significantly, the lineage assumed for itself foreign architectural modes and iconographic elements (Laporte and Fiaiko 1990:46).

Smoking Frog is identified as the first ruler of the Ma' Cuch line. This line ruled

Tikal (and apparently Uaxactun - see Chapter 5; Valdes and Fahsen 1992) for much of the remainder of the Eariy Classic. The Ma' Cuch title is used for Curi Nose on Stela 4, and by Kan Boar. Stormy Sky. the son of Curi Nose, apparently does not invoke this title.

Despite the fact that, beginning with the reign of Curi Nose the North Acropolis became the primary center of ritual activity at Tikal, Mundo Perdido was not abandoned.

Rather, the Lost Worid continued to be employed for rituals, and apparently for elite residence, possibly for Teotihuacanos. However, the residential area was located to the south of the Great Pyramid, in Group 6C-XVI. Construction in this group began prior to the dynastic change, probably around AD 350, and it was here that the Ball Court Mari

Perdido structures, including 5C-54-5, 5C-49-1/2, 5C-51-3/4, 5C-52-1/2, and 6C-24-2//3, all located in the western portion of the area (Laporte and Fiaiko 1990:46). Talud-

Tablero architecture was prominent in Group 6C-XVI during the Manik 3A period (AD

378-480), beginning immediately after the dynastic change and apparently continuing through the reign of Stormy Sky and well into that of Kan Boar. 407

CHAPTER 5: INTRASITE PATTERNING AT UAXACTUN

Introduction

Sixty-four caches were discovered during the Carnegie excavations at Uaxactun from 1926 through 1937 (Ricketson 1937; R.E. Smith 1937; A.L Smith 1950). These range from Late Preclassic through Late Classic in age, although the majority (47 caches, 73.4%) date to the Early Classic. Table 5.1 shows the distribution of caches by time period (see also Figure 5.1).

Table 5.1: Cache Frequencies at Uaxactun by Time Period.

Time Period Number of Deposits Percentage of Total Late Preclassic 1 1.56 Eariy Classic 47 73.44 Late Classic 1 3 4.7 Late Classic II 13 20.3 Totals 64 100

Late Preclassic Caches

Early and Middle Preclassic settlement at Uaxactun seems to have focused on

Group H (Valdes and Fahsen 1992), although there is also evidence for occupation in

Group E (A.L. Smith 1950:67). By the Late Preclassic, this had shifted to a give a

greater emphasis to Group E. However, this shift does not appear to have been

instantaneous, and there was apparently some overiap of occupation, with Group H not

fully abandoned until the Early Classic (Valdes and Fahsen 1992). Group A was 408

Figure 5.1: Cache Frequencies at Uaxactun by Time Period

100

LPC EC LCI LCII

• Count g] Percent

apparently also the site of a small occupation at this time (A.L. Smith 1950), and it is from this part of the center that the only Preclassic cache derives.

The single Late Preclassic cache at Uaxactun is located in an exterior Stairbase along a centeriine in Group A (Str. A-l), and its treatment is undescribed. This deposit

(Cache A16) contained a single jade bead, placed within a small, undescribed olla.

While potsherds were also present, there are no other material types in use. The presence of only a single cache offers no basis for comparison, and no means of suggesting whether this type of content was common for offerings during this period.

Discussion: Uaxactun during the i^^te Preclassic

By the Late Preclassic period, Uaxactun was developing into a bustling center, with some large-scale construction occuring, particulariy in Group E, which was aparently 409 an important ritual area. Group A was also developing into an important zone, and one which would t)ecome greatly utilized for ritual t)ehaviour in later times. A.L. Smith

(1950:67) summarizes this period thus:

The Late Developmental Period brought the use of stone and mortar masonry and the first formal structures arranged about plazas. The most important center was Group E. it consisted of a plaza with platforms on its north, east, and south sides, and on the west lay E'VII-sub, a truncated pyramid, which at times carried a perishable superstructure.... A lesser center was at Group A, where there are late developmental platforms near what may have been an assemblage of structures surrounding a small plaza.

The present data suggest that ritual activity manifest in caches was not common in Uaxactun during the Late Preclassic. although I suspect that this is related more to the excavated sample of the center than to actual behaviour on the part of the citizens of this center. However, recent excavations into Preclassic deposits (Laporte and Valdes 1993) apparently revealed no additional caches, making it possible that the people of Uaxactun did not make ceremonial offerings on a regular basis. If this were the case, it would render Uaxactun the only center included in this study with some substantial Late

Preclassic architecture lacking associated dedicatory caches.

Early Classic Caches

During the Eariy Classic, there is a shift in the focus of ritual activity at Uaxactun, with emphasis moving away from Group E and onto Groups A and B. This shift appears to correspond with the Tikal-Uaxactun event of 378, and particulariy with the appearance of Smoking Frog. The 378 event may also have functioned as a catalyst for increased caching behaviour, as it is during the Eariy Classic that the bulk of Uaxactun caches were set, although not all of these are from Groups A and B (there are 10 from Group E). 410

Forty-seven Early Classic caches are present at Uaxactun, accounting for nearly three-quarters (73.4%) of those at this center. These were given both interior and exterior placement, although exterior placement is more than three times as common.

Treatment

Only slightly more than half of all Eariy Classic caches at Uaxactun (26 or 55.3%) are sufficiently described to detemiine treatment. Of these, the most common type is sub-floor, found in 64% of all documented cases (10 caches). Sub-floor treatment is the only method encountered in interior caches, and is found in slightly more than half

(52.6%) of all exterior caches. The high frequency of sub-floor treatment suggests that the majority of caches were deposited prior to the completion of the associated structure.

In fact, only 6 exterior caches were given through-floor treatment (16.7%), indicating their deposition after the completion of construction. If sub-floor caches are in any way indicative of dedication ceremonies, then it can be posited that these were a frequent phenomenon at Uaxactun. Unfortunately, the high percentage of caches with undescribed treatment renders such an idea purely speculative. An additional 3 Eariy

Classic caches were found on surfaces, possibly indicating their placement immediately prior to the abandonment of a structure. Thus, these may represent termination rituals.

Interior Caches

Eleven Eariy Classic caches (23.4%) were given interior placement. The majority of these (5 caches, 45.5%) were located within general Room contexts. Five other interior contexts were also employed, although only one (Door) was used more than 411 once. Table 5.2 shows the distribution of interior cache locations (shown graphically in

Figure 5.2).

Table 5.2: Early Classic Interior Deposits

N % Type Placement Context Treatment Comment 1 9.1 Cache Interior Room Not Desc. Centered 4 36.4 Cache Interior Room Sub-Floor 1 9.1 Cache Interior Door Not Desc. Centered 1 9.1 Cache Interior Door Sub-Floor Centered 1 9.1 Cache Interior Const. Fill Sut>-Floor 1 9.1 Cache Interior Stela Not Desc. 1 9.1 Cache Interior Altar Sut)-Floor 1 9.1 Cache Interior Mixed Not Desc.

Figure 5.2: Early Classic Interior Cache Contexts at Uaxactun

50

Room Door Const. Fill Stela Altar Mixed

• Sub-Floor Not Desc. 412

All interior caches can be related to Room contexts, with some deriving from more specific contexts than others. Treatment is described for only 6 of the 11 interior deposits, but all of these were placed in sub-floor contexts, suggesting that these caches were placed prior io the use of the room. Interestingly, 3 of the caches were located along structural centeriines, including both door caches, possibly indicating a concern with symmetry. Two caches were found in relation to monuments, including 1 associated with a large Altar, and one associated with a Stela (Stela 22) dating to AO 504. Such associations, particulariy with a carved stela, suggest a relationship between caching behaviour and historical events. This date is also associated with the accession of a new ailer^^ (name unknown) at Tikal (Scheie and Freidel 1990:27), and suggests a possible relation between this event and the cache, as well as the two centers.

Patterning by Context Type

Room Caches

The 5 Eariy Classic Room caches contain a rather limited variety of material types, and show a high degree of inclusional variability. No material type is found in more than half of the caches, and most are only found once. Room cache contents can be divided into 4 groups: lithic artifacts (obsidian and chert eccentrics, non-eccentric obsidian), ceramics (including potsherds), bone (human and non-human), and rare or unusual artifacts. Only eccentrics, ceramics, and rare artifacts are found on more than a single occasion, suggesting that while these were of some ritual importance, they were not irreplaceable.

11. According to Jones and Satterthwaite (1982:127), this is the middle of the reign of Jaguar Paw Skull. 413

Door Caches

Only 2 Early Classic Door deposits are present, and both contain different material types. Both chert eccentrics and ceramics were employed In door contexts.

Construction Fill Caches

The single interior Construction Fill cache contains non-eccentric obsidian and chert, as well as ceramics. As no other Interior caches fall Into this category, the only basis for comparison is with exterior construction fill caches (see below).

Stela Caches

Only a single interior cache was located In a Stela context, and Its content

consists of only chert eccentrics. As there are no other Interior caches of similar context

for comparison, this cache Is compared with exterior stela deposits (see below).

Altar Caches

At Uaxactun, Altars are defined as "...platfonns... placed against the center of the

back wall of a room but not extending to Its end walls" (A.L. Smith 1950:78). There Is no

mention of these being carved, or exhibiting hieroglyphic texts. There is only 1 Eariy

Classic Altar caches at Uaxactun, and this contains rare objects (a stone pendant) and

ceramics.

Mixed Context Caches

Cache C-1 is not only the only Mixed context interior cache at Uaxactun, but it Is 414 also the only cache reported from Group C, and offers no means for comparison. This deposit, which contains jade, Spondylus sp. and other shells, and ceramics, comes from a wall below a stairway, within a burial chamber. As such, it is quite possibly related to the human interment.

Centerline Caches

Three Eariy Classic interior caches were located along structural centeriines.

These show little evidence for patterning, with no material types found in more than a single deposit.

Artifact Analysis

Lithic Artifacts

Obsidian

Obsidian is a rare component of Early Classic interior deposits, present in only 2

Room caches. Both caches contain eccentrics (13 total, 5 in Cache A29, 8 in Cache

A30), while a single cache (A29) also yielded 2 projectile points, a notched core, an undescribed core, and a core knife which Kidder (1947:19) refers to as an eccentric. The notched core (figure 68,d,5 in Kidder 1947) could also conceivably be classified as an eccentric. As interior caches are dominated by elaborate obsidian forms -- with waste materials such as flakes completely absent - it may be inferred that these objects were either manufactured elsewhere and brought into the room for the cache, or that any evidence of their manufacture was cleaned and removed prior to interment. Further, the elaborate obsidian forms may indicate that these particular offerings were of 415 considerable importance, given the labour investment involved in their manufacture. It is worth noting that there are more obsidian eccentrics in these two caches than in ail other

Uaxactun caches combined. Most of these eccentrics are trident in fonm (see Kidder

1947:Figure 68a), along with a double trident and two possible scorpion forms, and the chert eccentrics (see below) are of a similar form. The trident eccentric form was obviously of some importance to this unknown ritual behaviour.

Chert

In Eariy Classic interior caches, chert is a more common inclusion than obsidian, reported from 5 deposits (obsidian is known from only 2). However, chert is limited almost exclusively to eccentric fonms, with flake blades the only other form reported.

Table 5.3 shows the distribution of chert artifact fonns.

Table 5.3: Chert Artifects in Early Classic Interior Deposits

Context Treatment Eccentrics Flake Blades Room Sul)-Floor 2(8) 0 Door Sub-Floor 1(9) 0 Const. Fill Sub-Floor 0 1(2) Stela Not Described 1(9) 0 Totals 4(26) 1(2)

The presence of chert eccentrics in room contexts is intriguing, as these same caches also contain obsidian eccentrics (see above). While the trident form is present among the chert eccentrics, it is not as prevalent as the corresponding obsidian form.

The pattern of chert artifacts in interior contexts is reasonably clear elaborate forms were 416 used in most offerings, with flake blades employed only in an offering relating to construction. This may indicate that the construction offering involved bloodletting, although this assumes that flake blades were employed in this activity; this behaviour may not have been practiced in the other interior rituals. The fact that only eccentric forms are reported from the other interior deposits is also intriguing, as these offerings or rituals were performed in an area of limited access, rather than public display. Why eccentrics would be employed in this setting is unknown; perhaps the eccentric form is an important clue to understanding why some rituals/offerings were of a public nature, while others were private.

Other Lithic Artifacts

Uaxactun is unique in this study for yielding a cache that contains a crude stone pendant. One such pendant is reported fi-om a Room context (sub-floor), and appears to be manufactured from water-worn quartzite. Kidder (1947:Figure 24) illustrates this specimen, which could possibly have been produced from locally available materials.

Jade

Jade is rarely encountered in interior locates during the Eariy Classic, with the only exception coming from a single Mixed context cache containing a fragmentary piece of jade. The presence of such a fragment in a cache context may indicate both its ritual importance and its value. Marine Objects

Objects of marine origin are extremely uncommon in Eariy Classic interior deposits, and are limited to a single cache from a Mixed context. This cache, from

Group C, contains 2 unidentified shells, and 3 conch shell beads. While Kidder

(1947:62) notes that most shell beads were used along with jade to form necklaces, the only jade piece from this cache is not described as worked.

Terrestrial Fauna

Two interior caches contain the remains of terrestrial fauna, although neither suggests the ritual sacrifice of an animal. Cache A30, a subfloor Room cache, contains a single deer antler, while Cache E6, a centered Door deposit (treatment not described) held 2 unidentifiable bone fragments that could not be identified as human. The antler came from a deposit that also housed both obsidian and chert eccentrics, and may well have been used in the production of these artifacts. Detailed analysis of the lithic material may determine whether soft-hammer percussion was employed in eccentric production, while a careful examination of the antler itself may demonstrate whether it was used for such a purpose. As the bone fragments have not been identified, little can be said about their inclusion.

Human Remains

Human remains are not present in any Uaxactun deposit formally labeled a cache. However, A.L. Smith (1950) suggests that some of the deposits classified as burials are actually sacrificial offerings (see discussion in Chapter 1), and should be 418 treated as caches. Of the three burials from Group E that he suggests, two appear to fit the description of an offering. Burial 22 contains a cranium, atlas, axis, and first cervical

[sic] vertebra (presumably C3), while Burial 23 held a skull, mandible, atlas and axis. In both cases, these remains were placed between two lip-to-lip bowls, and I believe that both are better described as caches than burials (although I have not reclassified them as such). Burial A24, on the other hand, is less clear, as it lacks the characteristics expected of a decapitation.

Ceramics

Ceramics are a frequent inclusion in interior caches, found in 63.6% of all cases

(7 caches). The distribution of ceramic forms is presented in Table 5.4.

Table 5.4: Ceramics in Early Classic Interior Caches

Cache Context & n Type Vessel Comments Treatment Shape E9 Room (SF) 1 Greyware Dish Shallow E9 Room (SF) 1 Redware Vase Cylindrical. Standing within grey dish. E2 Room (SF) ? Sherds Unrelated to cache, Unquantified. E10 Room (SF) 1 Redware Dish Shallow E3 Door (ND) 2 Redware Dish Flat Rim, Lip-to-lip. B1 Con. Fill (SF) 1 Orange Bowl Flaring Sided. E1 Altar (ND) 1 Barrel Jar Lidded EO Altar (SF) 2 Redware Dish Flaring Rim, Plain, Lip-to-lip; A few unrelated sherds. C1 Mixed (ND) 2 Tzakol Red Dish Flaring Side. 419

The most notable pattern of ceramics in interior caches is that paired vessels are almost always lip-to-lip, and ail described vessels are redware. The most common form is the dish. The ceramic repertoire of interior caches stresses consistency, suggesting that people were very particular about the ceramics deposited in caches. This pattern is quite consistent with that seen at other centers during the Eariy Classic.

Summary: Early Classic interior Caches

Caches given interior placement during the Eariy Classic show some degree of inclusional consistency. In particular, these tend to have only spartan offerings of lithic objects, with neither obsidian, chert, nor jade found in great quantities. Marine materials and terrestrial fauna are also uncommon and reported only in low frequencies.

Ceramics, on the other hand, are quite common and highly consistant in both form and quantity. Human remains are unknown in deposits fomnally recognized as caches, but at least two deposits consistant with sacrifice through decapitation are encountered in interior locales in Group E. As similar finds appear to be absent in interior contexts in

Groups A and B, it would appear that decapitation was primarily an eariy behaviour, restricted to Group E.

Exterior Caches

Exterior placement is common for Eariy Classic caches at Uaxactun, with 36

(76.6%) fitting this description. While a number of contexts are employed for caching, the most common are Stairs (10 or 27.8%), Structures (7 or 19.4%), Construction Fill (7 or 19.4%), and Stelae (6 or 16.7%). Table 5.5 shows the distribution of exterior caches. 420 shown graphically in Figure 5.3.

Table 5.5: Early Classic Exterior Deposits

N % Type Context Treatment Comment 9 25 Cache Stair Not Desc. 1 Centered 1 2.8 Cache Stair Sub-Floor Centered 1 2.8 Cache Stairbase Not Desc. Centered 1 2.8 Cache Stairbase Thru-Floor 1 2.8 Cache Platform Sub-Floor 2 5.5 Cache Terrace Not Desc. 4 11.1 Cache Structure Not Desc. 1 Centered 3 8.3 Cache Structure Surface 4 11.1 Cache Const. Fill Thnj-Floor 1 Centered 3 8.3 Cache Const. Fill Sub-Floor 1 Centered 1 2.8 Cache Stela Thru-Floor 5 13.9 Cache Stela Sub-Stela 1 2.8 Cache Mixed Not Desc.

The most common context for exterior caches is In Stairs, possibly suggesting that these are the remains of rituals perfonned in highly visible public places (Smith

1994). Alternatively, the high frequency of such caches may imply that offerings were made in relation to ceremonies of transition, where the act of ascending (or descending) is important, as is seen in Aztec human sacrifice (Caso 1958). The high frequency of stair caches may also be attributable to the excavation strategy employed at this center, which concentrated on large architecture. The numerous Construction Fill caches appear to indicate the practice of making offerings to buildings prior to their completion. 421

Figure 5.3: Early Classic Exterior Cache Contexts at Uaxactun

ffl 10

• Sub-Floor • Thru-Floor Q Not Desc. ^ Surface

while Stela offerings probably relate to the historical events associated with stela erection.

Patterning by Context Type

Stair Caches

This most common type of Eariy Classic exterior cache shows an extremely consistent pattem of content. All Stair caches contain whole ceramic vessels, and are entirely devoid of other content. Residue studies of these vessels may reveal whether they originally contained organic materials, although it seems unlikely that this will be done. If these pots were always empty, it may suggest that the vessels themselves are 422 of ceremonial importance, although none of the vessels is decorated with glyphs or scenes. Rather, all are described as plain, flaring-sided, redware dishes, with only those from three deposits placed in lip-to-lip pairs. The vessels from Cache A23 are the only exception, and these are paired, lip-to-lip orange bowls.

Stairbase Caches

Stairbase caches follow a pattem identical to that seen for Stairs, and are devoid of all material types except ceramic vessels. The only difference is the presence of tetrapod vessels in Cache A28. Thus, it appears that all Early Classic caching events related to stairs at Uaxactun were conducted in a highly uniform fashion.

Platform Caches

The single Platform cache contains jade, shell (non-Spondylus), ceramics, and rare objects, but offers no basis for comparison.

Structure Caches

The context designation "Structure" is a catch-all category employed for dealing with incompletely described caches, and the 7 deposits falling under this heading at

Uaxactun contain a wide variety of material types. Interestingly, all Structure caches contain ceramic vessels, while no other material type is found on more than 2 occasions.

Based on this factor, caches falling under the heading of "Structure" are most similar to

Stair caches. 423

Construction Fill Caches

The single interior Construction Fill cache contained non-eccentric obsidian and chert, as well as ceramics. All of these material types are also seen in exterior

Construction Fill deposits, although only ceramics are found with any regularity. In fact, very few material types are found on more than a single occasion in exterior Construction

Fill caches, with jade, shell (non-Spondylus), and rare objects being the only exceptions.

It is perhaps significant that rare object classes are found in more than half of the Rll deposits, as this may strengthen the position that these are offerings relating to construction, rather than simple deposits of ceremonial refuse. If rare objects were considered valuable, then they would seem logical choices for offerings to rulers, or to deities, and thus might be expected in construction fill contexts. Intriguingly, 85.7% (6 of

7) of Construction Fill caches were recovered from Group B. Whether this reflects an area-specific behaviour or is a product of sampling error is unknown.

Terrace Caches

The 2 Eariy Classic Terrace caches contain only ceramics, suggesting that these are closely related to the practice seen for Stair and Stairbase offerings.

Stela Caches

The 6 Eariy Classic exterior Stela caches contain a very wide variety of material types, although few occur on more than a single occasion, suggesting that there was little in the way of strong regulation about what could or could not be included in this context.

The single interior Stela cache contains only chert eccentrics, a material type which is 424 among the most common in exterior caches. Indeed, if interior and exterior Stela caches are combined, then chert eccentrics t>ecome the most common inclusion, followed by non-eccentric obsidian and jade. The wide variety of single-occasion inclusions is intriguing, although difficult to interpret. Conceivably cache contents are directly related to the historic events described on the stelae (only two of these stelae are uncarved), with different material types relating to different events or types of events.

Mixed Deposits

Two Eariy Classic caches were recovered from Mixed contexts, 1 interior (see above) and 1 exterior. Not surprisingly, these show little similarity to each other, with ceramics being the only common material type.

Centerline Deposits

A total of 5 Eariy Classic exterior caches are located along structural centeriines.

All contain ceramics, and there is little patteming of any other material type - save the fact that all other inclusions are lithic. Only obsidian, chert, and jade are included in exterior centeriine deposits.

Reseated Deposits

Six Eariy Classic exterior caches were given through-floor treatment, and 4 of these were subsequently resealed. These 4 caches share a degree of patteming, most notably in the fact that all contain rare objects, and 75% contain ceramics. Rare objects are especially interesting, as these are absent in non-resealed through-floor caches. 425

Further, all resealed through-floor caches are located within construction fill contexts.

Artifact Analysis

Lithic Artifacts

Obsidian

Although there are more than three times the number of exterior than interior caches during the Eariy Classic, obsidian is found in a near equal frequency in both placements (exterior 16.7%, interior 18.2%). Only 6 exterior caches (2 Structures, 3

Stelae, and 1 Construction Fill context) held obsidian artifacts. Exterior deposits contain a wide variety of artifact fonms, which for the most part are quite different than those seen in interior deposits. Table 5.6 shows the distribution of obsidian artifacts in exterior

caches.

Table 5.6: Obsidian Artifacts in Early Classic Exterior Caches

Context Treatment Ecc. Mod. Flake Flake Core Disk Flake Blade Structure Not Desc. 1(2) 1(1) Const. Fill Sub-Floor 1(1) 1(2)^ Stela Thru-Floor 1(?)^ 1 (30) Stela Sub-Stela 1(1) 1(16) 1(2) 2(6)' 1(2)* Totals 2(2) 1(2) 2 (16+) 2(3) 4(38) 1(2) 1. 2 Core Knives. 2. Flakes unquantified, but described as "many." 3. 4 Notched cores. 4. 2 Disks.

Obsidian use in exterior caches is quite different than that seen in interior caches.

Complex forms such as eccentrics are rare, while more expedient objects such as flakes 426 and flake blades are present, albeit in low numbers. Cores, including notched forms and core knives, on the other hand, are very common in exterior locations, possibly reflecting in situ tool production. If these cores were used to produce tools (such as blades) used

In ritual, they could represent ceremonial trash (Walker 1995), as presumably they had reached the end of their effective use-life.

Chert

Chert artifacts are reported from 6 exterior caches, half from below stelae, 1 from a fill context, and the other 2 from structure contexts. Table 5.7 shows the distribution of chert artifacts.

Table 5.7: Chert Artifects in Early Classic Exterior Caches

Context Treatment Ecc. Modified Core Other Debitage Flake Structure Not Desc 2(5) 1(1) 0 2(11)^ 1 (74) Const. Fill Sub-Floor 1(4) 0 0 0 0 Stela Sub-Stela 3(34) 0 1(3)' 1 (10)' 0 Totals 6(43) 1(1) 1(3) 3(21) 1(74) 1. 1 Undescribed chert, laurel-leaf chert, 2 chert daggers, 7 roughly chipped points. 2. 3 Nodules (unchipped) 3 10 Chert points.

Chert usage in exterior caches is intriguing as only 16.7% of these contain this

material, and when it is present it is almost always in elaborate form. The presence of a

single modified flake and a small quantity of debitage may indicate in situ artifact

production, and the 3 unworiced nodules may indicate the importance of raw material In

certain circumstances. However, the majority of deposits contain chert artifact forms that 427 require considerable time and skill to produce. Eccentrics are far more plentiful than was seen in interior contexts, with their number increasing by 65.4% in exterior locales.

Indeed, these 6 caches contain more than half (54.4%) of all the eccentrics reported firom

Uaxactun, and more than three-quarters of these (34 or 79.1%) came from beneath 3 stelae. These stelae range in date from AD 396 (Stela 4) to 445 (Stela 26), with uncarved Stela D3 believed to date to AO 426.

It is intriguing that these stela not only date from different times, but are also found in different areas of the site; Stela 4 is in Group B, Stela 26 in Group A, and Stela

D3 in Group D. Moreover, the eccentrics recovered from these caches are far from evenly distributed, with 6 from the Group A stela, 8 from the Group 8 stela, and the remaining 20 from Group D. This suggests that 3 very different types of rituals were being performed, probably relating to different events, and requiring different assemblages. Also of note, the eccentrics from Cache D3 (beneath Stela 03) are described as crude, which may be significant as the stela above them is uncan/ed.

Jade Artifacts

Jade artifacts of various fonns are reported from 8 (22.2 %) exterior caches.

Table 5.8 shows the distribution of jade artifact forms.

Table 5.8: Jade Artifects in Early Classic Exterior Caches

Context Treatment Bead Ear Figurine Fragment Other Flare Platform Sub-Floor 1(1) 0 1(1) 0 0 Structure Not Oesc. 1(?V 0 0 0 0 Structure Surface 1(2) 0 0 1(17) 0 428

Const. Fill Thru-Floor 1(1) 0 0 0 1(3)' Const. Fill Sub-Floor 1(2) 1(2) 1(1)' 0 0 Stela Sub-Stela 3(5)^ 0 1(2)= 1(5) 0 Totals 8(11+) 1 (2) 3(4) 2(22) 1(3) 1. Unquantified. 2. 3 Oblong pieces of jade. 3. Human figurine. 4. 2 Animal-head shaped beads; 1 polished, undrilled bead. 5. 1 Small, flat figurine; 1 fragmentary flat jade figurine.

The bead seems to be the standard type of offering of this material type; all jade- bearing caches contain jade beads. It is intriguing that 2 sub-stela caches contain jade beads shaped like animal heads. These both come from beneath eariy Stelae, with one from below Stela 4 (dating to 396) and one from beneath Stela 15. Unfortunately, this stela is so eroded that its date is illegible (Mathews [1985] does not even suggest a style date), although it is thought to be perhaps as eariy as AD 376 (A.L Smith 1950). While the term "animal head" bead is reasonable, it is difficult to suggest what these may represent (see Ricketson 1937:Plate 67b,e; Kidder 1947;Figure 34), although Kidder suggests an alligator. Crocodile remains are known from Eariy Classic caches at Tikal

(see Chapter 3), although this provides a tenuous link at best.

Other jade artifact fonns are no less perplexing. The inclusion of ear flares may indicate the presence of personal sacrifice (disposal of wealth or prestige objects) on the part of one of the participants; human figurines are also difficult to interpret. The presence of firagmentary, largely unwori

Marine Objects

Objects of marine origin are far more common in exterior than interior locales

during the Eariy Classic, with 5 different varieties present. Table 5.9 shows the

distribution of marine objects in exterior caches.

Table 5.9: Marine Objects in Early Classic Exterior Caches

Context Treatment Shell Woriced Stingray Coral Peart Shell Spine Platform Sub-Floor 0 1(2)^ 0 0 0 Structure Surface 1 (10)^ 1 (177)3 0 1(9) 1(2) Const. Fill Thru-Floor 2(4)^ 0 0 0 0 Const. Fill Sut)-Floor 0 0 1(1) 0 0 Stela Sub-Stela 2(3)® 1(2)» 1(3) 1(2) 0 Totals 5(17) 3(181) 2(4) 2(11) 1(2) 1. 1 Shell bead; 1 jade head with shell eyes. 2. Described only as "sea shells." 3. 5 Pieces round, flat conch; 118 round conch beads; 44 oblong conch beads; 10 shaped conch pieces. 4. 1 cluster of oyster shells; 3 small sea shells. 5. 1 Ostrea sp., 1 Crepidula sp., both from Cache D3. 6. Shell figurines.

Marine objects are never plentiful in Uaxactun caches, although those from Eariy

Classic exterior locales show the greatest diversity. Shell appears to be the most

important type of marine object, and it is unfortunate that so few specimens are

identified. Worked shell, particulariy conch, appears to have been of some importance.

The fact that 97.8% of all worited shell comes from a single cache strongly suggests the

presence of a necklace or possibly a piece of shell-^jecorated clothing. Both coral and

pearis are very unusual offerings (although both are known from Tikal caches), and it is 430 difficult to suggest wtiether their presence indicates anything more than the offering of difficult-to-obtain objects.

The low number of stingray spines in Uaxactun caches is intriguing, especially as these are a common inclusion at neighbouring Tikal. This may be a function of

Uaxactun's subordinate status, implying that the elites of this center were unable to obtain such objects. Three of the four spines recovered at Uaxactun were beneath Stela

26 (dating to AD 445), a period when Uaxactun was almost certainly still under Tikal's domination; thus, the presence of stingray spines in a Stela context is especially odd, as these are never found in Stela contexts at Tikal.

Ceramics

Ceramics are a very common component of exterior caches during the Eariy

Classic, and are reported from 31 (86.1%) deposits. Table 5.10 shows the distribution of ceramics in exterior caches.

Table 5.10: Ceramics in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches

Cache Context & n Type Vessel Comments Treatement Shape A10 Stair (ND) 1 Redware Dish A12 Stair (ND) 2 Redware Dish Lip-to-lip A13 Stair (ND) 1 Redware Dish Flaring Sided A14 Stair (ND) 1 Redware Dish Flaring Sided A15 Stair (ND) 4 Redware Dish Flaring Sided, 2 pairs, llp-to-lip. A6 Stair (ND) 1 Redware Dish A7 Stair (ND) 1 Redware Dish 431

A8 Stair (ND) 1 Redware Dish A23 Stair (SF) 2 Orange Bowl Flaring Sided A28 Stairbase (ND) 2 Cylindrical Tetrapod, Lidded Vessel A35 Stairbase (TF) 2 Orange Dish Flaring Sided A24 Platform (SF) 2 Red Dish Flaring Sided, Lip- to-lip. All Terrace (ND) 1 Redware Bowl A9 Terrace (ND) 2 Redware Dish Lip-to-lip E5 Structure (ND) 6 Undescribed Vessels E6 Structure (ND) 7 Undescribed Vessels E7 Structure (ND) 3 Cylindrical Human Effigy Stand shaped^ E7 Structure (ND) 3 Redware Bowl Flaring Sided E7 Structure (ND) 2 Not Desc. Cylindrical Flat Bottomed, Lip- Bowl to-lip. E7 Structure (ND) 1 Redware Bowl Flaring Sides E7 Structure (ND) 1 Redware Vase Flat Bottom Round Belly Udded. E7 Structure (ND) 1 Not Desc. Cylindrical Flat Bottom Bowl E7 Structure (ND) 2 Redware Bowl Flaring Sided, Inverted E7 Structure (ND) 2 Redware Bowl Flaring Sided, "tau" shaped hole in bottom. E7 Structure (ND) 1 Redware Bowl Flaring Sided, Lidded E8 Structure (ND) 2 Redware Dish Flaring Rims 432

A2 Structure (S) 2 Redware Bowl Flaring Sided, Lip- to-lip. A3 Structure (S) 2 Redware Bowl Flaring Sides, Lip- to-lip. A4 Structure (S) 1 Not Desc. Cylindrical Lidded Tetrapod Vase B2 Fill (TF) 1 Orange Cylindrical Lidded (held cache Vase contents) 84 Fill (TF) 2 Orange Bowl Flaring Sided, Lip- to-lip B6 Fill (TF) 1 Orange Cylindrical Lidded Vase B7 Fill (TF) 1 Orange Cylindrical Lidded Vase A31 Fill (SF) 1 Incised Red Tripod Bowl Cylindrical (held cache contents) B3 Fill (SF) 1 Orange Cylindrical Lidded (held cache Vase contents) B5 Fill (SF) 1 Orange Dish Flaring Sided A17& Stela (TF) 2 Redware Bowl Lip-to-lip A18 B8 Stela (SF) 1 Not Desc. Sherd D4 Mixed (ND) 2 Redware Bowl Flaring Rims 1. 3 Cylindrical pot stands with human mask and raised nose to serve as handles.

Exterior cache ceramics are quite consistent in their distribution. Only 4 deposits

(12.9%) contain more than 2 vessels, suggesting that in most circumstances single or paired pots were the prefen-ed offertory form. The pattern of placing two vessels lip-to-lip is present, if not especially common, and only 9 caches exhibited this configuration

(29%), representing only 50% of those caches containing 2 vessels. Most caches 433 containing more than 2 vessels come primariiy from Group E (3 caches), with the lone exception (from Group A) containing 4 dishes in 2 lip-to-lip pairs. Why Group E contains caches with larger numt)ers of ceramic vessels (6, 7, and 16 vessels) is unclear, but does suggest that a different t>ehavioral pattern was practiced in that area than that seen in the rest of the center, and perhaps this pattern of ceramic use reflects an older style of offering.

There is remaricably little variability in the ceramic types seen in exterior caches, with all described vessels being red- or orange-wear. Vessel shape shows more variation (see Figure 5.4), but is also quite limited, suggesting a preference for a highly specific type of offertory vessel.

Figure 5.4: Ceramic Vessel Shapes in Eariy Classic Exterior Caches at Uaxactun

30

Dish Bowl Cylinder Tripod Bowl 434

Discussion

The earliest focus of Early Classic activity at Uaxactun was centered squarely in

Group E (Valdes and Fahsen 1992), particularly E-VII-Sub, which functioned as an observatory. Group E served other ritual purposes as well, as Valdes and Fahsen (1992) report the find of the probable tomb of a royal woman buried with obsidian, stingray spines, and other marine objects.

The focus on Group E continued until at least the middle of the Early Classic, when development and construction of Group A began to increase (Valdes and Fahsen

1992). The earliest Uaxactun stela (Stela 9, dating to AD 328) was found in a Late

Classic context, and recent research by Valdes (Valdes and Fahsen 1992) indicates that its original setting occurred in Group A, not Group E as Moriey had suggested. Valdes and Fahsen (1992) feel that the inscription of Stela 9 commemorates historical events, possibly including war or other military actions. In particular, they suggest that it represents the history of Uaxactun when it was still an independent center. Later, in AD

358, a pair of stelae was erected in front of the observatory in Group E, indicating that this area continued to play an important role in ritual life at this time. Intriguingly, Valdes and Fahsen (1992) suggest that these two stelae may have been set by different people

- possibly two different heads of a lineage - and they suggest that these individuals may have functioned as Ahau and Chakte, with the latter the more powerful of the two.

In AD 378, both Tikal and Uaxactun record an event that is interpreted by most scholars as a war, with Tikal emerging victorious and incorporating Uaxactun into its political realm. This preceded a change in ruler and probably dynasty at Tikal (Culliert

1993), but has a rather different effect on Uaxactun. Smoking Frog is an important protagonist in this event, and indeed when Curi Nose is named ruler of Tikal in 379, it is 435 described as occurring in the land of Smoking Frog. Smoking Frog is the individual on

Stela 5 (AD 379) at Uaxactun (Valdes and Fahsen 1992), where he was governor for the rest of his life. He commemorated Stela 4 in AD 396, at the end of the eighth katun in front of Structure B-VIII, and died in AD 402. (Valdes and Fahsen [1992] believe that

Smoking Frog was buried in Group A). The reign of Smoking Frog at Uaxactun seems to initiate the move away from the use of Group E as a primary center for ritual activity, with this switching to Group A and Group B. This pattem is also seen in the cache sample, which is much more abundant in these areas than in Group E.

According to Valdes and Fahsen (1992), Smoking Frog installed a new dynasty at

Uaxactun, whose continuity can be documented for the next 175 years. The next recorded oiler, referred to as Bat Mahk'ina, is comemorated on Stela 17 in Group D, dating to AD 416. Valdes and Fahsen (1992) note that Bat Mahk'ina is mentioned along with Stormy Sky of Tikal on Stela 26 (AD 445) in Group A, and suggest that Tikal continued to exhert enormous influence over Uaxactun at this time, especially as a mural in Structure B-XIII at Uaxactun illustrates Smoking Frog and Stormy Sky.

Despite the undoubted Tikal influence at this time, Uaxactun continues to create caches of their own, which, while far less elaborate than their Tikal counterparts, show no particular change toward the Tikal cache pattem. That is to say, following the death of

Smoking Frog, the Uaxactun caches deposited under apparent Tikal rule do not resemble those from Tikal. Minimally, this suggests that ritual life under foreign rule did not result in the adoption or imitation of of foreign ceremonies, or in the cessation of local activities; it further indicates that Uaxactun did not lose the prerogative of making offerings, which - in combination with the placing of stelae commemorating local mlers and events - may imply a degree of independence. 436

The third recorded governor of Uaxactun following Smoking Frog, known only as

Gobemante A-22, is mentioned on Stela 23 (AD 475) in Group B, and then erects a monument (Stela 20, dating to AD 495) in Group E, the first monument in this group in

137 years. Valdes and Fahsen (1992) feel that this may have been done as a means of both renewing this older area of the site (new constnjction in Group E corresponded with the placing of this monument), and also linking the line of foreign (from Tikal) governors -

- who may not have been popular with the local population - to this older area and thus the pre-Smoking Frog lineage of Uaxactun. Gobemante A-22 makes reference to the war between Uaxactun and Tikal on Stela 22 (AD 504), and also his pride in being descended from Smoking Frog.

During the Reign of Gotiemante A-22 and his successor (Gobemante A-20),

Group A was remodelled and connected to Groups B, 0, and E by roads. This suggests that, throughout the latter part of the Eariy Classic, the primary focus of activity at

Uaxactun continued to be in Groups A and B (where Gobemante A-20 first commemorated a stela in AD 507), and that this continued while the site was under the influence (if not direct dominance) of Tikal.

Group A continued to be an area of ritual focus, as Stela 25 is commemorated there in AD 534, by Gobemante A-20. Indeed, Valdes and Fahsen (1992) suggest that this area was important for the placement of initial stelae by new rulers because of their ancestral relationship with Smoking Frog, who is buried in Group A.

The final ruler in the Uaxactun sequence, Gobemante A-23, commemorated

Stela 6 (AD 554) in Group A (Valdes and Fahsen 1992). This is the last monument which cleariy dates to the Eariy Classic, and is placed just eight years prior to the Tikal-

Caracol event of 562. The monument sequence at Uaxactun ceases during the hiatus. 437 as does that at Tikal. However, it is unclear whether this phenomenon at Uaxactun is in some way related to that observed at Tikal - particularly whether the conquest of Tikal by

Caracol in some way effected Uaxactun - or whether this was simply a Peten-wide event.

The pattern of rule at Uaxactun seems to be one of quasi-independent local

Oilers who decend from the Tikal line in some fashion (depending on the actual relationship between Smoking Frog, Great Jaguar Paw, and Curl Nose). While Uaxactun appears to have been fully a part of Tikal's political realm during most of the Early

Classic, the extent to which Tikal dictated the policies and behaviours of Uaxactun is unclear. The cache data suggest that this power was minimal, at least with respect to ritual behaviour. The pattem of cache deposition and inclusions at Uaxactun bears little resemblance to that seen at Tikal, and rather suggests a completely independant means of performing offertory rituals.

The shift away from Group E to Groups A and B, on the other hand, is something that may be related to Tikal's dominance. The basic architectural plan of Group E is very similar to that seen in Mundo Perdido at Tikal, and Mundo Perdido appears to have been an important ritual area during the reign of Great Jaguar Paw, immediately prior to

Smoking Frog. However, it appears that the importance of this area goes into decline beginning at about the time of the Uaxactun conquest, when the important ritual behaviour at Tikal - including both burials and caches - reverts to the North Acropolis.

The North Acropolis continues to be an important center of ritual behaviour throughout the reigns of Curi Nose and Stormy Sky, and well into the Late Classic period. The North

Acropolis and Groups A and B are at least superficially similar to one another in appearance, and apparently in function. Whether these simultaneous moves were 438 intentional on the part of Smoking Frog and Curl Nose is unknown, but it seems unlikely that such changes would occur simultaneously and by pure chance. Rather, it is more likely that this movement occurred as a means for the new dynasty at both centers to remove themselves from association with the older dynasties which they overthrew.

The pattem of cache inclusion seen for interior deposits is in many ways mimicked in the exterior caches. Lithic artifacts are more plentiful in exterior locales, but are found in a similar proportion of the cache sample. Obsidian is an infrequent inclusion in exterior deposits, and tends to be found in non-eccentric forms - the exact opposite of the interior pattem. Chert is also found in low numbers of exterior deposits, although it is much more commonly encountered in eccentric form than is obsidian. As in interior deposits, a considerable proportion of the eccentrics stem from Stela contexts. Jade, on the other hand, is found in several exterior depsots, although it is rare in interior locales.

Marine objects - including worked and unworked shell, stingray spines, coral, and pearis - are also rare in interior deposits, and are found in considerably higher quantities in exterior locales. Terrestrial fauna and human remains, however, are entirely absent in exterior caches, suggesting a very different set of behaviours leading to inclusions.

Ceramics were common in both interior and exterior placements.

Late Classic (I) Caches

To facilitate comparisons with Tikal, in order to better understand cache patterning within the Peten region, the time period Late Classic (1) (see Chapter 2) has been applied to Uaxactun. Only three caches definitely fall into this time range, all from 439 sub-Stela contexts, and ail uncarved steiae^^.

Considering the dearth of Late Classic (1) caches at Uaxactun, these 3 show a surprising degree of content variability, with no material type included in more than 2 caches. Non-eccentric obsidian, chert eccentrics, non-eccentric chert, and shell are all encountered twice, while obsidian eccentrics and jade are each present in only single deposits.

Artifact Analysis

Lithic Artifacts

Obsidian

Three types of obsidian artifacts are present in 2 sub-Stela caches fi'om this period; eccentrics (1 specimen), flakes (4) and lancet blades (5), with the lancets and eccentric found in the same cache (Cache A37, below Stela A15, guess-dated to

9.9.0.0.0 [613]). As mentioned previously (see Chapter 3), lancets are thought to have been used for bloodletting, possibly indicating that this ritual was performed as part of the dedication of this stela.

Chert

The use of chert in offerings dwindles after the close of the Eariy Classic, indeed, chert is reported from only 3 caches post-dating the Eariy Classic period, all from sub-

Stela contexts of the Late Classic (I). Ten eccentrics come from beneath 2 uncan/ed stelae (Stela A11, guess-dated at 554, and Stela A15, guess-dated at 613), showing

12. Dates for uncarved stelae are guesses (see Mathews 1985). 440 some continuity with the pattern seen during the Eariy Classic. Two blades were also found beneath Stela A11, while unquantified debitage was located beneath Stela B2

(guess-dated at 633). This marks the only appearance of chert debitage in a sub-stela context, and only the second cache at Uaxactun to contain chert waste material. This may indicate that the raw material itself was not considered sufficiently important to warrant its inclusion within an offering. However, the collection of debrtage may not have been a routine practice during the excavations at Uaxactun.

Jade

Like chert, jade makes its final cache appearance during the Late Classic (I).

Four jade beads were recovered from Cache A37, beneath uncarved Stela A15, guess- dated at AD 613.

While jade was never recovered in huge quantities at Uaxactun, its disappearance is intriguing, especially as it seems to happen following the conquest of

Tikal by Caracol. This event seems to trigger the dramatic decline (but not the disappearance) of jade use in caches at Tikal, and it seems possible that this phenomenon spanned a large portion of the Peten region at this time.

Marine Objects

Unlike lithic materials, marine objects do not disappear from Uaxactun's cache repertoire after the Late Classic (I). However, shells compose the whole of the marine inventory from this phase. Two caches contain isolated shells - Cache A36 held a piece of shell, while Cache A37 contained a shell bead. The fact that both specimens are 441 isolated may be an indication that shell had become difficult to obtain at this time, at least for use in offerings related to stela erection.

Discussion

The hiatus-period caches from Uaxactun bear some similarity to those from Tikal, notably in the fact that they relate to uncarved stelae. This may be consistant with the idea that the people of Uaxactun had also lost the prerogative to dedicate monuments during this time, possibly as a result of the domination of Tikal by Caracol. The dearth of cache content variety at this time is also intriguing, and may reflect a loss of access to many sources of goods and raw materials. The lack of ceramics is of particular interest, and appears to follow the general pattern observed at Tikal towards the disuse of ceramics in caches after the Eariy Classic. However, R.E. Smith (1955) notes that

Tepeu 1 ceramics in general were very scarce. Uaxactun seems to have been very hard hit by the hiatus, as no major architecture can be securely dated to this period (A.L.

Smith 1950; Culbert 1991).

Late Classic (il) Caches

There are considerably fewer caches at Uaxactun during the Late Classic (II) than in the Eariy Classic; the 13 caches comprise only 27.7% of the Eariy Classic total, and 20.3% of the total at the site (see Table 5.1). During the Late Classic (II), virtually all of the cache contexts utilized during the Eariy Classic continue to be present, albeit in much lower numbers. Table 5.11 shows the distribution of cache contexts at this time, shown graphically in Figure 5.5. 442

Table 5.11: Late Classic (II) Cache Locations

N % Placement Context Treatment Comment 3 60 Interior Room Sub-Floor 1 20 Interior Door Not Desc. 1 20 Interior Wall Sub-Floor 1 12.5 Exterior Stair Thru-Floor Centered 2 25 Exterior Stair Sub-Floor 1 Centered 1 12.5 Exterior Stela Not Desc. 4 50 Exterior Stela Sub-Stela

Figure 5.5: Late Classic II Cache Contexts at Uaxactun

80

Room(lnt) Door(lnt) Wall(lnt) Stair (Ext) Stela (Ext)

• Sub-Floor ® Thru-Floor • Not Desc.

Interior Deposits

The majority of interior deposits (60%) are located within Rooms, with 80% given 443 sub-floor treatment. However, a more interesting facet of sub-floor deposits is that they contain a very limited inventory of material types - ceramics and terrestrial fauna. Both of these materials are found in half of the sub-floor deposits. The single cache with undescribed treatment contains ceramics, shell, and obsidian, possibly suggesting a different pattern of inclusion based on treatment type.

Patterning by Context Type

Room Deposits

Late Classic (11) room caches contain only ceramics and terrestrial faunal remains, with the latter found in two caches (66.7%). While both of these material types were present in Eariy Classic room caches, it indicates the loss of all lithic and human remains - both important Room inclusions during the Eariy Classic. Evidence for behavioral continuity is minimal.

Door Deposits

The single door deposit contains non-eccentric obsidian, shell, and ceramics, but

offers little means for comparison.

Wall Deposits

Only 1 Wall deposit is present during Late Classic (II) times, and this contains

only ceramics. 444

Artifact Analysis

Lithic Artifacts

Obsidian

Obsidian is a very rare commodity in Late Classic II interior caches, encountered in only the single Door cache. This contains 9 incised obsidians, a form that seems to replace eccentrics at Tikal during the Late Classic period, and marks the only appearance of this artifact type at Uaxactun. The function of incised obsidians - flakes with illustrations incised onto them — is far from clear. Those from Uaxactun (see Kidder

1947:Figure 69) depict humans (or deities?) in 6 cases, along with a scorpion, an abstract form, and a human "cameo" encircled with markings. No other obsidian forms are present in interior caches from this period.

Marine Objects

The single Door cache contained 1 whole shell, 2 shell fragments, and a small shell ornament. The whole shell is a specimen of Melongena melongena and has three sawed cuts in the shape of the letter "H" (see Kidder 1947:Figure 48). Although it is unclear from Kidder's illustration, these cuts appear to penetrate through the shell; their function is unknown.

Terrestrial Fauna

Ten-estrial faunal remains are reported from 40% of Late Classic II interior deposits, and both come from sub-floor room contexts. Cache A22 contains a partial

Puma {Felis concolor mayensis) skeleton, consisting of a complete skull (painted red). 445 and a few other bones (not described). This is the only instance of a large dangerous animal in a Uaxactun Cache. Unfortunately, no mention is made of the condition of the bones, or even which non-cranial elements are present, making their origin difficult to assess. An Incomplete skeleton could suggest that the animal died of natural causes, and then the remains were included in a cache after their discovery; it is also possible that this animal was intentionally sacrificed and included in this offering. A third possibility is that this represents the remains of a cloak, with the skull left in place to maintain the shape of the head. A similar find is present in a cache from Altar de

Sacrificios. Without a detailed study of the skeletal remains, it is impossible to suggest which scenario is more likely.

The second cache (Cache A32) contained the skeleton of a large rodent, identified as a Paca {Agouti paca). According to Olsen (1982), the paca was a probable food source. Rodent bones have been reported from caches at Tikal, and although none have ever been described in any detail, there has been no mention of any being sufficiently large to be a Paca. If a complete skeleton was present, this could represent an intentional sacrifice.

Ceramics

After their total absence during the first part of the Late Classic, ceramics make a minor re-appearance during the latter part of the period. Sixty percent of interior caches contain ceramic vessels, and all come from different contexts. Table 5.12 details the ceramic vessels of this period. 446

Table 5.12: Ceramics in Late Classic (II) Interior Deposits

Cache Context & n Type Vessel Shape Comments Treatment A1 Room (SF) ? A26 Door (ND) 4 Unslipped Undescribed A33 Wall (SF) 1 Orange/Black Cylindrical Bottomless Vase

While the sample of ceramics from interior caches is far too small to suggest patterning, it is clear that these vessels are very different than those seen in Early Classic caches. Red wears are absent, as are bowls and lip-to-lip positioning, suggesting a break in continuity with regard to ceramic use in offerings.

Discussion: Late Classic 11 Interior Caches

The handful of interior caches from the Late Classic II show a surprising degree of dissimilarity. Only terrestrial fauna and ceramics are found with any frequency, while lithic artifacts are very rare, represented only by obsidian.

Exterior Deposits

Three-quarters of all Late Classic (II) exterior caches are given sub-floor (or sub- stela) treatment (see Table 5.12). These contain only 4 material types, most of which appear only a single time. Non-eccentric obsidian is the only material type found in more than one sub-floor exterior deposit. The single through-floor deposit from this period holds nothing but terrestrial fauna, while the cache with undescrit>ed treatment contains only non-eccentric obsidian. Only 2 Late Classic (II) caches were located along 447 centefiines (both exterior), but share no material inclusions.

Patterning by Context Type

Stair Deposits

The 3 Stair deposits from this period lack inclusional variety, containing only shell, ceramics, and ten^strial fauna, with the last being the only material included in more than one cache. This marks a drastic change from the Eariy Classic pattern, where all stair caches contained ceramics and nothing else.

Stela Deposits

Five Stela deposits (four beneath uncarved stelae) are present from this period, and all contain nothing but non-eccentric obsidian. This mari

Artifect Analysis

Lithic Artifacts

Obsidian

All Late Classic obsidian fi'om exterior caches comes from Stela contexts (5 caches), and intriguingly obsidian is the only material type reported from Stela contexts.

However, unlike caches from eariier times, Late Classic (II) obsidian artifacts are of unspectacular fonm, with only flakes, cores, and debitage reported. Table 5.13 shows the distribution of obsidian artifact forms during this period. 448

Table 5.13: Obsidian Artifacts in Late Classic (II) Exterior Caches

Context Treatment Flake Core Debitage Stela Not Desc. 1(?)^ 1(41) Stela Sub-Stela 1(?)' 2(71) 3(?)' 1. Unquantified.

The high frequency of cores is something seen in Earty Classic exterior caches,

although this form is far more common during the Late Classic. This may relate to the

discard of a ceremonial object following the end of its use life. Flakes and debitage are

probably related to these cores, although refitting would be necessary to determine this.

That none of these materials are quantified makes it impossible to suggest what function

they may have played.

Marine Objects

During the Late Classic II, marine materials are limited to a single exterior cache,

in the Stair of Structure A-V. This cache (Cache A34) contains 106 perforated

specimens of Marginella apicina, a small univalve, and more than likely represent the

remains of a necklace or similar object. The same cache contained a large number of

snake vertebrae, which could have been strung with the shells.

Terrestrial Fauna

Ten-estrial faunal material is reported from 25% of Late Classic (II) exterior

caches. Both caches come from the Stairs of structure A-V. Cache A27, a through-floor

deposit located on the building's centeriine, contained the skeleton of an Ocelot {Felis 449 paradalis), lying on its right side, with its head towards the west. Human burials occasionally match this orientation (see Smith 1950), suggesting that this deposit may represent the sacrifice and ritual interment of this animal, given the apparently intentional placement.

The second cache (Cache A34) was given a sub-floor treatment, and contains 65 vertebrae of a colubrine (non-poisonous) snake, some of which are illustrated in Kidder

(1947:82b). No mention Is made of whether the skull was present, if any of the vertebrae showed signs of cutmarks (possibly indicating decapitation of the snake), or even of whether these bones were articulated. At least 2 possible scenarios exist for the origin of these remains: (1), a snake was sacrificed and placed into the cache as an offering, and

(2) a snake was killed at some point, and its vertebrae were cleaned and then combined with perforated Marginella apicina shells to produce a necklace. Only careful analysis of these vertebrae could determine which is the more likely explanation.

Ceramics

Ceramics are reported from only one of exterior cache. A single polychrome cylindrical vase with lid was encountered in a sub-floor Stair context. The presence of a single vessel in a stair context shows some continuity with the Eariy Classic pattern, although the vessel type is quite different, especially as no polychrome vessels are reported from Eariy Classic cache contexts. In fact, this is the only polychrome vessel from a cache at Uaxactun. 450

Discussion: Uaxactun in the Late Classic II

The Late Classic II caches of Uaxactun are very different from those found in

Early Classic contexts. There Is a marked decrease in both contextual and content variability, suggesting a much more rigid structure relating to the setting of caches.

Terrestrial fauna beconnes much more common than at any previous time, although it is reported in only 3 caches. Obsidian is the only lithic resource encountered, although it is never found in spectacular form. However, the great number of cores in exterior caches is intriguing. Cores were never present in large numbers previously, and their sudden appearance is perplexing. Their presence may indicate that obsidian was difficult to obtain at this time. Marine materials and ceramics are both uncommon, with the former much in keeping with the pattern seen at Tikal during this period.

The focus of ritual activity during Late Classic il times was centered upon Group

A, and all but one cache from this period comes from this group (the lone exception is from Group B). It appears that Group E was fully abandoned by this time, and was certainly of no particular ritual importance.

The monument record at Uaxactun continued to be silent from just prior to the hiatus until 9.16.0.0.0 or AO 751, and it appears to have continued as a subordinate center to Tikal (Culbert 1991:137). Culbert (1991:137) describes the situation thus:

There was major construction... during Tepeu 2. Groups A and B were completely remodeled. Almost all the new structures were of range rather than temple-pyramid type. Although there were numerous Tepeu 2 burials in Uaxactun, none of them was in a major tomb or richly furnished. Uaxactun seems to have lacked the prerogatives of tombs, temples, and monuments and it is easy to imagine the site serving as an administrative center under the aegis of Tikal. 451

Summary

It is apparant that Uaxactun's heyday occurred during the Eariy Classic, both immediately before and immediately following its conquest by Tikal. This represents the period of greatest ceremonial activity as represented by caches, and also the most abundant construction.

The Tikal conquest in AD 378 was cleariy the most significant event in the history of Uaxactun's occupation, and brought with it the greatest ramifications. In particular, these were the imposition of a new ruling dynasty stemming from Tikal and the supplanting of one important ceremonial center (Group E) with another (Groups A and

B). Uaxactun's role within the Tikal realm is unclear, although Culbert (1991) views it primarily as an administrative center. I would expand this opinion to include it as a tribute center as well, and suspect that the commonplace appearance of most Uaxactun caches at the same time as the placing of spectacular counterparts in Tikal is a result of the citizens of Uaxactun providing Tikal with rare and valuable objects and materials. 452

CHAPTER 6: INTRASITE PATTERNING AT ALTAR DE SACRIFICIOS

Introduction

Located on the south bank of the Rio Pasion, just above the confluence of the

Rio Salinas in the southwestern part of the Peten (Willey 1973), Altar de Sacrificios is a rather small center, considered a "major ruin" primarily for the presence of numerous carved and dated monuments, rather than the size and number of its buildings. Mathews and Willey (1991:42) note that Altar de Sacrificios has the longest monumental sequence of any site in the Pasion region, including larger centers such as Seibal (see Chapter 7) and Dos Pilas (see Houston 1993). Unfortunately, no current population estimates (see

Culbert and Rice 1990) exist for Altar de Sacrificios.

While the riverine location of Altar de Sacrificios undoubtedly aided in trade, and agriculture, the Altar de Sacrificios region is devoid of many important sources of raw material. The nearest known source of limestone - used for construction during the Late

Classic - is about 21 kilometers upstream on the Rio Pasi6n; the nearest source for the red sandstone used in Eariy Classic construction is 9 km in the same direction (Willey

1973:2). Chert may have been available in the limestone beds, but other lithic sources such as obsidian, jadeite, and quartzite are not available locally, and were probably obtained from the Guatemala highlands.

The eariiest center of construction at Altar de Sacrificios appears to focus on

Group B and its environs, and then shifts to Group A towards the end of the Eariy

Classic. Willey (1973:43) suggests that this shift occurs at the very end of the Ayn phase

(AD 450-554 or 570) or at the beginning of the short Veremos phase (AD 554-573 or 453

570-585). Group A construction appears to terminate during the early part of the Boca

Phase (AD 771-909 or 780-900), although Willey (1973:57) notes that some superficial construction may have occun-ed during the Boca and Jimba phases.

Excavations were conducted t>etween 1959 and 1964 under the direction of G.R.

Willey (A.L. Smith 1972; Willey 1973), and these yielded a total of 60 caches ranging from the Late Preclassic through Post Classic periods, or the Plancha through the

Boca/Jimba ceramic phases (300 B.C. to A.D. 950). A temporal distribution of caches is presented in Table 6.1, and graphically in Figure 6.1.

Table 6.1: Altar de Sacrificios Cache Distribution Through Time

Period Number of Caches Percentage of Total Late Preclassic 10 16.7 Eariy Classic 33 55 Late Classic (1) 1 1.7 Late Classic (II) 8 13.3 Terminal Classic 8 13.3 Totals 60 100

Late Preclassic

A total of 10 caches are reported from the Plancha ceramic phase at Altar de

Sacrificios (A.L. Smith 1972), all from exterior locales. These are found primarily within construction fill, although several additional contexts are also employed. Table 6.2 shows the locations of Late Preclassic caches, also shown graphically in Figure 6.2. 454

Figure 6.1: Cache Distribution Through Time at Altar de Sacrificios

2 50

TC/Post Penod

Table 6.2: Late Preclassic Cache Locations

N % Placement Context Treatment Comment 1 10 Exterior Stair-Base Sub-Floor 1 10 Exterior Platform Sub-Floor 2 20 Exterior Const. Fill Not Desc. 3 30 Exterior Const. Fill Thru-Floor 1 10 Exterior Const. Fill Sub-Floor 2 20 Exterior Other Sub-Floor

The majority of these caches are associated with construction fill contexts, suggesting that these may represent dedicatory offerings. All Late Preclassic caches contain ceramic vessels, and although other artifact forms are rare, jade, terrestrial 455 fauna, non-eccentric obsidian, and human remains are all reported. Thus the predominant pattern for this time period is the inclusion of one or more ceramic vessels, and only rarely anything else.

Figure 6.2: Late Preclassic Cache Locations

80 60 I 60 L. iSc p0) V 20 Q.

Stair-Base Platfomn Const Fill Other Context

Sub-Floor • Thru-Floor • Not Desc....

Treatment

Fifty percent of Late Preclassic caches were given sub-floor treatment,

suggesting their intennent prior to the completion of construction in their final resting place. All contain ceramics, of course, but show little evidence for patterning in other artifact types. Only jade, obsidian, and human remains are reported, and never from more than a single deposit. Three caches were given through-floor treatment, although none contain anything beyond ceramics. None were resealed. The two other Late

Preclassic caches have undescribed treatment. Both contain ceramics, while jade and 456 terrestrial fauna are present in separate deposits.

Patterning by Context Type

Stairbase

Only a single Late Preclassic cache was encountered in a Stairbase context, offering no basis for comparison. This cache (Cache 60) contained only non-eccentric obsidian and ceramics.

Platfomi

The only Platform cache from this period contained ceramic artifacts exclusively.

Construction Fill

Construction fill caches show a high degree of patterning in that all 6 deposits contain ceramic vessels. Two caches also contain jade beads, while a third holds terrestrial fauna, the remains of an immature ocelot placed within the vessels; it is unclear whether the jade beads were similariy placed. If constnjction fill caches are dedicatory offerings, then it would appear that those from the Late Preclassic routinely involved the inclusion of ceramic containers. Whether these were used to hold perishable materials is unclear.

Rare (Other) Contexts

Two Late Preclassic caches were recovered from mounds outside the main center of Altar de Sacrificios. Both contain ceramic vessels. With one (Cache 58 from 457

Mound 7) described as containing a human arm bone. If this is indeed a human specimen, it marks the only such occurrence within a cache at Altar de Sacrificios.

Artifact Analysis

Lithic Artifacts

Obsidian

Obsidian is a rare commodity in Late Preclassic caches, represented by only 4 flake blades found in a single Stairbase deposit. Obsidian is not local to Altar de

Sacrificios, and was probably brought in from the Guatemalan highlands. Indeed, Willey

(1972:209) notes that of a limited sample of Altar de Sacrificios obsidian artifacts studied through neutron activation analysis, all specimens came from the El Chayal source, near

Kaminaljuyu, in the Guatemala highlands. Whether obsidian was brought in for purely ritual purposes at this time Is unclear, as is the ritual function of these artifacts. Eariier

(Chapter 3), I have suggested that flake blades may have been utilized in blood-letting rituals, and residue analysis may demonstrate whether they were employed in this manner at Altar de Sacrificios. Flake blades (or bladelets) are by far the most common obsidian artifact in the entire Altar de Sacrificios sample (Willey 1972), and are found in a wide variety of contexts, both ceremonial and utilitarian.

Jade

Two Late Preclassic Construction Fill deposits contain single jade beads, the only reported occurrence of this material type during this period. Jade beads are also reported from burials (Willey 1973), and appear to have been restricted to ritual contexts 458 at this time, which in turn suggests that they were of considerable value. Like obsidian, jade was probably imported from somewhere in highland Guatemala, probably the

Motagua Valley. Neither the context nor the overall location of these caches (both from

Structure B-1) offers any insight into the purpose of the inclusion of these beads.

Terrestrial Fauna

A single Construction Fill deposit. Cache 39 (from Structure B-1) contained the fragmentary remains of an immature ocelot {Felis pardalis) within paired, inverted ceramic vessels. Present were the canines, the mandible with dentition, skull fragments, at least one scapula, and a caudal vertebra (see Olsen 1972:244).

The presence of a predatory animal in a cache is intriguing, as large cats such as the jaguar are known to have been important in Mesoamerican mythology in general

(Can-asco 1990; Caso 1958). The jaguar is often associated with night and the undenvorld (Caso 1958; Pohl 1983), and an offering containing another felid may be similariy related.

These bones may represent the remains of a sacrificial animal, although the choice of skeletal elements is curious. Skull fragments, the mandible, and dentition are all consistent with the expected remains of a decapitation (although Olsen [1972] makes no mention of any signs of trauma, or the presence of cervical vertebrae, which may also be anticipated in a decapitation). However, the presence of a scapula and caudal (tail) vertebra go against this notion, suggesting instead the inclusion of an incomplete specimen.

At least two possible explanations for the skeleton's incompleteness are possible:

(1) the entire collection may represent remains scavenged from a natural death event. A 459 detailed study of the weathering of these bones may give an indication of whether burial was prompt following death, or occurred after a period of exposure (Behrensmeyer 1978;

Lyman and Fox 1989; Lyman 1994), and this In turn may be used to infer whether the animal was killed ceremonially or found post-mortem. However, Olsen (1972) does not mention whether the bones showed signs of heavy weathering, suggesting that these bones were probably not scavenged.

A second possibility is that the offering was not the bones perse, but rather a skin, possibly from a cloak or cape. Pohl (1983:73) notes that the jaguar's pelt was particulariy sought after for elite use, and that burials often contain claws which may be left within the skin during skinning. One might similariy expect that the skull may be left intact, along with the bones of the tail. Thus, with the exception of the scapula, the remains described in this cache may represent the inclusion of an ocelot pelt. Given the apparent lack of weathering of these specimens, I prefer the latter explanation.

Human Remains

The only reported example of human remains from a cache at Altar de Sacrificios comes from Cache 58, located in a Construction Fill context. The specimen is described as a "human arm," and apparently was not analyzed (there is no mention of this specimen in Saul's [1972] monograph on the human remains from Altar). As the specimen is not illustrated, it is impossible to determine which element(s) is present.

Ceramics

Ceramics comprise the only material type encountered in all Late Preclassic 460 caches at Altar de Sacrificios, indicating that the use of ceramics in offerings - probably as containers in many if not most cases - was of considerable importance during this period. Table 6.3 shows the distribution of ceramics at this time.

Table 6.3: Ceramics in Late Preclassic Caches

Cache Context & n Type Vessel Comments Treatment Shape 60 Stairbase (SF) 1 Unnamed Undesc. 45 Platform (SF) 1 Red Slipped Plate Everted Rim (Wide) Incised 39 Const. Fill (SF) 1 Corello Bowl Dichrome Incised Restricted Orifice Medial Angle 39 Const. Fill (ND) 1 Sierra Red Bowl 39 Const. Fill (ND) 1 Unnamed Bowl Small Unslipped Flaring Sided 44 Const. Fill (ND) 4 Caribal Red Bowl Slipped 44 Const. Fill (ND) 1 Unnamed Bowl Unslipped 33 Const. Fill (TF) 2 Caribal Red Bowl Red Slipped Flaring Sided Lip-to-Lip 41 Const. Fill (TF) 1 Polvero Bowl Flaring Sided Black 42 Const Rll (TF) 1 Caribal Red Bowl Flaring Sided Inverted 37 Const Fill (SF) 1 Sierra Red Cylinder Fluted 37 Const, nil (SF) 6 Sierra Red Bowl Round Sided 57 Other (SF) 1 Sierra Red Bowl 58 Other (SF) 1 Sienra Red Bowl Inverted

The most striking aspect of Late Preclassic cache ceramics is that the majority of 461 the vessels (16 of 23 or 69.6%) are red bowls of one form or another, suggesting a strong indusional consistency. Only two other vessels shapes are reported: plates and cylinders, each only used a single time. Intriguingly, in only three cases (Caches 39, 58, and 60) is it dear that the vessels were used as containers (2 caches are ambiguous), suggesting that either organic content was present or that the vessels themselves were the offering. Given the generally plain nature of these vessels, I am more inclined to favour the former interpretation, although residue analysis is needed.

Discussion: The Late Preclassic at Altar de Sacrificios

During the Late Preclassic, the occupation of Altar de Sacrificios sees continued development of the Group B area into a ceremonial center. This massive construction had been begun previously (during the Middle Preclassic San Felix Phase), when Group

B first saw the construction of modest-sized platforms. During the Plancha phase, these grew into much larger structures, centered around Structure B-l, a pyramid. By the close of the Late Preclassic, Structure B-l was a ten-aced pyramid standing some 9 meters above the level of the plaza floor, and faced with a plaster of ground a/me/as, or lime- encrusted river shells. The other structures of Group B also appeared during the

Plancha phase (Willey 1973).

At this time, caches make their first appearance. These seem to be dedicatory in most cases, based on their context and treatment More than half of the 10 Late

Preclassic caches were found in Construction Fill contexts, suggesting that they were placed as offerings relating to constmction. While half of these were given through-floor treatment, indicating placement while the structure (Str. B-l) was in use, in all cases these appear to have been placed during times of reconstruction, when later additions 462 were made to this pyramid. Seventy percent of the caches from the Late Preciassic were found within Structure B-l (two were in housemounds, the third within the Group B Plaza), suggesting that this pyramid was an important center for ceremony. However, it must be noted that Group B was not completely sampled (see A.L. Smith 1972), adding an unknown degree of bias to the cache sample.

The most intriguing aspect of the cache inclusions is that of the non-ceramic items, ail are of non-local origin (with the possible exception of both the ocelot and human remains, which may or may not be of local origin). This suggests that trade items were of non-utilitarian importance in at least some cases (all jade from this period was recovered in either caches or burials, indicating its ritual use). VVilley (1973:34) notes that the highland-lowland trade routes were active during the Plancha phase, and these undoubtedly provided the obsidian and jade found in caches. Altar's presence within a wide-ranging trade sphere is hardly surprising, given its placement along a major river.

Early Classic

More than half of the caches encountered at Altar de Sacrificios (33 or 55%) stem from Eariy Classic deposits, suggesting that this period had the most intensive incidence of caching activity. Ail Eariy Classic caches are from exterior locations. Table 6.4 shows the distribution of Early Classic caches, shown graphically in Figure 6.3. 463

Table 6.4; Eariy Classic Caches

N % Placement Context Treatment Comment 1 3 Exterior Wall Sub-Floor Centered 1 3 Exterior Const. Fill Not Desc. 6 18.2 Exterior Altar Sub-Altar 2 Centered 1 3 Exterior Altar Thru-Floor 1 3 Exterior Other Sub-Floor 23 69.7 Exterior Mixed Sub-Floor Centered

Figure 6.3: Early Classic Cache Locations

100

80 is!(0 60 O c 40 i 0) a. 20

0 Wall Const. Fill Altar Other Mixed Context

iublFtoor^ H O No' Desc.

More than two-thirds of the Early Classic caches are from Mixed context locations

(those that overlap two or more contextual categories). Intriguingly, all of these were

Installed at the same time, within the fill beneath the upper stair on the north side of 464

Structure. B-1. Construction A.

A.L. Smith (1972:237) suggests that these may be part of a single cache. This suggestion is supported by the fact that all of these caches contain nothing but ceramics, usually in the form of paired, lip-to-lip redware bowls. If these caches are condensed into a single deposit, a rather different image of Early Classic caching behaviour emerges, with Altar caches becoming the predominant form. While caches are also known from

Wall, Construction Fill, and "Other" contexts, there were never more than single deposits reported from each. Table 6.4A shows the distribution of caches if Caches 8-30 are considered a single deposit, shown graphically in Figure 6.4.

Table 6.4A: Revised Early Classic Cache Distribution

N % Placement Context Treatment Comment 1 9.1 Exterior Wall Sub-Floor Centered 1 9.1 Exterior Const. Fill Not Desc. 6 64.5 Exterior Altar Sub-Altar 2 Centered 1 9.1 Exterior Altar Thru-Floor 1 9.1 Exterior Other Sub-Floor

I am in favor of considering Caches 8-30 as a single deposit, primarily because they seem to come from a single depositional episode. Thus, they may be better described as a multi-locus cache, such as Coe (1990) reports for Tikal. The context of the caches suggests that they were dedicatory to the construction of the main stain/vay of

Stmcture B-1. Why such a large number of vessels was employed in this dedication is unknown, especially as these all appear to be empty. Once again, residue analysis may 465 provide a useful way to t)etter understand this deposit.

Figure 6.4: Revised Early Classic Cache Distribution

Const. Fil Other Context

H iu^^or^I Thru-Floor Q Not Desc.

Treatment

Sut)-floor caches are by far the most common form encountered during the Eariy

Classic - even after reducing the sample to 10 caches - as 80% received this type of treatment. Three-quarters of these caches contain ceramics (or at least potsherds), while other artifact fonns are scarce. Chert eccentrics and non-eccentric obsidian are both present in the two caches devoid of ceramics, while non-eccentric chert, jade, non- shell marine objects, and ten'estrial fauna are all reported in single cases. Rare objects, including pyrites, a stone disc, and a stone sphere, are reported from three caches. Only a single cache was given through-floor treatment, and this contains only chert eccentrics. 466

The single cache with undescribed treatment contains only potsherds.

Patterning by Context Type

Wall Caches

There is only one Wall cache from the Early Classic, and this held a variety of materials. Present are ceramic vessels, non-shell marine objects, terrestrial fauna, and rare objects. While the present sample cannot demonstrate whether this was an important or common way of dealing with caches in Wall contexts, it is worth noting that later Wall caches contain none of the same types of artifacts, save ceramics.

Construction Fill Caches

The single cache from this context contains only unperforated ceramic discs. In discussing Late Preclassic deposits, Willey (1973) suggests that these may have been used as vessel lids.

Altar Caches

One of the most striking features of the Altar de Sacrificios Eariy Classic is the presence of numerous altars - some carved, most not - including both censer and circular types" (see Graham 1972). Seven Eariy Classic caches come from beneath 3 altars: 2 Circular Altars (yielding 3 caches) and 1 Censer Altar (yielding 4 caches).

The 3 Circular Altar caches (from beneath Circular Altars 3 and 4) all contain lithic

13. Graham (1972) refers to carved and shaped altars as "censer altars," presumably due to their physical similarity to a ceramic censer. 467 matenais exclusively, in the form of chert eccentrics (all cases) and non-eccentric obsidian artifacts (2 cases), interestingly, both of the obsidian-bearing caches came from beneath the same altar (Altar 3), representing one of the few cases of multiple caches associated with the same monument.

Despite the presence of 3 Censer Altars, caches were encountered below only one. Censer Altar A, found in front of Structure B-1 (Smith 1972). These 4 caches show a reasonable degree of patterning, although in a way quite different from that seen for

Circular Altars. All contain ceramics, and in 3 cases nothing else is present. The fourth case differs, in that unperforated potsherd discs replace the largely complete vessels seen in the other caches, and also in the presence of chert, jade, and a circular fragment of pyrites, thought to be the remains of a mirror.

Apparently there were two ways of making an offering in an Altar context during the Eariy Classic, each corresponding with a different altar form. Censer altar offerings contained ceramics primarily, while circular altars received lithic artifacts, including chert eccentrics. The circular altars bore glyphic inscriptions which, unfortunately, are not sufficiently preserved to be read. These may well have offered some insight into the nature of the event and ceremony associated with the caching activity. Caches are not reported from beneath undecorated altars.

Rare Contexts

The single Eariy Classic Rare or Unusual context cache (Cache 55) comes from

Mound 38, and contains only a single undecorated dish inverted over a stone disk. The stone disk appears to be unique among Aftar de Sacrifidos cache contents. 468

Mixed Context Caches

As mentioned above, Early Classic Mixed contexts contain either the bulk of the caches from this period, or one very large cache, with the latter interpretation seeming more appropriate based on context. In neariy all cases, these "caches" contain the same type of materials: 2 red, unslipped, usually lip-to-lip bowls, usually with nothing else present. Occasionally fragmentary vessels are also found in association, and there are instances of 1 or 3 vessels being present within a cache (locus).

Centerline Caches

Superficially, centerline caches are overwhelmingly consistent in their content, due to the presence of ceramics in all cases. However, if Caches 8-30 are considered as a single deposit, this becomes a far less prevalent pattern, with only 4 Eariy Classic caches located along center lines, all containing ceramics. Regardless of how Caches 8-

30 are treated, ceramics are still the only artifact fomn in most centeriine deposits - with the only exception being Cache 54, which also contains non-shell marine objects, terrestrial fauna, and rare materials. As caches were probably not located along center lines accidentally, it seems reasonable to argue that these represent offerings, probably relating to construction or some other aspect of spatial layout. Minimally, it can be suggested that during the Eariy Classic all such caches required either the inclusion of ceramics, or something contained in ceramics. 469

Artifact Analysis

Lithic Artifacts

Obsidian

In the Early Classic, obsidian continues to be a rare cache commodity, reported from only two deposits. Both (Caches 5 and 6) are located beneath Altar 3, an eroded round altar thought to date to early Cycle 9 (before 9.5.0.0.0 [Graham 1972]). Both caches contain single flake-blades, while Cache 6 also held 677 obsidian objects, including cores, bladelets, flakes, and fragmentary versions of the same. Unfortunately, specific artifact forms are unquantified.

Cache 6 is unique in housing such a large quantity of obsidian - 71.3% of all cached obsidian at Altar de Sacrificios. The function of such quantities is unclear, although the context of the cache suggests ritual behaviour, possibly associated with dedication. Unfortunately, Altar 3 is too eroded for its inscriptions to be deciphered, making specific historical interpretation impossible. The artifact types suggest tool manufacture on the spot, although refitting studies would be necessary to confirm this.

The functions of such tools are also far from clear, and the forms present are sufficiently general to have been used for a variety of purposes.

Chert

Chert makes its first cache appearance during the Eariy Classic, reported from 4 altar caches. Three (Caches 3, 5, and 6) were recovered from beneath round altars, while Cache 7 was located below a censer altar, and both altar forms display a very distinctive pattem of chert artifact use. Round altar caches all contain chert eccentrics; 470

Cache 3 from below Altar 4 contains 13 eccentrics, while Caches 5 and 6, both from below Altar 3, each contain 9. The Censer AJtar cache, on the other hand, contains chert only in the form of large, laurel-leaf blades. Three such blades are present, one each of white, red, and grey chert (Interestingly, the same artifact form Is referred to as an eccentric in Cache 3). Table 6.5 details the eccentric fonns present.

Table 6.5: Chert Eccentric Forms in Early Classic Altar Caches

Eccentric Form Round Altar Censer Altar Total Double-Pointed Blade, Notched 4 0 4 Laurel-Leaf Blade, Large 3 3 6 Elaborate Perforate 2 0 2 Unnamed Complex 1 0 1 Broad-Stemmed Blade 1 0 1 Trident Crescent 0 Laurei-Leaf Blade, Medium 1 0 1 Jaguar 1 0 1 Scorpion 0 Double Crescent 1 0 1 Serrated Blade, Multiple Notches 1 0 1 Serrated Blade, Notched 4 0 Double Pointed, Multiple Notched, 1 0 1 Sen-ated Blade Crescent, Plain edged 1 0 1 Ring 1 0 1 S-Form 1 0 1 Axe-like Form 2 0 2 471

Centipede 1 0 1 Totals 31 3 34

The most common eccentric fomis are large laurel-leaf blades, notched double- pointed blades, notched serrated blades, and scorpions. With the exception of scorpions, the most common forms were found in more than one cache. As the function of eccentrics is unknown, it is difficult to suggest what this patterning signifies.

Jade

Jade is known from only a single Early Classic cache, located in a censer altar context (Cache 7, Censer Altar A). The only jade artifact is a single barrel-shaped bead, although this is accompanied by 2 similarly shaped greenstone beads. The lack of jade in Early Classic caches shows some continuity with the Late Preclassic, although whether this represents intentional behaviour or a lack access to raw material is unknown. Certainly jade is a common Eariy Classic cache inclusion in other centers, such as Tikal. The low frequency of jade in ritual deposits (and in general) during the

Eariy Classic suggests that its absence at Altar de Sacrificios may have resulted from competitive exclusion.

Marine Objects

Marine materials of any description are uncommon in Altar de Sacrifidos caches, and only a single example from the Eariy Classic exists. Cache 54, located in a wall in

Structure B-ll held a single txjwl containing unquantified fish bones. As these were not identified to species, it is debatable whether they are of marine origin or belong to a 472 riverine species. Given Altar's location at the confluence of the Pasion and Usumacinta rivers, the presence of riverine fish in caches would not be surprising.

Terrestrial Fauna

Cache 54, a wall cache, holds the only terrestrial fauna recovered from an Eariy

Classic context at Altar de Sacrificios. Present are unquantified, unidentified turtle shell fragments. Olsen (1972:245-246) mentions the presence of 4 species of turtle at Altar de Sacrificios: Dermatemys cf. mawei (turtle): Staurotypus cf. saMni (Giant Musk Turtle),

Geomyda cf. areolata (Black-bellied turtle), and Kinosteron sp. (Mud Turtle): unfortunately, none of these is described as found in a ritual context. Turtles were occasionally included in offerings at other sites, such as Tikal (see Chapter 3). The purpose of including a turtle within a cache is unknown, although it is interesting that these remains are derived from the same deposit that bore fish bones. As these are the only faunal remains in an Eariy Classic cache, it seems possible that this deposit was some sort of offering to a river god, or provider of foods. Similar behaviour is known in the Pacific Northwest, where the offering of fish to river spirits is a common ceremony at the start of the fishing season (R.L Carison personal communcation 1988).

Ceramics

Ceramics are present in most Eariy Classic caches, usually in the form of whole vessels. In fact, the only context devoid of ceramics is below round altars (ceramics are present beneath censer altars, although in one case only as potsherds). Table 6.6 details the Eariy Classic cache ceramic inventory. 473

Table 6.6: Early Classic Cache Ceramics

Cache Context & n Type Vessel Comments Treatment Shape 54 Wall (SF) 1 Caribal Red Bowl 40 Const. Fill (ND) 28 Unnamed Sherds Unperforated Disks 31 Altar (SF) 2 Unnamed Bowls Unslipped, Flaring Buff Sided, Lip-to-lip, Broken in Situ 32 Altar (SF) 2 Unnamed Bowls Unslipped, Flaring Buff Sided, Lip-to-lip. 38 Altar (SF) 1 Aguila Bowl Unslipped Orange Flaring Sided 7 Altar (SF) 2 Unnamed Sherds Ceramic Disks 55 Other (SF) 1 Morfin Dish Shallow Unslipped Inverted 10 Mixed (SF) 2 Unnamed Bowl Unslipped, Red Lip-to-Lip 11 Mixed (SF) 1 Aguila Bowl Red Slipped Orange 12 Mixed (SF) 2 Unnamed Bowl Unslipped, Red Lip-to-lip 13 Mixed (SF) 2 Aguila Bowl Red Slipped Orange Lip-to-lip 14 Mixed (SF) 2 Unnamed Bowl Unslipped Red Lip-to-lip 15 Mixed (SF) 2 Unnamed Bowl Unslipped Red Lip-to-lip 16 Mixed (SF) 2 Unnamed Bowl Unslipped Red Lip-to-lip 17 Mixed (SF) 2 Unnamed Bowl Unslipped Buff/Grey Lip-to-lip 18 Mixed (SF) 2 Aguila Bowl Red Slipped Orange Lip-to-lip 474

19 Mixed (SF) 2 Aguiia Bowl Red Slipped Orange Lip-to-lip 20 Mixed (SF) 2 Unnamed Bowl Unslipped Buff/Red Lip-to-lip 21 Mixed (SF) 2 Unnamed Bowl Unslipped Red Lip-to-lip 22 Mixed (SF) 2 Unnamed Bowl Unslipped Red Lip-to-lip 23 Mixed (SF) 2 Unnamed Bowl Unslipped Red Lip-to-lip 24 Mixed (SF) 2 Unnamed Bowl Unslipped Red Lip-to-lip 25 Mixed (SF) 2 Unnamed Bowl Unslipped Red Lip-to-lip 26 Mixed (SF) 2 Unnamed Bowl Unslipped Red Lip-to-lip 26 Mixed (SF) 5 Not Desc. Sherds Flaring sided bowl fragments 27 Mixed (SF) 2 Unnamed Bowl Unslipped Red Lip-to-lip Broken (top bowl is fragmentary) 28 Mixed (SF) 2 Aguiia Bowl Red-Slipped Orange Lip-to-lip 29 Mixed (SF) 2 Aguiia Bowl Slipped Orange Lip-to-lip 30 Mixed (SF) 2 Unnamed Bowl Unslipped Buff LIp-to-lip 8 Mixed (SF) 2 Aguiia Bowl Red Slipped Orange Lip-to-lip 9 Mixed (SF) 3 Unnamed Bowl Unslipped Red Lip-to-lip, with one inverted over these.

The vast majority of Early Classic caches contain ilp-to-lip, red bowls of one 475 variety or another. Of 53 vessels, 79.2% are red bowls, and the single Morfin shallow dish is the only other vessel shape present. Also intriguing, the only vessel that was clearly used as a container (from Cache 54) comes from a rare context (a mound), and held faunal remains, which are absent in all other Eariy Classic caches. The presence of red bowls in caches and their apparent lack of content show strong ties with the Late

Preclassic period, indicating a high degree of continuity between these two periods.

Some minor changes have appeared in ceramic use, most notably the preference for lip- to-lip pot placement. However, this pattern seems to be extremely common during the

Early Classic at a number of sites, and is not unique to Altar de Sacrificios.

Discussion: Altar de Sacrificios during the Early Classic

The transition from the Late Preclassic to the Early Classic (through the

Protoclassic in Willey's [1973] temiinology) suggests local continuity, although changes begin to occur during the Eariy Classic. During the Salinas Phase, the primary center of the site continues to be Group B, which is still dominated by Structure B-l. This pyramid is remodelled again during the Salinas phase (AD 150-450), where it takes on its final form - a red sandstone-covered pyramid, standing 13 meters high, and 32 meters across at its base. A reconstruction of the final fonnn of this structure is shown in A.L.

Smith (1972: Figure 29b). The other Group B structures (Structures B-ll, B-lll, and B-IV) also underwent their final major constructions at this time. These were quite similar to that of Structure B-l, and much (if not all) of Group B was faced with red sandstone at this time.

The succeeding Ayn Phase sees the politico-religious center of Altar de

Sacrificios remaining at Group B (Willey 1973), although, with the possible exception of 476

Structure B-IV, there is no subsequent construction in this area. At the close of the Ayn

Phase (or possibly during the succeeding Veremos Phase), building activity moves from

Group 6 to Group A.

A number of stelae and altars were placed during the Ayn phase, on the north face platforms and terraces of Structure B-l (Willey 1973:39). Indeed, the presence of dated monuments is part of the definition of the Ayn phase, and the initial series date

(Stela 10) is 9.1.0.0.0 (AD 455).

Caching activity does not seem to increase in frequency at this time, although the caches themselves are much more elaborately executed. Of note of course Is the huge repository in the north side stair of pyramid B-l. This deposit - which I have reclassified as a single, multi-locus cache - of ceramic vessels was probably made as a dedicatory offering during the final construction phase of this structure, and it seems likely that the now-empty vessels at one point held organic contents. The most striking change, however, in caching behaviour is the movement away from structural dedicatory caches and towards those relating to altars. Using the revised distribution of Eariy Classic caches, 70% are found in association with altars. It is unclear whether altars are present prior to this time at Altar de Sacrificios, as most are difficult to date (see Graham 1972).

Thus, the presence of altar caches appears to mark a dramatic change in ritual behaviour. The altars at Altar de Sacrificios seem to function in a similar fashion to stelae at other sites; it is worth noting that none of the altars associated with caches were associated with stelae.

Eariy Classic cache contents are somewhat more elaborate than those seen during the Late Preclassic, with different types of materials and artifacts present. Certain material types make their first appearance during this phase, including chert eccentrics ATI

(and chert in general), marine objects, and reptiles. Both jade and obsidian continue to be rare, while ceramics are ubiquitous. This would seem to indicate that the trade routes used to obtain items included in Late Preclassic caches continue to be present during the

Eariy Classic, and probably have expanded somewhat. In particular, some sort of trade with coastal populations is present, as fish bones are reported from a cache (these could not be identified [Olsen 1972]), and both marine shell and stingray spines are reported from non-cache contexts (Willey 1973:37). Polychrome pottery also makes its first appearance, although not in caches.

Willey (1973:37) views the Salinas Phase as a period of rapid change, with innovations in ceramics, large-scale stone construction, iconography, and probably religious and ideological aspects of society. The Ayn Phase takes these changes even further, adding monumental stone sculpture and texts, to produce what Willey (1973:42) refers to as the "...first fully Classic Maya cultural expression..." at Altar de Sacrificios.

However, with regard to caches, change is far less monumental. While caches are certainly being recovered in new areas, and beginning to hold contents more typical of caches in other areas, such as marine materials and eccentrics, there does not appear to be a dramatic change firom the Late Preclassic. Unspectacular ceramics, rather than polychrome, scenic, or glyphic) continue to be the primary type of cache inclusion, and there is typically very little else present. Eccentric lithics are known from only a handful of deposits, and only in chert. Both obsidian and jade are virtually absent, while marine objects are very rare. These types of objects - found in abundance in Eariy Classic caches at centers in the northern Peten - are not found in quantity at Altar de Sacrifidos.

Willey (1973:38) suggests that this pattern is an indication of religious continuity with the

Preclassic. While this is a definite possibility, it seems more likely that these deficiencies 478 are related to a general lack of access to necessary materials continuing from the preceding period. The reasons for this are unclear, but may relate to competitive exclusion imposed by larger contemporaneous centers such as Tikal.

Late Classic (I)

The Veremos and Chixoy phases at Altar de Sacrificios con-espond well with

Tikal's Ik phase (Culbert 1993), and represent the same time period. Only a single cache was present during this period, from within Mound 36 (Rare context), approximately

300m west of the main plaza groups. This cache was given sub-floor treatment.

Patterning by Context Type

Rare Contexts

A single cache was recovered from Mound 36. This contained 2 upright polychrome vessels, and was devoid of any other content. This is the first appearance of polychrome vessels in a cache at Altar de Sacrificios.

Artifact Analysis

Ceramics

Ceramics are not plentiful in Late Classic (I) caches, with only 2 vessels reported from a single deposit. These vessels show a considerable change from \he Eariy Classic period, and are Saxche orange polychrome bowls, both placed upright and side by side.

However, as with the ceramics of the Early Classic, neither contained anything. 479

Discussion: Altar de Sacrificios during the Late Classic I

Like much of the Maya lowlands, Altar de Sacrificios experiences a gap in its monument sequence beginning at about 9.5.0.0.0. However, Altar is one of the few sites with a carved monument during the time typically described as the Hiatus - 9.5.0.0.0 to

9.8.0.0.0 as Altar 1 dates to 9.7.15.12.9; AD 589 [Culbert 1991:316]). During this period

(the Veremos Phase), there appears to be little construction at Altar.

As mentioned above, construction at Altar de Sacrificios shifts from Group B to

Group A at the close of the Ayn phase, and it is in Group A that the few episodes of

Veremos phase construction occur. It appears (Wiliey 1973:44) that some constnjction was done on Structures A-llI and A-11. Construction resumed during the succeeding

Chixoy Phase, with red sandstone continuing as the primary building material. Structures

A-1 and A-ll date to this phase. Three stelae were set at this time, including Stela 18/B, which had been moved from B group and rededicated.

Ceremonial deposits were rare at this time, with only 13 burials (8 Veremos, 5

Chixoy) and a single cache (Chixoy) reported. This cache contains the first polychrome

(Saxche Orange Polychrome) ceramics reported from a cache at Altar de Sacrificios.

However, with only 1 cache reported, it seems unreasonable to suggest that this represents a major shift in ceremonial behaviour.

Late Classic (II)

The Pasidn phase corresponds with the Imix phase at Tikal, and represents the later part of the Late Classic (AD 700-850) at Altar de Sacrificios. Seven caches are reported from this phase, including the first from an interior locale. Table 6.7 shows the 480 distribution of caches from this phase, also shown graphically in Figure 6.5.

Table 6.7: Pasion Phase Caches

N % Placement Context Treatment Comment 3 37.5 Exterior Stair Sub-Floor Centered 1 12.5 Interior Wall Not Desc. 2 25 Exterior Const. Fill Not Desc. 1 Re-Opened 1 12.5 Exterior Stela Sub-Stela 1 12.5 Exterior Altar Sub-Altar

Stair caches are the most common type encountered during the Pasion phase, although the small total sample size weakens this finding. Most of these caches seem to relate to construction, as they are found within fill, within a wall, and along structural center lines beneath staircases. This may represent dedicatory behaviour.

Treatment

Sub-floor (also sub-stela and sub-altar) treatment is the most common type reported for the Late Classic (II), although the four caches falling into this category show little artifactual similarity to each other. Three caches contain stingray spines, while three contain traces of pigment (however, these are not the same three caches). Chert eccentrics, jade, and non-shell marine items are all reported twice, while obsidian eccentrics, non-eccentric obsidian and chert, Spondylus shells, and other shells are all reported in isolation. The variability seen in these deposits suggests that their treatment was not closely related to their contents. The three remaining caches from this period all 481

Figure 6.5: Pasion Phase Cache Contexts

50 37.5

9i 20 12.5 12.5 12.5

JZ. Stair Wall Const. Fill Stela Altar Context

Sub-Floor • Sub-Altar • Sub-Stela ^ Not Desc.

have undescribed treatment, and share no artifactual similarities, as no material type is present in more than a single deposit.

Patterning by Context Type

Stair Caches

Three Stair caches are reported from Late Classic (II) times, all from Structure A-

I, and all from on or near the structure's centeriine. Considering the spatial similarity of these three caches, they show a surprising disparity of content. Present are non- eccentric obsidian, tx>th eccentric and non-eccentric chert, jade, stingray spines, non- shell marine objects, Spondylus shells, other shells, and pigments, with only stingray spines and pigments appearing in more than one cache (pigments were on the stingray 482 spines in one cache). Based on both context and the fact that all are from the same construction period (period 4), it would appear that these three caches are contemporaneous, and as such, may represent different aspects of the same ceremony.

Whether there is some significance to the location of each individual deposit and its associated content is unknown.

Wall Caches

The single Wall cache from this period contains 4 chert blades, 3 of which are laurel-leaf in shape. This bears no resemblance to the artifact forms reported from Wall deposits of other phases.

Construction Fill Caches

Two Late Classic caches stem from Fill; one from above Burial 128, the other from Structure C-l'*. The above-burial cache (Cache 56) contains jade, stingray spines, non-sheli marine objects, shell, and terrestrial fauna, while the other contains only a single ceramic vessel. As these caches share little contextual similarity, their disparate content is unsurprising.

Stela Caches

There is only a single sub-Stela cache at Altar de Sacrificios, and this comes from beneath Stela 16, dating to 9.10.?.?.? (AD 633+ - Smith 1972). This cache contains

14. Group C received only minimal excavation (see A.L Smith 1972:107-109), and is not discussed in the summary of the Late Classic (II) occupation at Altar de Sacrificios. 483 only obsidian artifacts, including flakes, bladelets, and core fragments. Obsidian is a rare material type in caches at Altar, and its presence in a rarely used context is puzzling.

Mathews and Willey (1991:42) note that this date marks the termination of the reign of

Ruler D, who apparently brought Altar out of a 60 year hiatus in 9.7.15.12.9 (AD 589).

Whether this stela commemorates Ruler D's reign or marks the start of that of Ruler E is not clear at this time.

Altar Caches

Only a single Late Classic (II) cache is reported from a sub-altar context. Cache

48 was recovered from below Altar 5, a round, heavily-eroded monument with illegible glyphs. This cache bears little similarity to the pattern seen in Early Classic round altar deposits, and contains both obsidian and chert eccentrics, jade, stingray spines, non- shell marine objects, and pigment. This marks the only occurrence of obsidian eccentrics in an Altar de Sacrificios cache.

Centerfine Caches

Three caches from this period were located along centeriines, although these show only a minimal degree of content similarity to one another. Two contain stingray spines and pigment, while no other material type is found in more than a single deposit. 484

Artifact Analysis

Lithic Artifects

Obsidian

During the Paslon phase, obsidian continues to be an unusual cache commodity, although It is present in two roughly contemporaneous caches for the first time at Altar de

Sacrificios. The single stela cache contains a small quantity of flakes (21), flake blades

(12), and cores (16). While the quantities are considerably smaller, this pattem of artifact forms is identical to that seen during the Eariy Classic in a sub-altar context. Beneath

Altar 5 were 8 eccentrics; they are the only obsidian eccentrics reported from any Altar de Sacrificios cache, and were recovered from Cache 48. Altar 5 is a round limestone monument in fragmentary and highly eroded condition, with none of its inscriptions legible (Graham 1972). However, given its limestone construction, it probably dates to after 9.10.0.0.0, meaning that it is at least roughly contemporaneous with Stela 16. The find of eccentrics in an altar context is Intriguing as it suggests a certain degree of continuity with the Eariy Classic, where chert eccentrics were placed t)elow round altars.

However, the use of obsidian eccentrics is new, and may indicate a change in the nature of the Altar offering. Also of note is the presence of only 8 eccentrics, as opposed to the usual 9 or 13 seen during the Eariy Classic. Cache 48 also contains chert eccentrics, discussed below.

A single Stair cache, which very likely post-dates both the Stela and Altar caches, contains 5 flake blades. As flake blades are the most common form of obsidian artifact at

Altar de Sacrificios, it is debatable whether this suggests a similar pattem of behaviour. Chert

Four Pasion deposits contain artifacts of chert, and two of these contain items identified as eccentrics. The four caches came from three different contexts, with two

originating within Stairs; table 6.8 shows the chert artifact distribution in Pasidn caches

Table 6.8: Chert Artifocts in Pasi6n Phase Caches

Context Treatment Eccentrics Flal(es other Stair Sub-Floor 9 0 0 Stair Sub-Floor 0 1 0 Wall Not Desc. 0 0 4^ Altar Sub-Altar 10 0 0 Totals 19 1 4 1.1 Projectile point (straight stem, long blade); 3 Ceremonial laurel-lea blades, medium

With the exception of the single unmodified flake and the long-bladed point, these

are essentially the same chert artifact forms seen in Early Classic Altar caches, with the

presence of a multitude of eccentrics and 3 laurel-leaf blades. However, the context of

these caches has changed, now including Wall and Stair deposits, suggesting a change

in the nature of the ceremonies. Further demonstration of this change comes with the

appearance of obsidian and chert eccentrics in the same cache, a previously unknown

association at Altar de Sacrificios. Table 6.9 compares obsidian and chert eccentric

forms in Pasidn phase caches (see also Figure 6.6), while Table 6.10 compares Eariy

Classic with Late Classic eccentric forms (also shown in Figure 6.7). 486

Table 6.9: Late Classic (Pasion) Eccentric Forms

Eccentric Foim Obsidian Chert Total Notched Core 2 0 2 Laurel-Leaf Point 2 3' 5 Crescent 1 3^ 4 Expanded Stem Projectile Point 1 0 1 Double Crescent 1 0 1 Miscellaneous Unifaced Form 1 0 1 Bi-Pointed Knife 0 1 1 Notched Double-Pointed Blade 0 6 6 Scorpion 0 1 1 Trifurcate 0 2 2 Ring 0 1 1 Trident Crescent 0 1 1 Elaborate Perforated Form 0 3 3 Bifurcate Fomri 0 1 1 Totals 8 22 30 1. These are not designated as eccentrics by A.L. Smith (1972)

2. 1 described as crescent, plain edge.

There is remarkably little overiap between obsidian and chert eccentric fomis, which may suggest that these had different functions within the context in which they were placed. Further. 1 of the 2 overiapping categories (laurel-leaf blades) is not consistently referred to as a form of chert eccentric. 487

Figure 6.6: Pasi6n Phase Eccentric Forms

Eccentric Form Notched Core Obsidian Laurel-Leaf Point Chert Crescent Projectile Point Double Crescent Misc. Unifece Bi-Pointed Knife Notched DP Blade Scorpion Trifurcate Ring Trident Crescent Elaborate Perforate Bifurcate 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 Count

Table 6.10: Comparison of Early and Late Classic (Pasldn) Eccentric Forms

Eccentric Form EC LC Obsidian Total Double-Pointed Blade, Notched 4 6 0 10 Laurel-Leaf Blade, Large 6 0 0 6 Elaborate Perforate 2 3 0 5 Unnamed Complex 1 0 0 1 Broad-Stemmed Blade 1 0 0 1 Trident Crescent 1 0 3 Laurel-Leaf Blade, Medium 1 3 2 6 Jaguar 1 0 0 1 Scorpion 1 0 4 Double Crescent 1 0 1 2 Serrated Blade, Multiple Notches 1 0 0 1 488

Sen^ted Blade, Notched 4 0 0 4 Double Pointed, Multiple Notched, 1 0 0 1 Serrated Blade Crescent, Plain edged 1 1 0 2 Ring 1 1 0 2 S-Form 1 0 0 1 Axe-like Form 2 0 0 2 Centipede 1 0 0 1 Notched Core 0 0 2 2 Crescent 0 2 1 3 Expanded Stem Projectile Point 0 0 1 1 Misc. Unifaced Form 0 0 1 1 Bi-Pointed Knife 0 1 0 1 Trifurcate 0 2 0 2 Bifurcate Form 0 1 0 1 Totals 34 22 8 64

Twenty-five eccentric fonns are present in Altar de Sacrificios caches, including the sometimes-eccentric laurel-leaf form. Of these, 10 are found during the Eariy Classic exclusively (40%), 7 are restricted to the Late Classic (28%), while 8 (32%) are present during both periods. This would seem to suggest a low degree of continuity between these two periods, at least In regard to the use of eccentrics, as slightly less than one- third continue to be placed in caches through time. 489

Figure 6.7: Comparison of Eariy and Late Classic (il) Eccentric Forms

Eccentric Fomi

DP Blade. Notched • Obsidian Ebbocate Perforate • EC (Chert) Bpoad-Stenvned Blade • LC (Chert) LaureM^f Blade, M

Scorpkm

Senated Blade, MN

Senated Blade, MN, Ring

A» Fom Notched Core

Projectile Polnl Bl-Pointed Knife

Bifurcate Form

Count

(N.B.; Eccentric forms in Figure 6.7 are presented in the same order as in Table 6.10)

Jade

Jade artifacts are found in their greatest abundance during the Pasi6n phase,

even though jade is found in only 28.6% of all caches from this period. A single stair

deposit held 6 pieces of "raw jade," presumably in the fonn of cobbles, while a

construction fill cache contained a bead and 27 fragments.

The single bead indicates minor continuity with eariier times, as such an offering is known from Construction Fill caches of the Late Preclassic, and an Altar cache of the

Eariy Classic. The 27 small raw jade fragments are difficult to interpret, although they 490 bear similarities to other Late Classic caches in this study, such as those from Tikal (see

Chapter 3).

Marine Materials

Stingray Spines

The Pasion phase sees the only appearance of Stingray Spines in the Altar de

Sacrificios cache sequence. These are reported from 4 deposits, including 2 Stair locales, and in 3 cases, the spines were associated with red pigment, probably cinnabar.

Table 6.11 shows the distribution of Pasion phase stingray spines.

Table 6.11: Stingray Spines in Pasidn Phase Caches

Context Treatment Spines Fragments Pigment Stair Sub-Floor 2(jy 2 Const. Fill Not Desc. 1 (5) Altar Sub-Altar 1(4) 1 1. Estimated to represent 4 whole spines.

The sudden presence of stingray spines in caches during the Late Classic is intriguing, and may suggest that Altar de Sacrificios is expanding its trade realm. This is further supported by the highest frequency of other marine items, including shell,

occurring during the Pasidn phase. Halstead (1980) notes that stingrays can and

occasionally do enter brackish water and even freshwater, and it is conceivable that

these specimens were acquired locally from the Pasidn river. However, the distance of

Altar de Sacrificios from the ocean all but precludes this possibility (see also Olsen

1972). The possible ritual use of stingray spines has been discussed previously, in

Chapter 3. 491

Other Marine Objects

Shell is a rare cache commodity at Altar de Sacrificios, and the majority of specimens are unidentified. The single exception comes from Cache 34, a Stair cache that contained 2 Spondylus sp. shells, with traces of red paint. No mention is made of the completeness of these specimens, and it is impossible to suggest whether their spines were used in bloodletting ceremonies.

Fish vertebrae (all unidentified) are reported from 3 caches. In all cases, these caches also held stingray spines, and it is possible that these vertebrae are from the same animal, although this seems unlikely. The only other marine specimen reported from this period is a single crab claw (unidentified) from Cache 56 (Construction Fill context).

Terrestrial Fauna

Following the trend seen throughout the occupation of Altar de Sacrificios, terrestrial fauna is a rare Late Classic (Pasi6n) cache inclusion. The only examples are 2 bird bones belonging to 2 species of passerines (Olsen 1972) recovered from Cache 56, located in a Construction Fill context. Unfortunately, these specimens were unidentifiable beyond the family level.

Minerals and Pigments

Pigments are rarely encountered in caches at Altar de Sacrificios, and the only reported occunrences are restricted to the Pasi6n phase. Three caches from this time

contain objects with red pigment on them. The pigment is never identified, but cinnabar - 492

- a fairly common red pigment in the Maya lowlands - seems a likely candidate. Ochre is another possibility. Table 6.12 details the finds with assodated pigment.

Table 6.12: Late Classic (Pasidn) Caches containing Pigments

Cache Context Artifact Pigment 34 Stair 1 Chert Eccentric Undescribed Red 34 Stair 2 Spondylus sp. Shells Undescribed Red 35 Stair 3-5 Stingray Spines (fragmentary) Undescribed Red 48 Altar Unquantified Stingray Spines Undescribed Red

While the sample of artifacts associated with pigments is far too small to argue for strong patterning, it is rather striking that all but one object is of marine origin, and even more intriguing that all of these marine objects are thought to relate to bloodletting

(Scheie and Miller 1986). Thus, the pigment may well represent blood symbolism. It is also possible that cinnabar was employed in other ways, as discussed in Chapter 3.

Ceramics

Ceramics are rare in Pasidn phase caches, continuing the trend seen during the preceding Veremos/Chixoy phases. Only a single Pasidn phase cache contains ceramics, in this case a single Cambio Unslipped round-bottom, high-sided cache bowl, apparently devoid of content. Why ceramics were not employed in Late Classic caches is unknown, but it does imply a dramatic change in the nature of offerings compared with those of the Late Predassic and Eariy Classic, where ceramics were very common inclusions. 493

Discussion: Altar de Sacrificios during the Late Classic (Pasion)

The Pasi6n Phase was a period of great construction in Group A. with major work done on Structures A-l, A-ll, A-lll, and the ball court structure, A-V. The materials used in construction change during the course of the Pasldn phase, beginning with red sandstone (which had been used in all preceding construction), which was gradually replaced with limestone. A mixture of the two materials was employed in one construction phase of Staicture A-l (Willey 1973), with the next phase being entirely limestone. Testing in other parts of Group A revealed construction in several other stnjctures, and areas of the South Plaza (A.L. Smith 1972; Willey 1973).

The Pasi6n phase is the greatest period of monument erection at Altar de

Sacrificios (Willey 1973). Paralleling to the change noted in constnjction materials, the monuments of the Pasion phase (including stelae, altars, and carved glyphic panels) are made of limestone. The switch from sandstone to limestone appears to be quite abrupt

(Graham 1972), with the last dated sandstone monument at 9.10.0.0.0 (AD 633), and the eariiest limestone stela dated at 9.10.10.0.0 (AD 642), but the reasons for this change are unclear.

For the first time in the history of the occupation at Altar de Sacrificios, Willey

(1973:49) suggests a population increase, based on the number of housemounds outside the ceremonial center. Culbert and Rice (1990;Table 1.5) suggest that the

Pasidn phase population of Altar is more than twice that of the preceding

Ayn/Veremos/Chixoy phases. Such an increase may explain the changes seen in caching behaviour.

During the Pasion Phase, the most common cache context becomes the Stair, ail on Structure A-l. Caches in a similar context were present during the Eariy Classic 494

(Caches 8-30, classified as Mixed context), although that example was less clearly Stair- associated than the present case.

More intriguing is the expansion of cache contents. During the Pasion Phase, obsidian becomes more common in caches than ever, and is even reported in eccentric form. Chert eccentrics also continue to be reported. Willey (1973:52) notes that chert projectile points are relatively common during this phase, and the only reported occurrence of a cached projectile point dates to the Pasion Phase. Jade seems to become more common than ever before, both in caches and burials, although the reasons for this are unclear. It is less common at this time in caches at other sites, such as Tikal, possibly indicating an end of the competitive exclusion suggested for the Eariy

Classic period. Marine items become more common, both in burials and caches, with stingray spines making their first cache appearance. These are associated with red pigment, also a new cache inclusion. While terrestrial fauna is rare in ceremonial

deposits, birds make their first cache appearance. Oddly, ceramics become very rare cache inclusions, although the reasons for this are unknown.

The reasons for the changes seen in caches at this time are unclear. However,

they appear to be related to internal change. The glyphic history of Altar de Sacrificios

suggests that there was never a period of outside conquest (Mathews and Willey 1991),

and although there was a hiatus during the later part of the 6th century. Altar de

Sacrificios regained its status as an important, monument-making center by the eariy part

of the Late Classic (Mathews and Willey 1991:41-42). The hiatus period led to dramatic

caching changes at Tikal, although these are more easily understood in relation to

outside conquest (see Chapter 3). At Altar de Sacrificios, however, this change seems

to be related entirely to internal forces that remain unknown at present. Terminal Classic and Postclassic

The Terminal Classic embraces both the Boca (AD 780-900) and Jimba (900-

950) ceramic phases, and 8 caches date to this period. Technically, Jimba is probably better described as Post Classic. However, there is frequently some difficulty involved in assigning caches to one phase or the other, and only 2 deposits (Caches 4 and 49) appear to be of pure Jimba phase. Terminal Classic caches show the greatest diversity of contexts at Altar de Sacrificios, with neariy ail coming from different locales (2 are included under the heading of "other," both coming from different mounds). Table 6.13 shows the distribution of Terminal Classic caches, also shown graphically in Figure 6.8.

Table 6.13: Terminal and Post Classic Caches

N % Placement Context Treatment Comment 1 12.5 Exterior Stair-Base Sub-Floor Jimba 1 12.5 Exterior Wall Surface Jimba 1 12.5 Exterior Platfonn Sub-Floor Eariy Boca 1 12.5 Exterior Terrace Not Desc. Late Boca/Jimba 1 12.5 Exterior Structure Not Desc. Boca 1 12.5 Exterior Const. Fill Sub-Floor Boca or Jimba 2 25 Exterior Other Sub-Floor Boca & Late Boca

Treatment

Five of eight Tenninal and Post Classic caches were given sub-floor treatment.

Of these, 3 contain ceramics, while censers and non-eccentric obsidian are found in one deposit each. No deposit contained more than a single material type. A single cache from this period was originally placed on a surface; it contains both ceramics and non- eccentric obsidian. Two caches have undescribed treatment; one contains only non- eccentric obsidian, while the other held non-eccentric chert and ceramics. Generally,

Terminal and Post Classic caches do not appear to have had their contents dictated by their treatment.

Figure 6.8: Terminal and Post Classic Cache Contexts

Context

• Sub-Floor • Surface • Not Desc.

Patterning by Context Type

Stairbase Caches

A single Jimba phase (900-950) cache was intruded into in the Stairbase of

Structure B-1, Construction A, an Eariy Classic structure. This cache (Cache 4) contains only a single ceramic vessel.

Wall Caches

The only Post Classic (Jimba phase) Wall cache (Cache 49) was located in 497

Staicture A-III, period 5, and contains a single ceramic vessel along with 123 obsidian artifacts of various types. The obsidian artifacts are all of an ostensibly utilitarian nature, and no eccentrics are present.

Platform Caches

One Terminal Classic cache was reported from a Platform context (Cache 46 from Structure A-lll, period 5). This cache contains 16 ceramic vessels, 4 of which are polychrome. No other material type is present.

Terrace Caches

Terrace cache (Cache 47) contains 30 obsidian bladelets, nothing more.

Structure Caches

A single deposit (Cache 1) falls into the indeterminate context of Structure.

Cache 1 contained a single ceramic vessel and 670 flint flakes, none of which bear any signs of retouch. Apparently the flakes were originally held in the vessel, although later disturbance resulted in its breakage.

Construction Fill Caches

Cache 50 was found in the Fill of Stmcture A-lll, Period 5, and contained 58 obsidian bladelets (28 of which showed evidence of use). No other material types were present. 498

Rare (Other) Context Caches

Two Terminal Classic caches were found in mounds (Cache 51 in Mound 15, and

Cache 53 in Mound 24). Cache 51 held only 2 large ceramic vessels, although it is

unclear whether anything was present within these, as A.L Smith [1972:241] states that

"nothing of significance was found inside either." Cache 53 held 2 fragmentary censers,

marking the only appearance of such objects within a cache at Altar de Sacrificios. No

mention is made of whether anything, such as copal, was found within the censers.

Artifact Analysis

Lithic Artifacts

Obsidian

Obsidian is present in three Temninal and Post Classic caches, and shows no

variety in forms as all obsidian artifacts are flake-blades. Table 6.14 shows the

distribution of obsidian-bearing caches.

Table 6.14: Terminal and Post Classic Obsidian-Bearing Caches

Cache Context Treatment Flake Blades Percent 49 Wall Surface 123 58.3 47 Terrace Not Desc. 30 14.2 50 Const, nil Sut)-Floor 58 27.5 Totals 211 100

Flake-blade frequencies demonstrate little in the way of patterning. However, the

presence of only a single artifact form would seem to suggest that the same type of ritual 499

was being perfonned in different contexts. Whatever was being done with these flake blades could apparently be done in a variety of different contexts.

Chert

Chert artifacts are found in only a single Temriinal Classic cache at Altar de

Sacrificios, Cache 1 from the east side of Stmcture A-X. Despite the paucity of chert-

bearing caches during this period, this cache contains 92% of all the chert artifacts from

caches at Altar de Sacrificios, all in the fonn of unmodified flakes (670 total). This great

quantity of flakes from a single locus suggests that these may have all stemmed from a

single flaking event. This notion is further supported by the fact that all the flakes appear

to have been held within a ceramic container. Refitting studies would be needed to

detennine whether these flakes all came from one or a handful of cores.

Censers

Censers are a rare cache component at AKar de Sacrificios, and those fragments

found in Cache 53 are the only ones reported. Interestingly, these remains were found in

a mound (Mound 24) away from the main ceremonial center, suggesting that they were

involved in a very different type of ritual than that seen in the main areas of the site.

These may be remnants of househoki caches, rather than elite context caches. All the

censers are firagmentary, with 2 spedmens represented by the following fragments; 1

ladle censer with a human effigy handle, 1 effigy censer, and 1 "chimney lid." No

mention is made of whether incense, such as copal, was found adhering to any of these

fragments. Ceramics

After appearing as rare cache inclusions for a lengthy period, ceramics make a comeback during the Terminal Classic, and are found in 62.5% of caches from this and the Post Classic period. Table 6.15 provides the details of Terminal Classic cache ceramics at Altar de Sacrificios.

Table 6.15: Ceramics in Temiinal Classic Caches

Cache Context & n Type Vessel Comments Treatment Shape 4 Stairiaase (SF) 1 Altar Fine Bowl Orange X 49 Wall (S) 1 Tumba Vessel Black-on- Orange 46 Platform (SF) 4 Anonal Bowl Resist Variety Orange Polychrome 46 Platform (SF) 1 Black Bowl Incised 46 Platform (SF) 4 Fine Grey Cylinder Flat Bottomed 46 Platform (SF) 12 Zopiiote Plates 2 Ridged Smudged 10 Notched Black Ridged 1 Structure (ND) 1 Subin Red Bowl Ridge Bolstered Rim 51 Other (SF) 2 Encanto Collared Pisote Variety Striated Jar

This marks the first large-scale use of ceramics in caches since the Eariy Classic, yet there is no evidence for continuity. While bowls continue to be the most commonly used ceramic form, in no case are these placed lip-to-lip, as was so common during the 501

Early Classic. Also present are a much greater variety of ceramic types, including orange wares, grey wares, black wares, polychromes, and resist pieces. This is probably consistent with the presence of caches in a very wide variety of contexts at this time, suggesting that most of the Terminal Classic caches represent very different types of offerings from one another.

Discussion: The Terminal and Post Classic at Altar de Sacrificios

Following the Pasion Phase, most major activities appear to cease at Altar de

Sacrificios, and the population declines dramatically (Rice and Culbert 1990). Willey

(1973:52-58) notes that there is very little construction during this time, although the final modifications of Structure A-l may date to the early part of the Boca Phase. Similariy, there is very little evidence for monument sculpture, with Stela 2 the only one attributed to the Boca Phase; Graham (1972) argues that this stela dates to about 10.1.0.0.0 (AD

849). Willey (1973:53) describes the Boca Phase as a time with neither important ceremonial building or stelae erection activity. The Jimba phase shows even less signs of such activities, with no monuments and only minor modifications to the structures in

Group A. However, during Boca times. Altar de Sacrificios sees the greatest degree of house mound construction and occupation, probably indicating an increase in population, although this does not continue into the Jimba Phase, where occupation decreases by

about 75% (Willey 1973:57).

The ceremonial deposits of both the Boca and Jimba phases are unspectacular.

Willey notes that some Boca burials have minor inclusions of pottery, obsidian and jade,

while similar finds are present in Jimba Phase interments.

Caches show a considerable change in comparison with the preceding period. 502 both with regard to context and content. As noted, caches no longer show any type of conte)ctual patterning, with virtually all deposits stemming from different contexts.

Cache contents are also different. Obsidian is found in relatively high numbers, although only 211 pieces are present. Intriguingly, there is no variation in obsidian artifact form, suggesting continuity throughout the Terminal and Post Classic. The largest quantity of chert artifacts comes from a single Temiinal Classic cache, and these also show no variation in form (all are unmodified flakes). Both marine materials and terrestrial fauna are completely absent during the Tenninal and Post Classic periods.

Ceramics, however, make a large-scale re-appearance, both in the form of censers and more standard vessel forms (bowls, plates). These late ceramics are quite different than those seen previously at Altar de Sacrificios, and include fine-paste wares. Willey

(1973:54) notes that neutron activation analysis of the fine-paste ceramics demonstrates that all are from the same source area, probably the Usumacinta/Gulf Coast area. Based on this, he suggests that these may have been traded into Altar de Sacrifidos. By Jimba times, the local ceramic tradition has even lost the use of polychromes, which were so common during the Late Classic.

Although there is no historical evidence for it. Willey (1973:56) suggests that the ceramic changes seen at Altar during the Boca and Jimba phases may relate to an invasion (see also Adams 1971). The introduction of fine-paste ceramics is thought to have begun in the Boca phase through trade with people in the Usumadnta region, who were then ancestors of the Jimba people. Later (during the Jimba Phase), these people conquered and occupied Altar de Sacrificios. This scenario, however, does not account for the changes seen in the cache assemblage, as most of these predate the supposed conquest. 503

CHAPTER 7: INTRASITE PATTERNING AT SEIBAL

Introduction

Seibal is situated on an escarpment along the great bend in the Rio Pasidn, where the river's course changes from northward to westward. The highest point for several kilometers in any direction, this locus provides Seibal with a commanding view of the area, and especially the river itself (Willey, et al. 1975). The center consists of three main plaza-ceremonial areas - Groups A, C, and D - each located in separate high points of the tenrain, separated by natural ravines and connected by artificial causeways

(Willey, et al. 1975:3). Surrounding these three areas is an extensive peripheral settlement zone consisting of living structures and some small ceremonial structures

(Tourtellot III 1988).

The environment around Seibal is largely similar to other parts of the Peten region - dense tropical forest, although Willey, et al. (1975:13-14) suggests that the

Pasidn region may receive less rainfall than might be expected in such an area. The local geology consists of calcareous rock formations, with inclusions yielding both limestone used in construction, and chert for tool manufacture; however, specific source areas for constnjction materials were not located (Willey, et al. 1975).

The sequence of occupation at Seibal is intriguing for its lack of continuity. There is substantial evidence for occupation beginning in the Middle Preciassic, and indeed by the Late Preciassic Seibal experienced intensive occupation (Willey 1990). This was followed by population decline during the Protoclassic. During the Eariy Classic, Seibal was at best sparsely occupied, and there is little evidence of construction. By the time of 504 the Hiatus, Seibal may have been abandoned entirely (Mathews and Willey 1991). This trend reverses, however, during the Late Classic, when re-occupation of the center appears to be quite rapid, and this continues into the Terminal Classic. By this point,

Seibal is one of the few centers still actively producing dated monuments, and may be the dominant center in the Pasi6n Region. Such dominance was short lived, as Seibal is again deserted during the Postclassic.

Excavations at Seibal were conducted from 1964 through 1968 under the direction of Gordon R. Willey (Willey, et al, 1975; A.L Smith 1982; Tourtellot 1988; Willey

1990). These covered all areas of the center, including Groups A, C, and D, and the peripheral areas, although they were far less intensive than those undertaken at larger centers such as Tikal (Coe 1990). Still, it is rather surprising that only 21 caches were discovered. These range from Middle Preclassic to Postclassic times, with a gap corresponding with the Eariy Classic and the initial stages of the Late Classic (Late

Classic I). Table 7.1 shows the distribution of caches through time, also shown graphically in Figure 7.1. Even more surprising is the fact that a great many of the caches encountered are from peripheral areas, rather than the politico-ceremonial core areas. The distribution of peripheral versus core caches is shown in Table 7.2 and

Figure 7.2.

Table 7.1: Seibal Caches Through Time

Period Number of Caches Percent of Total Middle Preclassic 2 9.5 Late Preclassic 2 9.5 Eariy Classic 0 0 Late Classic 1 0 0 505

Late Classic II 3 14.3 Terminal Classic 13 61.9 Postclassic 1 4.8 Totals 21 ICQ

Figure 7.1: Seibal Caclie Distribution Througli Time

Period

Table 7.2: Center and Peripliery Cache Distribution Through Time

Period Center Periphery Total Middle Preclassic 2 0 2 Late Preclassic 0 2 2 Early Classic 0 0 0 Late Classic (1) 0 0 0 Late Classic (II) 1 2 3 506

Terminal Classic 11 2 13 Postclassic 0 1 1 Totals 14 7 21

Figure 7.2: Center and Periphery Cache Distribution Through Time

16 14 tn ® 12

5 ^0 •5 8 I 6 1 4 ^ 2

MPC LPC EC LC (I) LC (II) TC PostC Period

Main Periphery Center

Hfliddle Preclassic

Only two caches are present in Middle Preclassic contexts at Seibal, and both are

through-floor Court caches from the southern half of the Group A central plaza. Not

surprisingly, the two deposits are very similar to one another. Both contain jade celts and

ceramic objects. One cache contains only unperforated pottery discs in addition to the

jade celt, while the other has 5 black "water jars," two of which contain red sherds. Also

present is an "ice-pick form" jade blood-letter. 507

Artifect Analysis

Jade

Jade objects are present in both Middle Preclassic caches at Seibal, with the celt being the most common artifact form. Table 7.3 details the jade artifact types from caches of this period.

Table 7.3: Jade Artlfects in Middle Preclassic Caches

Cache Number Artifact Type Quantity Percent 6 Celt 1' 12.5 7 Celt 8 75 7 "Ice Pick" Blood- 1 12.5

letter 1. Specimen described as "half of a highly polished greens tone celt."

Celts were produced from several types of lithic materials at Seibal, including jadeite, serpentine, and diorite, and are known from both domestic refuse contexts and caches. The presence of celts in caches at Seibal is intriguing, as this is the only site in this study where these artifacts are found in such contexts. Celts are usually considered woodworking tools (Willey 1978), and their inclusion as offerings may indicate that this activity was considered important during this period. Willey (1978) does not mention the presence of use-related damage on any jade specimens, but does suggest that these probably had ceremonial rather than utilitarian functions. The fragmentary celt is also interesting, although it is unclear whether it was broken intentionally prior to placement or if breakage occurred during use. Willey (1978:86) notes that its blade was very sharp and that the poll end was missing. The final form mentioned, the "ice-pick" blood-letter, 508 is unique in this study, and Willey (1978) comments that this specimen is more Olmec than Maya in design, although its origin is unknown. If indeed it was actually used for bloodletting, which might be confimied by residue analysis, it would mark the only such jade implement from a cache context in this study.

Ceramics

Both Middle Preclassic caches contained ceramics of one form or another, although Cache 6 held only unperforated ceramic disks (4 1/2 are present) of unknown function. Willey (1973) suggests that perforated ceramic disks may have been used as spindle whorls, while unperforated specimens may have functioned as vessel lids.

Cache 7 contained 5 Crisanto Black collared, flaring-rimmed, water jars, 2 of which held

Abelino Red dari<-slipped sherds. The jade objects in this cache do not seem to have been situated within these vessels. Despite the fact that both caches are from the same context, there is a high degree of ceramic discontinuity in these deposits, possibly indicating two different types of ritual offerings.

Discussion: The IMiddle Preclassic at Seibal

Settlement at Seibal during the Real Phase (900-600 BC) appears to have been centered on the areas that would become Groups A and C. By the Escoba Phase (600-

300), this had expanded outward to include parts of the surrounding periphery. The population (estimated at not more than 500 people during the Real and 1,000 during the

Escoba by Tourtellot - See Willey 1990:236) probably consisted of agriculturalists who supplemented their diet with riverine and terrestrial animals, and was probably self- 509 sufficient in this respect.

The ceramics of this period were simple and technically competent, but are sufficiently similar to those found at neariay sites such as Altar de Sacrificios (see

Chapter 6} to suggest frequent contact (Willey 1990). Escoba ceramics show strong consistencies with the forms of the Real Phase, and are also considered virtually identical to the Mamom forms of Uaxactun in the central Peten (Sabloff 1975:231).

Non-ceramic tools are described as "surprisingly absent" (Willey 1990:238), with chipped-stone choppers absent in Real contexts, and manos and metates rare. While chert tools were very rare, this appears to be the result of sampling, as debitage is present. Obsidian, rare during the Real Phase, becomes much more common during the

Escoba, although both lithic fonns are absent from caches. Source analysis suggests that the obsidian came from both the El Chayal and San Martin Jilotepeque sources in the Guatemalan highlands, with emphasis on the latter (Willey 1990:253). Also imported was Jade, probably from the Motagua Valley in the Guatemalan highlands (Willey

1990:238). Apparently the people of Seibal had contact with distant parts of the Maya area from the eariy stages of its occupation.

Evidence for public ritual structures does not appear until the Escoba Phase, when platforms are built in Group A and in some peripheral areas of the site, as was a pyramid structure at the Anonal outlier site (Willey 1990:240-241). Willey (1990:241) argues that this suggests the presence of diffuse religious authority, with competition among different households or lineages.

Late Preclassic

Two caches are reported from Late Preclassic deposits, both from different 510 contexts, both from peripheral areas of the site, and both containing lip-to-lip vessels.

The similarities between Caches 15 and 12 are probably indicative of their temporal association, as lip-to-lip vessels are a common cache inclusion in early contexts in the

Maya lowlands. Table 7.4 shows the contextual distribution of Late Preclassic Seibal caches.

Table 7.4: Late Preclassic Cache Contexts

N % Placement Context Treatment Comment 1 50 Exterior Stair Not Desc. Centered 1 50 Exterior Const. Fill Surface Centered

Patterning by Context Type

Stair Caches

The single Late Preclassic Stair cache (Cache 12) was located in Temple

Platform 4E-10a, and held 4 ceramic vessels: 2 undecorated plates, and 2 bichrome bowls. Both vessel forms were placed lip-to-lip, and were devoid of any other contents.

Construction Fill Caches

Cache 15, from Temple Platform 4D-10b, is the only Seibal cache located within

Construction Fill. The cache contained plain lip-to-lip plates, but lacked other content.

Artifect Analysis

Ceramics

Both Late Preclassic caches contain only ceramics, in the form of lip-to-lip bowls

and/or plates, usually plain ware. Table 7.5 details the cache ceramics of the Late 511

Preclassic.

Table 7.5: Ceramics in Late Preclassic Caches

Cache Context & n Type Vessel Comments Treatment Shape 12 Stair (NO) 2 Bichrome Bowl Lip-to-llp 12 Stair (ND) 2 Plain Plates Lip-to-lip, Small 15 Const- Fill (S) 2 Plain Plates Lip-to-Lip

While only 2 caches are involved, there is a considerable amount of consistency in the nature of Late Preclassic cache inclusions. A.L. Smith (1982) notes that if any contents were present within these vessels, then these were presumably perishable.

Residue analysis may be especially useful in this case, as it would suggest not only whether contents were present, but also whether these were also the same in all cases, indicating an even higher degree of continuity.

Discussion: The Late Preclassic at Seibal

The Late Preclassic ceramic inventory is internally consistent, but is quite different than that seen during the Middle Preclassic - with a complete change in vessel shape, type color, and internal cache positioning (lip-to-lip). This implies a very different offertory complex at this time, presumably one wrth little relation to that seen during the preceding period. However, it must be noted that both caches come from the site periphery, rather than one of the "ceremonial center" groups, such as Group A. While these do not appear to represent household caches, it may be that they are remnants of more private local community activities, rather than ceremonies performed by the most elite segments of Seibal society. Further, the overall Seibal cache sample is for this time 512 is small, and cannot be assumed to be entirety representative.

During the Cantutse Phase (300 BC - AD 300), Seibal grew very rapidly, with a population estimated at as many as 10,000 people - a population equivalent to any of the Late Classic occupations. Willey (1990) suggests that even if this estimate is too high, there were at least 5,000 people at Seibal during Cantutse times.

Although the caches were discovered in peripheral areas, Late Preclassic growth at Seibal seems to have centered on and around Group A. Within the ceremonial center itself, several large pyramid structure complexes (Stnjctures A24, A20, and A10) appear to have had their foundations laid during Cantutse times, but they continued to be modified and used into the Late Classic. Additionally, the core construction of Structure

D32, in Group D, also appears to date to the Cantutse Phase, as does an underiying construction of Structure 79, at the terminus of one of the causeways. Willey (1990:242) comments that "..Seibal, at least for its region, was a big ceremonial or politico-religious center, as well as a populous town, in the Late Preclassic Period."

The lack of non-ceramic items in the two caches from this period may relate to their location outside the central part of the site, as materials such as chert and obsidian tools are present in other contexts. However, Willey (1990) notes that jade artifacts are absent from Cantutse Phase contexts, and that both shell and bone ornaments are very rare. He comments that this is an odd situation for a center that was just beginning to create large public buildings, and to develop fine painted ceramic wares (which are also absent in caches), and attributes these deficiencies to sampling.

Early Classic and Late Classic I

Caches are not reported from any Eariy Classic context at Seibal. The Early 513

Classic occupation seems to continue directly from that of the Late Preclassic, although the population appears reduced. Willey (1990:245) notes that there is less evidence for both construction and refuse during the Early Classic than there was for the preceding period. As caches had been rare in pre-Early Classic contexts, their absence during the

Early Classic may be a product of sampling.

Seibal may have been abandoned during the latter part of the Early Classic, from roughly AD 450-500 to AD 600 (thus overiapping with the eariy part of Late Classic I).

This inference is based on two lines of evidence: (1) a humus stratum that had formed over several of the Junco Phase structures prior to their reconstruction and occupation during the Late Classic; and (2) a general lack of characteristic Tzakol 3 ceramic marker types, such as Teotihuacanoid wares (Willey 1990:245).

The Tepejilote-Tepeu Phase at Seibal covers the end of the hiatus period, and beyond. The lack of Tepeu 1 ceramics suggests a continued lack of occupation.

Correspondingly, there are no caches from this time.

Late Classic II

Following a lengthy hiatus with only sparse evidence for occupation and not a

single cache deposit, people returned to Seibal during Tepeu 2 portion of the Late

Classic, beginning about AD 700. This reoccupation resulted in at least 3 caches, whose

distribution is shown in Table 7.6. 514

Table 7.6: Late Classic II Cache Contexts

N % Placement Context Treatment Comment 1 33.3 Exterior Court Surface 1 33.3 exterior Structure Not Oesc. Centered 1 33.3 Exterior Stela Sub-Stela

Patterning by Context Type

Court Caches

The single Court cache (Cache 16 from Temple Pyramid 1H-10) dating to the

Late Classic (II) yielded few artifacts, with only as single ceramic vessel (bichrome) present. This cache shows only superficial similarity, in the presence of ceramics, to the court caches of the Middle Preclassic, and as these are all from peripheral parts of the center, this suggests some behavioral continuity.

Structure Caches

Cache 20 was recovered from Temple Pyramid 4E-10, and contained only the remains of a crushed olla. As no other Late Classic (II) caches were encountered in general structure contexts, there is little basis for comparison; however, given Cache 20's location, the presence of ceramics is quite consistent with the other peripheral caches encountered at Seibal.

Stela Caches

Caches are more common in Stela contexts than in any other at Seibal, possibly as a result of the sampling method employed during excavation; Cache 11 from below 515

Stela 22 Is especially Intriguing. Stela 22 is actually the top half of Stela 6. which dates to

AD 771; at an unknown, although probably very late date, the fragment was reset upside- down and In association with a fragmentary Circular Altar In the courtyard in front of

Structure A-10. The base of Stela 22 was in contact with 2 large stones that were refit, and are thought to be the base of another stela (A.L. Smith 1982:244). However, it Is unclear whether the placement of Cache 11 occunred at the same time as the erection of

Stela 22, or if Its installation con-esponded to the setting of the other stela of which only the butt pieces were found, although Smith (1982) favors its association with the latter, due to the cache content. Cache 11 contains only a badly eroded Tepejilote polychrome tripod bowl, an inclusion inconsistent with the other Seibal stela caches.

Artifact Analysis

Ceramics

Caches of the Late Classic (II) are united in all containing ceramics exclusively.

Beyond this fact, however, they are entirely different. All 3 caches come from different contexts, and all have different ceramic Inclusions, detailed In Table 7.7.

Table 7.7: Late Classic (II) Cache Ceramics

Cache Context & n Type Vessel Comments Treatment Shape 11 Stela (SF) 1 Tepejilote Tripod Badly Eroded Polychrome Bowl 16 Court (S) 1 Bichrome Bowl 20 Structure (ND) 1 Black Olla Broken

Probably the most intriguing of these ceramics Is the Tepejilote Polychrome tripod 516 bowl, located beneath Stela 22. This is the only Late Classic cache recovered from the

"ceremonial center" of Seibal, and the presence of a polychrome vessel - a type unknown in peripheral caches at this time - may suggest the importance of the ritual associated with the setting of this monument. The vessels from the peripheral caches are far less elaborate, especially the olla, which is a probably utilitarian vessel. Whether this broken olla contained anything at the time of its interment is unknown.

Discussion: The Late Classic (II) at Seibal

The Late Classic (II) encompasses much of the Tepejilote-Tepeu Phase (AD

600/650-770) and all of the Tepejilote-Bayal Transitional Phase (AD 770-830) at Seibal

(Willey 1990). This period sees a dramatic population increase following the lowpoint of the hiatus and possible abandonment.

After the Hiatus, with the onset of the Tepejilote Tepeu phase, there was a general reoccupation of all sectors of Seibal that had been occupied in Cantutse or Late Preclassic times. This reoccupation, together with renewed building of both a domestic and public nature, took place in Groups A, C, and D and in the peripheries. Old Cantutse or Cantutse- Junco residential platforms were built over and occupied by the Tepejilote people. In the main center the large platforms and pyramids, for which we have argued an original Cantutse phase construction, were covered over or otherwise modified and reused. Minor centers in the peripheries were reconstructed and new ones built. But with this Tepejilote reoccupation there was no gradual radiation out from a central nucleus as before. Instead, it would appear that numerous immigrants settled relatively rapidly in both the main center and in the old habitation zones of the peripheries. Judging from Tepejilote Tepeu ceramic evidence, these immigrants were not distant strangers but, probably nearby southern Maya lowland peoples possessing the Tepeu ceramic tradition (\^liey 1990:248).

Tourtellot's estimated population for this period is 8,000 people (Willey 1990).

Polychrome ceramics are a common find during this period, with decorative 517 designs including human, animal, giyphic, deity, and abstract designs, with cylinder vases, bowls, and tripod plates the common fonns. Thus, the inclusion of a polychrome tripod vessel in the sub-stela cache is not surprising. What is probably more surprising is the lack of any other type of cache inclusion. Chert artifacts are found in relative abundance in Late Classic (11) contexts at Seibal - including possible ceremonial forms such as finely made Laurel-Leaf blades ~ but are completely absent in the known caches. The same is true for obsidian, which is found in higher quantities than at any previous period, and also is possibly ceremonial in form. In fact. Willey (1990:251) notes that the only large projectile points or knives recovered from Seibal all date to Late

Classic times, but none are found in caches. Jade objects are very rare in all Late

Classic contexts. Marine items are not a common find during the Late Classic, but none of those present are from caches. The same is true of bone omaments.

At least part of the lack of cache content variety seen during the Late Classic can be attributed to the small sample size. However, this phenomenon is probably better explained by the fact that 2 of the 3 caches comes from outside the major ceremonial center area. If the previously suggested notion that these caches represent ritual behaviour performed by lesser nobles has any validity, it may explain why these caches continue to hold unspectacular items. The presence of only a single polychrome vessel within the sub-stela cache, on the other hand, cannot be explained on this basis. If this was an offering of some significance, then presumably this would be reflected in the nature of the offering. However, as it is unclear exactly which stela this cache dedicates, the content is difficult to interpret. 518

Terminal Classic

Seibal blossoms as a center during Terminal Classic times, which include the

Tepejilote-Bayal transition phase (AD 770-830), and the Bayal phase (AD 830-930). This is the era of a considerable amount of public construction, the erection of numerous stelae, and the deposition of many caches - nearly two-thirds of those recovered from the site. Table 7.8 details the distribution of Terminal Classic caches, also shown graphically in Figure 7.3.

Table 7.8: Terminal Classic Cache Contexts

N % Placement Context Treatment Comment 1 7.7 Interior Stela Sub-Stela 1 7.7 Exterior Court Sub-Floor Centered 1 7.7 Exterior Platform Sub-Floor Centered 3 23.1 Exterior Stela Not Desc. 3 23.1 Exterior Stela Sub-Stela 1 7.7 Exterior Altar Sub-Altar Re-Opened 1 7.7 Exterior Other SuthFloor 1 7.7 Exterior Other Surface Resealed^ 1 7.7 Exterior Mixed Sub-Floor Centered 1. Cache 18 is described as "plastered into the north comer between the stair

platfomn and the main body of the pyramid of the third and later phases. 519

Figure 7.3: Terminal Classic Cache Contexts

60

Platform Court Stela (Int) Stela Altar Rare Mixed Context

• Sub-Floor • Sub-Stela • Sub-AKar ^ Surface • Not Desc.

Patterning by Context Type

Court Caches

A single Court deposit, Cache 21 from Structure 24a, just north of Group A, dates to the Bayal phase, and contains only a polychrome vessel. This shows some continuity with the Late Classic (11) court cache, which also contained ceramic vessels in isolation.

Platform Caches

Only one Temiinal Classic cache was recovered from a Platform context. Cache

2, found in the passageway between Structures A-14a and A-14b, held a large jadeite pebble. As this marks the only Platform cache at Seibal, there is no basis for contextual 520 comparison, although jade Is a common cache inclusion during this period.

Stela Caches

Seven Temiinal Classic caches were found in association with Stelae, including one (Cache 1) that was located inside a structure - the only interior cache reported firom

Seibal. Jade was recovered from 5 of the 7 Stela caches (71.4%), including the interior deposit. Non-eccentric fonms of both chert and obsidian were recovered from 2 caches, while marine shell was reported in isolation from a single deposit. Ceramics were found in only a single cache, and only in fragmentary form. Generally, the inclusion of materials in Terminal Classic Stela caches is quite restricted; jade is a common item, with all other material types rare. The lack of ceramic vessels is also intriguing, as these are such a frequent cache inclusion in most contexts.

Altar Caches

A cache was associated with an Altar on only a single occasion at Seibal, as

Cache 5 was associated with the Altar platform of Stela 10 (dating to AD 849) in the

South Plaza of Group A. The altar had been smashed, and the cache was encountered while digging for fragments. The altar - made of fine-grained limestone - is intriguing, as it is not of a Classic Maya design, but rather appears to be shaped as a Patolli board design, a board-game known firom central Mexico (see A.L. Smith 1982:133-134, 240 for discussion). Cache 5 contains jade in the form of a pendant and 2 beads; 2 marine shells and an incensario were also present. According to A.L. Smith (1982), no other caches were found in associations with altars at Seibal. 521

Rare Context Caches

Two Terminal Classic caches came from Rare contexts. One (Cache 8} was recovered from a house platform in the Group C area, and contained 3 jade beads and 2 ceramic vessels. The other (Cache 18) was found plastered into a comer of Temple

Pyramid 1H-10, and contained a censer with cart}onized material that may be copal. The lack of resemblance between these two caches comes as little surprise, given their lack of contextual similarity.

Mixed Context Caches

The solitary Mixed context cache (Cache 17 in Temple Pyramid 1H-10) at Seibal held a variety of fragmentary ceramic items, including vessels, pottery masks, censer

fragments (both ladle and flanged), as well as painted bits of plaster. This deposit is unlike any other at Seibal with regard to content, and bears little resemblance to Cache 5

(an Altar context cache), the only other Seibal cache containing censers.

Artifect Analysis

Lithic Artifacts

Obsidian

Obsidian is an extremely rare commodity in Seibal caches, and its only reported

occurrences come from Terminal Classic sub-stela caches. Cache 13, from beneath

Stela 47 (uncarved) contains a small, fragmentary obsidian core, while Cache 14, below

Stela 37 (uncarved), held 6 lancet firagments and 2 scrapers; both stelae are in Group A.

The paucity of obsidian throughout the Seibal cache sequence suggests either 522 that this material was not important for ritual purposes or that it was not available in great quantity. Obsidian is known in non-cache contexts for most of the occupation at Seibal, including forms that may be considered ceremonial. This would seem to indicate that it was not an important aspect of offerings prior to the Terminal Classic or that such caches have simply not been recovered due to the sampling methodology employed. It may be significant that obsidian makes its only appearance in caches that seem to post-date

Seibal's regaining its independence from Dos Pilas (Mathews and Willey 1991), as this may reflect a growing degree of political autonomy at this late time. However, obsidian is not a new commodity at Seibal, and the artifact forms found in caches are unspectacular, and certainly suggest little in the way of great workmanship or tremendous ritual value.

The presence of these objects in a cache context probably indicates little more than their ritual usage and subsequent discard.

Chert

Like obsidian, chert does not make an appearance in a Seibal cache until the

Temiinal Classic period, despite being present in other contexts throughout most of the occupational sequence. Also like obsidian, chert is found only in Stela contexts. Both chert-bearing Stela caches (Caches 3 and 14) contain single laurel-leaf blades, which have been described as eccentrics in some contexts (see Chapter 6 above; A.L. Smith

1972). Why chert was such a rare cache inclusion is even more mystifying than the situation for obsidian, as chert was available locally. Willey (1978:100) suggests that the fine brown chert may have been imported to Seibal, possibly from Belize, in either raw or finished fonn. Unfortunately, it is unclear whether the cached specimens are made of brown chert (although the specimen from Cache 3 does appear to be of a dari< color - 523 see Willey 1978:Figure 123b). The cached chert forms are far more elaborate than those seen in obsidian, and therefore seem more likely to have been made as offerings, rather than having been included following ritual usage. Whether these were manufactured locally is unknown.

Jade

Although never found in large quantities, jade is one of the most common material types in Terminal Classic caches, reported from 61.5%. Table 7.9 details the jade-bearing caches and their contents.

Table 7.9: Jade in Terminal Classic Caches

Context Treatment Bead Pendant Fragment Pebble Platform Sub-Floor 0 0 0 1 (1) Stela (Interior) Sub-Stela 0 0 0 1 (3) Stela (Exterior) Not Desc. 0 0 2(3)^ 1 (1) Stela (Exterior) Sub-Stela 0 0 1(2)^ 0 Altar Sub-Altar 1(2) 1(1) 0 0 Other Sub-Floor 1(3) 0 0 0 Totals 2(5) 1 (1) 3(5) 3(5) 1. Fragments are large, but unworked.

Terminal Classic jade offerings show a reasonable degree of contextual consistency. Worked jade forms (beads, pendants) are found in both Altar and Rare

(house mound) contexts, while Stela caches yielded unworiced forms exclusively, either as large fragments or pebbles.

The inclusion of pebbles and large unworked firagments strongly suggests that raw jade was an important offering in certain situations. In particular, these seem to have 524 i3een related to dedicatory situations, such as the setting of a stela. Interestingly, some specimens of the most elaborately worked forms (beads and a single pendant) were also found in a monument context, in association with the altar platform associated with Stela

10, which dates to AD 849. According to Mathews and Wiiley (1991:51), 849 is the most frequently recorded date at Seibal, although its significance is unclear. It does not appear to be an accession date, as Lord E, who was in power, had already been in power for the preceding katun. Raw jade seems to have been a key offering for this date, and it is found in all caches that clearly date to this event (Caches 1,4, 5, and 9).

Marine Objects

Objects of maritime origin are unusual at Seibal, and are reported from only 2 caches, both dating to the Temninal Classic. Within these deposits, shell - either woriced or unworked - comprises the only marine object type. Single specimens of both woriced and unworked shell are reported from a Stela context (Cache 13), while 2 undescribed shells are reported from a monument context (Cache 5, associated with the Patolli board altar). Unfortunately none of the shells are identified in the cache descriptions, and it cannot be determined from Feldman (1978) or Willey (1978) which specimens came from cache contexts; however, specimens of Spondylus sp. are reported from other contexts at Seibal.

Censers

Censers are an unusual find in Seibal caches, reported from only 3 (14.3% overall), all dating to the Terminal Classic. Table 7.10 details the cached censer finds. 525

Table 7.10: Censers from Terminal Classic Caches

Cache Context n Type Form Comment 5 Altar 2 Miseria Not Desc. Fragments /Stela Applique 17 Mixed ? Not Desc. Ladle Unquantified; reported with find of other ceramic fragments 18 Other 1 Miseria Spiked Fragmentary, possible Copal Applique adhering.

The censers are unifonfn in the sense that all are fragmentary, suggesting intentional breakage either prior to interment or in situ, by the fact that those described are of the Miseria Applique type, and by the fact that two of the three derive from contexts associated with Temple Pyramid 1H-10, a non-ceremonial center locus. The low frequency of censers in caches suggests that these were not a common part of rituals accompanying offerings. The cartjonized matter adhering to the fragments in

Cache 18 should be analyzed to determine whether they are actually copal.

Ceramics

Ceramics are an unusual Terminal Classic cache inclusion, reported from only 4

deposits (30.1%). These are described in Table 7.11.

Table 7.11: Terminal Classic Cache Ceramics

Cache Context & n Type Vessel Comments Treatment Shape 21 Court (SF) 1 Saxche/ Necked Flanged Lip Palmar Jar Polychrome 526

10 Stela (SF) 1 Lobriz Tripod Broken (1/2 Orange Bowl present) Polychrome 10 Stela (SF) 1 Chaquiste Sherds Impressed 8 Other (SF) 1 Cambio Bowl Unslipped 8 Other (SF) 1 Fine Grey Footed Incised; Inverted Grater Bowl 17 Mixed (SF) 1 Orange Bowl Groove below rim. White 17 Mixed (SF) ? Not Desc. Sherds Unquantified

Terminal Classic cache ceramics show surprisingly little patterning - all are of different types, colors range from grey to orange to polychrome - and several different vessel forms are present. This probably indicates that these were all involved in very different types of ritual. None of these vessels appear to have held anything, although the possibility of perishable offerings is always present (the jade bead in Cache 8 was found midway between 2 vessels some 50cm apart, although this is dubious evidence for its placement within containers). The polychrome vessel in Cache 21 is especially perplexing, as it is descrit)ed as having 2 pairs of holes on opposite sides of the neck, used for suspending the pot. If indeed these holes were used for suspension and not repair, then this pot may have had a very specialized ritual function, presently unknown.

Discussion: The Terminal Classic at Seibal

Seibal continues to be an important center during the Tepejilote-Bayal Transition and the full Bayal phase, although the population of the center seems to decline 527 somewhat by the Bayal phase (Tourtellot 1988; Willey 1990:256). Some shifts in the usage of different areas of the center occur, particularly during the Bayal Phase.

Public buildings continue to be modified and constructed in Group A throughout the entire Temninal Classic period, and stelae are erected. In particular, 4 stelae are placed surrounding Structure A-3, along with a fifth inside (see below). Group 0 appears to have functioned as an elite area, with palaces and temples, during the transitional period. However, by the Bayal phase, its function had shifted to that of a place of residence, and possibly minor ritual activity (Willey 1990:259). This pattern is reversed in

Group C, which had been a residential zone prior to the Bayal phase. After the transitional period, Group C becomes a "...secondary important locus of ritual activity in the Seibal main center..." (Willey 1990:259). This is suggested through the constmction of a ball court and a large palace platform. Near Group C, on Causeway II, Round

Structure 79 was either built or completed, and 3 dated stelae were erected (see below).

The eariiest date at Seibal is 9.15.13.13.0 (AO 745), and is inscribed on the

Palace Panels of the Structure A-14 Hieroglyphic stairway (Graham 1990). However, these panels may have been removed from an eariier phase of the structure, and reinstalled during Bayal Boca times (770-830), as the associated ceramics are cleariy of this later period. Three stelae are found at the foot of Structure A-10 (see Grahamm

1990): Stela 5, dating to 9.17.10.0.0 (AD 780), Stela 6, dating to 9.17.0.0.0 (AD 771), and

Stela 7, with dates of 9.17.0.0.0. and 9.18.10.0.0 (AD 771 and 800). However, the historical significance of these monuments relates not to Seibal's greatness, but rather to its subordination by Dos Pilas. A battle occurred in 9.15.4.6.4 (AD 735) in which Seibal

Lord B was captured and sacrificed by Dos Pilas Ruler 3 (Mathews and Willey 1991:50).

This led to the political subordination of Seibal to Dos Pilas. The Hieroglyphic Stainvay 528 on Structure A-14 is carved in the Dos Pilas style, and although it names Seibal Lord C, he is subordinate to the Dos Pilas/Aguateca Ruler 4. Mathews and Willey (1991) suggest that this stair was built as part of Dos Pilas' dominance over Seibal. The duster of stelae around Structure A-10 commemorate Seibal Ruler D, who is also of the Dos

Pilas/Aguateca dynasty. However, this seems to be the terminal phase of Dos Pilas' control over the Pasi6n region, and subsequent stelae commemorate Seibal rulers with the Seibal emblem glyph in their names (Mathews and Willey 1991:51).

At Structure A-3, Stelae 8, 9,10, and 11 ail bear the period ending date of

10.1.0.0.0 (AD 849), as does the smaller Stela 21, found in the central room of the temple atop the same structure. However, as mentioned earlier, the historical significance of this date is unclear, as it does not appear to by an accession date, nor is the eariiest date following the removal of Dos Pilas' domination.

Even later stelae are present, and Stelae 14,15, and 16 are all dated stylistically^^ to between 10.1.0.0.0 and 10.3.0.0.0. (AD 849 to 889). Seibal Ruler F was in power at

AD 869, while Ruler G was in power in AD 889. An additional ruler. Ruler X, may have intervened between these two, but this is unclear (Mathews and Willey 1991:51). I am unaware of any historical details sun'ounding these rulers. There do not appear to be any monuments at Seibal post-dating 10.3.0.0.0.

Seibal caches appear to flourish during the Tenninal Classic, and probably following the end of Dos Pilas' dominance over Seibal. It is at this time that we see the first cache appearance of items such as chert and obsidian, as well as marine objects.

Further, jade is found in cache contexts in the highest quantities since the Middle

15. All 3 stelae are carved, but none bear clear dates (Graham 1990; Willey 1990). 529

Preclassic. Ceramics also make a dramatic re-appearance, after having been unusual in

Late Classic (II) times.

While none of these caches could be considered spectacular in comparison with those from a major center such as Tikal or Uaxactun, these Terminal Classic deposits are the most impressive in the Seibal sequence. This probably relates to the fact that, for the first time in the occupational sequence, most of the caches come from the main ceremonial centers rather than the periphery of the site. This may indicate the presence of important public rituals, perhaps relating to the dedication of temples, the accession of rulers, or even the end of outside dominance.

Postclassic

The Postclassic is pooriy represented at Seibal, and only a single cache dates to this period. Cache 19 was located in the humus and fall of Temple Pyramid 4E-10, and housed only ceramics, including 2 fragmentary tripod plates, and a bowl sherd. This pattern is characteristic of peripheral-area caches in general, regardless of time.

Artifact Analysis

Ceramics

The single Postclassic cache (Cache 19) at Seibal contained only ceramic remains, which are described in table 7.12. 530

Table 7.12: Postclassic Cache Ceramics

Cache Context & n Type Vessel Comments Treatment Shape 19 Structure (ND) 1 Bayal Tripod Black-on-red, Polychrome Plate firagmentary 19 Structure (ND) 1 Unnamed Tripod Fragment Plate 19 Structure (ND) ? Not Desc. Bowl Undescribed, Sherd possible bowl sherd.

Obviously with only a single cache present, there can be little evidence for ceramic patterning during the Postclassic. Tthe identified vessels are both tripod plates, a form known in Seibal caches since the Late Classic (II).

Discussion: Seibal during the Postclassic

There is only scant evidence for a Postclassic occupation at Seibal, a situation exacerbated at least in part by dating problems. The end of the Bayal phase is thought to be at about AD 930. However, Willey (1990) reports that Bayal phase burials have been radiocarbon dated to the AD 1000-1050 range. Radiocariaon dates are obviously less precise than those obtained using dated monuments, but these do offer the suggestion that the Bayal phase may have continued later than had been supposed.

The only evidence for architectural wori< during the Postclassic comes from small rough platfomns ~ there is no monumental construction or alteration of eariier structures.

"...Seibal was, for all intents and purposes, inactive as a politico-religious center of consequence after AD 930, if not eariier" (Willey 1990:260). 531

CHAPTER 8: NORTHERN PETEN REGIONAL COMPARISON

Preclassic Deposits

Both Uaxactun and Tikal have their origins in the Preclassic: however, the Tikal

North Acropolis yielded ten Middle Preclassic caches and similar deposits, while no comparable deposits are known from Uaxactun. It is not until the Late Preclassic that both centers have caches, although there is considerable disparity in their frequency -

Tikal has 12 Late Preclassic caches and similar deposits, while there is only a single cache (Cache A16) at Uaxactun (which is only superficially similar to any of those at

Tikal, based solely on contents). Cache A16 held a single jade bead within a small olla;

Cache 168 at Tikal also held a single jade bead. The resemblance ends there, however.

The Uaxactun deposit was recovered from a Stairbase context (its treatment is undescribed), but there are no Stairbase context deposits at Tikal until the Eariy Classic

(Cache 168 came from Construction Fill).

During the Late Preclassic, the inhabitants of Tikal utilized a wide variety of material types in offerings, including obsidian, chert, jade, marine shell, and ceramics.

Human and terrestrial faunal remains may also have been employed in this fashion, but the only examples of these materials derive from a Chultun, suggesting refuse rather than an offering.

Based on the lone cache, it does not appear that similar behaviours were occuring at Uaxactun. However, it must be remembered that Uaxactun was exavated 30 years prior to Tikal, long before Mayanists were particulariy interested in the Preclassic.

Recent excavations by the Guatemalans (see Laporte and Valdes 1993) should shed 532 more light on this period of Uaxactun's history. Unfortunately, at this time there are no further published accounts of Predassic caches.

Early Classic

It is during the Eariy Classic that Tikal and Uaxactun both flourish, and this is reflected in the architecture, monuments, and burials, and caches. Excavations in the

Tikal North Acropolis uncovered 76 caches and problematical deposits dating to the

Early Classic - 34.9% of the total number at the site, and Uaxactun has 47 dating to this period (73.4%). It is also during the Eariy Classic that Tikal and Uaxactun record an interaction. In A.D. 378, Tikal conquers Uaxactun, providing the first recorded evidence of conquest warfare in the lowlands. It appears that Tikal installs a new ruler at

Uaxactun, Smoking Frog, although his link with the Tikal dynasty is far from dear. Then, in 379, there is a change in the Tikal dynasty, with Curi Nose replacing Great Jaguar Paw

as the ahau. This shift (Scheie and Freidel [1990] argue for this as a continuation of the eariier dynasty, but few researchers agree with them) correlates well with major changes in cache content, with these deposits becoming richer. Possibly this indicates improved

access to certain resources such as obsidian, jade, and marine materials (including

shell). Uaxactun does not appear to share in the newfound ritual wealth present at Tikal.

Interior Deposits

At Uaxactun, neariy one-quarter (23.4%) of all Eariy Classic deposits were given interior placement, compared to only 15.8% at Tikal. However, there are neariy identical

numbers of deposits at both sites (11 at Uaxactun, 12 at Tikal), suggesting that 533 frequency differences are a product of the intensity of caching in exterior locales at Tikai

(and probably also to the degree of excavation intensity, which was much greater at

Tikai). However, the greatest difference lies in the fact that the Tikal project employed the concept of problematical deposits (see Coe and Haviland 1982); thus, while the 11

Uaxactun interior deposits are all caches, three-quarters of those at Tikai are problematical deposits.

At both centers, the majority of interior deposits come from general Room contexts. Intriguingly, the only other overiapping context is Stela, as both sites had stelae that had been reset within a room. Table 8.1 compares the context frequencies of both sites.

Table 8.1: Oepositional Context Frequency at Tikal and Uaxactun

Context Tikal N Tikal % Uaxactun N Uaxactun % Room 6 (3 PD) 50 4 36.4 Door 0 0 2 18.2 Const. Rll 0 0 1 9.1 Wall 2(PD) 16.7 0 0 Lintel 1(PD) 8.3 0 0 Stela 1(PD) 8.3 1 9.1 Stair 2(PD) 16.7 0 0 Altar 0 0 2 18.2 Mixed 0 0 1 9.1

Interior deposits are surprisingly dissimilar at the two centers. Both have two deposits from contexts that could be considered transitional (Doors at Uaxactun, Steps at

Tikal). However, the people of Tikal seem to have focussed more on structural offerings 534

(Walls, behind lintels), than those at Uaxactun, while the people of the latter site tended to place offerings in monument contexts (stela, altars).

Another intriguing difference is found in the treatment of the deposits. Only 6

Uaxactun deposits are described sufficiently to determine treatment, and all were placed in sub-floor deposits. At Tikal, on the other hand, treatment can be detenmined for 10 deposits, and only 3 were sub-floor; the majority were through-floor. This would seem to indicate that the Uaxactun people placed offerings prior io completing floors, while the

Tikalenos placed them aftenvards.

Artifact Comparisons

Obsidian

While obsidian is reported from interior deposits at both Tikal and Uaxactun, it is only found in abundance at the former. Seven Tikal Eariy Classic interior deposits

(58.3%) contained obsidian artifacts, compared with only 2 at Uaxactun (18.2%). The artifact types represented at both centers are surprisingly different, with only eccentrics uniting them. The Tikal assemblage is dominated by modified flakes (comprising 3065 specimens, 96.7% of the total); modified flakes are not reported in Uaxactun interior deposits. Tikal also has flake-blades, lancets, and incised obsidians from this period

(see Table 3.8), none of which are present at Uaxactun. The Uaxactun assemblage, while small, contains projectile points and several types of core tools, all of which are absent at Tikal (see Chapter 5). Eccentrics are found in both sites, with 13 coming from

2 Room caches at Uaxactun, and 69 originating in two Room deposits (1 PD) and a Stair

PD at Tikal. As the Tikal specimens have not yet been fully described, it is impossible to 535 compare the eccentric forms present.

Although we cannot assume that the reported samples are wholly representative of Early Classic interior deposits at both sites, the evidence available clearly indicates that obsidian was employed to a much greater extent in ritual deposits at Tikal. The only obsidian-bearing deposits at Uaxactun come from Group A - which becomes an important ceremonial area following Tikal's conquest in 378. Thus, it seems probable that the low frequencies of this material at Uaxactun are related to Tikal's dominance, perhaps due to tribute payments, or possibly competitive exclusion.

Chert

Chert is found in greater numbers of interior deposits at both Uaxactun (5) and

Tikal (8) than obsidian. However, this does not indicate a greater abundance of objects or of variety of artifact styles. At Uaxactun, chert is recovered in only two forms: eccentrics and flake-blades, with the latter reported from only a single deposit. Tikal, on the other hand, has both of these types, along with both modified and unmodified flakes, cores, and debitage'®. Table 8.2 compares the frequency of chert artifact types in Eariy

Classic interior deposits at both centers.

An intriguing feature of the Uaxactun chert assemblage is that the limited artifact forms never overiap — each deposit contains one artifact type exclusively. This is not the case at Tikal, where as many as 3 artifact types are present in a single deposit (modified flakes, flake blades, and cores). The segregation of types at Uaxactun may indicate that

16. Given that Uaxactun was excavated in the 1930s, well before the routine collection of lithic waste material, failure to mention the presence of debitage should not be taken as evidence of its absence. 536 very specific forms were utilized in offerings, rather than just a particular raw material type.

Table 8.2: Chert Arti^ct Types in Early Classic Interior Deposits

Artifact Type Tikal Tikal Objects Uaxactun Uaxactun Deposits Deposits Objects Eccentric 2 38 4 26 Modified Flake 2 209 0 0 Flake 3 357 0 0 Flake Blade 1 3 1 2 Core 2 3 0 0 Debitage 1 5 0 0 Totals 8 615 5 28

Like obsidian, chert is a far more common inclusion in Eariy Classic interior deposits atTikal than at Uaxactun. Although there are 60% more interior deposits at

Tikal, this sample size difference does not account for there being almost 22 times as many chert artifacts at Tikal. However, there is a much higher proportion of elaborate chert artifacts at Uaxactun (92.9% are eccentrics, compared to only 6.2% at Tikal), suggesting that while raw materials went to Tikal, chert eccentrics were probably not an important tribute item (at least for interior deposits). Indeed, given the apparent absence of waste material, the Uaxactun eccentrics may well have been manufactured at Tikal.

Jade

Jade is a rare inclusion in Eariy Classic interior deposits at both Tikal and 537

Uaxactun, and is represented by only a single fragmentary piece at Uaxactun, and by

only a handful of spedmens from four deposits at Tikal (see Table 3.12 for description).

This probably is more reflective of jade being seldom utilized in interior offerings, than of its being rare during the Eariy Classic. Certainly it is far more common in exterior

deposits.

Other Uthic Artifacts

Other types of lithic remains are rare in Eariy Classic interior deposits, and tend to

be site-exclusive. One Uaxactun cache yielded a crude stone pendant of watenA/om

quartzite; nothing similar is reported from Tikal. Cinnabar is present in 5 Tikal deposits (3

PD), and absent at Uaxactun. The lack of this pigment at Uaxactun may be attributable

to Tikal's dominance; however, the absence of crude stone pendants at Tikal is

unexplained.

Marine Objects

Objects of marine origin are very unusual in Eariy Classic interior deposits,

especially at Uaxactun. Only a single cache - from the little-explored C Group - held

marine objects, and these are limited to 2 unidentified shells and 2 conch-shell beads. At

Tikal, marine objects are found in greater abundance. Stingray spines are reported fi-om

a single PO; Spondylus shells are reported from 3 deposits (2 PO), while other shells

come from 4 (2 PD). Also found at Tikal are Vennicularia spirata, fish remains (including

porcupine fish), coquina, Bryozoa, and a beach pebble, all from single deposits.

Woriced shell is reported from 4 interior deposits at Tikal, although never in bead 538 form as at Uaxactun. The Tikal-worked shell assemblage consists of 2 shell figurines

(including 1 of Spondylus), 2 Spondylus chips, and a handful of mosaic elements.

The greater variety of marine objects found in Tikal interior deposits suggests that this center had better access (whether through trade or tribute) to the ocean than did

Uaxactun. However, the diversity of materials is surprising, and may suggest that maritime materials were of greater interest/importance to the people of Tikal than the people of Uaxactun, at least for offerings in interior locations.

Terrestrial Faunal Remains

Terrestrial fauna seems to have been of little importance at either Tikal or

Uaxactun for use in Eariy Classic interior deposits. The Uaxactun sample yields only 3 specimens, of which but one (a deer antler from Group A) is identified. Three interior deposits in the Tikai North Acropolis contained fauna! remains, but with the exception of the bone figurine in Cache 98, all of these may well be intrusive (rodent, bat, and rabbit bone are identified in two re-opened problematical deposits).

Human Remains

Human skeletal material is present in a single interior deposit at Tikal and absent at Uaxactun. The Tikal material is only partially described: Stair context PD 30 held 22 bone undescribed fragments and 3 teeth - 2 of a juvenile, one of an older individual. On the basis of current data, it is impossible to suggest what this might represent. While human remains are absent from fonnal caches at Uaxactun, two deposits labeled as burials appear to represent decapitations, and are undoubtedly human sacrifices placed 539 as offerings.

Ceramics

Uaxactun interior deposits are somewhat more liicely to contain ceramics than their Tikai counterparts, as pots are found in 63.6% of the interior deposits in the former center, and only 50% of the latter. Of the 7 Uaxactun caches, 5 are firom Group E, suggesting deposition prior to the period of Tikal's dominance. Of the E Group deposits,

3 contain flaring-rim or flaring-sided redware vessels, usually lip-to-lip. Another contains a lidded barrel jar, while the final deposit held only sherds. Red or orange flaring-sided vessels are present in Tikal interior deposits, but none are lip-to-lip. The Tikal assemblage is also interesting for containing a broken polychrome (Sibal Buff

Polychrome) plate, and Balanza Black cylinders with lids. These are forms not reported from Uaxactun.

Given the high degree of uniformity in Eariy Classic ceramics throughout the

Maya lowlands (Sharer 1994), the disparity between Tikal and Uaxactun interior deposits is surprising. However, the distribution of pottery-bearing deposits at Uaxactun suggests that the majority of these were placed while this center was independent, and thus prior to the event of AD 378.

Other Material Categories

The Uaxactun Eariy Classic interior deposit inventory is devoid of other types of materials. However, there are a number present at Tikal, including censers, copal, seeds and other organic remains, and mosaic elements. The presence of such items 540 suggests that the elites of Tikal went to greater lengths to include a diversity of materials to their interior deposits. However, only seeds and mosaic elements are reported firom actual cache deposits, rendering this less conclusive.

Exterior Deposits

During the Eariy Classic, exterior cache placement was typical at both Tikal and

Uaxactun. Exterior placement accounts for 76.6% of the Eariy Classic caches at

Uaxactun. and for 85.9% of the deposits at Tikal, and is highly suggestive of the

importance of public ritual at both of these centers during the Eariy Classic. However,

the contextual distribution of deposits is surprisingly different between these two centers.

Table 8.3 compares the use of different exterior cache contexts at Tikal and Uaxactun.

Table 8.3: Exterior Cache Context Distributions at Tikal and Uaxactun

Context Tikal Tikal Tikal Uaxactun N Uaxactun % Stair 4 7.3 5.3 10 27.8 Stairtop 1(1) 1.8 2.6 0 0 Stairbase 13 23.6 17.1 2 5.6 Wall 1 1.8 1.3 0 0 Platform 10(3) 18.2 17.1 1 2.8 Terrace 1(3) 1.8 5.3 2 5.5 Court 6 10.9 7.9 0 0 Structure 0 0 0 7 19.4 Const. Fill 2 3.6 2.6 7 19.4 Stela 9 16.4 11.8 6 16.7 Mask 1 1.8 1.3 0 0 541

Rare 1 1.8 1.3 0 0 Mixed 4(2) 7.2 7.9 1 2.8 1. Number in parentheses indicates number of problematical deposits. 2. Caches only. 3. All deposits.

The only context where both sites have a high overall concentration of caches is beneath Stelae, indicating the importance of such deposits. There are also similarities in the frequencies of Uaxactun Stair and Tikal Stairbase deposits. However, the degree of similarity between these two contexts is debatable.

Considering the history of interaction between these two centers - and particular in light of the probable conquest of Uaxactun ~ the lack of similarity is surprising. If Tikal dominated Uaxactun, then one would expect the dependent center to emulate the patterns of the dominant one, whether by choice or by force. This would be In keeping with recent models of Maya society such as the Galactic Polity (Demerest 1990) or the

Segmentary State (Bail and Taschet 1991). However, the pattern revealed in cache placement suggests that Uaxactun maintained a high degree of autonomy, with its people pennitted to place caches anywhere they wanted. While this factor would seem to support Scheie and Freidel's (1990) notion that the war between these polities was more ritual than conquest-based, I feel that the paucity of elaborate objects in Uaxactun caches (see below), combined with the diversity of their Tikal counterparts, is more reflective of a tribute system, similar to that of the Aztecs (see Hassig 1985; Maxwell

1996). 542

Comparison by Context Type

Stair Caches

With a single exception, the Stair context caches of Tikai and Uaxactun are very dissimilar. All those from Uaxactun contain ceramic vessels, and lack other materials.

Only a single Tikal cache (Cache 144) fits this pattem, with the rest devoid of ceramics and yielding obsidian, chert and obsidian eccentrics, marine shells, and occasionally jade. That Stair context caches are far more common and much more uniform at

Uaxactun suggests that the people of this site practiced a very specific type of offering in this context. Whatever this ritual involved, it was apparently quite different than the type of ritual offerings made at Tikal.

Stairbase Caches

At Uaxactun, Stairbase context caches are virtually identical to Stair deposits, with the only difference being the substitution of tetrapod vessels for redware bowls in a single deposit. Tikal Stairbase caches are very different from their Uaxactun counterparts, and held a wide variety of materials. Ceramics were frequently present, but lithic items (espedally jade), and shell were also very common inclusions. As with Stair deposits, the patterns of inclusion at Tikal and Uaxactun are very different, suggesting two unrelated systems of ritual offering.

Platform Deposits

Platfomn deposits are the most abundant of any exterior context in the Tikal Eariy

Classic, with fourteen present (including 3 problematical deposits). However, these show 543 a very diverse pattern of inclusion, with only non-eccentric obsidian and Spondylus shells reported in as many as half the deposits (ceramics are reported from 64.3%, but one- third of the ceramic-bearing deposits housed only potsherds). The single Uaxactun

Platform cache contained jade, marine shell, ceramics, and rare objects - all known from the Tikal sample, but in quantities insufficient to suggest strong patterning. Thus, the similarity between the Uaxactun example and the Tikal Platform context sample is probably related only to the diversity of the latter.

Construction Fill Caches

Construction fill caches are very common at Uaxactun, accounting for neariy 20% of the Eariy Classic exterior sample. At Tikal, on the other hand, these are quite unusual, with only 2 present (3.6% of the cache sample, 2.6% of the total deposit sample).

Construction fill caches at both sites show great content diversity, with very little patteming. Jade seems to be the only material to show up with any firequency, reported from both Tikal caches and 2 (28.6%) of the Uaxactun examples. The degree of internal variability suggests that there was no fixed way of creating a construction fill offering, and the lack of similarity between those from the two centers indicates that content choice was locally independent.

Terrace Caches

Terrace caches are not espedally common at either Tikal or Uaxactun, and those present show little similarity to one another. The two Uaxactun caches contain only ceramics, making them very similar to Stair deposits from that cache. The Tikal sample. 544 on the other hand, shows high internal variability with only potsherds found in more than half the deposits. Again, this appears to suggest that rituals and offerings were independent at the two centers.

Stela Deposits

Deposits from Stela contexts are the only type found in abundance at both Tikal and Uaxactun, but surprisingly only those from Tikal show strong internal patterning. At

Tikal, chert eccentrics and non-eccentric obsidian are found in 77.8% of the stela deposits, while obsidian eccentrics, chert, jade, and human remains are all found in more than half. Only stingray spines and non-shell marine items are entirely absent.

The Uaxactun pattern is less clear, with no material type found in more than half the deposits. Only lithic items (chert eccentrics, non-eccentric obsidian, and jade) are reported from as many as half of the deposits, while human remains, ten'estrial fauna, pigments, and mosaic elements are entirely absent. Unlike the Tikal pattern, stingray spines and marine objects were both recovered from Stela contexts, although in both cases these come from the same cache.

Thus, the two sites show a certain degree of consistency with regard to the inclusion of objects in sub-stela offerings. Jade, chert eccentrics, and non-eccentric obsidian were the most important materials employed at both centers, although none of these materials seems to have been a required inclusion. Beyond this, patteming is far less clear, as both centers employ a wide variety of materials on an infrequent basis, it is intriguing that the material types that are entirely absent at one site are not absent at the other. This is particulariy the case with stingray spines and non-shell marine objects.

Stingray spines are absent in all Tikal Stela deposits, regariess of their age, and non- 545 shell marine specimens are present in only a single uncan/ed stela dating to the Late

Classic period.

At Uaxactun, stingray spines were recovered from only a single sub-stela deposit.

Cache A25 from beneath Stela 26, dating to 445. This could possibly indicate an act of defiance on the part of the elites of Uaxactun, as this deposit was probably interred during the period of Tikal dominance. However, Valdes and Fahsen (1992) report that

Stela 26 was erected by Bat Mahk'ina, the successor too Smoking Frog, who appears to be subservient to Stormy Sky at this time. Thus, one would not expect defiance on the part of the Uaxactun Elite, and in particular, not by their ruler.

Mixed Context Deposits

Only a single Uaxactun Early Classic exterior cache came from a Mixed context, and it contained only ceramics. Mixed context deposits are much more common at Tikal, with 5 present (including a problematical deposit). These show a surprising degree of intemal content consistancy, but bear only a passing resemblance to the Uaxactun example. Eighty percent contain ceramics (the fifth held potsherds), but none did so exclusively. Indeed, there are no material types not reported from Mixed context deposits, and minerals/pigments are the only type reported only once. Further, the fewest material categories reported for any Eariy Classic Mixed context deposit at Tikal is four, indicating virtually no similarity between the Tikal and Uaxactun deposits. 546

Artifact Comparisons

Lithic Artifects

Obsidian

Obsidian artifacts were an important component of Early Classic exterior deposits at Tikal, and are reported from 31 caches (56.4%) and 5 problematical deposits (55.6%), combining for 56.3% of the total exterior deposits. This frequency is considerably higher than that seen at Uaxactun, where obsidian is reported from only 6 exterior caches

16.7%). At both centers, the most important exterior context for obsidian deposition was beneath stelae: 50% of the Eariy Classic stelae at Uaxactun had obsidian beneath them, compared to 77.8% at Tikal. Table 8.4 compares Tikal and Uaxactun obsidian-bearing deposits by context.

Table 8.4: Obsidian-Bearing Contexts at Tikal and Uaxactun

Context Tikal N' T Cache % T PD % Uaxactun N Uaxactun % Stair 3 5.4 0 0 Stairbase 7 12.7 0 0 Platform 1(2) 1.8 22.2 0 0 Court 3 5.4 0 0 Terrace 1(1) 1.8 11.1 0 0 Const. Fill 1 1.8 1 2.8 Structure 0 0 2 5.6 Stela 7 12.7 3 8.3 Mask 1 1.8 0 0 Rare 0(1) 0 11.1 0 0 Mixed 2(1) 3.6 11.1 0 0 1. Number in parenthesis indicates number of problematical deposits 547

The overwhelming difference In the distribution of obsidian between these two centers is made even more clear by comparing frequencies of artifact types (Table 8.5).

Eariy Classic exterior deposits at both sites yielded similar numbers of obsidian artifact types, with 6 present at Uaxactun and 9 at Tikal. However, the actual numbers of artifacts are typically much greater at Tikal.

Table 8.5: Obsidian Artifact Type Frequencies at Tikal and Uaxactun

Type Tikal Deposits Tikal Count Uaxactun Uaxactun Deposits Count Eccentric 22 353 2 2 Eccentric 3 7 0 0 Fragment Modified Flake 13 9686 1 2 Flake 10 3019 2 16+ Flake Blade 22 7236 2 3 Lancet 1 10 0 0 Core 9 146 4 38 Disk 0 0 1 2 Chipped 1 1 0 0 Sphere Scraper 1 2 0 0 Debitage 5 1571 0 0

The frequencies in Table 8.5 make it clear that Tikal had much better access to

Obsidian for ritual deposition than did Uaxactun. Indeed, the only artifact type in which these two centers have even remotely similar frequencies is the core. Intriguingly, 6

Uaxactun cores are described as other artifact types (2 core knives; 4 notched cores);

similar pieces are not reported at Tikal. Perhaps the most intriguing difference is In the 548 employment of obsidian in Stela deposits, which account for a large proportion of the obsidian at both sites. The three obsidian-bearing Stela caches at Uaxactun yielded

90.5% of obsidian artifacts (57 pieces), while the 6 at Tikal accounted for only 43.4%

(9547 pieces).

This suggests that the people of Tikal had ample access to obsidian, and could employ it among the offerings of virtually any context. The people of Uaxactun, on the other hand, seem to have had very restricted access to this raw material, and reserved its use for Stela offerings. At this point it is unclear whether the higher frequency of obsidian at Tikal is due to a tribute system, with the Uaxactun elite forced to turn over the bulk of this material to their neighbors to the south, or whether Tikal simply held a competitive advantage and could exclude Uaxactun from the obsidian trade.

Chert

At Tikal, chert artifacts are found in more exterior deposits (35 caches, 63.6%, 6 problematical deposits, 66.7%) than obsidian, but the number of specimens declines by over one-third, to 6217. At Uaxactun, the pattenn is somewhat reversed, with a 158% increase In the number of chert artifacts, to 147, all coming from 6 deposits. Table 8.6 compares the contexts of chert-bearing artifacts at these sites, while Table 8.7 compares the frequencies of artifact types.

Table 8.6: Comparison of Cheit*Beaiing Contexts at Tikal and Uaxactun

Context Tikai T Cache % T PD % Uaxactun N Uaxactun % Stair 3 5.4 0 0 Stairbase 11 20 0 0 549

Stairtop 0(1) 0 11.1 0 0 Wall 1 1.8 0 0 Platform 5(1) 9.1 11.1 0 0 Court 3 5.4 0 0 Stnjcture 0 0 2 5.6 Const. Fill 1 1.8 1 2.8 Stela 7 12.7 3 8.3 Mask 1 1.8 0 0 Rare 0(1) 0 11.1 0 0 Mixed 3(1) 5.4 11.1 0 0 1. Number in parenthesis indicates number of problematical deposits.

Table 8.7: Chert Artifact Type Frequencies atTikal and Uaxactun

Type Tikal Deposits Tikal Count Uaxactun Uaxactun Deposits Count Eccentrics 24 720 6 43 Eccentric 1 3 0 0 Fragments Modified Flake 12 678 1 1 Flake 22 3969 0 0 Flake Blade 1 8 0 0 Core 3 4 0 0 Nodule 1 1 1 3 Point 0 0 2 17 Dagger 0 0 1 2 Laurel-Leaf 0 0 1 1 Biface 1 1 0 0 550

Other' 2 20 0 0 Debitage 2 812 1 74 1. "Specially fomied objects, some with pick-like ends."

Lengthy discussion is unnecessary to appreciate the degree of dissinnilarity in the

Tikal and Uaxactun chert assemblages. It is conceivable that certain types of chert artifacts, particularly eccentrics, are found in low quantities at Uaxactun as a result of their use in tribute payments to Tikal. However, this seems unlikely as comparisons of the distributions of unmodified flakes and eccentrics in Tikal caches may indicate that these were manufactured locally and interred with the associated waste material (see

Chapter 3). Further, one would not expect raw chert to be an important tribute commodity, given the proximity of these centers to each other (probably indicating very similar geology).

Beyond the ovenwhelming disparity in artifact frequencies, the most intriguing difference lies in the types of chert artifacts found in caches at these centers: of the thirteen types present, only 4 are found in caches at both Tikal and Uaxactun, and three of these (debitage, modified flakes, and unwori^ed nodules) are to be expected at any pre-metal site in the new worid. I suspect that this pattern is reflective of two centers with extremely different ritual behavior - at least with regard to chert - resulting in distinct ritual assemblages.

Jade

As is seen in the other lithic artifact types present in caches, the distribution of jade at Tikal is very different than that at Uaxactun. Of the Uaxactun Eariy Classic 551 exterior assemblage, only 8 caches contain jade artifacts (22.2%), compared to 37 at

Tikal (including 2 problematical deposits), or 48.7%. Tikal jade comes primarily from

Stairbase caches (10 caches, 27%), with Platforms and Courts each represented by 6 caches (16.2%). The Uaxactun jade sample is more evenly distributed, reported from 3

Stela contexts (37.5%), 2 Construction Fill contexts (25%), and 2 Structure contexts

(25%). Table 8.8 compares the locations of jade-bearing deposits at Tikal and Uaxactun, while Table 8.9 compares the types of jade artifacts found at each site.

Table 8.8: Comparison of Jade-Bearing Contexts at Tikal and Uaxactun

Context TikalN' T Cache % T PD % Uaxactun N Uaxactun % Stair 1 1.8 0 0 Stairbase 10 18.2 0 0 Stairtop 1 1.8 0 0 Wall 1 1.8 0 0 Platform 6 10.9 1 2.8 Court 6 10.9 0 0 Const. Fill 2 3.6 2 5.6 Stela 5 9.1 3 8.3 Mask 1 1.8 0 0 Rare 0(1) 0 11.1 0 0 Mixed 2(1) 3.6 11.1 0 0 1. Number in parenthesis is number of problema tical deposits 552

Table 8.9: Jade Artifact Types at Tikal and Uaxactun

Type Tikal Deposits Tikal Count Uaxactun Uaxactun Deposits Count Bead 24 64 8 11+' Pendant 5 5 0 0 Mosaic 20 858 0 0 Element Ear Flare 5 12 1 2 Figurine 5 8 3 4 Other^ 9 112 1 3 Fragment 20 2217 2 22 1. One deposit contained unquantified beads; represents minimal value 2. See Chapters 3 and 5 for descriptions

As with other types of lithic material, the frequency of jade items at Tikal is much

greater than that at Uaxactun. A total of 3,276 jade pieces was recovered at Tikal,

yielding an average of 88.5 pieces per deposit, compared with only 42 pieces from

Uaxactun (an average of 5.25 per cache). Intriguingly, beads are found in 100% of

Uaxactun jade-bearing deposits, compared to only 64.9% at Tikal. While there is

considerably more jade at Tikal, the majority is in the fornn of small fragments (including

mosaic elements). If these are removed from the Tikal assemblage count, the average

number of specimens per deposit decreases to only 5.4; comparably, at Uaxactun it

decreases to 2.5 - still a substantial difference, but less ovenA^helming. There is little

doubt that Tikal's dominant position in the Northem Peten during the Eariy Classic gave it

better access to jade than Uaxactun. Whether this was caused entirely by competitive

exclusion, or whether there was an imposed tribute relationship is unclear from these

data. 553

Marine Objects

There is a great disparity between Tikal and Uaxactun in the frequency of cached objects of marine origin. While these are found in abundance in Tikal Early Classic caches, they are a rare Inclusion at Uaxactun - so much so as to make specific comparisons pointless.

Stingray spines are reported from only 2 Uaxactun exterior caches and these yielded 4 specimens. At Tikal, stingray spines are known from 17 deposits, including 1

PD at Tikal. These produced 10 whole and 23 fragmentary specimens, along with 32 whole and 26 fragmentary imitation specimens.

Spondylus shells are found in tremendous quantities at Tikal (36 deposits, over

2600 specimens, including fragments), and are entirely absent at Uaxactun during the

Eariy Classic.

Other species of shellfish are found in 33 deposits (2 PD) at Tikal, yielding some

550 specimens, compared to 17 specimens from 5 Uaxactun caches. The only species identified at Uaxactun (many are described only as "sea shells"), are Crepidula sp. and

Ostrea sp. (both single species) are both found at Tikal, in considerably larger numbers

(28 Cerpidufa spp.; and 19 Ostrea).

Worthed shell is reported from 36 exterior deposits at Tikal (1 PD), compared with only 3 at Uaxactun. The Uaxactun sample, however, appears to contain a single deposit devoted to the ritual intennent of shell beads, as it contains 177 beads or fragments.

Corals are present in 2 Uaxactun caches (9 pieces); coral is reported from 9 Tikal deposits, but is not always quantified. This is perhaps the area of greatest similarity with regard to the ritual use of marine materials.

Finally, a single Uaxactun Structure cache contained 2 pearis. Pearis are also 554 quite rare at Tikal, with 3 specimens reported from 3 different deposits, and an additional

2 imitation specimens. While this may represent behavioral continuity between these two centers, I believe it is more likely the simple result of the rarity of pearls in the wild. There are no other marine materials in Early Classic exterior caches at Uaxactun.

Ceramics

The greatest similarity between the exterior deposits of Eariy Classic Tikal and

Uaxactun is their abundant use of ceramics. These are present in 86.1 % of all Uaxactun caches (31 in total), and in 64.1% of all Tikal deposits. The most striking differences between the ceramic assemblages of these two centers lie in the apparent absence of black vessels in Uaxactun caches, and in the greater number of vessels at Tikal.

The Uaxactun assemblage is characterized by the presence of red or orange

vessels, with the presence of more than 4 in a cache very rare, and the majority of these deposits deriving from E Group, the older part of the site. Lip-to-lip vessels are an

uncommon find (29%). Vessel shapes are quite limited, with only bowls (some flaring

sided), cylinders (including bowls, vases, and tetrapods), present, along with undescribed

vessels. Potsherds are reported from only a single cache (B8).

Although somewhat different, the Tikal assemblage is equally consen/ative.

Aguila Orange flaring-sided bowls and Balanza Black cylinders are the dominant fomis,

with the occasional inclusion of unslipped vessels and polychromes. Potsherds, on the

other hand, are a common inclusion, occasionally found in some quantity.

The contexts of ceramic-bearing deposits differ at the two centers, as can be

seen in Table 8.10. 555

Table 8.10: Ceramic-bearing Contexts atTikal and Uaxactun

Context TikalN Tikal C % Tikal PD % Uaxactun N Uaxactun % Stair 1 1.8 9 25 Stairisase 9 16.4 2 5.6 Stairtop 0(1) 0 11.1 0 0 Platform 6(1) 10.9 11.1 1 2.8 Terrace 0(3) 0 33.3 2 5.6 Court 4 7.3 0 0 Structure 0 0 7 19.4 Wall 1 1.8 0 0 Const. Fill 1 1.8 7 19.4 Stela 5 9.1 2 5.6 Mask 1 1.8 0 0 Rare 1 (1) 1.8 11.1 0 0 Mixed 4(1) 7.3 11.1 1 2.8

At Uaxactun, ceramic-bearing caches tend to cluster into three different contexts:

Stair, Structure, and Construction Fill. This is a very different situation than that seen at

Tikal, where ceramics are widely distributed through a variety of contexts, with

Stairbases, Platforms, and Stelae being the most common places to find ceramics, but

representing much lower proportions than the Uaxactun locations. The three Uaxactun

contexts account for nearly three-quarters (74.2%) of the ceramic-bearing contexts, while

the three most common contexts at Tikal account for only 58.8%. This suggests that the

people of Uaxactun where more rigid in their choice of ceramic offering context, and that

they were not particulariy affected by the Tikal pattem. 556

Discussion

The Early Classic cache patterns at Ttkai and Uaxactun are remarkably different.

This is quite surprising, considering the closeness of these two centers (some 12 miles apart) and the recorded political interaction(s) that they shared. It seems very likely that

Tikal conquered Uaxactun In AD 378, and Imposed a new njler (Smoking Frog) and dynasty that lasted for over 150 years (Valdes and Fahsen 1992). One would expect such an event to have had considerable repercussions within Uaxactun society, especially its upper echelon, who were probably making most of the offerings that have been reported to date. While Uaxactun caches do show a brief florescence - primarily marked by a wider variety of inclusions - around the time of this event (and indeed beneath the stela commemorating it), there is remarkably little similarity between the caches of Uaxactun and those of Tikal. While these centers share many of the same types of material offering categories, virtually none of these are dealt with in the same fashion at these two centers. This is true not just of the general paucity of certain material types at Uaxactun - which may relate to tribute payments or competitive exclusions - but also of the contextual usage of different objects.

If the Tikal-Uaxactun relationship was reflective of a Galactic Polity (Tambiah

1976; Demarest 1990), or the Segmentary State (Southall 1988; Ball and Taschek 1991)

- models based on the redundancy of political and architectural fomis - then one would expect a pattern of redundancy and emulation in caches. Caches from these sites show no evidence for either. Rather, these deposits strongly suggest that there was little or no imposition of Tikal's pattern of ritual behavior at Uaxactun. This in turn suggests that the relationship between these centers was more similar to that known for Tenochtitlan and its tributary states, with little change on the local level following conquest. At this point 557 there is no evidence to suggest that Uaxactun paid tribute to Tikal in any fashion, and the low frequency of certain artifact types at the fornier is insufficient to demonstrate such a relationship (although Sidrys [1976] suggests that it does).

Late Classic I

There is tremendous disparity in Tikal and Uaxactun caches from the eariiest part of the Late Classic. At this time, Tikal deposits move to interior locales, and the cache inventories change dramatically. Uaxactun, on the other hand, experiences an almost complete loss of caches.

Only three Uaxactun caches can be dated to this period, and all are located below stelae. Thus, comparison of deposits from this period is limited to this context.

Eight Tikal Stela caches date to the Ik period; the majority of these are either from the period immediately prior to the Caracol event of 562, or are uncarved and cannot be precisely dated.

Stela caches from Ik deposits at Uaxactun are surprisingly variable in content, with no material type encountered in more than two, suggesting variability in local caching practices. The Tikal deposits, on the other hand, show more consistant patterning. Chert eccentrics are the most common artifact type at both sites, with non- eccentric obsidian also reported in a majority of caches at both sites. Jade is a rare inclusion at both Tikai and Uaxactun. 558

Artifact Analysis

Obsidian

Obsidian artifacts are found in similar cache frequencies at both sites: 66.7% at

Uaxactun, and 70.6% at Tikal; however, sample sizes are quite different. Only 2

Uaxactun Late Classic I caches contained obsidian, compared to 12 at Tikal (2 PD). Half of the obsidian-bearing deposits at Tikal were in Stela contexts.

Not surprisingly, the artifact inventory of the two Uaxactun caches is quite limited, with only eccentrics, flakes, and lancet blades present. With the exception of lancets, all of these types are also present at Tikal (see Table 3.122); however, in Stela contexts, the

Tikal assemblage is limited to eccentrics, incised specimens, and unmodified flakes.

Table 8.11 compares the frequencies of obsidian artifacts in Late Classic I exterior caches.

Table 8.11: Obsidian Artifacts in Late Classic I Stela Caches atTika! and Uaxactun.

Type Tikal Caches Tikal Objects Uaxactun Uaxactun Caches Objects Eccentric 5 38 1 1 Incised 3 11 0 0 Lancet 0 0 1 5 Flakes 1 4 1 4

The obsidian assemblages from Late Classic I Stela deposits at these two sites are sufficiently different to suggest that their associated ritual behaviors were mutually exclusive. The presence of four flakes in a single deposit at both sites is probably coincidental. 559

Chert

Like obsidian, cliert is found in only two Late Classic I deposits at Uaxactun, compared to 13 at Tikal (3 PD). Seven of the Tikai caches are from Stela contexts. The artifact inventory is also quite different at these sites, with only eccentrics, blades, and debitage present at Uaxactun. Intriguingly, the Tikal assemblage is also quite limited at this time, represented by eccentrics, modified and unmodified flakes, debitage and

"spherically-wori

Table 8.12: Chert Artifact Types in Late Classic I Stela Caches at Tikal and Uaxactun

Type Tikai Caches Tikai Objects Uaxactun Uaxactun Caches Objects Eccentric 7 51 2 10 Blade 0 0 1 2 Debitage 0 0 1 Unquantified

Similar to the pattern seen for other types of artifacts, Chert remains suggest that

Tikal and Uaxactun were practicing very different types of ritual behavior at this time.

The presence of eccentrics at both sites suggests some commonality, but these artifacts appear to be a pan-lowland phenomenon, and cannot be used to suggest polity-induced similarities.

Jade

Following the Eariy Classic, jade becomes a rare cache inclusion at both Tikal

and Uaxactun. The Uaxactun jade inventory is reduced to 4 beads, located in a single 560 cache beneath uncarved Stela A15. At Tikal, only 7 exterior deposits (1 PD) contain jade, including 2 Stela caches. Intriguingly, the only jade-bearing context employed more than once is the Stela. The jade artifact inventory is also protracted, with only 4 artifact types present (beads, mosaic elements, fragments, and "other," consisting of silhouetted/incised objects. The jade assemblage from Stela contexts consists of a single mosaic element, and unworiced bits.

In Chapter 3, it was postulated that Tikal lost access to jade trade routes or sources as a result of the Caracol event of 562. This may also explain the dearth of this material at Uaxactun during the eariy part of the Late Classic, although this is probably also related to the apparent lack of ritual activity following the Eariy Classic.

Marine Objects

The only other material type found in Ik-period caches at Uaxactun is shell

(unidentified). Only two pieces are present, including an undescribed piece, and a bead, both from beneath uncarved stelae. The marine inventory from Tikal Stela caches of this era are also imited to shell, including 4 Spondylus beads from a single cache, 5 specimens of Area imbricata, 3 valves of Area zebra, 3 fragments of Dinocardium robustum, and a single specimen of coquina.

Discussion

The Late Classic I was not a good period for Tikal, and apparently Uaxactun as well. The defeat of Tikal by Caracol - which possibly related to an alliance between that center and Site Q/Calakmul - seems to have led directly to a dramatic change in the 561 nature of caching behavior, and many other aspects of society, such as not creating carved monuments. The shift towards a primary usage of interior locations for cache placement suggests that these rituals were being practiced in arenas with highly limited access (AT. Smith 1994). This in turn suggests that very few people observed any of these rituals, and that they may even have been conducted in secret.

The changes seen in the cache artifact inventory suggest changes in trade routes, probably the result of restrictions imposed by Caracoi, or even outright loss.

Previously important items such as jade, obsidian, and a variety of marine items are no longer found in large numbers or in large sizes. Obsidian eccentrics, for example, seem to be replaced by indsed flakes, which may represent some of the same images as their more elaborate predecessors. Jade objects are replaced by jade chips, suggesting that raw material is being stretched to make it go farther. Of the marine materials, the most dramatic drop-off is seen in Spondylus, which is apparently replaced by other shells and materials.

Uaxactun's fortunes appear to decline as well, and the only caches from this period were recovered from beneath uncarved stelae, and thus of questionable date.

Whether this relates directly to the "downfall" of Tikal is unclear.

Late Classic il

The Imix ceramic phase sees a resurgence of Tikal and to a lesser extent.

Uaxactun. Tikal's resurgence seems to stem from Ruler A (Lord Chocolate) and particulariy his programs of construction and warfare. Tikal re-enters the historical realm at this time, with carved monuments reappearing, beginning with Stela 30 and Altar 14 in

AD 692. 562

Interior Deposits

At Uaxactun, there are 5 Imix-period interior caciies (38.5% of the total), compared to 35 (23 PD) at Tikal (60.3%). While the Uaxactun sample is much smaller, and may reflect the less extensive excavations, it does suggest that these centers continue to install caches in an independent fashion. Table 8.13 compares the contexts of deposits at these sites.

Table 8.13: Late Classic II Interior Deposit Contexts at Tikal and Uaxactun

Context Tikal N' Tikal Tikal Uaxactun N Uaxactun % Stair 0(3) 0 8.6 0 0 Stairbase 0(1) 0 2.9 0 0 Room 7(14) 58.3 40 3 60 Lintel 4 33.3 11.4 0 0 Wall 0(1) 0 2.9 1 20 Door 0 0 0 1 20 Bench 1(1) 8.3 2.9 0 0 Platform 0(2) 0 5.7 0 0 Rare 0(1) 0 2.9 0 0 1. Number in parentheses indicates number of problematical deposits. 2. Caches only. 3. All deposits.

While the concentration of interior deposits in Room contexts is obvious and very similar at both sites, the treatment of these deposits is very different. At Uaxactun, 80% of the interior deposits were given sub-floor treatment (with the remaining deposit undescribed), suggesting that they were placed during construction. Tikal, on the other hand, sees the majority of interior deposits (75% of caches, 78.3% of problematical 563 deposits) receiving through-floor treatment, suggesting placement after Xhe completion of the associated floor. This is probably reflective of the new phases of construction in

Groups A and B at Uaxactun, and of the declining use of the North Acropolis for ritual purposes beginning with the reign of Ruler A at Tikal.

Patterning by Context Type

Room Deposits

Uaxactun Late Classic 11 Room deposits are extremely limited in material content, with a single cache containing only ceramics, and the other two holding only terrestrial fauna.

The Tikal cache pattern is quite different, with both ceramics and terrestrial fauna found in only single deposits (potsherds were recovered from 2), and never in isolation.

Rare objects are found the most frequently (5 of 7 caches, 71.4%), followed by marine objects and shell (4 caches each, 57.1%). Non-eccentric obsidian and jade comprise the entire lithic assemblage, and are both found in the same 2 caches (28.6%).

Room problematical deposits, on the other hand, yield a pattern more similar to the limited Uaxactun sample. In these, terrestrial fauna is the dominant find, recovered from 80%. Non-eccentric obsidian and rare objects are both found in more than half of these deposits, while stingray spines are present in slightly less than half.

Wail Deposits

The Uaxactun interior Wall cache contains nothing but ceramics, while its Tikal counterpart (PD) was devoid of anything other than potsherds. While these deposits are 564 thus superficially similar, I think it doubtful that the Tikal example is an offering of any type.

Artifact Analysis

Obsidian

The only example of obsidian in a Late Classic II cache at Uaxactun comes from a Door context, and this contains 9 incised obsidians. At Tikal, obsidian was recovered from 15 interior deposits (13 PD) from four different contexts (see Table 3.142). A number of different artifact types are present including eccentrics, incised forms, modified and unmodified fiakes, flake blades, lancets, and cores. Table 8.14 compares the frequencies of obsidian artifact types at Tikal and Uaxactun.

Table 8.14: Obsidian Artifact Types at Tikal and Uaxactun

Type Tikal Caches Tikal Objects Uaxactun Uaxactun and PDs Caches Objects Eccentric 1 r 0 0 Indsed 6 55 1 9 Modified Flake 3 155 0 0 Flake 3 14 0 0 Flake Blade 9 65 0 0 Lancet 2 2 0 0 Core 2 4 0 0 Other 2 6 0 0 1. Fragmentary

It is intriguing that both Uaxactun and Tikal caches from Late Classic 11 interior locations contain incised obsidian flakes, while eccentrics are either absent or neariy so. 565

This does seem to suggest that incised fomis functioned as replacements for the more complex eccentrics. At Tikal, the low frequency of obsidian artifacts may be explained by the movement of the ceremonial area away from the North Acropolis, while at Uaxactun it probably relates to difficulty in obtaining this material. Culbert (1991) suggests that

Uaxactun probably functioned as a Tikal administrative center at this time, and thus the bulk of the obsidian would be expected to go to the larger center.

Marine Objects

The Late Classic II interior cache marine assemblage at Uaxactun consists entirely of shells. The single Door cache yielded four specimens, a whole shell, 2 fragments, and a specimen of Melongena melongena that was cut (see Chapter 5;

Kidder 1947).

At Tikal, the marine object sample is much greater, with stingray spines reported from 15 deposits (8 PD). Spondylus shells from 5 (1 PD), and 25 other species of shell

(interestingly, excluding Melongena), worthed shell from 7 deposits (5 PD) - although nothing resembling the Uaxactun specimen), fish remains from 11 deposits (6 PD), coral from 2 caches, Bryozoa from 7 deposits (4 PD), gorgonians and sponge from 5 caches, and a variety of other items from isolated deposits.

The Uaxactun pattern of shell use is consistant with that of the Late Classic I period, while the Tikal pattern is also consistant with its local predecessor. However, there still is little or no evidence for one site influendng the other's choice of cache inclusions. 566

Terrestrial Fauna

Terrestrial fauna is an important component of Uaxactun Late Classic il Room deposits. One cache held the red-painted skull of a Puma, along with parts of the remainder of the skeleton, while the other contained the skeleton of a Paca, a large rodent. While terrestrial faunal remains are far more common (and numerous) at Tikal, these are seldom identified. Rodent remains are common, although none are described as resembling Paca. There is no evidence for large felid remains, although these had been present eariier.

Ceramics

Late Classic II interior deposits at both Tikal and Uaxactun frequently contain ceramics, and vessels are reported in 60% of the Uaxactun deposits and 81.8% of those at Tikal. The vast majority of the Tikal ceramic sample consists of sherds (see Table

3.164), while the Uaxactun sample is insufficiently described to determine whether whole vessels are present (see Table 5.15). The available sample suggests that there was little influence from one site to the other on the choice of ceramics for cache inclusion.

Exterior Deposits

At Uaxactun, 61.5% of Late Classic II deposits were encountered in exterior locations, compared to only 39.7% at Tikal. While the Tikal sample is nearty three times the size of that at Uaxactun (23 versus 8), this still represents a considerable behavioral difference between these centers. The Uaxactun sample probably indicates an increase in the importance of public displays during the Imix-ceramic phase, although the reasons 567 for this are unclear, particularly if it was a Tikal administrative center as Culbert (1991) suggests. The change at Tikal, on the other hand, is more likely related to the movement away from the North Acropolis as a public ceremonial center during the reign of Ruler A and beyond.

Exterior cache (and PD) contexts at both centers are dominated by Stela locales, which comprise 62.5% of the Uaxactun sample, and 52.2% of the Tikal deposits

(including 73.3% of all caches). Table 8.15 compares the distributions of depositional contexts at both centers.

Table 8.15: Late Classic II Exterior Deposit Contexts at Tikal and Uaxactun

Context Tikal N' Tikal Tikal %' Uaxactun N Uaxactun % Stair 0(1) 0 4.3 3 37.5 Stairbase 1(1) 6.7 8.7 0 0 Platfonn 0(1) 0 4.3 0 0 Stela 11(1) 73.3 52.2 5 62.5 Mask 0(1) 0 4.3 0 0 Rare 2(2) 13.3 8.7 0 0 Mixed 0(1) 0 4.3 0 0 1. Number in parentheses indicates number of problematical deposits. 2. Caches only. 3. All deposits.

The sudden dominance of Stela contexts during the Imix period is puzzling, although it may indicate that the majority of public rituals/offerings were made in relation to the commemoration of historical events.

An intriguing difference between the Tikal and Uaxactun depositional

assemblages is that those at Tikal tend to be given through-floor treatment and resealed 568

(75%), while 75% of those at Uaxactun were given sub-floor (or sub-Stela) treatment.

This probably relates to a decrease In construction at the North Acropolis, and renewed building in Groups A and B at Uaxactun.

Patterning by Context Type

Stair Deposits

Stair deposits at Tikal (1 PO) and Uaxactun (3 caches) are internally inconsistent, and show little resemblance to one another. The single Tikal PD yielded only the fragmentary remains of a pot, while shell, ceramics, and terrestrial fauna are the only things present in the Uaxactun assemblage, with fauna the only material included in multiple caches.

Stela Deposits

Late Classic II Stela deposits at Uaxactun are highly consistent, with all 5

containing non-eccentric obsidian, and devoid of all other content. The Tikal Stela

caches are also rather uniform, although in a very different way. Chert eccentrics are

found in 75% of these deposits, while ceramics are the only other material found in more

than half. Non-eccentric lithics - the Uaxactun mainstay - are rather uncommon, with

obsidian present in one-third, and chert in only 16.7%. Jade and obsidian eccentrics are

rather rare, while all other material types are entirely absent.

The patterns found at these sites suggest that the inclusions in stela caches were

highly consistent and probably closely regulated (more so at Uaxactun than Tikal), but

that they were not related to one another. Detailed epigraphic data would be necessary 569 to determine whether the Late Classic II stelae at these centers relate to each other or the same events, but the cache data suggest that this is unlikely.

Artifact Analysis

Obsidian

While the Uaxactun obsidian artifact inventory is not fully quantified, it still differs remarkably from that at Tikal. Uaxactun Stela caches contain only three varieties of obsidian artifacts - flakes, cores, and debitage, while Tikal Stela caches contain only eccentrics, incised specimens, and cores. Cores are noteworthy, as they represent the only obsidian artifact form found at both sites in Late Classic II exterior deposits. Table

8.16 compares the obsidian artifact distributions in Tikal and Uaxactun exterior deposits.

Table 8.16: Obsidian Artifacts in Late Classic II Exterior Deposits at Tikal and Uaxactun

Type Tikal Caches Tikal Objects Uaxactun Uaxactun and PDs Caches Objects Eccentric 6 18 0 0 Incised 7 60 0 0 Incised 1 9 0 0 Fragment Flake 0 0 2 Unquantified Flake Blade 1 3 0 0 Lancet 1 1 0 0 Core 1 2 3 112 Debitage 0 0 3 Unquantified

The mutually exclusive nature of the obsidian inclusions in Tikal and Uaxactun 570

Stela deposits makes it seem unlikely that these are the aftermath of closely related ritual behavior. Ail the obsidian in Uaxactun deposits required very little technical skill to produce, and is thus difficult to interpret - as is the very high frequency of cores.

Marine Materials

While marine objects are far less frequent in Tikal's Late Classic II exterior

deposits than in many other periods, they are still considerably more numerous and

diverse (see Chapter 3) than those present at Uaxactun. Only a single Uaxactun Stair

cache yielded material of marine origin, and this consists of 106 perforated specimens of

Marginella apicina, probably representing a necklace. M. apicina is known, including

some perforated spedmens, at Tikal at this time (interior deposits only) and eariier, but

never in large numbers.

Terrestrial Fauna

Terrestrial fauna was present in two Uaxactun Late Classic II exterior caches,

both in Stair contexts. One contained the skeleton of an Ocelot {Felis paradalis), and

probably represents a grave or sacrificial offering. The other contained 65 snake (non-

poisonous) vertebrae. These were assodated with the Marginella shells, and may have

been part of the necklace (see Kidder 1947). The only example of terrestrial fauna in a

deposit at Tikal comes from a disturtied burial context problematical deposit, and thus

probably represents a very different type of behaviour. The only similarity with the

Uaxactun deposits was the presence of a Jaguar daw, making cats present in both sites. 571

Ceramics

Ceramics become a rare cache inclusion at Uaxactun during the Imix period, with a single polychrome vessel present in a Stair cache. At Tikal, ceramics are found in

47.8% of ail Late Classic II exterior deposits, including half (6) of those in Stela contexts.

Intriguingly, Stela caches account for neariy three-quarters (73.7%) of all unbroken ceramics in exterior deposits from this period at Tikal.

Discussion

The increase in cache frequency over the preceding period at Uaxactun, along with the increase in construction in Groups A and 6 would seem to suggest a revitalization of that center during the Late Classic 11, although it is unclear at this time whether this is in any way related to the triumphs of Ah Cacao. Regardless, the patterns of inclusion at Tikal and Uaxactun are as different during the imix period as they were at any point in their respective histories, suggesting that the imposition of a ritual hegemony by Tikal never occurred. It would appear that when Uaxactun entered the Tikal sphere, it did so more as a tributary polity than as an entity under direct control of the Tikal dynasty.

However much this may have affected the rulers of Uaxactun, who seem to have come from Tikal, it appears to have had little direct effect on the types of caches installed by the elite class. The paucity of exotic goods in Uaxactun caches (and the corresponding abundance at Tikal) may be indicative of a tribute relationship, although there is little to support such a suggestion at this time. 572

CHAPTER 9: PASION REGIONAL COMPARISON

Introduction

Although limited to Seibal and Altar de Sacrificlos, this analysis attempts a general comparison of cache patterns, which hopefully can be used as a baseline for future comparisons in the Pasidn region. These comparisons are then tied to the political history of the Pasion region in general, which will hopefully provide insight Into the effects of historical events on material remains.

Middle Preclassic Caches

While Middle Preclassic occupations are reported at both Altar de Sacrificios and

Seibal. As both centers share similar developmental sequences and ceramics, it seems likely that there was contact, either directly between their inhabitants or through people in the lands between them. While only Seibal has caches dating to this period, I suspect that the presence of caches at Seibal and not Altar de Sacrificios at this time is probably as much a result of sampling as prehistoric human behaviour, espedally as Middle

Preclassic habitations are typically buried beneath later occupations, and have not been extensively studied at either site. Early deposits at Seibal are particluiary scarce, and appear to have been encountered only in test units (Sabloff 1975; Willey et al. 1975).

The Middle Preclassic occupation of Altar de Sacrifidos was centered on the area which would become Group B. While there is no evidence of masonry architecture during the Xe Phase (900-600 BC), the first signs of such structures are reported from

San Felix times (600-300 BC), which Willey (1973) interprets as the first indication of a 573 politico-religious center. Although no population estimate is offered, Willey (1973) suggests little increase during this period; however, Rice and Culbert (1990:TabIe 1.5) indicate a slight population increase.

Seibal's Middle Preclassic settlement also centers on areas that would eventually become important politico-religious centers, although there seems to be a population increase between the Real Phase (900-600 BC) and the Escoba Phase (600-300 BC).

Like the people of Attar de Sacrificios, Seibal's inhabitants were probably agriculturalists who supplemented their diet with hunting and gathering.

Late Preclassic Caches

The Late Preclassic occupations at both Seibal and Altar de Sacrificios yielded caches, although in disproportionate frequencies, with 10 from Altar de Sacrificios and only 2 from Seibal; Table 9.1 compares the locations of their Late Preclassic caches.

Table 9.1: Late Preclassic Cache Locations at Altar de Sacrificios and Seibal

Context Treatment Altar de Sacrificios Seibal Total Stair Not Desc. 0 1 1 Stair-Base Sub-Roor 1 0 1 Platform Sut>-Floor 1 0 1 Const. Fill Not Desc. 2 0 2 Const. Fill Thnj-Floor 3 0 3 Const. Fill Sub-Floor 1 0 1 Const. Fill Surface 0 1 1 Other Sub-Roor 2 0 2 Totals 10 2 12 574

During this period, caches from Altar de Sacrificios and Seibal are similar from a gross perspective only; both have construction fill caches, albeit with different treatments, and both have caches associated with stairs, although in different parts of those stairs.

Construction fill caches at both sites contain ceramics, but there is little other similarity.

Those at Seibal are in the fonri of plain, lip-to-lip plates, while the majority of Altar ceramics are red bowls, and these are rarely lip-to-lip. The stair/stair-base caches are also similar only in the presence of ceramics, although specific comparison is impossible as the specimens from Altar de Sacrificios are not described. The Altar cache also contains non-eccentric obsidian, a material type not encountered at Seibal until the

Tenrriinal Classic.

Late Preclassic occupations yield the eariiest signs of massive public construction in the "ceremonial centers"at both Altar de Sacrificios and Seibal. At Altar de Sacrificios, this was concentrated in the Group B area, particulariy Structure B-l, a ten-aced pyramid that stood some 9 meters high by the end of the Late Preclassic. The other Group B structures were also under construction at this time. Public architecture at Seibal, on the other hand, is concentrated in Group A, where several large pyramid structure complexes have their foundations laid down. Group D also receives some eariy construction. Willey (1990) estimates a population of 5,000 for Seibal at this time; unfortunately there are no cun-ent population estimates for Altar de Sacrificios (although

Willey [1973] suggests that its population had increased from the Middle Preclassic, and

Rice and Culbert [1990:Table 1.5] indicate a substantial increase).

There are intriguing differences between these two centers during the Late

Preclassic in temns of cache location, frequency, and content. Caches are rare at Seibal, 575 with only two reported and both from peripheral areas of the site. At Altar de Sacrificios,

Late Preclassic caches are much more common, and the majority (80%) were recovered within the central "ceremonial center" rather than in the periphery. In Chapter 7,1 suggested that peripheral zone caches are the result of activity by minor nobles or commoners - people lacking access to ceremonial activities in central areas of a site ~ while caches in "ceremonial centers" were produced by high nobles, priests, and kings.

If this is the case, it may suggest that, despite its size, Seibal was a less significant religious center than Altar de Sacrificios. While this may be nothing more than the result of sampling enror ~ and this may be the case, as there seems to be a much larger excavated sample from Altar, particulary from eariier periods - the available cache evidence strongly suggests that Altar was the center of more ceremonial activity.

Early Classic Caches

Altar de Sacrifidos was a thriving center during the Eariy Classic, and a number of caches are reported. Seibal, on the other hand, may have been abandoned during the latter part of the Eariy Classic, and no caches date to this period, offering no basis for a comparison of caches from this period. At both centers, the transition from Late

Preclassic to Eariy Classic occupation appears to suggest continuity, with the local population probably continuing. Rice and Culbert (1990;Table 1.5) suggest an increase in the population at Altar de Sacrificios, while the Seibal population declines.

Altar de Sacrifidos undergoes a period of rapid growth during the Eariy Classic, with considerable construction in Group B, and a continued focus on Structure B-l. By the later part of the Eariy Classic, however, construction in Group B slows to a virtual halt, and building activity shifts to Group A. The late Eariy Classic also sees the 576 placement of a numtser of stelae and altars, all on the north face of Structure B-l, the earliest of which (Stela 10) dates to 9.1.0.0.0 (AO 455).

Despite the massive construction activity, caches are no more abundant in Early

Classic contexts than they had been previously, nor are they substantially more elaborate in content. The only major addition to the cache repertoire is fish bones, marking the first appearance of marine objects in cache contexts. Other marine items, such as stingray spines and shells, are reported from non-cache contexts.

The spate of construction during the early part of the Eariy Classic suggests that

Altar de Sacrificios was a growing center, and probably an important one. However, as caches are not found in greater frequencies, it would seem as though ritual activity

continues along the same level - neither increasing nor decreasing in importance. At

the same time, the lack of caches at Seibal, combined with its seeming eventual

abandonment, suggests that this center was declining in importance while Altar de

Sacrificios grew. Whether Seibal's fate was in any way influenced by Altar de Sacrificios

or any other Pasi6n center is unclear.

Mathews and Willey (1991:54) argue that political constructs were in place in the

Pasion region during the Eariy Classic, based on the presence of stelae at Altar de

Sacrificios beginning in AD 455, and at Arroyo de Piedra/Tamarindito at AD 513. They

suggest that these polities controlled only small territories, based on the geographical

proximity of Altar de Sacrificios and these Petexbatun-area centers.

Late Classic (I) Caches

At this time. Altar de Sacrificios experienced the same monument hiatus as the

rest of the Maya lowlands, although this center does seem to resume monument erection 577 slightly earlier. Only a single cache was deposited during the Late Classic (I) period.

Seibal continues to lack any real signs of substantial occupation during this period, and it is not surprising that no caches are reported. The present evidence suggests that this was a low point for ceremonial activities resulting in caches in the Pasion region.

Comparison with other centers is needed to determine whether this is purely local phenomenon or a regional one.

On a broader scale, Mathews and Willey (1991) report dynastic continuities at both Altar de Sacrifidos and Arroyo de Piedra/Tamarindito. At Altar de Sacrificios, after a monument gap from AD 534-573, a new njler (Ruler D) came into power at 9.7.15.12.9

(AD 589) who may have been responsible for the resurgence of this center. Inscriptions continue, with several dating from 9.10.0.0.0 (AD 633) to 9.11.0.0.0 (AD 652). Arroyo de

Piedra/Tamarindito also has a monument dating to this period (Stela 1 dating to AD 613), and at Itzan, a hieroglyphic stainvay dates to AD 652. However, there does not seem to be any dramatic increase in the number of polities in the area at this time, nor is there any reported evidence of a ruling polity.

Late Classic (II) Caches

Both Seibal and Altar de Sacrificios undergo a re-emergence of construction during this period, although that at Seibal is by far the more dramatic. At Seibal, reoccupation occuaed in all areas of the site that had been occupied during the Late

Preclassic and Eariy Classic periods, while platfomns and pyramids, probably originally built during the Late Preclassic or Eariy Classic, were either modified or reconstructed entirely. Altar de Sacrificios, on the other hand, sees massive constructions in Group A, with raw materials switching from red sandstone to limestone by the end of the period. 578

However, caches at both centers seem to be going in very different directions.

Altar de Sacrificios has 7 caches dating to this period, while Seibal has only 3; intriguingly, none of these come from the same context (see Table 9.2.)

Table 9.2: Late Classic (II) Cache Locations at Altar de Sacrificios and Seibal

Context Treatment Altar de Seibal Total Sacrificios Stair Sub-Floor 3 0 3 Wall Not Oesc. 1 0 1 Court Surface 0 1 1 Structure Not Oesc. 0 1 1 Const. Fill Not Desc. 2 0 0 Stela Sub-Stela 0 1 1 Altar Sub-Altar 1 0 1 Totals 7 3 10

The most similar deposits at these two centers are those from sut>-stela and sub- altar caches, as both of these are probably offerings related to a political event recorded in stone. However, these contexts are entirely different from one another in terms of artifact content, with the Seibal cache holding only a tripod bowl while the Altar de

Sacrificios cache contained eccentrics of both obsidian and chert, jade, stingray spines, non-shell marine objects, and pigments. The events surrounding the placement of these monuments is unclear in both cases (the altar from Altar de Sacrificios is eroded to the point of illegibility, while the stela at Seibal is broken and reset), making it impossible to understand the historical significance of either deposit. If nothing else, the dissimilar artifact contents tend to suggest that Altar had better access to rare resources at this 579 lime.

The Late Classic (11) period sees great changes in the Pasion region, most notably the anrival of the lords of Dos Pilas in AD 642. Ruler 1 of Dos Pilas came to power in AD 645, and ruled for 40 years. Intriguingly, he used the Tikal emblem glyph in his name, leading some researchers to suggest that this was a part of the Tikal royal line, possibly exiled following the Tikal-Caraccl event of AD 562. Ruler 1 initiates a series of political alliances and wars (Houston 1993:109), making Dos Pilas a powerful center in the Pasion region. Neariy a century later, in AD 735, Seibal enters the Dos Pilas sphere, following a battle which led to the capture and sacrifice of Seibal Lord B. Houston

(1993:115) notes that Seibal is controlled by the Dos Pilas dynasty for ten years, and then by a branch of the dynasty for another half century. Seibal's subordination by Dos

Pilas is mentioned in several monuments at the former center, including the hieroglyphic stairway on Structure A-14, and several stelae dating between AD 771 and 800

(Mathews and Willey 1991:50-51; 56; Houston 1993:116). Thus, for much of the Late

Classic (11), Seibal was subordinated by Dos Pilas. The Dos Pilas empire expanded to include several Pasion centers, including Itzan, El Chorro, and Arroyo de

Piedra/Tamarindito (Mathews and Willey 1991).

Apparently Altar de Sacrificios avoided conquest by Dos Pilas or any other polity, and continued to produce a glyphic record until AD 771. However, as the later monuments are pooriy preserved (Mathews and Willey 1991), we may be missing something of their history.

Terminal Classic

During the Tenninal Classic, both Altar de Sacrificios and Seibal see 580 considerable amounts of caching activity. Indeed. 8 caches are reported from Altar de

Sacrificios at this time^^ while 13 are present at Seibal. Table 9.3 compares the locations of these caches.

Table 9.3: Terminal Classic Cache Locations at Altar de Sacrificios and Seibal

Context Treatment Altar de Seibal Total Sacrificios Stairbase Sub-Floor 1 0 1 Wall Surface 1 0 1 Platform Sub-Floor 1 1 2 Court Sub-Floor 0 1 1 Terrace Not Desc. 1 0 1 Structure Not Desc. 1 0 1 Const. Fill Sub-Floor 1 0 1 Stela Not Desc. 0 3 3 Stela Sub-Stela 0 3 3 Altar Sub-Altar 0 1 1 Other Sub-Floor 2 1 3 Other Surface 0 1 1 Mixed Sub-Floor 0 1 1 Totals 8 13 21

The Terminal Classic at Altar de Sacrificios offers a perplexing mix of traits. On one hand, public architectural construction and modification drops to a virtual standstill, as does monumental construction. At the same time, there seems to t>e a population

17. Owing to difficulties In distinguishing between some Terminal and Postclassic caches at Attar de Sacrificios, both periods are discussed together in this section. 581 expansion, based on an increase of housemound construction and occupation. During the Postciassic, construction continues at a standstill, while the population decreases by roughly seventy-five percent. Altar de Sacrificios seems to be affected by the collapse, like most of the rest of the Maya lowlands. The ceramic changes seen at this time may have been brought on by invasion (Willey 1973; Adams 1971).

Contrasting the situation at Altar de Sacrificios, during the Terminal Classic

Seibal appears to become a very important center, with considerable amounts of modification and construction of public buildings, and the erection of several monuments.

There are some changes in site use, as the previously political-ceremonial area Group D becomes residential, and the previously residential Group C becomes a ceremonial- political center.

Following the end of the apparent Dos Pilas hegemony, — when several monuments were erected ~ there is a monument gap of some 30 years at Seibal.

Following this brief hiatus, an apparently new dynasty took over the site, and those monuments that mention them all use the Seibal emblem glyph (Mathews and Willey

1991). Mathews and Willey (1991:58) suggest that this new regime is of foreign origin, as six phonetic signs are used to spell the name of the mler. Stuart (1993:339) disagrees with this daim, arguing that these late texts from Seibal are "...well within the

Peten mode of recording period endings and assodated rituals...."

As during the preceding Late Classic (II) period, there is little contextual overiap in caches from these two centers, suggesting that the types of ceremonies performed were very different - the only cache locations found at both sites were platforms and rare contexts, with the latter always coming from peripheral areas. However, even these are of a very different nature, as the Seibal cache was from a temple pyramid, while the Altar 582 de Sacrificios deposits were from housemounds.

Terminal Classic cache inclusions are also rather different at the two centers: At

Seibal, the Terminal Classic sees the greatest variety of material types ever included in caches at this center, while the opposite trend is true at Altar de Sacrificios. The Altar de

Sacrificios cache inventory tiecomes restricted to lithic (obsidian and chert) artifacts, and ceramics ~ both vessels and censers. Deposits from Seibal, on the other hand, also contain obsidian and chert (albeit in extremely small quantities), and ceramic vessels and censers. However, these objects are now augmented with jade and marine shell - materials that are either rare or completely absent in eariier Seibal caches.

The decline in material type variety seen in Altar de Sacrificios caches is probably very closely related to the decline of that center, with dwindling political and economic importance probably leading to an inability to obtain such objects. The expansion of cache inclusions at Seibal - modest as it may be - seems to correlate well with the end of the Dos Pilas hegemony, and may result from an increase in local power.

Artifact Comparison

As there is so little occupational overiap between Seibal and Altar, it may be more useful to compare artifact forms without regard to temporal variables. This may yield insight into pattems of artifact use and deposition that will suggest behaviours which go beyond temporal constraints.

Obsidian Artlfects

Obsidian is employed in many caches at Altar de Sacrificios, but it is rare in 583 similar contexts at Seibal; Table 9.4 shows the distribution of obsidian artifact fomis.

Table 9.4: Obsidian Artifects at Altar de Sacrificios and Seibal

Artifact Form Altar de Sacrificios Seibal Total Eccentric 1(8) 0 1(8) Flake 2(98) 0 2(98) Flake Blade 8(234) 0 8(234) Lancet 0 1 (6) 1(6) Core 2(17) 1 (1) 3(18) Totals 13 (357) 2(7) 15(364)

There is virtually no overlap between obsidian artifact forms at these two Pasion region centers, although both do have cores reported from stela contexts. This lack of similarity is probably related at least in part to the small numbers of caches under study, particulariy at Seibal, as well as to the differences in occupational patterns.

Chert Artifacts

Much like obsidian, chert is a rare cache inclusion at Seibal, and makes only sporadic appearances at Altar de Sacrificios. Table 9.5 details the artifact fonms present at these two centers.

Table 9.5: Chert Artifects at Seibal and Altar de Sacrificios

Artifact Form Altar de Sacrificios Seibal Total Eccentric 5(50) 0 5(50) Flake 2(671) 0 2(671) Laurel-Leaf Blade 2(6) 2(2) 4(8) Projectile Point 1(1) 0 1(1) 584

Totals 10 (728) 2(2) 12 (730) With regard to chert artifact use, the only similarity between these centers is the fact that both have caches containing laurel-leaf blades. However, these caches are

from different contexts; those from Altar de Sacrificios are from Altar and Wall contexts,

while both of those from Seibal derive from stela locales. While 1 believe that it is

justifiable to argue that Altars and Stelae represent related types of monuments, the

paucity of chert in Seibal caches strongly suggests that this material had little ceremonial

similarity at the two centers.

Jade Artifacts

Jade is the only material type (other than ceramics) found with any frequency in

caches at both Altar de Sacrificios and Seibal. Table 9.6 details the jade artifact forms

reported at these sites. This is also shown graphically in Figure 9.1

Table 9.6: Jade Artifacts at Altar de Sacrificios and Seibal

Artifect Form Altar de Sacrificios Seibal Total Bead 4(4) 2(5) 6(9) Pendant 0 1(1) 1(1) Fragment 2(33) 3(5) 5(38) Celt 0 2(7) 2(7) Pebble 0 3(5) 3(5) "Ice-Pick" Blood-letter 0 1(1) 1(1) Totals 6(37) 12(24) 18(61)

The pattern of jade use at these centers is intriguing, as Attar de Sacrificios has

roughly fifty-percent more jade objects (raw counts), despite having 50% fewer jade- 585 bearing deposits. While such a pattern is undoubtedly affected by sampling, some

Figure 9.1: Jade Artifact Types at Seibai and Altar de Sacrificios

40

30

i 20 O

10

0 l-j| Bead Pendant Fragment Celt Pebble Blood Letter

Altar de Seibai Sacrificios

speculations can be made. At Altar de Sacrificios, jade is a rare cache inclusion until the

Late Classic (II) period. Prior to this time, there is never more than a single jade artifact

(always beads) in a single cache. During the Pasidn phase, jade appears be treated in a different way at Altar, and although it is reported from only two deposits, the ratio of deposits to jade objects jumps from 1:1 to 1:17, possibly suggesting improved access to raw materials. Also present is a change in object fonn; prior to the Pasidn phase, all cached jade is in the form of beads; during the Pasidn phase, 97.1% (33 of 34) of the jade objects are in an unwori^ed fonn.

Seibai shows a rather different pattem of jade use, although some similarities to

Altar de Sacrificios do exist. Jade is reported in very elaborate fonn (celts, and an "ice- 586 pick" blood-letter) during the Middle Preclassic, but is not seen again until the Terminal

Classic. During the Terminal Classic, two basic jade forms are reported from caches; worked (beads, pendants) and unworked. These forms are never found together.

Further, only 62.5% (10 of 16 pieces) of the jade reported from the Terminal Classic is unworked - a much lower frequency than seen at Altar de Sacrifidos during the Late

Classic. Also, at 1:2.2, the ratio of deposits to jade artifacts at Seibal is very different than that seen at Altar de Sacrificios. The pattem seen at Seibal suggests that access to jade raw materials was very poor, although it improved during the Terminal Classic.

Within the Pasi6n region, jade does not appear to have t}een a desired commodity for cache use, at least prior to the later part of the Late Classic period. The site reports for both Altar de Sacrificios (see particulariy Willey 1972) and Seibal (Willey

1978) demonstrate that jade was present in other contexts during most periods of occupation. This indicates that jade was probably available for ritual use (and was often included in burials), but for some reason was not being included in caches until very late.

While the jade reported from caches at these two sites is hardly a substantial quantity in comparison to Tikal, a larger pattem may be emerging. The increase in jade noted for the Pasi6n region corresponds roughly with the diminished presence of jade in caches from the Northern Peten region. It is possible that Jade was only becoming available to smaller polities following the decline of other, more powerful centers. This would imply that the low frequencies of jade found in eariier caches (particulariy during the Eariy Classic), was the result of competitive exclusion by larger polities such as Tikal.

The collapse would effectively bring such exclusion to an end, which may partly explain why the amount of jade seen in Seibal caches increases so much during the Terminal

Classic. 587

Marine Materials

Neither Altar de Sacrificios nor Seibal have large amounts of marine objects reported from cache contexts. Table 9.7 details those marine objects present.

Table 9.7: Marine Objects at Altar de Sacrificios and Seibal

Artifact Form Altar de Sacrificios Seibal Total Shell (unworked) 2(9) 2(3) 4(12) Shell (wori

The pattern of marine object usage at both Seibal and Altar de Sacrificios is rather similar to that seen for jade use, as in both cases marine objects are not found prior to the latest periods of occupation. (There is a single exception to this, as an Eariy

Classic cache from Altar de Sacrificios contains an unspecified number offish vertebrae, which may be of riverine origin). Thus, we may be seeing an increased ability to obtain elite goods at both centers during their later periods of occupation. At neither site does this seem to result in large quantities of marine goods ending up in caches - indeed at

Seibal the only evidence for such objects are 4 shells. But at Altar de Sacrificios, we see the appearance or increase in quantity of the kinds of marine goods frequently found in high quantities at larger sites. Whether the Altar de Sacrificios changes can be attributed to the falling off of other centers is uncertain at this time. 588

Terrestrial Fauna

Terrestrial faunai remains are found in caches only at Altar, and even there are never a common inclusion. As there is no evidence to suggest that these remains are non-local in origin, there seems little reason why such remains could not have been included in caches at Seibal as well. Their absence can probably be attributed to one of two factors: first, the people of Seibal may have never considered terrestrial animals as an appropriate inclusion within an offering; second, we may not have encountered such

remains in caches because the sample is so small. As ten'estriai fauna is reported in

some form from every other center included in this study, I am more inclined to favour the latter interpretation.

Human Remains

The only cache containing human remains reported from a Pasion region center

in this study is a single Late Classic (Pasi6n phase) deposit fi'om Altar de Sacrificios

containing a "human arm." As with ten'estriai fauna, Seibal caches are devoid of human

content. Again, this makes Seibal the only site in this study without this type of cache

content, a situation possibly explained by one of two possible scenarios; (1) the people of

Seibal did not believe in including human remains within an offertory cache; (2) the small

cache sample from Seibal has not yielded any human-bearing caches. I am inclined to

favour the second explanation. While Seibal was the last of the four centers in this study

to be excavated, and excavations did not commence until after the publication of seminal

studies by A.L. Smith (1950) and W. Coe (1965) on caches, the operational definition of

"cache" was the same at both sites (see Chapter 1). Thus, it seems doubtful that the 589 mere presence of human remains resulted in the deposit being called a burial rather than a cache.

Pigments

Pigments are an uncommon find In Paslon region caches, and are reported only

at Altar de Sacriflclos In Late Classic (Paslon phase) caches. As with other material

types present at Altar de Sacriflclos and absent at Selbal, the best explanation Is probably the small sample size at the latter. Pigments are reported from caches at all

other sites in this study.

Censers

The use of censers In offerings - or at least their disposal in caches — appears to

be strictly a Terminal Classic phenomenon in the Paslon region. This artifact type Is

known from only a handful of contexts at both centers (3 deposits at Selbal, 1 at Altar de

Sacriflclos), suggesting that the burning of incense may not have been an especially

common practice (although small sample sizes could be the reason for this apparent

pattern). All but one of these caches (from Selbal) were recovered from peripheral areas

of the centers, suggesting that incense burning rituals were more common in non-central

areas.

Ceramics

Ceramic vessels are the one artifact fonn found In high frequencies in caches at 590 both Seibal and Altar de Sacrificios. One notable difference between these two centers is the fact that ceramics are encountered most frequently in earlier deposits at Altar de

Sacrificios (Late Preclassic and Early Classic), while they do not become plentiful at

Seibal until the Terminal Classic. While this Seibal pattern parallels the general cache distribution, at Altar de Sacrificios there is a clear fall-off of cache ceramic use, beginning with the Late Classic (!) and continuing until the Tenminai Classic, when ceramics make a resurgence.

The decline of ceramic use seen at Altar de Sacrificios is very similar to that reported in the North Acropolis of Tikal (see chapter 3). At Tikal, ceramics are extremely common during the Early Classic, and these are highly pattemed, with only two basic designs (red bowls and black cylinders). During the Late Classic, their frequency declines, and continues to do so. Simultaneously, the diversity of ceramic designs increases dramatically, with the common Eariy Classic fomns becoming very unusual.

This is mirrored, on a much smaller scale, at Altar de Sacrificios. The red, lip-to-lip bowls, common during the Eariy Classic, give way to infrequent finds of polychromes, and fine orange and grey wears. After the Eariy Classic, there are no lip-to-lip vessels at

Altar de Sacrificios.

As with most aspects of Seibal caches, there is little consistency in ceramic form throughout the course of the cache sequence. Lip-to-lip vessels are rare, reported only fi-om Late Preclassic contexts. From the Late Classic (II) through the abandonment of the site, ceramic vessels in caches show tremendous variety, with polychromes, fine greys, bichromes, and orange white vessels present. Vessel forms also reflect this variety, with tripod plates and bowls, ollas, bowls, necked jars, and plates all present

(plates and tripod plates are only known from the Postclassic). The situation at Altar de 591

Sacrificios is rather different, with bowls being the dominant vessel form throughout the sequence. Figure 9.2 compares the frequencies of vessel shapes at these sites.

Figure 9.2: Ceramic Vessel Shape at Seibal and Altar de Sacrificios

Cylinder Tripod Olla Count

Discussion

The Pasidn region cache pattem is difficult to interpret, given the small sample size. There seem to be two distinct developmental trajectories in operation, although based on a very small sample. The first is that seen at Attar de Sacrificios, which develops into an important ceremonial center fairiy eariy on, then experiences the hiatus and eventually the collapse much like other sites of the central Peten area (Tikal,

Uaxactun, etc.). On the other hand, Seibal becomes large eariy and then goes into 592 prolonged decline, only to re-emerge after the establishment of the Dos Pilas hegemony in the region. Seibal is conquered by Dos Pilas, and does not seem to really blossom until after this hegemony collapses, leaving Seibal with a short-lived period of glory and independence. However, it must be noted that Seibal has been subject of little more than testing, for as Houston (1993:152) notes "...it is clear that relatively little of the site has been excavated."

The small sample of sites in this area makes it difficult to confirm this in any way, but I cannot help but think that Altar de Sacrificios was more closely aligned with centers from outside the Pasion region than with centers within it. First, Altar becomes an important center during the Eariy Classic (probably beginning in the Late Preciassic).

The other sites in the Pasion (with a couple of exceptions) do not seem to develop in this fashion until the Late Classic, when Dos Pilas takes off. Second, while Seibal and several other sites are conquered by Dos Pilas, Altar de Sacrificios appears to remain independent - despite being rather small in size. How a center this small could stay independent is unclear. Certainly size would not be a major consideration in the eyes of the aggressor (Houston [1993] notes that Hammond argues that Seibal was nothing more than a village when conquered by Dos Pilas). As the Tikal emblem glyph is present on a polychrome vessel at Altar de Sacrificios, it is possible that Altar had an association with this larger center that provided a degree of protection. 593

CHAPTER 10: CONCLUSION

It was stated in Chapter 1 that this study had four specific goals; these are discussed in turn.

Goal 1: Understanding Cache Patterning Through Time

Although some caches (and problematical deposits at Tikal) can only be provisionally assigned to a specific temporal sequence, the majority can be securely placed within documented ceramic phases. As a result, it is clear that caches do not remain static; rather, there are specific changes inn ritual behaviour over time.

Only Tikal and Seibal have caches reported from the Middle Preclassic period; however, these share few similarities beyond the presence of ceramics, and are not suggestive of similar ritual behaviours. By the Late Preclassic, caches are present at all four sites, although in varying numbers. Late Preclassic caches appear to represent a continuation of the behaviours begun during the Middle Preclassic at both Seibal and

Tikal. in all cases, while caches share some common material types (especially ceramics), it appears that these are more the result of local idiosyncratic behaviour than of mutual influence.

In two of the sites studied (Tikal and Uaxactun), caches undergo a florescence commencing in the Eariy Classic, usually resulting in a greater number of caches than in eariier periods, and a wider variety of cache inclusions (although these vary by site).

There are more caches present than in any other period of occupation at both sites, and these show the greatest variety of contexts and included material types. Items such as 594 obsidian, chert, jade, shell and other marine items are found in numbers not reflective of their spartan Preclassic predecessors; rather, this suggests a whole new behaviour dedicated to the disposal of large numbers of probably valuable objects in these deposits. The Eariy Classic is a period of major growth at these sites, and caching behaviour seems to correlate with this.

At Altar de Sacrificios, however, the pattem is much less pronounced. There is no change in cache frequency from the Late Preclassic to the Eariy Classic (using the revised cache frequency presented in Chapters), although there is a slight increase in the variety of material types encountered, as chert and marine objects make their first appearances. A number of different contexts are employed for cache deposition at this time, however. Seibal, on the other hand, does not have any type of change in Early

Classic caches, as these deposits - and apparently most of the population of the center -

- disappear at this time.

Caches change at Tikal, Uaxactun, and Altar de Sacrificios during the hiatus period (Late Classic I). At both Altar de Sacrificios and Uaxactun, caches are rare during

this period, possibly suggesting that both had lost the prerogative of installing caches,

Uaxactun possibly due to its relationship with Tikal, Altar de Sacrificios for reasons

unknown. These small centers appear to have been greatly affected by the political

climate of this period in history. Tikal, on the other hand, continues to place a great

many caches during the hiatus, but these change in a fundamental way from those of the

Eariy Classic. Caches are moved to interior locations, possibly suggesting rituals

performed in secret and undoubtedly indicating that these rituals were not for general

public perfonnance. Changes in material inclusions - particulariy the decline of obsidian

eccentrics, Spondylus shells, and jade, along with the increased use of non-shell marine 595 objects - seems to indicate a changing pattern of ritual deposition at Tikal. Whether these changes are a result of outside influence is less than clear, although the use of human phalanges in certain deposits does appear very similar to the pattern reported for

Caracol at this time (Chase and Chase 1996).

Following the hiatus, Tikal goes through a renaissance under the reign of Ruler A,

Ah Cacao. While this results in major construction throughout the site core, as well as

successful military campaigns, caches undergo only minor changes. While there is a resurgence in the setting of exterior caches, the entire cache assemblage from the North

Acropolis never regains the degree of variability in material type inclusions that were present during the Eariy Classic. However, this may be the result of the shift away from

the North Acropolis as an important ritual area, beginning with the reign of Ah Cacao and

continuing throughout the remainder of the Classic period. Whether caches were being

phased out of ritual behaviour at this time - or shifted to another, as yet unexcavated

area of the center — is unclear. Dos Pilas is involved in conflicts with Tikal during this

time (see Houston 1993), although these apparently had little effect on Tikal caches, in

contrast to other wars. Again this may be the result of the shift away from the North

Acropolis at this time.

Uaxactun caches go through a minor rebound following the hiatus period.

However, Uaxactun probably continues to function as little more than an administrative

center for Tikal, and these caches are largely unspectacular in content, although they do

show a tendency towards a greater use of terrestrial fauna than at any other period in

Uaxactun's history.

At Altar de Sacrificios, caches continue to be present during the Late Classic II,

and indeed show some continuity with the Eariy Classic period. While the number of 596 deposits declines somewhat, the variety of materials increases slightly. It is during this time that caches at Altar de Sacrificios contain the greatest amount of jade (a commodity rare in Northern Peten caches at this time), and the only appearance of stingray spines.

Despite these increases, however, the Altar de Sacrificios sample shows no marked change from eariier periods, bamng the resurgence from the hiatus-period low point.

It is also at this time that caches begin to be present again at Seibal. However, these are few and far between, possibly as a result of that center's being conquered by the emerging Dos Pilas dynasty (Mathews and Willey 1991; Houston 1993). Dos Pilas rapidly creates an empire throughout the Pasion region, incorporating most of the

Important sites in the area. Interestingly, Altar de Sacrificios does not seem to be a part of this aggressive behaviour.

By the Terminal Classic, caches are absent at Uaxactun, and virtually so at Tikal, as only a couple of North Acropolis problematical deposits may date to this time (and these show none of the content variety present throughout the eariier parts of the

sequence).

Further south, in the Pasion region, Seibal regains its independence as the Dos

Pilas empire crumbles. This emancipation results in the greatest period of cache

deposition at this center, with a particular focus on stela contexts, long a favourite of the rulers of larger sites. This is the period of cache florescence at Seibal, and suggests that it was an emerging power in the Terminal Classic, probably as a function of the collapse

of other, more important centers. The Tenninal Classic sees the only cache appearances of items such as obsidian and chert, and the greatest frequency of jade at

Seibal, possibly indicating improved access to these materials.

Altar de Sacrifidos also has Terminal Classic caches, although these do not 597 suggest any particular change in political status, either as an emerging power or a vassal of another center. Rather, Altar de Sacrifidos seems to remain Independent throughout much, if not all, of its history.

There are Postclassic deposits at all sites but Uaxactun. The Tikal assemblage contains one problematical deposit with a wide variety of material types; however, this is related to an eariier burial that was disturtied, and cannot be attributed to Postclassic peoples or their behaviour. Other Postclassic deposits, including those from Seibal and

Altar de Sacrificios are more similar to those of Preclassic times than any of the other preceding periods.

Goal 2: Understanding Intrasite Spatial Patterning

It is clear that none of the centers in this study exhibits unique spatial patterning of caches (such as caches found only in certain contexts), and that preferred cache contexts routinely change through time. Yet there are some general trends apparent in the data.

One important trend may actually be a result of sampling. Monuments tend to be a favourite locus for placing caches at ail centers and through all periods of history.

Stelae are always important cache contexts at Tikal, Uaxactun, and Seibal, while altars are preferred at Altar de Sacrifidos. This would seem to suggest that caching was an important behaviour associated with the setting of a monument, and most probably with t^.o historical event commemorated by the monument. Yet it must be remembered that monuments provide contexts likely to be examined by archaeologists looking for caches.

As none of the sites under study were sampled in a random fashion, it must be assumed that the constant presence of caches from monument contexts is a result of sampling 598 error. While these were undoubtedly important locales to the Maya, there is no way of knowing, at present, whether they were more or less important than other contexts, such as those associated with architecture.

There are definite pattems suggestive of caches t>eing placed as part of a public ritual, and those placed as part of a more private ritual; quite simply, these are exterior and interior placements. Exterior placements are the most common at all sites and in all times except Tikal during the Late Classic, although this may be a result of sampling error in some cases. However, there is little doubt that public caching rituals were of greater importance and frequency during certain points in each center's history. At Tikal, this is the case during the Eariy Classic, immediately after the dynastic change, and up until the time of the conquest by Caracol. Interior locales would have been restricted to very small audiences, and probably indicate that the Tikal elite had lost the right to perform public rituals on a regular basis after the Caracol event.

Goal 3: Caches in Historical Perspective

From an eariy point, one of the lesser goals of this study has been determining whether recently revealed historical events can be seen to affect pattems of caching behaviour. It seems logical that certain events, such as suffering conquest, should have wide-ranging repercussions like having to make tribute payments with luxury items. It has become apparent that changing cache pattems can frequently be understood - at least on a gross scale - in relation to historical events. While each of these is discussed in some detail in the individual site chapters, it is worth reiterating.

The first major change in cache pattern associated with an historical event occurs at Tikal. The war with Uaxactun in AD 378 and the dynastic change in AD 379 both 599 seem to have important effects on cache patterns, in particular, these events seem to trigger an explosion of caching events, demonstrated by a dramatic increase in the number of deposits in comparison with the Late Preclassic. Along with this is the expansion of cache content with the sudden appearance of huge numbers of objects, many of exotic nature or origin. This is the time of huge numbers of obsidian and chert eccentrics, mountains of jade and Spondylus pieces, wide varieties of shell species and some abundance of other marine material. While these were all present previously, it is not until after these two historical events that they are found in great numbers. The mechanisms of Maya society responsible - whether this represents an expansion of trade, or the receipt of tribute from a growing empire - is unclear; however, the end result seems clear victory in war and a change in dynasty signal the increase in caching activity in the North Acropolis, and lead to improved access to exotic materials such as obsidian, jade, and shell.

These same events have a dramatic effect on the center of ritual activity at Tikal, seen both in constnjction and in caches. The dynastic shift in particular leads to the re- emergence of the North Acropolis as the primary focal point for ritual behaviour, including royal burials and caching. The presiding dynasty at the time of the Uaxactun event, represented by Great Jaguar Paw, focussed on Mundo Perdido, which was an important area of construction, and was employed for royal burials. However, the new dynasty, lead by Curi Nose and the enigmatic Smoking Frog, concentrate constaiction, elite burial, and caching in the North Acropolis. While Mundo Perdido continues to be used throughout the length of Tikal's occupation, it appears to never regain its role as a primary center.

Uaxactun is affected in a similar fashion by the war and dynastic change. 600

According to Vades and Fahsen (1992), the Uaxactun dynasty also changes with Tikal's

Smoking Frog as the new ruler. This dynasty continues to rule Uaxactun through the remainder of the Early Classic. A similar shift in ritual activity areas occurs here, moving from Group E (which is very similar in appearance and probably function to Mundo

Perdido) to Groups A and B (which superficially resemble the North Acropolis). Although the timing of this shift is less clear than that at Tikal, it appears to be directly related to the war and the dynastic change.

Uaxactun caches, on the other hand, are much less affected by these events than their Tikal counterparts. There are few large, elaborate caches at Uaxactun ~ certainly none that can be considered an emulation or imitation of the new Tikal pattem.

Certain items such as obsidian, jade, shell, and stingray spines are always found in low quantities at Uaxactun, while they are frequently encountered in high frequencies at

Tikal. This would seem to suggest that either the people of Uaxactun were less interested in such materials, or that the elites of this center were less able to acquire such materials, possibly as a result of competitive exclusion or paying tribute to Tikal.

Tikal provides a second example of historical events ~ particularly warfare - resulting in cache changes; however, these changes are the result of losing. The

Caracol event of AD 562 seems to produce major changes at Tikal, including the end of the historical sequence of monuments for over 100 years. During this period of hiatus, the people of Tikal continue to construct large public buildings, but do not seem to perform many public rituals. The majority of the contemporary caches are located in interior areas, primarily Rooms. While Room caches had been present previously, they were always a minor part of the assemblage. It appears that the loss to Caracol resulted in the loss of certain elite prerogatives, such as the ability to raise monuments and 601 perform certain types of rituals in public. Rather, these interior deposits seem to represent rituals performed in private, and possibly in secret.

Further, the nature of cache inclusions changes in several fundamental ways as a result of this event. The frequency of jade declines dramatically from its previous cache levels, and indeed this material is never again found in large quantities in the North

Acropolis. Eccentric lithics, particulariy those of obsidian, also decline in number; to an

extent, obsidian eccentrics are replaced by incised flakes - an artifact type virtually unknown prior to the Caracol event. Spondylus shells also decline dramatically in

frequency at this time, and remain in low numbers for the duration of the use of the North

Acropolis. Other types of marine objects increase, especially non-shell specimens such

as coral and sponge. There is also an increase in the frequency of toxic marine animals, such as stingray spines, porcupine fish, and coraP^. If, as I have suggested in Chapter 3,

these were used in rituals to induce visions or othenwise communicate with the Gods, it

may be explained as a response to the social stress of the loss of elite prerogatives, and possibly of domination by outside forces.

Another intriguing change that appears directly related to Caracol is the sudden

use of human phalanges in caches. While these were occasionally present in eariier

deposits, they become abundant during the Ik phase. Moreover, Chase and Chase

(1996) have recently reported that at Caracol similar deposits appear between about AD

550 and 700 - the same time span as the Tikal phenomenon. Whether this is evidence

of behaviour forced upon the Tikaler^os by new rulers from Caracol or indicates the performance of caching rituals by Caracol priests is unclear. Either way, it appears to

18. It is unclear whether any of the Tikal corals were indeed toxic. 602 represent a behaviour derived directly from Caracol, and thus presumably appears at

Tikal as a result of the event of AD 562.

If the changes seen at Tikal are a result of Tikal's conflict with Caracol in AD 562

- and this seems likely - then the low frequency of caches at Uaxactun at this time may be understood as resulting from this center's relationship with Tikal. Uaxactun appears to have been a vassal state of Tikal throughout most of the Classic period, and this would explain why its fortunes would be directly affected by those of Tikal.

The Late Classic change in rule to Ruler A seems to have a much less dramatic effect on North Acropolis caches than any eariier major historical event. Despite the fact that Ruler A and his successors were prolific builders and warriors, the Tikal cache assemblage never regains its Eariy Classic glory. However, during the reign of Ruler A, the North Acropolis is effectively sealed, and seems to decline in ritual importance, suggesting that other caches may be present elsewhere.

Historical events also affected Seibal. Seibal is conquered by Dos Pilas during the Late Classic just as it appears to be regaining the population it mysteriously lost at the beginning of the Eariy Classic. This period of submission does not lead to an increase in cache placement or diversity of inclusions, but when the Dos Pilas dynasty crumbles near the onset of the Terminal Classic, Seibal caches "take off," as materials such as jade are present in relatively large quantities, something that had never happened at this center previously. Thus, it appears that emancipation, combined with the collapse of many of the larger centers, lead directly to the increased wealth of ritual remains at Seibal.

Only Altar de Sacrificios shows a pattern of relative cache stability through time, with few major changes occuning, other than the dramatic decline during the hiatus 603 period. The reasons for this decline are unknown, as Altar de Sacrificios has no historical record of having ever conquering or having been conquered by another site.

This seems surprising, given its strategic position at the junction of two rivers, but there is nothing in the present evidence to suggest another scenario.

Goal 4: Intersite Cache Patterning

There are certain similarities in caches shared by all the centers in this study, such as the mere presence of caches, the frequent use of lip-to-lip ceramic vessels in eariy periods, and the inclusion of typical materials such as obsidian, chert, jade, stingray spines, shells, ceramics, and terrestrial fauna. However, perhaps the most intriguing aspect of this study is the degree of dissimilarity exhibited in the cache assemblages of these four centers.

There is little evidence for direct influence among any of these sites, despite the proximity of Altar de Sacrifidos to Seibal, and Tikal to Uaxactun. Even in instances of recorded historical interaction, such as that between Tikal and Uaxactun, there is no clear evidence for the cache patterns of one center impacting on those of the other. An example is the presence of stingray spines in a Uaxactun Stela cache deposited at the height of Tikal's influence over this center. Stingray spines are never encountered in

Stela caches at Tikal.

Thus, most cache pattems appear to be site-specific, and show tremendous variation even at this level. I believe that this indicates that caching, white probably a pan-Maya behaviour, was largely idiosyncratic. Cache inclusions appear to have been made on the basis of what was available and what was preferred by the person or persons either performing or sponsoring the cache. There may have been some 604 prescribed behaviours - such as never including stingray spines or non-shell marine

materials in a Stela cache at Tikal - but these seem the exceptions rather than the rule.

The lack of regional patteming may well relate to sample size and the size and

importance of the centers included in this study. However, I believe that it goes beyond

this level. The locations of cache deposition and the types of content deemed

appropriate for inclusion were probably highly specific to the goals of the associated

ritual. These probably changed dramatically firom center to center, from area to area,

and certainly from ruler to ruler. Thus, at least for the time being, patteming is probably

best understood on an intrasite level in relation to the history of the site in question. APPENDIX A: TIKAL NORTH ACROPOLIS CACHES

Table A1: TIkal Sub-Floor Deposits

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH MPC C 141 E A X A A A A A A A X A A A A A MPC C 147 E A X A A A A A A A X A A A A A MPC Chultun 5D-1 E A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A A

IPC C 168 E A A A A X A X X A X A A A A X IPG C24 E A X A A A A A A A X A A A A A IPC P268 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A X

EC P26 1 A A A X A A A A A A A A A A X EC P27 1 A X A X A A A A A X A A A A A EC P32 1 A X A A A A A A A A A A A A A EC C 10 E X X X X A A A A X X A A A A A EC C 107 E A A A A X A A X X A A A A X A EC C143 E A A A A X A X A X X A X X X A EC C 144 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC C 181 E X X X A A A A X X A A A A A A EC C 182 E X A X A X A A X X A A A A X A EC C57 E A A A X A A A X X S A A A A A EC C6 E X X X A X A A A X A A A A A A EC C62 E X X X A X A A X X A A A A X A EC C74 E A X A X X X X X X X A A A X X EC P152 E A A A X A X A X X 8 X A A X X EC P232 E A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X EC St 13,C 23 E X X A A X A A X A S X A A A A

a> o cn SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS O EC St18,C 22 E A A X A A A A A A A A A A A A EC St 3,C 53 E X X X A X A A A X X X A A X A EC St P1,AP1,C13 E X X X X X A A X X X X X A A X EC St P11,AP16, C27 E A A A A A A A X A A X X A A A EC St P16, C 7 E X X X X A A A A A S A A A A X EC St P19, ca E X X X X A A A A ? A A A A A A EC StP2.A1:F 2,C54 E A X X X X A A A X S X A A A A EC St P9. A P5, C 41 E X X X X X A A X X X X A X X A

LCI C14A 1 X X X A X X X X X A X A A A X LCI P 229 1 A A A A A X X A A A A A A A A LCI C 201 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A X LCI P 235 E A A A X A A A A A S A A A A X LCI St12:F1.AP14, C16 E X X X A A A A X X A X A A A A LC 1 St 4, A1:F1, C25 E X X X A X A A A X A X A A A A LCI St P12. A P8, C 26 E X A X A A A A A A A A A A A A LCI St P15,AP12,C50 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A LCI St P3. A P2, C 44 E A X X A A A A A A A A A A A A

cn o o> SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE 88 MAR SP 8HL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LCII P179 1 A A A A A A A A A S A A A A A LCII P 21 1 ? X A A A A A A A A A A A A A LC 11 P31 1 A A A A A A A A A X X X A A A LC II Cache 236 A-D E A X A X A A A A A A A X A A A LC II P270 E A A A A A A A A A C A A A A X LCII St P28, A P22, P 236 E A X A A A A A A A A A A A A A LCII St11,A11,C15 E X A X X X A A A A X A A A A A LC II St 5, A 2, C 36 E A ? X A A A A A A X A A A A A LCII St P20, A P15, C 42 E A X X A A A A A A S A A A A A LC II St P22, A P17. C 33 E A A X A A A A A A A A A A A A LCII St P25. A P20, C 34 E A A X A A A A A A A A A A A A LCII St P27,AP21,C121 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A LCII St P29, A P23, C 45 E X A X A A A A A A X A A A A A LCII St P4, A P3, C 12 E A X X A A A A A A X A A A A A LCII St P83, A P24. C 56 E A X X X A A A A A X A A A A A

PostC C 37 1 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X Table A2: Through-Floor Deposits

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SI SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH MPC P84 E A A A A A A A A A A A AAA X

LPC P157 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A LPC P269 E A A A A A A A A A S A A A A A LPC PBS E A X A A A A A A A S A A A A X LPC P9 E7 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X

EC cm 1 A A A A A A A A X A A A A A X EC C82 1 X A X A X A A X A A A A X A X EC C98 1 A A A A X A A A X X A A X X X EC PD 19/Burial 22 1 X X X A X A X A X X A X X X X EC P30 1 A X A X A X A A A S X A A A X EC P33 1 X X A X A A A X X S A X X X X EC P55 1 A X A X A A A X A CS A A A A X EC C102 E X X X X X A A X X X A A A A X EC C 108 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC C 130 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC C132 E A A A X X X A X X X X A A A X EC C 133 E A A A X X A A A A A A A A A X EC C134 E X A X A X X X X X X X X A X X EC C135 E A A A A X X A X X A A A A A A EC C136 E A X A A X X A X X X A A A X X EC C138 E A A A X X X X X X X A A A X A EC Cache 140A E X X X A X X X X X X A X A X X EC Cache 140B E X X X A A A A A A A A ? A A A EC C 142 E X X X A X A A X A X A X A X A Oi o 00 SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC C186 E A A X A X X X X X A A X A A X EC C187 E A A A X X A A A A 8 A X A X A EC C43 E A A A A X X A X X X A A X X X EC C5 E X X A A X A A X A A A X A A A EC C58 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC C60 E A X X A A A A A X A A A A X X EC C63 E A X A A X A A X X A A A X X A EC C64 E A A A X A A A A A S A X A A A EC C65 E A X X X X X X X X X A A X A A EC C75 E A X A A A X X A X A A A A X A EC C78 E A A A A X A A A X A A A A X A EC C79 E X X X X X X A X X X A A A X X EC C81 E A A A A A X A A X X A A X A A EC C86 E X X X X X X X X X X A X A A X EC ca7 E A A A A A A X X X A A A X A A EC C88 E A X A X X A A X A A A A A X X EC C93 E A A X X X A X X X X A A A X X EC MS 165, PD 36 E A X A X A A A A A 8 A A A A X EC P149 E A X A A A A A A A 8 A A A A A EC P161 E A A A X A A A A A 8 A A A A A EC P162 E A A A A A A A A A S A X A A A EC P 163 E A X A X A A A A A 8 A A A A X EC P87 E A X A X A A X X X X X X X X X

LCI C103 1 A A A A A X X A X A A A X A A LCI C105 1 A A A A A X X X A A A A X A X LCI C 106 1 A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A X LCI C14B 1 X X A X X X X X X CS X X X X X LCI C14C 1 X X A A X X X A X CS A X A A A LCI C14D 1 X X X A X X X X X CS X A A X X

a> o to SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LCI C156 1 A A A A A X X A A A A A A A X LCI C157 1 A A A A A X X A A A A A A A X LCI C 183 1 A A A A A X X X X A A A X A X LCI C185 1 X X X A X X X A X S A A A X X LCI C190 1 A X A A X X X X X A A A X X X LCI C191 1 A A A A X X X A X A A A A X A LCI C 199 1 A A A A X X X A X A ? ? X X A LCI C210 1 A A A A A A A A A A A A X A X LCI C233 1 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X LCI C234 1 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X LCI C238 1 X X A A A X X A X A A X A A A LCI P138 1 X X A X X A X A X C A X A A X LCI PD 14/Cache 66 1 A X X A A A X A X X A X A A X LC 1 P143 1 X X X X X A A A X S A A A X X

LCI P144 1 X X A X X A A A A S A A A X X LCI P146 1 A X A X X X A A X S A X A X A LCI P151 1 A X A X A A A A A CS A A A A X LCI P153 1 X X X A A X X A X CS A A A A A LCI P160 1 X X A X X A X X X A A A A X A LCI P164 1 A X A A X A A X X CS A X A X A LCI P165 1 A X A A A A A A A 8 A A A A X LCI PD 17/Cache 70 1 A X X X X X X A X S X X X X X LCI P172 1 A A A X A A A A A S A A A A X LCI P173 1 X A A A X X X A X A X X A A A LCI P178 1 A X X A A X X A A C A X A A X LCI P180 1 A X A A A X X A A CS A X A A X LCI P237 1 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X LCI C59 E A A A A X A A X 611

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Oii CO (O N. V V V O e X X X< A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X < ffl < < < < A A u o UJ n (0 UJ UJ UJ •IB MM 5^- ^ — o m ^ o> h- C» O Oi U) CD (o oo CO 0- ®r CM r- oo cN CO CO ^ ^ lO •«- 00 S8 h- oo Oi O Qj IS T- T- CJ CM CM CM to T- Q ^ ^ T- o T- T" lO to in (o QOOa. ooOOO OOOO Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. aQ. Q. 0. GL Q. a. O. Q. II II II 11 II II II II II LCI LCI LC LCII LCII LCII LC LCII LCII LCII LCII LCI LCII LCII LCII LCII LCII LC LC LC LCII LCII LCII LC LCII LC LC LC SEQ SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LCil P61 1 A X A X A A A A A S A A A A A LCII P62 1 A X X A A A A A A s A A A A A LC II Burial 8/PD 49 E X A A A A A A A A A X X A A X LCII C131 E X A X A X X X X X X A A X A X LCII C47 E A X A A X X X A X A A A X A A LC 11 C48 E X A X A A X X A A A A A A A A

PostC C 129 E X A X A X A X A A CS A A A X A

Table A3: Tikal Surface Deposits

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LC 1 C 59 E X X X A A A A A X 8 A A A A A

LC II P 54 1 A X A X X X X X X X X X A X X LC II P 171 E A A A A A A A A A C A A A A A LC II P 40 E A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A A

PostC P41 1 A A A A A A A A A S A A A A A PostC P38 E A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X PostC P42 E A A A X A A A A A S A A A A X

Table A4: Tikal Deposits with Undescribed Treatment

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH MPC P265 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A MPC P266 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A MPC P267 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A o> rv> 613 ? X A A X X X A X A A X A < A < < (0 O X X A X A X X A A X X A A < A < < o X A X X X A A A A A X X < A A < < 3 < X A A A A A X A A X CM 00 ^ Q CL Q. Q. a. 0.0. o o o OOOOQ. OQ. Q. OQ. So oooo m O. O. Q. ooooo EC EC EC LPC LCI LCI LCI LCI EC EC UJ UJ UJ UI Ul LCI LCI SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LCI StP13.AP9.C11 E X X X A X A X A X A X A A X A LCI St P17. A P13, C 35 E A X X A A A A A A A A A A A A

LCII C118 1 A A A A A X X A X A A A X A X LC II C49A 1 A A A A A X X A X A A A X A X LCII C49B 1 A A A A A X A A X A A A X A A LCII P43 1 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X LC II P117 E A A A A A A A A A CS A A A A A LC II P226 E A A A X A A A A A S X A A A A LCII P48 E A A A A A A A A A C X A A A A LCII St 9. C 17 E A A X A A A A A A A A A A A A LCII StP10.AP6.C31 E A ? A ? A A A A A A X A A A A

PostC PD 134, 8 200, 8 201 1 X X X X X X X A X X X X A X A PostC PD51/Unit37 1 A A A A A A A A A A X A A A A

Table AS: Centered Deposits at Tikal

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH MPC P84 E A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X

LPC P269 E A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A A

O) —X SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SI SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC PD 19/ Burial 22 1 X X X A X A X A X X A X X X X EC P30 1 A X A X A X A A A S X A A A X EC P32 1 A X A A A A A A A A A A A A A EC P33 1 X X A X A A A X X S A X X X X EC C 10 E X X X X A A A A X X A A A A A EC C 107 E A A A A X A A X X A A A A X A EC C 120 E X X X X X X A X X X X X X X X EC C 132 E A A A X X X A X X X X A A A X EC C133 E A A A X X A A A A A A A A A X EC C 134 E X A X A X X X X X X X X A X X EC C 135 E A A A A X X A X X A A A A A A EC C 136 E A X A A X X A X X X A A A X X EC C 138 E A A A X X X X X X X A A A X A EC C 140A E X X X A X X X X EC C 140B E X X X A A A A A A A A ? A A A EC C 142 E X X X A X A A X A X A X A X A EC C 143 E A A A A X A X A X X A X X X A EC C181 E X X X A A A A X X A A A A A A EC C186 E A A X A X X X X X A A X A A X EC C 187 E A A A X X A A A A S A X A X A EC C241 E X X X X A A X A A X X A A X A EC C43 E A A A A X X A X X X A A X X X EC C57 E A A A X A A A X X S A A A A A EC C58 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC C60 E A X X A A A A A X A A A A X X EC C63 E A X A A X A A X X A A A X X A EC C74 E A X A X X X X X X X A A A X X EC C77 E A A A A X A A X X A A A X A X a> cn SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS O EC C78 E A A A A X A A A X A A A A X A EC C79 E X X X X X X A X X X A A A X X EC C81 E A A A A A X A A X X A A X A A EC C86 E X X X X X X X X X X A X A A X EC P149 E A X A A A A A A A 8 A A A A A EC P152 E A A A X A X A X X 8 X A A X X EC P232 E A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X EC St P1,AP1.C 13 E X X X X X A A X X X X X A A X

LCI P180 1 A X A A A X X A A CS A X A A X LCI P96 1 A X X A X X A A X A X X A X X LCI C159 E A A A A X A A X A X A A A A A LCI C180 E X A A A X A X A X A A A A X X LCI C201 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A X LCI C71 E X X X X X X X A X A A A X X X LCI P22 E X X X X X X X X X S X X A X X LCI P235 E A A A X A A A A A 8 A A A A X LCI P81 E A A A X A A A A A 8 A A A A A

LCII C104 1 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X LC II P141 1 A X A X X A X A X 8 X A X X X LC II P190 1 A A A X A X A A A 8 A X A A A LC II P57 1 A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A X LC II P58 1 A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A X LC 11 P59 1 A X A X X A A X A C8 A X A A X LC II P60 1 A X A X A A A A A C8 A A A A A LCII P61 1 A X A X A A A A A 8 A A A A A LCII P62 1 A X X A A A A A A 8 A A A A A LC II Burial 8/PD 49 E X A A A A A A A A A X X A A X o> SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XO CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LCII C 131 E X A X A X X X X X X A A X A X LCII P48 E A A A A A A A A A C X A A A A LCII St P10, A P6, C 31 E A ? A 7 A A A A A A X A A A A

PostC C37 1 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X PostC PD 134, B 200, B 201 1 X X X X X X X A X X X X A X A PostC P41 1 A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A A

Table A6: Burned Deposits at TIkal

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XO CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC C86 E X X X X X X X X X X A X A A X

LCI C185 1 X X X A X X X A X s A A A X X LCI C191 1 A A A A X X X A X A A A A X A LCI P146 1 A X A X X X A A X 8 A X A X A LCI P235 E A A A X A A A A A 8 A A A A X

LCII P59 1 A X A X X A A X A C8 A X A A X LCII P60 1 A X A X A A A A A CS A A A A A LCII P61 1 A X A X A A A A A 8 A A A A A LC II P62 1 A X X A A A A A A 8 A A A A A

PostC PD 134, B 200, B 201 1 X X X X X X X A X X X X A X A PostC P41 1 A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A A PostC PD 51/Unlt 37 1 A A A A A A A A A A X A A A A

a> Table A7: Re-Opened Deposits at Tikal

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC PD 19/Burlal 22 1 X X X A X A X A X X A X X X X EC P30 1 A X A X A X A A A S X A A A X EC C10 E X X X X A A A A X X A A A A A EC C132 E A A A X X X A X X X X A A A X EC C187 E A A A X X A A A A S A X A X A EC P152 E A A A X A X A X X S X A A X X EC P161 E A A A X A A A A A S A A A A A EC P162 E A A A A A A A A A S A X A A A

EC StPI, AP1t,C 13 E X X X X X A A X

LCI C191 1 A A A A X X X A X A A A A X A LCI C238 1 X X A A A X X A X A A X A A A LCI PD 14/Cache 66 1 A X X A A A X A

LCII C104 1 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X LCII C239 1 A A A A X X X A X S A X A A A LC II C240 1 A A A A A A A A A S A A A A X LCII C49A 1 A A A A A X X A X A A A X A X LCII C49B 1 A A A A A X A A X A A A X A A LCII P141 1 A X A X X A X A X S X A X X X LCII Burial 8/PD 49 E X A A A A A A A

PostC PD 134, B 200, B 201 1 X X X X X X X A

o> 00 Table A8: Resealed TIkal Deposits

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH MFC P84 E A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X

LPC P157 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A LPC P269 E A A A A A A A A A S A A A A A LPC PBS E A X A A A A A A A S A A A A X

EC cm 1 A A A A A A A A X A A A A A X EC C82 1 X A X A X A A X A A A A X A X EC C98 1 A A A A X A A A X X A A X X X EC PD 19/Burial 22 1 X X X A X A X A X X A X X X X EC P30 1 A X A X A X A A A S X A A A X EC C10 E X X X X A A A A X X A A A A A EC C102 E X X X X X A A X X X A A A A X EC C108 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC C 130 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC C132 E A A A X X X A X X X X A A A X EC C133 E A A A X X A A A A A A A A A X EC C135 E A A A A X X A X X A A A A A A EC C 136 E A X A A X X A X X X A A A X X EC Cache 140A E X X X A X X X X X X A X A X X EC Cache 1408 E X X X A A A A A A A A ? A A A EC C142 E X X X A X A A X A X A X A X A EC C186 E A A X A X X X X X A A X A A X EC C187 E A A A X X A A A A S A X A X A EC C43 E A A A A X X A X X X A A X X X 620

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UJ UJ UJ UJ UJ UJ UJ UJ UJ^-UJ UJ UJ UI UJ UJ UJ UJ — — — — — — _ — — (O o> CM CM eo m Q CD n in o CO in a> (O oo cn IT) w (D CO N. o Sm o lO lO 00 CO 0) (O s CO r^ 00 CO 00 CO o> CO *— T— 00 t— T— T— T— •r- O O O O O O O O OS a. CL Q. 0. 0. a. oo O O O O oo o o

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LC II C104 1 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X LC II C 175 1 A X A A X X X A X A A A X X X LCII C184 1 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X LCII C229 1 A A A A A A X A X A A A A A A LC II C237 1 A A A A A A A A A A A X A A X LCII C239 1 A A A A X X X A X S A X A A A LCII C240 1 A A A A A A A A A S A A A A X LC II C61 1 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X LC II P139 1 A X A X X X X A X A X X A A X SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LCII P141 1 A X A X X A X A X 8 X A X X X LCII P145 1 A A A A A A A A X A A X X X X LCII P57 1 A A A A A A A A A S A A A A X LC II P58 1 A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A X LCII P61 1 A X A X A A A A A 8 A A A A A LCII P62 1 A X X A A A A A A 8 A A A A A LCII C 131 E X A X A X X X X X X A A X A X LCII C47 E A X A A X X X A X A A A X A A LCII C48 E X A X A A X X A A A A A A A A

PostC C 129 E X A X A X A X A A CS A A A X A

Table A9: Stair Deposits at TIkal

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC P30 1 A X A X A X A A A 8 X A A A X EC P33 1 X X A X A A A X X 8 A X X X X EC C144 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC C 181 E X X X A A A A X X A A A A A A EC C182 E X A X A X A A X X A A A A X A EC C60 E A X X A A A A A X A A A A X X

LCI P143 1 X X X X X A A A X 8 A A A X X LCI P 144 1 X X A X X A A A A 8 A A A X X LCI P229 1 A A A A A X X A A A A A A A A LCI C201 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A X LCI P22 E X X X X X X X X X 8 X X A X X LCI P235 E A A A X A A A A A 8 A A A A X

LC II P58 1 A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A X SEQ DEP I/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LCII P59 1 A X A X X A A X A CS A X A A X LCII P61 1 A X A X A A A A A S A A A A A LC II P40 E A A A A A A A A A S A A A A A

PostC C37 1 A A A A A A A A

Table A10: Stairbase Deposits at Tikal

SEQ DEP I/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC C10 E X X X X A A A A X X A A A A A EC C132 E A A A X X X A X X X X A A A X EC C 133 E A A A X X A A A A A A A A A X EC C135 E A A A A X X A X X A A A A A A EC C136 E A X A A X X A X X X A A A X X EC Cache 140A E X X X A X X X X EC Cache 140B E X X X A A A A A A A A ? A A A EC C 142 E X X X A X A A X A X A X A X A EC C 187 E A A A X X A A A A S A X A X A EC C43 E A A A A X X A X X X A A X X X EC C64 E A A A X A A A A A S A X A A A EC C65 E A X X X X X X X X X A A X A A EC C86 E X X X X X X X X X X A X A A X

LCI C 159 E A A A A X A A X

LCII P190 I A A AX A X A A A S A X A A A LCII C47 E A X A A X X X A X A A A X A A LCII C 48 E X A X A A X X A A A A A A A A o> fO CO SEQ DEP l/E xo OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LCII P171 E A A A A A A A A A C A A A A A

PostC C 129 E X A X A X A X A A cs A A A X A PostC P38 E A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X

Table A11: Stairtop Deposits at Tikal

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC C107 E A A A A X A A X X A A A A X A EC P152 E A A A X A X A X X 8 X A A X X

LCI C 180 E X A A A X A X A X A A A A X X

Table A12: Room Deposits at Tikal

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LPC P2 1 A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

EC cm 1 A A A A A A A A X A A A A A X EC C82 1 X A X A X A A X A A A A X A X EC C98 1 A A A A X A A A X X A A X X X EC PD 19/Burjal 22 1 X X X A X A X A X X A X X X X EC P26 1 A A A X A A A A A A A A A A X EC P27 1 A X A X A A A A A X A A A A A

LCI C103 1 A A A A A X X A X A A A X A A LCI C105 1 A A A A A X X X A A A A X A X LCI C106 1 A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A X 625

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X OJ a> o r~ CO CO *- lO U) in (O to r>- h- oo CO (O Ui T- r- T— t— T— CM 04 CM CM CM Q •-* T—i Q T- CM (3> O O oo o O oo o O O O O O Q- CL CL a. (L Q. d. Q. CL o. CL Q. CL CL _ o- MM Ui oo o o o o o oO O O O oO o O O O O oo O o CO -J —I -J -1 _l -J _I _j -J -J -J -J —1 -J -J U —1 —1 -J -J SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS O LCII C174 1 A X A A X X X X X X A A X X X LCII C175 1 A X A A X X X A X A A A X X X LC II C184 1 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X LC II C229 1 A A A A A A X A X A A A A A A LCII C239 1 A A A A X X X A X S A X A A A LC II C240 1 A A A A A A A A A S A A A A X LCII C61 1 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X LCII P139 1 A X A X X X X A X A X X A A X LCII P145 1 A A A A A A A A X A A X X X X LCII P15 1 A X A X A A A A A S A X A A X LCII PD 16/Cache 69 1 A X X A X A A A A A A X A A X LCII P174 1 A X A A X X X A X A A X A A X LCII P176 1 A A A A A X X A A A A X A A X LCII P177 1 A A A A A X A A A C A X A A A LC II PD IB/Cache 73 1 A X X A X A X A A A A X A A X LCII P183 1 A A A A A X X A A A A X A A A LC II P184 1 A X A A A X A A A S A X A A A LCII P21 1 7 X A A A A A A A A A A A A A LCII P31 1 A A A A A A A A A X X X A A A LCII P60 1 A X A X A A A A A CS A A A A A LC II P62 1 A X X A A A A A A S A A A A A

PostC PD 134, B200, B201 I X X X X X X X A X X X X A X A PostC P 41 I A A A A A A A A A S A A A A A

o> fo a> Table A13: Bench Deposits at Tikal

SEQ DEP HE XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LCI! C104 1 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X LCII P141 1 A X A X X A X A X S X A X X X

Table A14: Door Deposit at Tikal

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LCI P146 1 A X A X X X A A X 8 A X A X A

PostC P42 E A A A X A A A A A 8 A A A A X

Table A15: Lintel Deposits at Tikal

SEQ DEP HE XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC P 32 1 A X A A A A A A A A A A A A A

LCn C118 1 A A A A A X X A X A A A X A X LCII C 237 1 A A A A A A A A A A A X A A X LCII C49A 1 A A A A A X X A X A A A X A X LCII C49B 1 A A A A A X A A X A A A X A A Table A16: Chultuns at Tikal

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH MPC 5D-1 E A A A A A A A A A S A A A A A

LPC 5D-4 E A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A A LPC 5D-5 E A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A X LPC 5D-6 E A A A X A A A A A 8 X X A A X

Table A17: Bedrock Deposits at Tikal

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH MPC P266 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A MPC P88 E A A A A A X A A A A X A A A A MPC P89 E A A A A A A A A A A X A A A A

Table A18: Platform Deposits at Tikal

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH MPC P267 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A MPC P83 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A MPC P84 E A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X

LPC P269 E A A A A A A A A A S A A A A A

EC C 102 E X X X X X A A X X X A A A A X EC C108 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC C130 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC C 138 E A A A X X X X X X X A A A X A EC C5 E X X A A X A A X A A A X A A A SEQ DEP l/E xo OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC C57 E A A A X A A A X X S A A A A A EC C58 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC C6 E X X X A X A A A X A A A A A A EC C63 E A X A A X A A X X A A A X X A EC C80 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC C87 E A A A A A A X X X A A A X A A EC 0 88 E A X A X X A A X A A A A A X X EC MS 165, PD 36 E A X A X A A A A A 8 A A A A X EC P149 E A X A A A A A A A 8 A A A A A EC P232 E A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X

LCI C14A 1 X X X A X X X X X A X A A A X LCI C14B 1 X X A X X X X X X CS X X X X X

LCII P54 1 A X A X X X X X X X X X A X X LCII P57 1 A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A X LCII P226 E A A A X A A A A A 8 X A A A A

Table A19: Court Deposits at TIkal

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC C110 E A A A X X A X X X X A A X X A EC C 119 E A X A A X X X X X X A X X X X EC C 120 E X X X X X X A X X X X X X X X EC C77 E A A A A X A A X X A A A X A X EC C78 E A A A A X A A A X A A A A X A EC C79 E X X X X X X A X X X A A A X X Table A20: Construction Fill Deposits at Tikal

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH MPC C 141 E A X A A A A A A A X A A A A A MPC C 147 E A X A A A A A A A X A A A A A MPC P265 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

LPC C168 E A A A A X A X X A X A A A A X LPC C24 E A X A A A A A A A X A A A A A LPC P268 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A X

EC C143 E A A A A X A X A X X A X X X A EC C62 E X X X A X A A X X A A A A X A

Table A21: IMask Deposits at Tikal

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH ECC93EAAXXX AX XXX A AAX X

LCnP117EAAAAA AAAACSA AAA A

Table A22: Wall Deposits at Tikal

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC P28 1 A A A A X A X A X A A A X A A EC P29 1 A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A X EC C186 E A A X A X X X X X A A X A A X

LCI C 183 1 A A A A A X X X X A A A X A X LCI P138 1 X X A X X A X A X C A X A A X SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LCII P179 I A A A A A A A A A 8 AAAA A

Table A23: Terrace Deposits at Tikal

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC C75 E A X A A A X X A X A A A A X A EC P161 E A A A X A A A A A S A A A A A EC P162 E A A A A A A A A A S A X A A A EC P163 E A X A X A A A A A S A A A A X

LCI C71 E X X X X X X X A X A A A X X X

Table A24: Stela Deposits at Tikal

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC P55 1 A X A X A A A X A cs A A A A X EC St 9.C17 E A A X A A A A A A A A A A A A EC St 13. 0 23 E X X A A X A A X A S X A A A A EC St 18. C 22 E A A X A A A A A A A A A A A A EC St 3, C 53 E X X X A X A A A X X X A A X A EC St PI. A PI. C 13 E X X X X X A A X X X X X A A X EC St PH. AP16. C27 E A A A A A A A X A A X X A A A

a> CO SEQ DEP HE XO OBS XC CRT JADE 88 MAR 8P SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC St P16, C 7 E X X X X A A A A AS A AAA X EC St P19. C 8 E X X X X A A A A ? A A A A A A EC StP2, A1:F 2,C54 E A X X X X A A A X S X A A A A EC St P9. A P5, C 41 E X X X X X A A X X X X A X X A

LCI St 10. C 9 E X X X A A A A A A A A A A A A LCI St12:F1.AP14,C16 E X X X A A A A X X A X A A A A LCI St4,A1:F1,C25 E X X X A X A A A X A X A A A A LCI St PI 2, A P8, C 26 E X A X A A A A A A A A A A A A LCI St P13,AP9, C11 E X X X A X A X A X A X A A X A LCI StP15.AP12.C50 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A LCI St P17.AP13.C35 E A X X A A A A A A A A A A A A LCI St P3. A P2, C 44 E A X X A A A A A A A A A A A A

LCII St P28, A P22. PD 236 E A X A A A A A A A A A AAA A LCII St11,A11,C15 E X A X X X A A A AX A AAA A O) roto SEQ DEP i/E XO OBS XO CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PiG MOS OTH LCII St 5.A2,C36 E A ? X A A A A A A X A A A A A LC II St P10, A P6, C 31 E A ? A ? A A A A A A X A A A A LCII StP20, AP15, C42 E A X X A A A A A A S A A A A A LC II St P22, A P17, C 33 E A A X A A A A A A A A A A A A LCII St P25. A P20, C 34 E A A X A A A A A A A A A A A A LCII St P27,AP21.C121 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A LC II St P29, A P23, C 45 E X A X A A A A A A X A A A A A LCII St P4. A P3, C 12 E A X X A A A A A A X A A A A A LC II St P83, A P24, C 56 E A X X X A A A A A X A A A A A

Table A25: Rare Context Desposits at Tikai

SEQ DEP i/E XO OBS XO CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PiG MOS OTH LPC P 85 E A X A A A A A A A S A A A A X LPC P9 E? A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X

EC C109 E A A X A A A A A X X X A A A A EC P 87 E A X A X A A X X X X X X X X X

LCII P43 1 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X LC II C131 E X A X A X X X X X X A A X A X SEQ DEP i/E XO OBS XO CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LCII Cache 236A-D E A X A X A A A A A A A X A A A LC II P270 E A A A A A A A A A C A A A A X LC II P48 E A A A A A A A A A C X A A A A

PostC PD51/Unit37 1 A A A A A A A A A A X A A A A

Table A26: Mixed Context Deposits at Tikal

SEQ DEP I/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LPC P157 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A LPC P35 E A X A X X A A A X A A X A A A

EC C 134 E X A X A X X X X X X X X A X X EC C241 E X X X X A A X A A X X A A X A EC C74 E A X A X X X X X X X A A A X X EC C81 E A A A A A X A A X X A A X A A EC P77 E A A A X X A A A X 8 A X A A X

LCI C235 E X X X A X A X X X A X X A X A LCI C59 E X X X A A A A A X S A A A A A LCI P81 E A A A X A A A A A 8 A A A A A

LCII Burial 8/PD 49 E X A A A A A A A A A X X A A X Table A27: Middle Preclassic Deposits 635

DEP l/E CONTEXT SU SF TF CL BU RO RS Cache 141 E Const.Fill N Y N N N N N Cache 147 E ConstRI! N Y N N N N N Chuttun 5D-1 E Chuttun N Y N N N N N PD265 E Ccnst-Fill N N N N N N N PD 266 E Bedrock N N N N N N N PD267 E Platform N N N N N N N PD 83 E Platform N N N N N N N PD84 E Platform N N Y Y N N Y PD 88 E Bedrock N N N N N N N PD 89 E Bedrock N N N N N N N

Table A28: Late Preclassic Deposits

DEP l/E CONTEXT SU SF TF CL BU RO RS Cache 168 E Const.Fill N Y N N N N N Cache 24 E Const-Fill N Y N N N N N Chultun 5D-4 E Chultun N N N N N N N Chuitun 5D-5 E Chultun N N N N N N N Chultun 5D-6 E Chultun N N N N N N N PD 157 E Mixed N N Y N N N Y PD2 1 Room N N N N N N N PD268 E ConstFill N Y N N N N N PD269 E Platform N N Y Y N N Y PD 35 E Mixed N N N N N N N PD 85 E Rare N N Y N N N Y PD9 E? Rare N N Y N N N N

Table A29: Early Classic Deposits

DEP l/E CONTEXT SU SF TF CL BU RO RS Cache 10 E Stairbase N Y N Y N Y Y Cache 102 E Platform N N Y N N N Y Cache 107 E Stairtop N Y N Y N N N Cache 108 E Platform N N Y N N N Y Cache 109 E Rare N N N N N N N Cache 110 E Court N N N N N N N Cache 111 1 Room N N Y N N N Y Cache 119 E Court N N N N N N N Cache 120 E Court N N N Y N N N Cache 130 E Platform N N Y N N N Y Cache 132 E Stairbase N N Y Y N Y Y 636 DEP l/E CONTEXT SU SF TF CL BU RO RS Cache 133 E Stairbase N N Y Y N N Y Cache 134 E Mixed N N Y Y N N N Cache 135 E Stairbase N N Y Y N N Y Cache 136 E Stairbase N N Y Y N N Y Cache 138 E Platform N N Y Y N N N Cache 140A E Stairbase N N Y Y N N Y Cache 1406 E Stairbase N N Y Y N N Y Cache 142 E Stairbase N N Y Y N N Y Cache 143 E Const.Fill N Y N Y N N N Cache 144 E Stair N Y N N N N N Cache 181 E Stair N Y N Y N N N Cache 182 E Stair N Y N N N N N Cache 186 E Wail N N Y Y N N Y Cache 187 E Stairbase N N Y Y N Y Y Cache 241 E Mixed N N N Y N N N Cache 43 E Stairbase N N Y Y N N Y Cache 5 E Platform N N Y N N N Y Cache 57 E Platform N Y N Y N N N Cache 58 E Platform N N Y Y N N Y Cache 6 E Platform N Y N N N N N Cache 60 E Stair N N Y Y N N N Cache 62 E Const.Fill N Y N N N N N Cache 63 E Platform N N Y Y N N Y Cache 64 E Stairbase N N Y N N N Y Cache 65 E Stairbase N N Y N N N Y Cache 74 E Mixed N Y N Y N N N Cache 75 E Terrace N N Y N N N N Cache 77 E Court N N N Y N N N Cache 78 E Court N N Y Y N N N Cache 79 E Court N N Y Y N N Y Cache 80 E Platform N N N N N N N Cache 81 E Mixed N N Y Y N N Y Cache 82 I Room N N Y N N N Y Cache 86 E Stairbase N N Y Y Y N Y Cache 87 E Platform N N Y N N N Y Cache 88 E Platform N N Y N N N Y Cache 93 E Mask N N Y N N N Y Cache 98 I Room N N Y N N N Y M165,P36 E Platform N N Y N N N Y PD 149 E Platform N N Y Y N N Y PD 152 E Stairtop N Y N Y N Y Y PD 161 E Terrace N N Y N N Y Y PD 162 E Terrace N N Y N N Y Y PD 163 E Terrace N N Y N N N Y PD19/B22 I Room N N Y Y N Y Y PD 232 E Platform N Y N Y N N N DEP l/E CONTEXT SU SF TF CL BU RO RS PD26 Room N Y N N N N N PD27 Room N Y N N N N N PD 28 Wall N N N N N N N PD 29 Wall N N N N N N N PD 30 Stair N N Y Y N Y Y PD 32 Lintel N Y N Y N N N PD 33 Stair N N Y Y N N N PD 55 Stela N N Y N N N N PD 77 E Mixed N N N N N N Y PD 87 E Rare N N Y N N N Y St13,023 E Stela N Y N N N N N St18,022 E Stela N Y N N N N N St3,053 E Stela N Y N N N N N StP1,AP1,013 E Stela N Y N Y N Y N StP11.AP16,C27 E Stela N Y N N N N N StP16,07 E Stela N Y N N N N N StP19,08 E Stela N Y N N N N N StP2,A1:F2,054 E Stela N Y N N N N N StP9,AP5.041 E Stela N Y N N N N N

Table A30: Late Classic I Deposits

DEP l/E CONTEXT SU SF TF CL BU RO RS Cache 103 1 Room N N Y N N N N Cache 105 1 Room N N Y N N N Y Cache 106 1 Room N N Y N N N Y Cache 14A 1 Platform N Y N N N N N Cache 14B 1 Platform N N Y N N N Y Cache 140 1 Room N N Y N N N Y Cache 14D 1 Room N N Y N N N Y Cache 156 1 Room N N Y N N N Y Cache 157 1 Room N N Y N N N Y Cache 159 E Stairbase N N Y Y N N Y Cache 180 E Stairtop N N Y Y N N Y Cache 183 1 Wall N N Y N N N Y Cache 185 1 Room N N Y N Y N Y Cache 190 1 Room N N Y N N N Y Cache 191 1 Room N N Y N Y Y Y Cache 199 1 Room N N Y N N N Y Cache 200 1 Room N N N N N N N DEP I/E CONTEXT SU SF TF CL BU RO RS Cache 201 E Stair N Y N Y N N N Cache 210 1 Room N N Y N N N Y Cache 233 1 Room N N Y N N N Y Cache 234 1 Room N N Y N N N Y Cache 235 E Mixed N N N N N N N Cache 238 1 Room N N Y N N Y Y Cache 59 E Mixed Y N N N N N N Cache 71 E Terrace N N Y Y N N N PD 138 1 Wall N N Y N N N Y PD 14/066 1 Room N N Y N N Y Y PD 143 1 Stair N N Y N N N Y PD 144 1 Stair N N Y N N N Y PD 146 1 Door N N Y N Y N Y PD151 1 Room N N Y N N N Y PD 153 1 Room N N Y N N N N PD 156 1 Room N N N N N N N PD 160 1 Room N N Y N N N Y PD 164 1 Room N N Y N N N Y PD 165 1 Room N N Y N N N Y PD 17/C 70 1 Room N N Y N N N N PD 172 1 Room N N Y N N N Y PD 173 1 Room N N Y N N N N PD 178 1 Room N N Y N N N N PD 180 1 Room N N Y Y N N N PD 22 E Stair N N Y Y N N Y PD 229 1 Stair N Y N N N N N PD 235 E Stair N Y N Y Y N N PD 237 1 Room N N Y N N N Y PD 81 E Mixed N N N Y N N N PD 96 1 Room N N N Y N N N St10.C9 E Stela N N N N N N N St 12:F1,AP14.C16 E Stela N Y N N N N N St 4.A1:F1,C 25 E Stela N Y N N N N N St PI2,A P8.C 26 E Stela N Y N N N N N St PI 3.A P9,C 11 E Stela N N N N N N N St PI 5,A P12.C 50 E Stela N Y N N N N N StP17,AP13.C35 E Stela N N N N N N N St P3.A P2.C 44 E Stela N Y N N N N N Table A31: Late Classic II Deposits

DEP I/E CONTEXT SU SF TF CL BU RO RS B 8/PD 49 E Mixed N N Y Y N Y N Cache 104 1 Bench N N Y Y N Y Y Cache 118 1 Lintel N N N N N N N Cache 131 E Rare N N Y Y N N Y Cache 174 1 Room N N Y N N N N Cache 175 1 Room N N Y N N N Y Cache 184 1 Room N N Y N N N Y Cache 229 1 Room N N Y N N N Y Cache 236A-D E Rare N Y N N N N N Cache 237 1 Lintel N N Y N N N Y Cache 239 1 Room N N Y N N Y Y Cache 240 1 Room N N Y N N Y Y Cache 47 E Stairbase N N Y N N N Y Cache 48 E Stairbase N N Y N N N Y Cache 49A 1 Lintel N N N N N Y N Cache 49B i Lintel N N N N N Y N Cache 61 1 Room N N Y N N N Y PD 117 E Mask N N N N N N N PD 139 1 Room N N Y N N N Y PD 141 1 Bench N N Y Y N Y Y PD145 1 Room N N Y N N N Y PD15 I Room N N Y N N N N PD 16/C 69 1 Room N N Y N N N N PD 171 E Stairbase Y N N N N N N PD174 1 Room N N Y N N N N PD176 1 Room N N Y N N N N PD177 1 Room N N Y N N N N PD179 1 Wall N Y N N N N N PD 18/0 73 1 Room N N Y N N N N PD183 1 Room N N Y N N N N PD 184 1 Room N N Y N N N N PD 190 1 Stairbase N N Y Y N N N PD 21 1 Room N Y N N N N N PD 226 E Platform N N N N N N N PD270 E Rare N Y N N N N N PD 31 1 Room N Y N N N N N PD 40 E Stair Y N N N N N N PD 43 1 Rare N N N N N N N PD 48 E Rare N N N Y N N N PD54 1 Platform Y N N N N N N PD 57 1 Platform N N Y Y N N Y PD 58 1 Stair N N Y Y N N Y PD 59 1 Stair N N Y Y Y N N OEP I/E CONTEXT SU SF TF CL BU RO RS PD 60 1 Room N N Y Y Y N N PD 61 1 Stair N N Y Y Y N Y PD 62 i Room N N Y Y Y N Y St P28.A P22,PD 236 E Stela N Y N N N N N St11.A11.C 15 E Stela N Y N N N N N St 5,A 2.C 36 E Stela N Y N N N N N St 9,017 E Stela N N N N N N N St P10,A P6,C 31 E Stela N N N Y N N N St P20,A P15,C42 E Stela N Y N N N N N St P22.A P17,C 33 E Stela N Y N N N N N St P25,A P20.C 34 E Stela N Y N N N N N St P27.A P21,C 121 E Stela N Y N N N N N St P29.A P23.C 45 E Stela N Y N N N N N St P4.A P3,C 12 E Stela N Y N N N N N St P83.A P24,C 56 E Stela N Y N N N N N

Table A32: Postclassic Deposits

DEP I/E CONTEXT SU SF TF CL BU RO RS Cache 129 E Stairbase N N Y N N N Y Cache 37 1 Stair N Y N Y N N N PD 134,6 200,8 201 1 Room N N N Y Y Y N PD 38 E Stairbase Y N N N N N N PD 41 1 Room Y N N Y Y N N PD 42 E Door Y N N N N N N PD 51/Unit 37 1 Rare N N N N Y N N APPENDIX B: MUNDO PERDIDO, TIKAL

Table B1: Sub-Floor Deposits

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS O MPC PP06 E A A A A 7 A A 7 7 X X X A A A MPC PP08 E A A A A A A A A A 7 A A A A A MPC PP11 E A A A X A A A A X X A X A A 7 MPC PP12 E A A A A A A A A A XCS A A A A A MPC PP13 E A A A 7 A A A A X X A X A A X MPC PP17 E A A A A A A A A A A A A A A 7

LPC PP02 E A A A A A A A A A X A X A A A

EC CP32 7 A X A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC CP37 7 A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC CP43 7 A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC CP44 7 A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC CP51 7 A A A A X A A X X A A X A A A EC PP19 7 A A A 7 A A A A X X X X A A X EC CP71 1 A A A A A A A A A X X A A A A EC CP01 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC CP30 E A A A A X A A X A A A A A A A EC CP45 E A A A A X A A A A A A A A A 7 EC CP47 E A A A A X A A X X X A A A A X EC PP23 E A X A X A A A A A A A X A A X

2 Table B2: Through-Floor Deposits

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC CP26 EOOOOO OOOXO O OOO X EC CP50 EOOOOO OOXOO O OOO O

Table B3: Deposits with Undescribed Treatment

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH MPC CP28 E A A A A A A A A X X X A A A A MFC PP16 E A A A A A A A A A A A A A A 7

LPC CP10 1 A A A A X A A X A X A A A A A LPC Chultun 5C-8 E A A A A A A A A X X A A A A X LPC CP13 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A LPC CP15 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A X LPC PP14 E A A A ? A A A A A X A A A A X LPC PP15 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

EC CP35 ? A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC CP39 ? A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC CP40 ? A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X EC CP53 ? A A A A A A A A X X X A A A A EC CP54 ? A A A X A A A A A A X A A A X EC CP67 ? A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC PP22 1 A X A X A A A A X A A X A A X EC CP02 E A A A A A A A A A X A A X A A EC CP07 E A A A A X A A A X X A X X A A EC CP08 E A A A X X X A A A X A X A A A EC CP09 E A A A A A A A A X X A A A A A SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JAOE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC CP12 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC CP14 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC CP23 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC CP34 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC CP36 E A A A A X A A X A A A A A A A EC CP46 E A A A A X A A A X X A X A A A EC CP48 E A X A A X A A X A X A A X A A EC CP49 E A A A A A A A X A A A A A A X EC CP57 E A A A A A A A A A C A A A A A EC CP70 E A A A A A A A A A C A A A A A EC CP72 E A A A X A A A X X A A A A A A EC PP31 E A A A ? A A A A X X A X A A X

Table B4: Centerllne Deposits

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH MPC PP13 E A A A 7 A A A A X X A X A A X

EC CP08 E A A A X X X A A A X A X A A A EC CP47 E A A A A X A A X X X A A A A X

Table 85: Stair Context Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC CP47 E A A A A X A A X X X A A A A X Table B6: Stairbase Context Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC CP49 E A A A A A A A X A A A A A A X

Table B7: Altar Context Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC CP43 ? A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC CP51 ? A A A A X A A X X A A X A A A

Table B8: Bench Context Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC CP67 ? A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

Table B9: Chultuns

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LPC Chultun 5C-8 E A A A A A A A A X X A A A A X

Table BIO: Court Context Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH MPC PP08 E A A A A A A A A A ? A A A A A MPC PP16 E A A A A A A A A A A A A A ? MPC PP17 E A A A A A A A A A A A A A A ? SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LPC CP13 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A LPC CP15 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A X LPC PP15 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

EC CP12 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC CP14 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

Table B11: Construction Fill Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC CP37 ? A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC CP40 ? A A A A A A A A A A A A A A X EC CP53 ? A A A A A A A A X X X A A A A EC CP07 E A A A A X A A A X X A X X A A EC CP09 E A A A A A A A A X X A A A A A

Table 812: Mixed Context Deposits

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH MFC PP06 E A A A A 7 A A ? 7 X X X A A A MPC PP11 E A A A X A A A A X X A X A A 7 MPC PP12 E A A A A A A A A A XCS A A A A A MPC PP13 E A A A ? A A A A X X A X A A X

LPC PP02 E A A A A A A A A A X A X A A A

EC CP01 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC CP02 E A A A A A A A A A X A A X A A EC PP31 E A A A ? A A A A X X A X A A X

£ cn Table B13: Platform Context Deposits

SEQ DEP \IE:Ixo OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LPC PP14 E / A A A 7 A A A A A X A A A A X

EC CP54 7 A A A X A A A A A A X A A A X EC CP08 E A A A X X X A A A X A X A A A EC CP26 E A A A A A A A A X A A A A A X EC CP30 E A A A A X A A X A A A A A A A

Table 814: Rare Context Deposits

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH MPC CP28 E A A A A A A A A X X X A A A A

EC CP42 7 A A A A X A A X X X A A X A X EC PP19 7 A A A 7 A A A A X X X X A A X EC CP57 E A A A A A A A A A C A A A A A

Table 815: Room Context Deposits

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LPC CP10 1 A A A A X A A X A X A A A A A

EC CP71 1 A A A A A A A A A X X A A A A EC PP22 1 A X A X A A A A X A A X A A X

sO) Table B16: Structure Context Deposits

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XO CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC CP32 ? A X A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC CP35 ? A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC CP39 ? A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A i EC CP44 7 A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC CP54 7 A A A X A A A A A A X A A A X EC CP23 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC CP36 E A A A A X A A X A A A A A A A 1 EC CP45 E A A A A X A A A A A A A A A ? EC CP46 E A A A A X A A A X X A X A A A EC CP48 E A X A A X A A X A X A A X A A EC CP50 E A A A A A A A X A A A A A A A EC CP70 E A A A A A A A A A C A A A A A EC CP72 E A A A X A A A X X A A A A A A

Table B17: Wall Context Deposits

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC CP34 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC PP23 E A X A X A A A A A A A X A A X

2 648

X H <<< (O O <<< o < < < 3 < u. <<<

X < V) UJ X a: o UJ < O<<

3 X X < H" O <<< <

•• < O X Q CO Z <<< lU lU 0. o a. < <

X < X

xx< « co o CD £ X X < u CB o O k O O CO ^ tn T- to CM CM CO ^ UiCueNCOT-r-C>ltNCNCNCO ^ cs CO CO rj CO Q<<

Table C2: Through-Floor Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC A17& A18 E A X A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC A35 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC B2 E A A A A X A A A X X A A A A X EC B4 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A X EC 86 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A X EC 87 E A A A A A A A A X A A A A A X

LCII A27 E A A A A A A A A A A A X A A A

Table C3: Surface Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC A2 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC A3 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC A4 E A A A A X A X X X X A A A A X

CD Table C4: Centerline Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LPC A16 E A A A A X A A A A XS AAAA A

EC A20 1 A A X A A A A A A A A A A A A EC El 1 A A A A A A A A X A A A A A X EC E3 1 A A A A A A A A A X A ? A A A EC A23 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC A28 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC A31 E X X X A X A A A A X A A A A A EC A6 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC E8 E A X X X A A A A A X A A A A A

LCIi A21 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A LCII A27 E A A A A A A A A A A A X A A A

Table C5: Resealed Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC B2 E A A A A X A A A X X A A A A X EC B4 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A X EC B6 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A X EC B7 E A A A A A A A A X A A A A A X

Table C6: Stair Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC A10 E A A A A A A A A AX A AAA A EC A12 E A A A A A A A A AX A AAA A SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC A13 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC A14 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC A15 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC A23 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC A5 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC A6 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC A7 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC A8 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

LCII A21 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A LCII A27 E A A A A A A A A A A A X A A A LCII A34 E A A A A A A A A X A A X A A A

Table C7: Stairbase Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LPC A16 E A A A A X A A A A XS A A A A A

EC A28 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC A35 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

Table C8: Room Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC A29 1 X X X A A A A A A A ? A A A X EC A30 1 X A X A A A A A A A A X A A A EC E2 1 A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A X EC E9 1 A A A A A A A A A X X A A A A

a> oi SEQ DEP I/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LCII A1 1 A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A LCII A22 1 A A A A A A A A A A A X A A A LC II A32 1 A A A A A A A A A A A X A A A

Table C9: Door Caches

SEQ DEP I/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC A20 1 A A X A A A A A A A A A A A A EC E3 1 A A A A A A A A A X A 7 A A A

LCII A26 1 A X A A A A A A X X A A A A A

Table CIO: Platform Caches

SEQ DEP I/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC A24 E A A A A X A A A X X A A A A X

Table C11: Structure Caches

SEQ DEP I/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC A2 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC A3 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC A4 E A A A A X A X X X X A A A A X EC E5 E A A A A X A A A A X A A A A A EC E6 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC E7 E A X X X A A A A A X A A A A A EC E8 E A X X X A A A A A X A A A A A Table CI2: Construction Fill Caches

SEQ DEP I/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC B1 1 A X A X A A A A A X A A A A A EC A31 E X X X A X A A A A X A A A A A EC B2 E A A A A X A A A X X A A A A X EC B3 E A A A A A X A A A X A A A A A EC 84 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A X EC 85 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC 86 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A X EC 87 E A A A A A A A A X A A A A A X

Table C13: Wall Caches

SEQ DEP I/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LCII A33 1 A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

Table CI 4: Terrace Caches

SEQ DEP I/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC A11 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC A9 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

Table CIS: Stela Caches

SEQ DEP I/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC A19 1 A A X A A A A A A A A A A A A EC A17&A18 E A X A A A A A A A X A A A A A SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC A25 E A A X A A X A A X A A A A A X EC B8 E X X X A X A X X A 8 A A A A X EC D1 E A A A A X A A A A A A A A A A EC D2 E A A A A X A A A A A A A A A A EC D3 E A X X X A A A A X A A A A A A

LCI A36 E A X X X A A A A X A A A A A A LCI A37 E X X X A X A A A X A A A A A A LCI 89 E A A A X A A A A A A A A A A A

LC 11 AO E A X A A A A A A A A A A A A A LC II A38 E A X A A A A A A A A A A A A A LC II A39 E A X A A A A A A A A A A A A A LCI! A40 E A X A A A A A A A A A A A A A LCII B10 E A X A A A A A A A A A A A A A

Table C16: Altar Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC El 1 A A A A A A A A X A A A A A X EC E10 1 A A A A A A A A A S A A A A 8

Table C17: Mixed Location Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC CI 1 A A A A X A A X X X A A A A A EC E4 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A APPENDIX D: ALTAR DE SACRIFICIOS

Table D1: Sub-Floor Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LPC AS 37 E A A A A X A A A A X A A A A A LPC AS 45 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A LPC AS 57 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A LPC AS 58 E A A A A A A A A A X X A A A A LPC AS 60 E A X A A A A A A A X A A A A A

EC AS 10 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 11 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 12 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 13 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 14 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 15 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 16 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 17 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 18 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 19 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 20 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 21 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 22 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 23 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 24 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 25 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 26 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 27 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 28 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 29 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 30 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A mmmmmrnrnmmm(o T3 "O TJ TJ -0 o o o o o o oooooooooom O O O O O O > CO wen COW 0) CO CO CO CO CO cocococococococococom tn Ul oi -U A •U CO CO ro o> cooo-^c3)cnaic;icococo"0 W -A o o> 00 oj cn •&. to ui ^ 00 to -A m m m m m m m m m m m rnrnrnmrnmrnmrnms m >

>>x>> >x>>x > 00 (0 X > > X > >

> X > > > > X H x>>x> c_ > > o m X > X X > > CO

X > X > > > > X > > > X > > •0 >x>>> > X

O X > X X X XXC0>XX>XXXO m X

>>>>> > > c x>xx> > G) 3 o CO Table D2: Through-Floor Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LPC AS33 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A LPC AS 41 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A LPC AS42 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

EC AS3 E A A X A A A A A A A A A A A A

Table D3: Surface Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH TPC AS49 E A X A A A A A A A X A A A A A

Table D4: Caches with Undescribed Treatment

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LPC AS39 E A A A A A A A A A X A X A A A LPC AS44 E A A A A X A A A A X A A A A A

EC AS40 E A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A A

LC II AS43 E A A A X A A A A A A A A A A A LC II AS56 E A A A A X X X A X A A X A A A LC II AS59 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

TPC AS1 E A A A X A A A A A X A A A A A TPC AS47 E A X A A A A A A A A A A A A A

a> at Table DS: Centerline Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC AS 10 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 11 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 12 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 13 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 14 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 15 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 16 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 17 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 18 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 19 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 20 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 21 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 22 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 23 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 24 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 25 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 26 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 27 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 28 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 29 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 30 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 31 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 32 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 54 E A A A A A A X A A X A X A A X EC ASS E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 9 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

LCII AS 34 E A A X A X X A X A A A A X A A LCII AS 35 E A A A A A X X A A A A A X A A

o> cn 00 SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LCI1AS36EAX AX A AA AX A AAAA A

Table D6: Stair Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LCII AS 34 E A A X A X X A X A A A A X A A LC II AS 35 E A A A A A X X A A A A A X A A LC II AS 36 E A X A X A A A A X A A A A A A

Table D7: Stairbase Caches

SEQ DEP i/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LPC AS 60 E A X A A A A A A A X A A A A A

TC AS 4 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

Table D8: Platform Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LPC AS 45 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

TPC AS 46 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

Table D9: Terrace Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH IPC AS47EAX AA A AA AA A AAAA A Table D10: Wall Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC AS54 E A A A A A A X A A X A X A A X

LC II AS 43 E A A A X A A A A A A A A A A A

IPC AS 49 E A X A A A A A A A X A A A A A

Table D11: Structure Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH TPC AS 1 E A A A X A A A A A X A A A A A

Table D12: Construction Fill Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LPC AS 33 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A LPC AS 37 E A A A A X A A A A X A A A A A LPC AS 39 E A A A A A A A A A X A X A A A LPC AS 41 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A LPC AS 42 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A LPC AS44 E A A A A X A A A A X A A A A A

EC AS 40 E A A A A A A A A A S A A A A A

LC II AS 56 E A A A A X X X A X A A X A A A LC II AS 59 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A SEQ DEP I/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH TPC AS 50 E A X A A A A A A A A A A A A A

Table D13: Stela Caches

SEQ DEP I/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LCI AS 2 E A X A A A A A A A A A A A A A

Table D14: Altar Caches

SEQ DEP I/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC AS 3 E A A X A A A A A A A A A A A A EC AS 31 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 32 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 38 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC ASS E A X X A A A A A A A A A A A A EC AS 6 E A X X A A A A A A A A A A A A EC AS 7 E A A A X X A A A A S A A A A Y

LCII AS 48 E X A X A X X X A A A A A X A A

Table D15: Rare (Other) Context Caches

SEQ DEP I/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LPC AS 57 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A LPC AS 58 E A A A A A A A A A X X A A A A

EC AS 55 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A X

a> a> SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LCI AS52 E A A A A A AAAA X A A A A A TPC AS 51 E A A A A A AAAA X A A A A A TPC AS 53 E A A A A A AAAA C A A A A A

Table D16: Mixed Context Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH EC AS 10 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 11 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 12 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 13 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 14 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 15 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 16 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 17 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 18 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 19 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 20 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 21 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 22 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 23 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 24 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 25 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 26 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 27 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 28 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 29 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 30 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC ASS E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A EC AS 9 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A APPENDIX E: SEIBAL CACHES

Table El: Sub-Floor Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LC II 0 11 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

TO C 1 1 A A A A X A A A A A A A A A A TO 02 E A A A A X A A A A A A A A A A TO CIO E A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A A TO C 14 E A X A X A A A A A A A A A A A TO C17 E A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A A TC C21 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A TC C4 E A A A A X A A A A A A A A A A TC 05 E A A A A X A A A X 0 A A A A A TC 08 E A A A A X A A A A X A A A A A

Table E2: Through-Floor Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH MFC 06 E A A A A X A A A A S A A A A A MPC 07 E A A A A X A A A A X A A A A A

Table E3: Surface Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LPO 0 15 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

LOII 0 16 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

TC 0 18 E A A A A A A A A A 0 A A A A ? Table E4: Caches with Undescribed Treatment

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE ss MAR SP SHL CER HUIM FAU PIG MOS OTH LPC C12 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

LCII C20 E A A A A A A A A A S A A A A A

TO C13 E A X A A X A A A X A A A A A A TO 0 3 E A A A X X A A A A A A A A A A TO 0 9 E A A A A X A A A A A A A A A A

PAstO 0 19 E A A A A A A A A A S A A A A A

Table E5: Table S5: Centerline Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS IMAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LPC 0 12 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A LPO 0 15 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

LC 0 20 E A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A A

TO 02 E A A A A X A A A A A A A A A A TO 0 17 E A A A A A A A A A S A A A A A TO 0 21 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A Table E6: Re-Opened Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH TC 0 5 E A A A A X A A A X 0 A A A A A

PAstC 0 19 E A A A A A A A A A s A A A A A

Table E7: Resealed Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH TCC18EAAAAA AAA A C A A A A ?

Table E8: Table S8: Stair Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LPCS12EAA AA A AA A A X A A A A A

Table E9: Platform Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH TCC2EAAAAX AAA A A A A A A A Table E10: Court Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH MPC 06 E A A A A X A A A A 8 A A A A A MPC 0 7 E A A A A X A A A A X A A A A A

LCII 0 16 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

TO C 21 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

Table Ell: Structure Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LC C 20 E A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A A

PAst 019 E A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A A

Table E12: Construction Fill Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LPC 015 E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

Table El 3: Stela Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH LC Oil E A A A A A A A A A X A A A A A

TC 0 1 1 A A A A X A A A A A A A A A A TO 010 E A A A A A A A A A S A A A A A SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH TC C13 E A X A A X A A A X A A A A A A TC C14 E A X A X A A A A A A A A A A A TC C 3 E A A A X X A A A A A A A A A A TC C 4 E A A A A X A A A A A A A A A A TC C 9 E A A A A X A A A A A A A A A A

Table E14: Altar Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH TC C 5 E A A A A X A A A X C A A A A A

Table El 5: Rare Context Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH TC C18 E A A A A A A A A A C A A A A ? TC C 8 E A A A A X A A A A X A A A A A

Table El6: Mixed Context Caches

SEQ DEP l/E XO OBS XC CRT JADE SS MAR SP SHL CER HUM FAU PIG MOS OTH TC C17 E A A A A A A A A A 8 A A A A A

o>CD 668

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