The Mega Journal 2020 [139] Vol 1, 2020 ISSN: 2717-4840 the Mega Journal

The Mega Journal 2020 [139] Vol 1, 2020 ISSN: 2717-4840 The Mega Journal

Published by NEPAL MEGA COLLEGE

The Mega Journal 2020 [1] Advisors Hom Nath Bhattarai Prem Raj Panta Gopal Khanal Dinesh Khanal

Editorial Board Keshav Bhattarai Maha Nanda Chalise Motee Lal Sharma Satish Devkota Dhundi Bhattarai

Executive Editors Sohan Kumar Karna Beerendra Pandey

Associate Editors Madhukar Pandey Barun Panthi Yadap Chandra Neupane Bishnu Prasad Khanal

[2] Nepal Mega college Contents

Muslim Society and Partition Drama in Attia Hosain’s Sunlight on a Broken Column: A Womanist Critique Anju Gupta 5

Devkota’s Vision in “The Necessity of a Strongly Organized Writers Union for Nepal”: A Study in Rhetoric Bal Krishna Sharma 17

Surreal Play of the Corpse in Ramesh Ranjan’s Murda: A Study in Marxist Revolutionary Politics Beerendra Pandey 25

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Sports Tourism Initiatives For Sustainable Livelihood Adaptation In Nepal Dwarika Upreti 44

Grounds of Maoist Insurgency in Nepal Gunanidhi Sharma 54

Disputed Territories between Nepal and India: The Cases of Kalapani, Limpiyadhura, Lipulekh and Susta Keshav Bhattarai / Madhukar Pandey 67

Impact of Credit Risk Management on Performance of Commercial Banks of Nepal Rabin Dahal 94

The Mega Journal 2020 [3] Performance Appraisal and Employee Motivation in Nepalese Commercial Banks Sarad Sharma Dhungel 107

Education and Economic Growth: What Does the Literature Say? Satis Devkota 119 uf]/vfkqsf] ;DkfbsLo :jtGqtf / ljZj;gLotf aLrsf] cGt;{DaGw lzjz/0f 1jfnL 126

Guidelines for Submission 138

[4] Nepal Mega college Muslim Society and Partition Drama in Attia Hosain’s Sunlight on a Broken Column: A Womanist Critique

Anju Gupta Central Department of English Tribhuvan University [email protected]

Abstract Attia Hosain’s Sunlight on a Broken Column traces the changes that transpired in the years immediately before and after partition on a Muslim family in Lucknow. The winds of change blow through the aristocratic house and, by the time the winds have died down, the family has been scattered. Some have crossed the border to Pakistan, while some have been killed in the train massacres. The rest remain in India, sad- dened and somewhat disillusioned, but still believing in a united, secular country. In the novel, politics leading to the partition of India becomes secondary to the story of a young woman’s growth to sad maturity through personal loss. Her reflective memories of the disintegration and displacement expose the patriarchal contours of the upper-class Muslim society.

Keywords: Attia Hosain, Sunlight on a Broken Column, Muslim aristocracy, partition of India, secular India, displacement and disintegration Introduction The first phase of partition novels in English by women writers are all from the upper- class stratum of the Muslim society. The Heart Divided by Mumtaz Shah Nawaz (The Heart Divided) from Pakistan and Attia Hosain (Sunlight on a Broken Column) from India are cases in point. However, unlike Nawaz, Hosain also places the spotlight on the woman’s body even as she concentrates on the marginalization of Muslim women

The Mega Journal 2020 [5] in the Muslim society. She protests against incompatible marriages, male dominance and craze for male child among the Indo-Pakistan Muslims but she also indirectly criticizes the partition violence on women in the form of her depiction of Jumman, a female helper, who becomes the victim of man’s lecherous nature—the same thing that was at the heart of the rape of massive number of women during the riots of 1947. Abuses of the women’s body, however, turn out to be secondary to Hosain’s scathing criticism of the patriarchal nature of an upper-class Muslim household. Methodology

Attia Hosain’s Sunlight on a Broken Column is an interesting combination of historical and social document along with the story of a young girls’ growth into maturity. This essay attempts a textual analysis of the novel in order to dramatize Hosain’s criticism of the marginalization of women in the pre-partition society and the delineation of the partition vis-à-vis women. Analysis

Going back to the time when she was hardly eleven, Attia Hosain learnt from her mother how to bear a challenge bravely when she looked after the family with five children after the death of her husband. Since the beginning, Hosain has displayed immense pride, belief and confidence in womanhood. Once she said to Anita Desai that “her ideal of womanhood was embodied in Sarojini Naidu, who had made her overcome her shyness and attend the All India Women’s Conference held in Calcutta in 1933” (Pathak,1995: 201). On the one hand, she recommends simplicity and modesty to women, while on the other, she encourages them to be confident and courageous. Through her works, she presents a fine example of Indian women’s capacity for assimilation and synthesis. She typifies an amalgamation of modernity with custom and tradition. She shares a sense of cultural alienation and sentiments such as nostalgia, love for beauty along with emotional involvement with India. She displays superb imagination, understanding and poignancy of human beings which she reflects in most of her novels which are interesting and sensible. Sunlight on a Broken Column, according to Kaul & Jain (2001), is “not a period novel, nor is it mere autobiography or a Muslim narrative”…, and goes beyond the “inadequacy of religion as a code for free life and the failure of faith to uphold human values” (212- 13). Her carefully selected words and language act like a custodian. It allows the reader to cross the threshold and discover the connection of one part of Ashiana (the

[6] Nepal Mega college home) to the other and also unfold the inner world of Ashiana with all its silences that begin to speak and to be heard.

The novel follows the framework of bildungsroman or personal autobiography (Laila’s saga) and enhances the use of the home as a metaphor for the nation. It also provides some interesting glimpses of the range of options available to Indian women in emancipating themselves from patriarchal control. It ranges from rejection to withdrawal and from surrender to negotiated compromise. The range of options available to women has dramatized through the portrayals of various characters.

Sunlight on a Broken Column has a large number of characters. The list of main characters runs to twenty seven names: thirteen of them drawn from the same family to which the narrator and central character belong. Of the remaining fourteen characters, three are maids of the family and the others are friends either of the family or of its individual members. Three generations of a rich Muslim patriarchal family are here, most of them living in the same house, Ashiana, with a corridor that bridges the zenana with the men’s living. The walled-zenana is self-contained with its lawns, courtyard and its veranda.

Along with its typical Muslim family setting, the novel spans a thirty-year period between 1922 and 1952, covering India’s transition from a colonial to postcolonial state which deals with India’s struggle for independence and presents the ironic reward of this struggle. The novel depicts the ugly acts of communal violence, shows how the fight of the Indians against the British Raj turned into the fight among themselves, and tries to diagnose the malady of partition and its devastating consequences.

Sharma and Johri (1984: 7) assert that Sunlight on a Broken Column “expresses a deep feeling of guilt and sorrow because the original impulse for the partition came from the Muslims.” Hosain, however, presents an impartial study of the whole situation. The Hindus are appreciated for saving the Muslims from cruel violence. Likewise, Kemal and Asad, members of distinguished Muslim family, favour India in spite of all doubtful looks around them and take the country to be their home. Her spotlight is something else: the double standards by which the rich and the poor, men and women are judged are exposed by Attia Hosain through the character portrayal of Nandi whose situation becomes like that of the blacks in pre-emancipated America. We, the reader, are made to see her through the eyes of Laila. Her role in the novel mainly is to open our eyes to the two-fold exploitation to which the women servants are primarily subjected to. She says: “Laila Bitia, you don’t know what life can be for

The Mega Journal 2020 [7] us. We are the prey of every man’s desire” (Hosain, 1980: 68). But her spirit refuses to be crushed. She has a deep understanding of the male psyche. She says:

One goes through life with jackals stalking behind. They look like lions and tigers when you are frightened, and if you show your fear they eat you, bone and marrow. But if you turn on them and threaten them, just snap your fingers at them, they turn into jackals again and run away. (ibidem: 228)

Nandi is a woman who is oppressed on grounds of class as well as gender. She is the daughter of the washer man, Jumman. Her misfortune is that she has a face that has become a burden to her parents as “it was not the face of a girl of the lower castes” (ibidem: 27). She, therefore, becomes an attraction to lecherous men, inviting seduction or even rape attempts. But her spirits refuse to be crushed when she retaliates against Uncle Mohsin who blames her being a whore: “A slut? A wanton?” (ibidem: 28). In spite of all these sufferings, the spirit of defiance has not been crushed. She admits to Laila that she is, carrying a baby and adds:

. . . it is not my husband’s of course. How could that old dotard give me one? … I could not endure him any longer, and I wanted the child. She even takes pride her illicit child when she says “My little jewel, my star child, my moon–flower. (291)

With this act, Nandi has courageously turned the table on men who have, since ages, “enjoyed the privilege of making marriages of convenience for the sake of money and keeping a mistress for the sake of love. Here the woman marries for convenience and makes love to a younger man” (Kaul & Jain, 2001: 64).

Sunlight on a Broken Column is, however, narrated not from the perspective of Nandi but from the viewpoint of Laila, a Muslim girl orphaned at a young age and now living with her extended family of taluqdars, the landlords, in Lucknow. She grows at a time when the political struggle for freedom is sharpening. She sees people around her taking active part and interest in politics. But she is unable to commit herself wholly to any cause. Her own struggle for independence is a struggle against the claustrophobic traditions of family life, from which she finally breaks away when she falls in love with a student much below in social status, Ameer.

Laila’s opposition to patriarchal structures goes side by side with her opposition to the equation of religion with nation. Towards the beginning of the novel, she is

[8] Nepal Mega college conscious of the authority which Baba Jan exercises even when he is on his deathbed (Hosain, 1984: 14-15). He represents the older generation which is going by. In his youth, he had broken with the Muslim tradition by sending his sons to England for education. Laila, the narrator protagonist, tells us that her Baba Jan lived to regret his decision, for his sons copied western ways and one of them joined the Indian Civil Service instead of staying at home and looking after the family estate. Kazmi (1995: 49) comments that he never forgives his other son Hamid for “bringing his wife out of purdah” and by neglecting his own religious tradition in favour of “a western way of life.” The whole of Ashiana, its food, movement, life and activities are controlled by Baba Jan even during his last days: he was “everywhere as always; and the long threat of dying added to his power” (Hosain, 1980: 25). But Laila remains critical of his patriarchal power: “. . . he could not die, this powerful man who lived the lives of so many people for them, reducing them to fearing automations” (ibidem: 31). This very power works through fear and strength, and beyond gender; it seeks to subordinate women to decide respectability and how completely. In this regard, Kaul and Jain (2001: 169-70) remark: “Honour is defined in relation to a woman’s body and a man’s authority. Male presence symbolizes control.” Laila remembers, standing in Ashiana, how once when she was talking to Ameer and she saw her uncle approaching, her “laughter and sense of freedom were congealed” within her veins (ibidem: 192).

Much of the novel revolves around Laila’s preoccupation with marriage, and romantic relationships in their various forms—from Zahra’s flirtations with her cousin Asad, to her family’s servant Saliman’s unplanned pregnancy and abandonment by Ghulam Ali, her uncle Hamid’s butler. Indeed, once Laila declares her love for Ameer—a junior lecturer in history at the local university with not significant inheritance—she becomes absorbed with the question of how she will deal with her family’s objection to a love marriage much below her status. But she stands up against the ominous disapproval of uncle Hamid and marries Ameer.

The whole story of Sunlight on a Broken Column revolves around Laila. When the novel opens, she is a young girl of fifteen and when it ends, she is the mother of a fifteen year old girl. Hosain has opted for a heroine-narrator in order to tell her own story from the age of fifteen. In most of the scenes, Laila is largely an observer and recorder. Her powers of analysis are humble. Her visit to the house, after fourteen years, is a visit to the past which is her past self. She had left the house when she had married Ameer and has now returned as a widow with a young daughter. This last visit is different in several ways—the house which has seen moments ofjoy

The Mega Journal 2020 [9] and sorrow, the walls which have heard laughter and seen tears and the courtyard which has been a witness to domestic activities. As she moves from room to room, recollecting the past, she goes over those events which have moulded her as well as the moments of fear, uncertainty and choice. The changes in the house are tied up with socio-political changes. The house finally rejects its owners—they are all uprooted and almost unhoused. The dining table has been left behind indicating the dispersal and the fragmentation of the family and the deconstruction of power. It has been put up for sale as now it is just “a piece of property” (Hosain, 1980: 279).

As Laila walks through the rooms, she remembers the spaces which were “defined by boundaries except the world of dreams” (ibidem: 106). Moving to and fro from house to garden, she is in reality “putting her emotional house in order,” trying to measure her own feelings and emotions and reflecting upon her relationships of the past (Kaul & Jain, 2001: 150). She allows herself to be honest and wonders “how much falsehood was there in my excessive truth” (Hosain, 1980: 319). Going from one room to the other, she also goes through her own hidden emotions, unconscious attachments, dreams and fears that have now surfaced. In this connection, Kaul and Jain (2001: 150) observe: “These memories also serve as a framing for highlighting the shifts in attitudes, priorities, and power structures. There is a constant to and fro movement between the past and the present.” Laila’s recovery of individual self is a slow and painful process of sitting on the margins and not taking any sides. However, she indicates her position through occasional outburst and finally allows her love to guide her. By opting to marry Ameer, she makes a radical statement which simultaneously frees her from being merely a sexual body, a young woman and a dutiful wife who is an echo of her husband like Zahra or even Aunt Saira. It also frees her from accepting unhappiness not of her own making. She chooses Ameer in defiance of status and tradition, social dictates or family customs. This brave act of rebellion gives her a self-definition and pushes her into the wide open world of personal struggle. Laila is not only separated from past, and from the home of her childhood but also from her real self. Looking at herself in the final chapter, she feels that she will grow old while her image may remain the same. The reflection in the mirror is so different from the woman it reflects. This is like exile not only from home but also from the self which has always looked forward to tomorrow.

Even as Laila visit Ashaina for the last time, she is conscious of the changes in its environment. Orchards and gardens have been turned into much ‘space’. Trees have

[10] Nepal Mega college been cut down, lawns dug up, and sheds and god owns built for a factory and the “scent of flowers and fruit blossoms and the song of bird, that use to come across the walls to Ashiana, were replaced by the clang of metal, the hiss of furnaces and shout of workmen” (Hosain, 1985: 291). The novelist provides her readers with sufficient details concerning the socio-historical context of the time, including the women’s lives in the zenana; the class and communal issues as they impact on the family, the nationalist movement, her uncle’s involvement with the elections for Muslim seats in the Constituent Assembly and the eventual quitting of the British and the partition of the sub-continent. Education for women then had to begin and end within the secure walls of the domestic arena. Some Muslim women were allowed to be educated for Muslim men to serve as social companions and political allies. As Didur (1998) remarks, with the influence of Christian missionary schools, Muslim women were now “encouraged to be educated in institutions outside the home” (132-33).

Laila represents herself as an unusual girl who is remonstrated for reading too much and for not being more like her cousin Zahra, a ‘model’ upper middle-class Muslim girl of marriageable age. She notes, “Zahra said her prayers five times a day, read the Quran for an hour every morning, sewed and knitted and wrote the accounts” (Hosain, 1980: 14). In many ways Zahra conforms to qualities promoted by books like Perfecting women. These attitudes in the educational reform in the Muslim community had not adopted with an eye to women’s emancipation, but primarily to serve the needs of an evolving patriarchal upper-middle class. Aunt Saira is moulded according to her husband, Uncle Hamid’s demands. She is his echo. Before she is married to him, she “lived strictly in purdah, in an orthodox, middle-class household.” But now she was a smart woman with her smart saris, discreet make-up, waved hair, cigarette holder and high-heeled shoes” (ibidem: 87). She has been groomed by a “succession of English lady-companions” (ibidem). Saira becomes the stereotypical Muslim woman blending Western and Eastern cultural practices in her appearance, but still deeply implicated in patriarchal class based expectations for her behavior. The ‘new’ woman is expected to be modern but she would have to display her traditional self as well. Laila writes about her uncle Hamid that “Baba Jan had never been able to forgive his son for adopting a western way of living, bringing his wife out of purdah, neglecting the religious education of his sons and doing all this openly and proudly” (ibidem).

In another meeting, when Saira introduces her to the three women guests—Mrs. Wadia, Begum Waheed and also a hawk-like woman—, Laila remembers hearing a story about “a relation of the ruler’s wandering around visiting eligible homes and girls’

The Mega Journal 2020 [11] schools looking for a suitable bride for his second son” and realizes that her aunt has engineered the whole meeting to put her on display (ibidem: 131-32). Soon the four women turn their talk to a gossip concerning an illicit relationship between a Hindu boy and Muslim girl at Laila’s school. All four women condemn the Muslim girl for her immoral actions. They all seem to agree on the unsuitability of a young Muslim girl expressing any agency that might undermine the perception of the Muslim and Hindu communities as culturally exclusive and women as sexually passive. Angry at the women’s hypocrisy, Laila loses her timidity and defends the girl, comparing her “love” for the Hindu boy with “heroines” found in “novels and plays and poems” (ibidem: 134). Laila’s careful account of the women’s conversation underscores the way patriarchal views are normalized in their assumption about women’s behavior. In the light of this experience, Laila comments how those women “seemed like paper figures,” to her “as hollow as their words, blown up with air. There was nothing in them to frighten me” (ibidem: 133). Laila’s

comparison between the women and paper dolls and the emptiness she associates with their convictions convey a lack of respect for their views. Laila’s naïve comment that the word ‘love’ is like a bomb thrown at them (the women) indicates her belief that love relationships are the way out of the elitist, racist and patriarchal power relations that unite the women in their lack of empathy for the girl.

From the very beginning of the narrative, Laila is figured as torn between two conceptions of marriage—arranged and love. Her family’s discussion of Zahra’s arranged marriage at the beginning of the novel is followed by Laila’s assertion that she “won’t be paired off like an animal,” thereby equating arranged marriage with uncivilized beliefs (ibidem: 29). When Asad calls out for Zahra in a fever-induced delirium, “Zahra, darling, Zahra, don’t leave me, don’t ever leave me,” Laila is painfully aware of Zahra’s mother’s disapproval: “I saw the anger in Aunt Majida’s eyes tinged with hatred” (ibidem: 80). Laila’s comment that her heart aches for Asad whose love has been changed into a sin by conventions, however, illustrates her belief that ‘love’ matches are more ‘natural’ than arranged marriages. Laila’s resistance to the practice of arranged marriage, which culminates in her decision to marry Ameer against her family wishes, is expressed on numerous other occasions in the novel. She expresses her opposition to Zahra’s arranged marriage because of the unnaturalness as it comes to her. Her use of the shadow image can be read as throwing doubt on the appropriateness of Zahra’s marriage and traditional practices in general. From her

[12] Nepal Mega college liberal-humanistic perspective, tradition comes to be seen as inauthentic in its failure to respond to the reality of human emotions.

After Laila’s confrontation with her aunt, her narrative exhibits a growing skepticism at the political progressiveness espoused by the reform community. She says, “For some time there was strangeness between my aunt and me” and “inside me . . . a core of intolerance hardened against the hollowness of the ideas of progress and benevolence preached by my aunt and her companions. Rebellion began to feed upon my thought but found no outlet” (ibidem: 138). Likewise, she expresses cynicism on the transformation of Zahra into a ‘modern’ wife since her marriage to Naseer, an officer in the Indian Civil Service. Laila says:

Zahra had changed very much in her appearance, speech and mannerisms. . . She was now playing the part of the perfect modern wife as she had once played the part of a dutiful purdah girl. Her present sophistication was as suited to her as her past modesty had been. Just as she had once said her prayers five times a day, she now attended social function morning and evening. (ibidem: 140)

Laila’s description of Zahra’s transformation indicates that she has merely exchanged one set of patriarchal expectations for another. Laila’s stubbornness to be not like Zahra, according to Roy (1999: 136), “provides her the opportunity to prove her refusal to compromise with her own scale of values. Her fight takes place on two fronts: she demands the right to choose her own life and rejects the false values of social and financial status represented by her uncle and aunt.” Laila’s desire to be with Ameer gives her courage to reject her family’s upper-class sensitivities. As Kaul and Jain (2001: 162) rightly remark, her readiness to marry Ameer shows an act of rebellion which allows her to define herself and “thrusts her into the wide-open world of personal struggle, literally turning her into an outcast.”

Laila struggles in the outside world because of her assertiveness, but many women suffer at this time due to their passiveness as they are suddenly catapulted from the security of the home to the vagaries of migration caused by the events of the partition. Coming back to Ashiana where Laila has come after many years, she inspects from one room to the other. As she does so, she recalls all those yester years how the partition violence was politically motivated. Asad was completely given to non- violence. He stood the test and remained a Gandhian in sprit. In the very first part of the novel, he makes it clear that the whole trouble started when religion entered

The Mega Journal 2020 [13] politics. Rejected by Zahra and the family as a suitable match, Asad pursues his studies and commitment to a non-violent solution to colonialism regardless of the family’s consent. His involvement in the Gandhian movement resulted in his imprisonment during the height of the independence movement. Laila comments how Asad’s letter “led me out of self-pity, through the negation of despair, into recognition of struggle and positive acceptance” (Hosain, 1980: 317). With Ameer’s death, Laila decides to act on her desire to be with Asad and share his political commitments.

Laila credits Asad’s actions for convincing her that she is “selfish to withdraw into solitude (ibidem: 317). Asad’s commitment to his Gandhian philosophy sets him apart from the cynicism toward the Congress party that Laila express earlier. It becomes clear that Laila now follows Asad’s footsteps to help her to continue to live as a Muslim widow in post-independent India. Her correspondence with Asad provides her with a new understanding of events in her life and she comments: “I recognized my dreams had always been of change without chaos, of birth without pain” (ibidem: 280). In the final pages of the text, when Asad suggests, that they act on their feelings for each other, Laila comments “I could not tell him that I did not wish to deceive him with my minds acquiescence while each cell of my body remembered Ameer. But now I wondered how much my mind had been deceiving me, how much falsehood there was in my excessive truth” (ibidem: 319). Laila and Asad do not name their desire as love. He asks her to accept him as a companion with faults and contradictions as opposed to the idealized lover she saw in Ameer. When Laila leaves Ashiana with Asad, she leaves behind the idealism and binaries of her relationship with Ameer. She also leaves behind the national imaginary that has resulted in the tragedy of partition. Hosain represents Laila’s growing awareness of the false dichotomy. She portrays her as overwhelmed by the knowledge and uncertainty. As Roy (1999: 140) rightly remarks, through her novel, Hosain attempts to find “new ways of asserting female self-hood, showing increasing courage in breaking age–old strictures regarding a woman’s existence.” With the portrayal of Laila, Hosain breaks the “stereo-type of eternally suffering Indian womanhood” (ibidem).

There is no doubt that Laila’s coming of age is Hosain’s focus, but what also receives her attention at the same time, as Needham (1993: 94) argues, is “the emerging Indian nation and . . . emerging national identities.” Sharma and Johri (1984: 18) add that Sunlight on a Broken Column studies the psychology of a Muslim home that suffered at Lucknow during partition: “A joyous, beautiful home ‘Ashaina’, the nest, was ruined

[14] Nepal Mega college by the partition. The division of the country led to the division of a Muslim house.” The broken columns are the fragmented human life and sunlight is the warmth of relationship which has enveloped life itself just as the warmth of the sun that drapes itself over the remains of a ruined house. Laila, the narrator, surveys the deserted nest, remembers her bygone days there, feels the tremendous change brought about by partition and the abolition of Zamindari, recalls the scene in the house that ultimately causes the parting of ways of its different members, and meditates on its impact. The play of sunlight is full of significance, though. Hosain (1980: 270) writes, “The sun was breaking through scattered clouds . . . as I drove towards Ashiana, the home of my childhood and adolescence.” Then “the sun’s increasing warmth began to suck up the last dew from shining leaves. . .” (ibidem: 271), followed by “I stood into the cold shadows of the sightless house with its locked doors” (ibidem 272). After she moves from room to room, she opens the door of the courtyard when “the sunlight burst” onto her and “dancing from the clear, blue sky” (ibidem: 290). Even on this warm day, her body shivers as if her mind houses the fear of unknown, and is unable to move out of the past. “I shivered in the sun as I sat by the waterless fountain. There were ghost that could not be laid by the passing of the years” (ibidem: 310). It is, in fact, a very powerful novel that makes the readers feel the great tragedy of the partition both emotionally and psychologically (Sharma and Johri, 1980: 18). Laila’s final visit to Ashiana also becomes a homecoming when she comes home, she also “comes to terms with the present and becomes conscious of the need to act.” And so, her departure from the house then leads her to “a new beginning with the ghost of past laid to rest” (Kaul & Jain, 2001: 181). Finally, Hosain’s novel can serve as a critique of the discursive links between romantic love, patriotism and national unity in South Asian conservative nationalism. Conclusion Attia Hosain’s Sunlight on a Broken Column combines social history with bildungsroman while narrativizing a teenage girl’s growth into maturity. As she does so, she solemnly reflects on Indian women attempting to emancipate themselves from an Indian patriarchal stronghold. The narrative is narrated from the viewpoint of a Muslim girl, Laila, who opposes not only patriarchal structures but also the tendency to equate religion with nation. When she decides to marry Ameer much below her social status, she attempts to defy the existing social norms. She provides an alternative history of nationalism and home from a womanist angle.

The Mega Journal 2020 [15] References Didur, J. (1998). Unruly alliances: Gender and the discourse of nationalism in South Asian women writers’ partition narratives (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). York University. Ontario. Hosain, A. (1980). Sunlight on a broken column. New Delhi: Arnold Heinemann. Kaul, R. K., & Jain, J. (2001). Attia Hosain. New Delhi: Rawat Publication. Kazmi, S. N. R. (1995). Portraits of an age: Anita Desai’s ‘In custody’ and Attia Ho- sains’s ‘Sunlight on a broken column.’ In L. C. Seng (Ed.), Challenges of reading the new and the old (pp. 44-62). Kuala Lumpur: MACLALS. Needham, A. D. (1993). Multiple forms of (national) belonging: Attia Hosain’s ‘Sun- light on a broken column.’ Modern Fiction Studies, 39 (1), 93-111. Pathak, R. S. (1995). Attia Hosain and the women question. In V. N. Dass (Ed.), Femi- nism and literature (pp. 192-202). New Delhi: Prestige. Roy, A. (1999). Patterns of feminist consciousness in Indian women writers. New Delhi: Prestige.

Sharma, K. K., & Johri, B. K. (1984). The partition in Indian English novel. Ghaziabad: Vimal Prakashan.

Zaman, N. (1995). Images of purdah in Bapsi Sidhwa’s novels. In J. Jain & A. Amin (Eds.), Margins of erasure: Purdah in the subcontinental novel in English (pp. 156-73). New Delhi: Sterling Publishers.

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[16] Nepal Mega college Devkota’s Vision in “The Necessity of a Strongly Organized Writers Union for Nepal”: A Study in Rhetoric

Bal Krishna Sharma Nepal Sanskrit University [email protected]

Abstract

This article rhetorically studies Laxmi Prasad Devkota’s essay “The Necessity of a Strongly Organized Writers Union for Nepal.” By applying three tools of rhetoric— ethos, pathos and logos— to the essay, it seeks to find out how Devkota examines the relationship between the state and literary writers in Nepal. The analysis leads to the conclusion that only democratically supportive literary milieu and a mutually supportive writers’ association can boost the morale of Nepali writers.

Keywords: rhetoric, ethos, pathos, logos, Nepal, writers’ association, Laxmi Prasad Devkota Introduction Mahakavi Laxmi Prasad Devkota’s essay “The Necessity of a Strongly Organized Writers Union for Nepal” reveals the essayist as a powerful rhetor: an incisive observer set out to pointedly expose and correct a failing democracy that, he claims, has stunted the growth of an otherwise enlightening literary fraternity. The essay also highlights his disapproval of the Nepali writers for being complacent about their social responsibility. The comparison between the writers of a foreign country (USSR) with those of Nepal at the very outset of the essay paints a very bleak picture of the Nepalese literary milieu: “perpetual sunshine on the North” and “eternal darkness in the South” (Devkota, 2006: 14). This metaphor of light and darkness invariably

The Mega Journal 2020 [17] underscores the fate of the Nepalese writers as languishing in obscurity. It provides the author with a compelling exigency: “something that the speaker and the audience want to discuss”(Longaker and Walker, 2011: 12).

The essay’s organization is configured after a comparison and contrast structure: the evocation of an exemplary foreign country (USSR) to show an encouraging literary ambience at odds with the Nepali writers reeling under under-priveleges and crushing poverty. The essayist wants to awaken the Nepali writers so that they may respond to their social callings, and for this he cogently argues for the formation of a writers’ association. Thus, the wheel of the rhetorical strategy of the essay moves on three cogs—the comparison, the appraisal, and the advisory conclusion.

Point of Departure That Devkota’s works have elicited numerous scholarly discussions and write-ups from the national and international literary critics illustrate both the challenges and opportunities for each succeeding generation of scholars and critics to delve further deeper and deeper into his works. Given the breadth of his oeuvre, it is but natural to always attempt to read Devkota’s work anew and afresh. Kumar Pradhan (1989: 89) becomes awestruck when he discovers in Devkota’s works “remarkable [. . .] variety whose colours no single critical prism can reflect.” Critical readings on his work from humanistic, romantic, biographical, philosophical perspectives, among others, abound. This paper analyzes Devkota’s “The Necessity of a Strongly Organized Writers Union for Nepal” from the prism of rhetoric. Attempts to read Devkota’s essays from a rhetorical perspective have already begun to emerge. In this regard, Hem Raj Kafle’s analysis of “The Electric Bulb,” from which this work drawsa partial inspiration, is a trail-blazer. The present essay makes a rhetorical analysis of a different essay.

Analysis Devkota’s “The Necessity of a Strongly Organized Writers Union for Nepal” represents a subtle relationship between the state and its literati. The essayist argues that the role of a state in the preservation and growth of literary association always remains vital. According to him, equally instrumental in this regard happen to be the honesty and perseverance of writers themselves. He presumes that a stable and vibrant government can only be created if the state concerned extends its full-fledged protection to its literary luminaries. Leading on from such assumptions, Devkota

[18] Nepal Mega college explicitly lambastes the state for its indifference, but subtly enlivens the writers’ spirits even as he, at times, lashes out at them.

That the essay establishes Devkota as a detached and credible rhetor can be gleaned from different sections of the essay. By referring to the supportive literary milieu in Moscow and Tashkant, by exposing publishers’ blatant malpractice, by openly acknowledging his share in the deteriorating political scenario of Nepal, by castigating the writers for having disdainful attitude towards their own literary compatriots, and by emphasizing on the blighting effect of gruelling poverty on artistic activities, Devkota succeeds in creating effective ethos: persuasion “through the character and trustworthiness of the speaker or writer” (Selzer, 2004: 287). The initial metaphor, verging on the contrastive, presents the rhetor as a well-informed person with the extensive reach of knowledge to credibly write on the issue of the declining literary activities in Nepal. The reference to the USSR in paragraphs A, E and F of the essay not only serves as a touchstone for Nepal to formulate its literary policies but it also reflects Devkota’s concern at the depressing literary situation in Nepal.

In order to substantiate his assertion made through the metaphor, the essayist—being a part of the literati signified by the use of pronoun “we”—dwells on a miserable socio-political situation which has victimized all the Nepalese writers including him. He presents a litany of perpetrators: fraud publishers denying writers their copyrights, lack of “human laws” for literary defence, acute deprivation, “general apathy and negligence,” and exploitative politics and a democracy which is “boasted,” “without the people,” and “without Enlightenment” (Devkota, 2006: 13). Remorseful, the essayist remarks that the Nepalese democracy is founded on the system that places profound thinkers “at the tail” and “the selfish wirepuller at the head” ibidem( ). The essayist adds that in such an utter chaos, “the torchbearers” (ibidem) are lost and they are deprived of any access to unbridled expression. The delineation of such demoralizing adversities precisely serves as an introduction for the rhetor to get his ethos through to his readers. Having properly built up this rhetorical situation quite early on, Devkota sets out to reinforce his credential by the humble admission for the overall mess. “The fault is in ourselves”, confesses Devkota. This acknowledgment helps in producing respect for and positive impression of him on his readers’ mind. Devkota holds every writer liable to the overall precarious situation. The inability to form a concerted literary group finds a scornful articulation in these strings of metaphors: “we are scattered pieces of straw. We never come together. We could never organize ourselves into a

The Mega Journal 2020 [19] body. We are autumnal leaves… Even herbs have instincts of gregariousness,” but “we grow singly” (ibidem: 14). Equally vicious factors that have prevented them from forging a literary union include writers’ own “apathy,” “strange psychology,” “morbidity in common behavior,” “physical starvation,” compulsive compliance with exploitative law, and “domestic tragedies” (ibidem). By implicating writers to their own fault for the existing dismal literary condition and by putting himself in the shoe of general writers, Devkota makes his readers endorse his criticism of the insalubrious literary climate in Nepal.

Devkota’s all-out censure of the writers’ apathy for their own miserable literary situation further wins over readers’ confidence, strengthening his credentials as a trustworthy rhetor. Again, this criticism which is well-grounded on hard facts is evident in his rage at “pen-welding criminals who preach Life and practice the philosophy of Death” (ibidem: 15). Devkota continues his hard work of taking his readers into confidence when he invites them to believe in what he professes: “It is a strange paradox when we (my italics)—this pronoun also refers to the essayist himself—sums up the present dismal situation due to which even “the most conscious of our citizens are the least conscious about themselves” (ibidem: 15). By rallying his readers and the general writers, he cushions the charge of “social crime” that he levels against “the pen-welding criminals” (ibidem). Devkota spares no effort in his task of winning over the readers. He reasons how the unity among writers can help achieve a relative progress and foster a sense of “democratic solidarity among the unthinking masses” (ibidem). The frequently used pronouns of “I” and “We” throughout the essay emphasize his own involvement with others in the sorry state of affairs he discusses. This hard work of ethos-building enables the author to establish his credentials among the readers of the essay.

Ethos-building extends further as the author reminds writers of Nepal of their profound social and moral responsibility. The disheartened Devkota (2006) reprimands his fellow writers “Is Democracy to flourish thus?”(17). The writers have shirked the task of social transformation and have utterly failed in their attempt to resurrect the floundering democracy—a situation which has deeply anguished the essayist. The indifference and inertia need to be shaken off. The essayist buckles down to an urgent but difficult task of motivating the writers who are extremely numbed by inaction, crushing destitution and fraud publishers, to form a concerted literary fraternity that alone will serve as a “panacea for all our evils” (ibidem: 18). In this regard, Devkota employs a method of exhortation and reprimand alternately in a desperate

[20] Nepal Mega college bid to awaken them. To win them to his side, the essayist makes a humble urge to the writers, after honestly evaluating their adverse circumstances—”vicious economic circle,” “domestic tragedies,” “anxieties for the morrow” (ibidem: 14)—that they can afford no choice but be united to fight against such adversities as fraud publishers, destitution and state apathy. Dovetailed with this urge is the scathing charge Devkota levels against the writers for their social apathy: the charge of “a social crime” (ibidem: 15).

Along with accomplishing the first task—that of establishing and maintaining his trustworthiness—Devkota faces an equally daunting problem of handling the emotions of “pen-welding criminals” and those of the readers (ibidem: 15). Pathos, an indispensible element of rhetorical discussion, is “the emotion of the audience” (Longaker & Walker, 2011: 46). Concerning the appeal of pathos to his intended readers, the essayist’s tremendous surge in the very first paragraph pays him huge dividends and provides him with a firm foothold to make his argument convincing. In this respect, Devkota’s sympathy with the Nepali writers that also include him produces a telling affect. His assessment that “We, the writers of Nepal are the most unfortunate of human tribes, robbed of our royalties, denied our copyrights, no human laws working our literary defences” forms the rhetor’s tactful preparation for making his later reprimands appear palatable (Devkota, 2006: 13). This innocent-looking common fate strategy signified by the use of the inclusive “We” proves to be a very powerful move later in the essay. Although his aim is to rebuke such writers who are indifferent and have forgotten their responsibility, he could not have done so at the beginning because that he would have antagonized his immediate audience—the Nepali literati. Such a beginning would have certainly defeated his rhetorical aim.

So, Devkota executes the appeal of pathos very meticulously. By highlighting that all the writers of Nepal are at the mercy of various hostile forces, Devkota raises a genuine issue that concerns all, arouses writers’ and readers’ curiosity, compels them to attend to a sobering topic, and eventually wins their sympathy. This is a very delicate and subtle move. Moreover, he raises the issue of democracy that has flagrantly let down all the common people, including the literary writers. Phrases like “boasted democracy”, “a democracy without people,” and “a democracy without Enlightenment” are not only invoked to show a contrast with the world famous definition of democracy by a famous American but also to reveal how the writers in general have been kept out of the loop of this most sought-after system of political governance. He further paints a frustrating and bleak picture of democracy: “Our democracy is built on the

The Mega Journal 2020 [21] castle turrets. It is a fine ivory tower for the few” ibidem( : 14). The implication of Devkota’s repeated reference to a failed democracy is not so much to show its failure as much to arouse in the literati his credibility and affinity with them as the common victims of a failed system of governance. And, finally, Devkota employs a trumpcard in the form of a dreadful tone of writers’ displacement: “And therein the writer of today has no place and no function to perform” (ibidem). This sympathetic tone, meant to maintain the essayist’s reputation as a reliable well-wisher and to keep his readers’ confidence intact, echoes throughout the essay. Having accomplished this painstaking task of procuring his audience’s assent through the appeals of pathos and ethos. Devkota is now all set to employ his logos which is related to “the stated reason or reasons and / or evidence in support of a conclusion” (Longaker and Walker, 2011: 47): the value and importance of writers’ organization. But what has prevented the birth of such an association? Why does the country need one? What has the existence of a literary association to do with the success of a democracy and vice versa? How can a strong literary group be formed? He approaches these crucial questions with his appeal of logos.

Devkota says that the writers’ inability to form a literary fraternity, despite attempts to establish one, has had an immediate negative repercussion: that the fledgling democracy may cave in. Among the various impediments which have long foiled the formation of writers union, the major ones are the lack of determination and trust among writers along with state’s insouciance. Devkota subtly juggles with the two related points of how the writers in general have shirked their social responsibility and how the state, in turn, has utterly failed in addressing their fundamental physical needs. Time and again in crucial sections of the essay (paragraphs A, E and F), the essayist reiterates that a state, as a patron, should not only safeguard its writers’ interests but also invigorate their literary spirits.

Devkota harps on a serious aberration that writers in general are guilty of: throwing allegations at each other out of malice. Devkota censures them for “indulg[ing] in useless wrangling and controversies” and degenerating into a gathering of “defeated gamblers” (Devkota, 2006: 16). He rues because writers, instead of transforming the society through democratic conduct, are found to be embroiled in personal bickering. Against this abysmal backdrop, Devkota takes upon himself the responsibility of salvaging the tottering writers’ union. As a reasonable and responsible person, he asks to himself, “Am I to remain silent over all this, uncomplaining”? (ibidem). For such a miserable literary situation, he points his finger at the beleaguered political scenario

[22] Nepal Mega college of his time marked off by state negligence, failed policies, general instability, laxity, bureaucratic red-tape, and the overall frustration. Scornful, Devkota reproves and thereby prods all writers to form a strong association to bail themselves out of such a dreadful condition.

Devkota continues to grumble against the writers’ shaky standing. He becomes embittered at seeing the lackadaisical tendency on the part of the writers. In his paroxysm of rage, he charges the writers with a felony: that they are a social criminal “of the highest magnitude” for shirking the service of social awakening (ibidem: 15). It jolts Devkota’s inner conscience. The failure in infusing democratic values in “the unthinking masses” and “ordinary public” (15) is likened to a “general literary suicide” (ibidem). Again, the emphasis is on the writers’ unity to form a literary union to revive democratic and social values for creating a vibrant social structure.

Devkota notes that the writers must bear an onerous responsibility for national transformation, and must, therefore, demonstrate their resilience against “adverse circumstances” (ibidem: 18). The author’s apocalyptic tone, expressing the ignominious image of Nepal which is a home to starved writers devoid of state protection (ibidem), brings him to his conclusion that the sustainable solution to all the miseries lies in “[a] strongly organized Nepalese Writers Union” (ibidem). He makes a dispassionate urge to the writers that they “must acquire one Potent Voice, develop one powerful Body” and “a collective soul” (ibidem). Such short, breathless sentences underline the urgent necessity of a powerful literary organization that alone can provide an impetus to the fight against all internal and external odds—poverty, unscrupulous editors,publishers, mutual bickering, dismissive attitude, and state negligence.

Devkota, like a visionary rhetor, charts out the provisions for vivifying the writers’ spirits: “a weekly magazine”, three to four hundred Nepalese rupees to be paid to the competitive writers “per mensem”; governmental provisional grant aid of one “lac”, a well-established office in Kathmandu, a Foreign Department, and a Research Bureau” (ibidem:18-19). Devkota rounds off his argument with the conclusion that only a powerful and active writers’ association will “revitalize our society, regenerate a degenerate democracy and animate the literary spirits” (19). Hence, for the protection of the writers’ legitimate right to intellectual freedom, Devkota calls upon the government to act as a patron to the writers union. According to him, such a union is also indispensable for democracy to function properly because, without the writers’ support, democratic values and norms are bound to collapse.

The Mega Journal 2020 [23] Conclusion Devkota’s avowed goal in “The Necessity of a Strongly Organized Writers Union for Nepal” takes a clear standpoint: to persuade all the Nepali writers to give up their personal biases, show their grit to fight against the odds, respond to their calling to enlighten the general public and the unthinking masses, and be a bastion for fledgling democracy. A robust writers’ association alone can help address the issues successfully. References

Devkota, L. P. (n.d.). The necessity of a strongly organised writers union for Nepal. A survey of Nepali literature in English, (M. Phil. Course Packet. Unit 2: Prose, Kathmandu: IACER, Fall 2006. 13-19). Kafle, H. R. (November, 2010). The dying light and democracy: A rhetorical reading of Devkota’s “The Electric Bulb”. Devkota Studies, 9, pp. 39-49. Kumar, P. (1984). A history of Nepali literature. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. Longaker, M. G., & Walker, J. (2011). Rhetorical analysis. London: Longman. Selzer, J. (2004). Rhetorical analysis: Understanding how texts persuade readers. In C. Bazerman & P. Prior (Eds.), What writing does and how it does it. New Jersey: Laurence Erlbaum Associates.

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[24] Nepal Mega college Surreal Play of the Corpse in Ramesh Ranjan’s Murda: A Study in Marxist Revolutionary Politics

Beerendra Pandey Central Dept. of English, Tribhuvan University [email protected]

Abstract

This paper attempts a cultural-political reading of contemporary Nepali Maithili dramatist, Ramesh Ranjan’s play titled Murda [The corpse]. After interpreting it as a surrealistic work of art, the article contends that the play champions a revolutionary Marxist cause without degenerating into a mere propaganda. It reads its protagonist, the old man, along the lines of Walter Benjamin’s messianic figure to suggest that his activism ultimately succeeds in breathing life into the corpse of Nepali youth—an agency allegorical of the heralding of an era of new historical consciousness in Ne- pal.

Keywords: Nepali Maithili drama, Ramesh Ranjan, Murda, surrealism, revolutionary Marxism, Walter Benjamin, messianic figure, new historical consciousness Introduction As it is the wont with the critical practice of South Asian literatures, criticism tends to be overwhelmingly formalistic. Mahendra Malangia, a well-known Nepali Maithili playwright and critic, is a case in point. In his “Introduction” to Ramesh Ranjan’s Murda [The corpse], Malangia observes that “drama is, first, poetry and, second, it is the most pleasurable” (qtd. in Ranjan, 2012: 6). Malangia focuses on the

The Mega Journal 2020 [25] formalistic nature of Ranjan’s play, even though the 21st century is unarguably an age of popular culture. The rise of a popular culture distributed through the mass media is undermining the textual equation—both rhetorical and formalistic—that was once believed to represent universal values. Literature is now seen as politically interested, that is, representing values that are moral, local, and historical, to particular groups and interests. The political has started to displace the aesthetic, requiring a reconfiguring of the criticism of South Asian literatures along the lines of a new-look formalist methodology which is increasingly alive to the text’s cultural-political enmeshing: a co-existence of the aesthetic and the historical, which offers a synthesis between the ideological and literary views of literature. Even contemporary literary writers show this shift in their creative writings; they tend to be political even as their overt aim is to be aesthetic. Contemporary Nepali Maithili dramatist, Ramesh Ranjan, is one such playwright who makes a fine balance between the textual and the extra-textual, the ideological and the aesthetic in Murda, which was completed as manuscript in 2049 B.S., first staged in 2050 B.S.,1 and published in the book form in 2069 B.S.2 He gives an artistically surrealistic treatment to a subject-matter which he himself says is “political [which] has always fascinated me” (Ranjan, 2012: 24). This essay, after a review of critical literature, seeks to interpret Murda as a surrealistic work of art that not only speaks out fiercely against oppression, exploitation, lies, hypocrisy but also shows that it is possible for art to be Marxist and revolutionary without degenerating into mere propaganda.

Review of Literature Mahendra Malangia leaves no stone unturned in appreciating Murda as a dramatic performance art of a high order, even though he remains alive to its political overtones. He not only defends Ramesh Ranjan’s innovative induction of de-personalized characters as “Man One,” “Man Two” “Youth One” and “Youth Two” but he also praises Murda for its dialogue which he finds as “moving rhythmically” and the “dynamism” of the actors’ impersonation of the characters on the stage (qtd. in Ranjan, 2012: 8). He has similar words of commendation for the play’s conflict which he sees between the diktat of the authoritarian regime of Yamraj and Chitragupta and its resistance by the old man.

1 Sankalp Theatre Group was the first to stage the play at Matihaani in Mahottary district of Nepal in 1993 on the occasion of Durga Puja celebrations. 2 Ramesh Ranjan, Murda [The Corpse] (Janakpurdham: Maithili Vikas Kosh, 2012 A.D.)

[26] Nepal Mega college Parmeshwar Kapari’s criticism entitled “‘Murda’ Natakak Yugeen-Sandharva” [Epochal Context of ‘The corpse’] is to the other extreme of Mahendra Malangia’s. Having presented Ramesh Ranjan as “a left, young leader” (qtd. in Ranjan, 2012: 13) and having located the play in the “postmodern age” (ibidem: 14), Kapari goes into raptures over the sharp edge of the play’s political message: “In this play, the gentle sound of hand-clapping in favour of change and against the exploitation by the ruling class is not at all of less explosive or volatile intensity that one associates with an atom-bomb, an ultra-modern tank or a missile” (ibidem: 16).

Roshan Janakpuri (2013: 21) does not have as effusive words of acclaim for Murda as Kapari’s. He calls for canonizing the play, despite the insubstantial realism of its dramatic-story and its fragile revolutionary fervor. He comes to this critical verdict after having looked at the play as absurd drama. Like Janakpuri, Sudeep Jha (2013: 66) too takes the play as belonging to the “theatre of the absurd”—a drama which, as he asserts, “after getting underway with meaningless search, culminates into meaningful struggle.” Without referring to Jankapuri, Jha disagrees with him about the play’s political message which he implies as being potent.

What is interesting in the critical spat between Janakpuri and Jha is the convergence of their views about the play’s genre: both of them interpret Murda as literature of the absurd which represents the irrationalism and absurdity of Nepali life in the period between 1990 and 1993—a period of belied promises in Nepali politics when the leaders of Nepali Congress and United Marxist-Leninist behaved like the erstwhile Panchas under absolute monarchy. Murda as a Surrealist Play The above view about the genre of Murda turns out to be untenable, for the essence of absurdism lies in the stress on the inevitability that humanity’s efforts to find inherent meaning will ultimately fail. Absurdism recommends that meaninglessness be accepted. Then how can Murda’s final meaning of struggle be meaningful for Sudeep Jha? Roshan Janakpuri (2013) finds the drama as not transcending what he calls its “existentialist angst” because on the one hand he pigeon-holes the play as an absurd drama in the mould of Samuel Beckett’s plays, and on the other hand his own Maoist brand of Marxist activism makes him look for the armed resistance against the exploitative rule which eludes him in Murda. Disagreeing with both Janakpuri and Jha, what I submit is that Murda is a surrealistic play which cannibalizes on both Marxist ideology and psychoanalytical

The Mega Journal 2020 [27] unconsciousness in an attempt to tear spaces in the socio-political canvas so that we may stand back and question what has been packaged to us as the real. What the drama exposes is that the real is merely a façade hiding the most terrible suffering, oppression, and repression. As a surrealist play, Murda expresses a contradictory, illogical view of reality that makes visible the seamy sides and repulsive realities lurking beneath the veneer of bourgeois Nepal in the early 1990s. Analysis Before teasing out the political meanings of the surrealistic texture of the play, it is necessary to track the key surrealistic moments in Murda. As the drama gets underway, on the stage, which is described as being enveloped in pitch darkness, suddenly appear four men with four flashlights. The way the stage direction is written creates an eerie mood; it makes it seem like a scene out of a nightmare. The expressions used by Ranjan (2012) such as “the deafening cry,” “tripping over out of panic” and “trembling body,” create a dark and surreal setting (31). The corpse creeping furtively through the night creates a nightmarish image of something so feared as moving around like a creature. This is surreal because the four men are being described as seeing their own faces reflected in the corpse and fleeing away in fright (ibidem: 32- 33). The four men, whom Ranjan takes as representative of the common Nepalis, are described as resembling like the corpse and suffering in the darkness. It is imaginable but very surreal as these humans are portrayed as un-living creatures clinging to life as their existence slowly diminishes. Ranjan depicts the people of Nepal under monarchy as creatures, which have no essence; only the sockets of their eyes are left since the regime, as Youth 2 puts it, “has snatched up light from their eyes” (ibidem: 85). The darkness also seems to be enveloping all people who encounter it: the people cannot run away from it. The effect of the devastating darkness is surreal. Ranjan presents “light from the lantern” as the antidote to the darkness (ibidem: 77). As the old man is who one among the rare breed that is not like the corpse arrives on the stage, this is how Ranjan describes the stage direction: “In that light [from the lamp] the darkness on the stage is dispelled. The eyes of the four youths glaze over in the light that comes so suddenly (ibidem). The blurring of their vision is a positive development, in that it removes the film of greed for power and pelf that had made them support the monarchical regime so uncritically. The light that Ranjan associates with the old man invests them with a new eyesight—the vision of a revolution with which the drama moves towards its denouement. As L. Aragon (1994: 10) writes in Paysan de Paris,

[28] Nepal Mega college light is meaningful only in relation to darkness and truth presupposes error. It is these mingled opposites which people our life, which make it pungent, intoxicating. We only exist in terms of this conflict, in the zone where black and white clash. And what do I care about white and black? Their realm is death. In Murda, Ranjan uses the duality between light and darkness to generate poetry and politics: his message is that light is reason while darkness is error. Ranjan, like Gray Read (2008: 36), seems to assert that “If light is reason and darkness error then only where the two meet does one glimpse fugitive reality as if at a threshold.”

Because the overriding idea in surrealistic art is that everything is unstable and mutable, it gives rise to strong evocations of death and metamorphosis, thereby building up a deepening sense of the presence of a fundamentally dialectical idea—the idea of constant flux in which things turn into their opposites and where contradictions characterize the so-called real. It is a seemingly illogical, negative art that “shock[s] and bewilder[s] observers and serve[s] to destroy the false values of modern bourgeois society, including its rationality” through a sustained dramatization of the contradictions and their eventual resolution through the affirmation of the artist’s Marxist ideology (Abrams, 2005: 319).

In Murda, Ramesh Ranjan makes the Nepalis see and think about their false consciousness by creating a shock effect through the dialectical image of the kingdom of death—a dialectical materialism that locates the material reality of the condition of lifelessness within a process that recognizes its foil, life. Ranjan’s ploy is to distract the audience so that his play may successfully transmit revolutionary socio-political meaning. The dialectical image not only holds the audience’s interest while it shocks their mind but it also encloses them in the absolutely inescapable space between images related not by logic but by poetic condensation. The poetic condensation of the images of the corpse and the living body made to brush against each other precisely through the unfeasibility of their kinship is what makes the dialectical image work like a ticking time bomb waiting to explode. Ramesh Ranjan engineers this dialectical bombshell in Murda to blast the post-Panchayat false consciousness of the Nepalis subscribing to the oppressive establishment for the lure of power and pelf. Ranjan is fascinated with death and that which is dead, the corpse, in order to stress on the erasure of self—the transformation of the Nepali people into automations or bodies dispossessed of consciousness. This political unmasking through the image of the corpse, which cuts through the sediment of spontaneous compliance, is meant

The Mega Journal 2020 [29] for innervating the comatose Nepali body politic: it carries the agency of utopian transformation overcoming the split between knowledge and action. In “Foreword” to Murda, Ramesh Ranjan (2012: 26) himself remarks, “The process that makes the corpse leads to the germination of people’s revolt which, arrayed with awareness and having been organized, ends the [repressive] regime.” Because, for Ranjan, there can be no light that is not preceded by darkness, history must first be exposed to its internal breaks and contradictions for its true historicity to emerge. The exposition of the dramatic action in the form of the quest for figuring out the identity of the oscillating dead bodies on the stage—an attempt in which the four male characters see their own faces reflected in the corpses—creates a strategic shock effect in which the neglected debris of history—the repressed common people—is put into a surrealistic constellation, paving the way for a true revolutionary image which, for Ramesh Ranjan, is that of history itself. History is a nightmare from which he is trying to awaken the people—an illumination which exposes the continuum of history as a myth. The revolutionary task of the playwright is the dissolution of the myth and therefore of its grip over the present—this is what is suggested by the circumambience of Chitragupta by the now awakened corpses in the anti-climactic scene with which Murda ends.

Yet Roshan Janakpuri (2013) remains unhappy with the revolutionary accomplishment of the play. He complains:

At the end of the play, the main representative and power of the Yama administration, Chitragupta and his aide haven fallen into the siege laid by the people. Instead of this leading towards the striking of a decisive blow to the situation, the drama peters out into an absurdity not only at the level of style but also at that of thought due to the old man’s cry for a proof of [the people’s] vibrancy to the regime, despite the reality of having suffered [inertia]. Regardless of being excellent from the perspective of craft and thought-provoking from the angle of conflict and dialogue, the final statement of the play does not allow it to transcend the brooding over the status-quo and the existential angst. From the perspective of thought, the ending of the drama is at a weak point.

Janakpuri’s objections seem to stem from his own miredness in the programmatic optimism of the Maoist-Communists or the belief in progress through violent revolution. It is this subscription which makes him wrongly read the old man’s exact words in the finale: “We shall have to give proof of our being alive tothe

[30] Nepal Mega college regime” (Ranjan, 2012: 91). The old man is here not talking about getting the certificate of awakening from the authority but about demonstrating, through the siege of Chitragupta, that the corpse-like Nepalis have awakened from their stupor to what Walter Benjamin calls “profane illumination” (qtd. in Wieseltier x). It is an enlightenment that is sacrilegious to the regime of Yamraj. Conclusion What Ramesh Ranjan offers is a messianic concept of history into which no Messiah steps to offer a clearly charted course for redemption, whereas Roshan Janakpuri wants to see a Messiah-like revolutionary in the old man that he is not. The old man is not a Messiah like Gandhi as Kapari implies him to be (in Ranjan, 2012: 15) but only a messianic figure who has in him the agency of, as Walter Benjamin (2007: 263) puts it, “a messianic cessation of happening or, put differently, a revolutionary chance in the fight for the oppressed past.” The old man’s agency represents a transformation from the past inertia to the present state of animation—an alteration from the previous situation which stands out from the course of history as it is one place where history occurs in a meaningful way. Ramesh Ranjan’s revolutionary Marxism comes to the fore in a big way if we understand that the old man’s agency is instrumental to the transition from darkness to light and from the death of the youth to their revival. If the Yam dispensation (history) has once revealed youth as a corpse, only the rupture of a revolution—the inauguration of a new historical consciousness—ultimately redeems the corpse of youth. The old man comes out unmistakably as a Benjaminian “angel” of history out to “awaken the dead, and make whole what has been smashed” (ibidem). Finally, Murda deserves an enviable status as a work of art not just for its poetics but also for its politics. References Abrams, M. H. (2005). A glossary of literary terms. Boston: Thomson Wadsworth.

Aragon, L. (1994). Paris peasant (Simon Watson Taylor, Trans.) Boston: Exact Change.

Benjamin, W. (2007). Illuminations (Harry Zohn, Trans.). New York: Schocken Books.

Janakpuri, R. (Febuary 23, 2013) Maithilima vishistha natak [Outstanding drama in Mati- hili]. Kantipur Koseli.

Jha, S. (May-June 2013) ‘Murda’: sangarsh ko Sandesh [‘The corpse’: the message of struggle]. Terai Maanav Adhikaar Journal [Terai Human Rights Journal], 2 (Jesth, 2070 B.S.), 63-67.

The Mega Journal 2020 [31] Kapari, P. (2012). ‘Murda’ natakak yugeen-sandharva” [Epochal context of ‘The corpse’]. In R. Ranjan, Murda [The corpse], (pp. 12-18). Janakpurdham: Maithili Vikas Kosh.

Malangia, M. (2012). Introduction. In R. Ranjan, Murda [The corpse], (pp. 6-11). Janakpurd- ham: Maithili Vikas Kosh.

Read, G. (2005). Aragon’s armoire. In T. Mical (Ed.), Surrealism and Architecture, (pp. 31- 40). London: Routledge.

Ranjan, R. (2012). Murda [The corpse]. Janakpurdham: Maithili Vikas Kosh.

Wieseltier, L. 2007. “Preface.” In W. Benjamin, Illuminations (Harry Zohn, Trans.), (pp. vii- x). New York, NY: Schocken Books.

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[32] Nepal Mega college Jofs/0f lzIf0f ;DaGwL c5fd lhNnfsf lzIfsx?sf] wf/0ff / sIff lzIf0fdf To;sf] k|Tofjt{g lbg]z l3ld/] lzIffzf:q s]Gb|Lo ljefu, lq=lj= sLlt{k'/ [email protected]

;f/ ;+If]k Jofs/0fnfO{ efiffsf] cGt/lglxt Joj:yf dflgG5 . Jofs/l0fs ;'ema'em / To;sf] ;xL pkof]uljgf z'4 efiff l;sfO k|foM c;Dej x'g] ePsfn] efiff lzIf0fdf Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf] klg cxd\ e"ldsf /xG5 . Jofs/0f lzIf0fnfO{ k|efjsf/L agfpg To; ;DaGwL ;'ema'emsf ;fy} lzIffyL{ s]lGb|t cEof;fTds pkfox?sf] klg plts} cfjZostf /xG5 . o;} j:t'tYonfO{ dgg u/L k|:t't n]vnfO{ df]km;ndf /x]sf g]kfnL efiff lzIfsx?sf] Jofs/0f lzIf0f ;DaGwL b[li6 klxNofpg] / sIff lzIf0fdf To;sf] k|Tofjt{gsf] cfsng ug{] pb\b]Zodf s]lGb|t ul/Psf] 5 . o;df g]kfnsf] ;'b"/ klZrd e]udf /x]sf] c5fd lhNnfsf g]kfnL lzIfsx?sf k|ZgfjnL cfwfl/t k|ltlqmof / ltgsf] sIff cjnf]sgaf6 k|fKt tYox?sf] JofVof ljZn]if0faf6 lgisif{df k'Ug] k|of; ul/Psf] 5 . o; cfwf/df ljBfno txsf] Jofs/0f lzIf0fdf k/Dk/fut dfGotfsf] k|efj sfod} /x]sf] clg Jofs/0f lzIf0fnfO{ ck]lIft dfqfdf ;;Gbe{ k|:t't ug'{ kg{] s'/fsf] hfgsf/L lzIfsx?df eP sIff lzIf0fdf To;sf] k|efjsf/L k|Tofjt{g x'g g;s]sf] b]lvG5 . o;n] ubf{ ce}m klg k|of]ud'vL Jofs/0f lzIf0f l;sfOsf] cfjZostf af]w, To;k|ltsf] tbf?stf, Jofs/0f ;DaGwL l;k / ;lqmotf kof{Kt gb]lvPsf] h:tf sf/0fn] cem;Dd klg pko'St :yfg kfpg g;s]sf] cj:yf ljBdfg b]lvG5 . ljlzi6 kb kbfjnLM sfo{d"ns, /rgfd'vL, kf7k/s, k|Tofjt{g, Jofs/l0fs tTTj k[i7e"ld efiff lzIf0fdf Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf] cxd\ e"ldsf /xG5 . o;n] z'4 efiff l;sfOnfO{ a9fjf lbg] sfd ub{5 . Jofs/0fnfO{ k|of]u / Jojxf/af6 l;sfpFbf o;sf] lzIf0f l;sfO k|efjsf/L

The Mega Journal 2020 [33] x'G5 . Jofs/0f lzIf0f lgb{]lzt / lgodd'vL x'g' /fd|f] dflgFb}g . Jofs/0f efiffleq cGt/lglxt /xg] ePsfn] o;sf] lzIf0f ;Gbe{k"0f{ / k|of]ud'vL x'g' kb{5 . Jofs/0f lzIf0f lgod 3f]sfpg] vfnsf geO{ jf:tljs k|of]u, cGt/lqmof cflbdf cfwfl/t x'g' kb{5 . of] lgodsf] JofVof ljZn]if0fd'vL geO{ /rgfd'vL x'g' kb{5 . To:t} o;nfO{ efiffsf] sfo{;Fu cfa4 u/L sfo{d"ns 9ª\un] lzIf0f ul/g' pko'St x'G5 . cem Jofs/0fnfO{ lzIf0fLo kf7leq} cGt/lglxt ug'{ pko'St x'g] b[li6sf]0fx? JofKt x'Fb} uPsf 5g\, tyflk g]kfnLsf] Jofs/0f lzIf0fdf cfwfl/t k/Dk/fut dfGotfsf] k|efj /x]sfn] o;sf] lzIf0f k|of]ud'vL aGg g;s]sf], Jofs/0f lzIf0f ;DaGwdf lzIfsx?sf] ;'ema'emn] klg :ki6 cfsf/ lng ;lsg;s]sf] cflb u'gf;fx? cfpg] u/]sfn] jt{dfg ;Gbe{df g]kfnL efiff lzIfsx?sf] Jofs/0f lzIf0f ;DaGwL b[li6sf]0f, ltgsf] sIff k|:t'lt / To;sf] k|efj ;DaGwL cWoog ;d;fdlos g} xf]nf eGg] ck]Iff ul/Psf] 5 .

Jofs/0f lzIf0fnfO{ k|efjsf/L agfpgsf nflu efiff lzIfsdf pRr Jofs/l0fs ;'em / To;sf] ;fGble{s k|of]usf] 1fg x'g' kb{5 . p;df Jofs/l0fs cg'ejsf ;fy} Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf ljlw tyf k|lqmofx?sf af/]df klg kof{Kt hfgsf/L x'g' cfjZos x'G5 . Jofs/0f lzIf0f ;DaGwL gjLg b[li6sf]0fx?sf] ljsf; eO/x]sf] jt{dfg kl/k|]Iodf lzIfsx?nfO{ ;do ;dodf ljleGg dfWodaf6 To:tf b[li6sf]0fx? cjut u/fpFb} hfg' kb{5 . csf{] s'/f lzIfsdf cfk"mn] xfl;n u/]sf 1fg tyf cg'ejx?nfO{ sIffsf]7fdf k|efjsf/L ¿kdf k|:t't ug{] OR5fzlSt / ;f] cg's"nsf] z}lIfs jftfj/0f klg plts} cfjZos b]lvG5 . log} jf:tljstfx?sf] ;]/f]k]m/f]df /x]/ k|:t't cWoog ;DkGg ul/Psf] 5 . p2]Zo / cg';Gwfg k|Zg o; cWoogsf] d'Vo p2]Zo c5fd lhNnfsf ljBfno txdf cWofkg/t g]kfnLsf lzIfsx?sf] Jofs/0f lzIf0fk|ltsf] wf/0ff / sIff lzIf0fdf To;sf] k|Tofjt{gsf] l:ylt kTtf nufpg' /x]sf] 5 . o;} p2]Zodf cfwfl/t /x]/ pSt lhNnfdf cWofkg/t g]kfnL efiff lzIfsx?sf] Jofs/0f lzIf0fk|ltsf] wf/0ff s:tf] 5 <, pgLx?n] s] s:tf z}lIfs ;fdu|L, lzIf0f ljlw, sfo{snfk / d"Nofª\sgsf tl/sfx? ckgfpg] u/]sf 5g\ <, pgLx?sf] Jofs/0f lzIf0f ;DaGwL ;'ema'em s] s:tf] 5 / Jofs/0f lzIf0fdf To;sf] s] s:tf] ;DaGw b]lvG5 < Jofs/0f lzIf0fdf efiff kf7\o k':ts pkof]usf] cj:yf s] s:tf] 5 < h:tf cg';Gwfg k|Zgx?df cWoog s]lGb|t ul/Psf] 5 . k"j{sfo{sf] ;dLIff dª\un -;g\ @))#_ df lxGbL lzIf0fsf ljleGg kIfx?sf] rrf{ ug]{ qmddf Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf] kl/ro, lxGbL lzIf0fsf ;Gbe{df o;sf] dxTTj, ljBfno txdf Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf] pb\b]Zo, lzIf0f ljlw tyf Jofs/0f lzIf0fnfO{ ?lrk"0f{ agfpg] tl/sfx? cflb pNn]v ul/Psf] kfOG5 . To:t} nD;fn -@)^@_ df g]kfnL efiff / Jofs/0f Joj:yf af/] rrf{ ePsf] kfOG5 . o;df g]kfnLsf]

[34] Nepal Mega college j0f{ Joj:yf, zAbju{, ¿kfog / Jo'Tkfbg k|lqmof, jfSotTTj / jfSosf 36s ;DaGwL pNn]v 5 . ;'j]bL -@)^$_ b\jf/f g]kfnL efiffdf Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf] k|of]hg / ;d:ofaf/] rrf{ ePsf] 5 . o;df Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf] ;fdfGo kl/ro, o;sf d'Vo k|of]hg / Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf ;d:ofx? pNn]v ePsf 5g\ . ofbj -;g\ @))&_ df ;+/rgfTds Jofs/0fsf ljleGg kIfx?df rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 . o;df jfSodf cfwfl/t /x]/ Jofs/0fsf ljljw kIfx?af/] rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 . lxª\s]n PG8 ;]G8«f -;g\ @))*_ df ;+/rgfTds, ¿kfGt/0ffTds, ;Dk|]if0ffTds, sfo{d"ns h:tf ljleGg b[li6sf]0faf6 Jofs/0f lzIf0fnfO{ lrgfpg'sf ;fy} Jofs/0f lzIf0fdf cGt/lqmofsf] dxTTj ;d]t pNn]v ePsf] 5 . s+8]n -@)^^_ b\jf/f g]kfnL efiff lzIf0fk|lt ljBfnosf k|wfgfWofks, lzIfs, ljBfyL{, cleefjs cflbsf] wf/0ff pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 . o;df g]kfnL lzIf0fk|ltsf] wf/0ff, o;sf ;d:of / jt{dfg cj:yfaf/] rrf{ kfOG5 . o;df Jofs/0f lzIf0fk|lt ;a}sf] gsf/fTds wf/0ff /x]sf] lgisif{ lgsflnPsf] 5 .

To:t} kf}8]n -@)^&_ df g]kfnL Jofs/0f lzIf0fdf k|rlnt ljlwx?sf] ;fdfGo kl/ro lbFb} Jofs/0f lzIf0fnfO{ bf];|f] efiff lzIf0fsf] k|frLg ljlwsf ¿kdf rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 . o; ljlwsf] ljsl;t cj:yfsf ¿kdf Jofs/0ffg'jfb ljlwnfO{ lrgfOPsf] 5 . zdf{ / kf}8]n -@)^&_ åf/f g]kfnL efiff lzIf0fsf] ;Gbe{df Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf] rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 . o;df ljleGg txdf Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf] cf}lrTo, Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf] ;d:of / ltgsf] ;dfwfgsf pkfo, Jofs/0ffTds ;r]ttfsf] ljsf; h:tf kIfx?sf] pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 . clwsf/L -@)^&_ df tTsfnLg ;dodf Jofs/0f lzIf0fnfO{ Ps ljjfbf:kb ljifosf ¿kdf lnP/ o;sf] ljBdfg l:ylt, Jofs/0fsf k|rlnt / gjLg cjwf/0ffx?, k|fylds txdf Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf ;Defljt tl/sf / ;ts{tf af/] j0f{g ul/Psf] 5 . clwsf/L -@)&!_ / -@)&@_ df Jofs/0f lzIf0f / efiff lzIf0fsf] ;DaGw, ljZn]if0fd'vL Jofs/0f, sfo{d"ns, Jofs/0f / /rgfd'vL Jofs/0fsf cjwf/0ffx? JoSt ePsf 5g\ . pSt n]vdf ljZn]if0fd'vL Jofs/0fn] ljBfyL{df Jofs/0f lzIf0fk|lt ljsif{0f a9fpg] pNn]v ub}{ /rgfd'vL / sfo{d"ns Jofs/0fsf] cfjZostf / ;f] cg'¿k efiff kf7\o k':tsdf kl/jt{g dx;'; ul/Psf] 5 . o;df Jofs/0f efiffleq} cGt/lglxt x'g] ePsfn] afnsnfO{ ;Gbe{k"0f{ k|of]u / pbfx/0faf6 l;sfpg' kg{] pNn]v ePsf] 5 . o; cfwf/df x]bf{ Jofs/0f lzIf0f Ps uxg ljifo /x]sf] / o;n] efiff lzIf0fdf dxTTjk"0f{ :yfg cf]u6\g] b]lvG5 . ;fy} o; ;Da4 ljBdfg ;d:ofx?sf] ;dfwfg u/L Jofs/0f lzIf0fnfO{ Jofjxfl/s / sfo{d"ns agfpg' kg{] cfjZostf af]w x'G5 . ;fy} :gftsf]Tt/ txdf ePsf zf]w cWoog sfo{x?af6 ;d]t g]kfnL efiffsf] Jofs/0f lzIf0f l;4fGt s]lGb|t / lgudgfTds k|s[ltsf] /x]sf], ljBfno txdf cem;Dd klg Jofs/0f lzIf0f ubf{ ljBfyL{df Jofs/0f l;sfO af]emsf ¿kdf /x]sf] h:tf tYox? phfu/ ePsfn] o; cWoognfO{ Jofs/0f lzIf0fdf ;d;fdlos ;'wf/sf pkfo tyf ;Defjgf vf]hL ug{] p2]Zo lnOPsf] 5 .

The Mega Journal 2020 [35] cWoog ljlw tyf k|lj|mof u'0ffTds cWoog 9fFrfdf cfwfl/t k|:t't cWoogdf If]qLo cWoog ljlwsf] cjnDag ul/Psf] 5 . b'u{d e]usf ljBfnosf g]kfnL lzIfsx?sf] cjwf/0ff a'emL pgLx?sf] sIff lzIf0f;Fu To;sf] tfnd]n kTtf nufpg] dg;fon]] o; cWoog ul/Psf] x'Fbf g]kfnsf] ;'b"/ klZrd If]qsf] c5fd lhNnfsf lzIfsx?nfO{ o;df hg;ª\Vof dflgPsf] 5 . cWoogsf] gd'gfsf nflu c5fd lhNnfsf] vf; u/L pTt/L e]usf dfWolds ljBfnox?df cWofkg/t g]kfnL ljifo lzIfsx?nfO{ 5gf]6 ul/Psf] 5 . To:tf lzIfsx?sf] 5gf]6sf nflu p2]Zok/s gd'gf 5gf]6nfO{ cfwf/ dflgPsf] 5 . o; cWoogdf k|ZgfjnL / cjnf]sg kmf/fdsf ;xfotfaf6 tYosf] ;ª\sng ul/Psf] 5 . o; cWoogsf] tYofª\s ;ª\sngsf nflu Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf ljlw tyf tl/sf, lzIf0f of]hgf, lzIf0f k/Dk/f, Jofs/0f lzIf0fdf pkof]u ug{ ;lsg] z}lIfs ;fdu|L, Jofs/0f lzIf0fdf kf7\o k':ts pkof]usf] ;Defjgf, Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf ;d:ofx? / ltgsf ;dfwfgsf pkfox?, h:tf kIfx?df s]lGb|t /x]/ tof/ kfl/Psf] k|ZgfjnL tyf pSt k|ZgfjnLsf d'Vo d'Vo ljifoj:t'df cfwfl/t /x]/ tof/ kfl/Psf] sIff cjnf]sg kmf/fdsf] pkof]u ul/Psf] 5 . pSt ;fwgx?af6 @)&% df3 dlxgfdf ljBfnox?df :jod\ pkl:yt eO{ ;j{k|yd sIff cjnf]sg / To; nuTt} lzIfsx?af6 k|ZgfjnL ;d]t e/fO{ ljZn]io ;fdu|L ;ª\sng ul/Psf] 5 o;/L k|ZgfjnL / sIff cjnf]sgaf6 k|fKt tYox?nfO{ cnu cnu ljZn]if0f u/L tL b'a} tYox?nfO{ le8fP/ tYosf] ax'sf]0fLs/0f u/L ;To lgisif{ lgsfNg] sfd ePsf] 5 . k|fKt tYox?sf] ljZn]if0fnfO{ cem a9L ;xh / ;l6s t'Nofpgsf nflu k|fKt k|ltlqmofx?nfO{ cWoogsf p2]Zo cg';f/ ljleGg pkzLif{sx?df s]lGb|t /xL k|:6\ofpg] / phfu/ ug{] k|of; ul/Psf] 5 . JofVof ljZn]if0fsf qmddf )–@) k|ltzt;DdnfO{ clt sd, @)–$) ;DdnfO{ s]xL, $)–^) ;DdnfO{ cfwfcflw, ^)–() ;DdnfO{ clwsf+z / () k|ltzteGbf dflynfO{ ztk|ltzt eGg] kbx?sf] k|of]u u/L pQ/x?sf] k|antf (Intensity) / b'a{ntfx?sf] qmlds dfqf lgwf{/0f ug{] k|of; ul/Psf] 5 . Jofs/0f lzIf0f / o;sf] k|lqmof Jofs/0f zAbsf] lgdf{0f lj±cf±s[±cg ldn]/ ePsf] b]lvG5 . o;sf] zflAbs cy{ eflifs lgod jf efiffdf lglxt Joj:yf eGg] x'G5 . Jofs/0fn] efiffleq} cGt/lglxt /x]/ efiffnfO{ :t/Lo / Jojl:yt agfpg] sfd ub{5 . o;nfO{ k"jL{o ljåfg\ kt~hlnn] zAbfg'zf;gsf ¿kdf lrgfPsf 5g\ eg] g]kfnL a[xt\ zAbsf]z -@)^&_ n] o;nfO{ s'g} efiffsf zAb, zAbsf ljleGg ¿k, ltgsf] ;+/rgf ljlw, jfSo / To;sf ljleGg cª\u tyf ltgLx?sf] kf/:kl/s ;DaGw v'6\ofpg'sf ;fy} zAb, jfSo cflbsf] z'4 k|of]u ug{] lgodsf] lg¿k0f ug{] zf:q, zAb tyf jfSo ;DaGwL lgod / pbfx/0fsf] ;ª\sng ug{] zf:q eg]/ lrgfPsf] kfOG5 . o;/L Jofs/0f efiffsf] Joj:yf xf] . o;df efiffsf PsfOx?sf] af/]df pNn]v ul/Psf] x'G5 . o;n] efiffnfO{ Jojl:yt / cflGtl/s cg'zf;gdf /fVg] x'Fbf o;sf] k|efjsf/L lzIf0f x'g' kb{5 eGg] lgisif{df k'Ug ;lsG5 .

[36] Nepal Mega college g]kfnL efiffdf Jofs/0f lzIf0fdf k/Dk/fut ¿kdf vf; u/L lgudgfTds, cfudgfTds, efiff ;+;u{ jf k|ToIf efiff ljlw, efiff kf7\o k':ts ljlw x'Fb} jt{dfg cj:yf;Dd cfO k'Ubf kf7k/s, /rgfd'vL / sfo{d"ns Jofs/0fsf wf/0ffx? ljsf; ePsf b]lvG5g\ . pSt cjwf/0ffx?af6 Jofs/0f lzIf0f k|ToIf ¿kdf k|efljt b]lvG5 . Jofs/0f lzIf0f s;/L ug{], s] ubf{ To;nfO{ cem k|efjsf/L agfpg ;lsG5 eGg] af/]df ljåfg\x?df cem;Dd klg dt leGgtfx? kfOG5g\ . Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf ljleGg cjwf/0ffx?n] efiff lzIf0fdf k|efj kfg{] x'gfn] pSt wf/0ffx?nfO{ ;+lIfKt ¿kdf lrgfpg vf]lhPsf] 5 M efiff lzIf0fsf qmddf Jofs/l0fs Joj:yfsf] ;"Id cWoog u/L To;sf cfwf/df kl/efiff, ;"q, lgod cflb tof/ kf/L ljBfyL{nfO{ lgodsf] JofVof ug{], To;sf ;fydf pbfx/0fx? lbP/ lzIf0f ug{] ljlwnfO{ lgudgfTds ljlw dflgG5, o;n] Jofs/0fnfO{ kf7af6 cnu u/fP/ l;sfpg], lgod / pbfx/0f 3f]sfpg] / ;}4flGts 1fg eP k|of] :jtM l;lsg] h:tf dfGotfdf hf]8 lbG5 . To;}n] o;nfO{ k/Dk/fut ljlwsf ¿kdf klg lnOG5 . To;sf] ljk/Lt kof{Kt pbfx/0fx? k|:t't u/]/ ltgsf] ;fdfGoLs/0faf6 vf; l;4fGt, lgod jf tYodf k'Ug k|f]T;flxt ug{] ljlwnfO{ cfudgfTds ljlwsf ¿kdf lnOG5 . o; ljlweGbf klg cufl8 uP/ efiff / Jofs/0fnfO{ k[ys ¿kdf geO{ PsLs[t ¿kdf efiff leq}af6 Jofs/0fsf] vf]hL ug{ / ;'em xfl;n ug{ l;sfpg] / ljBfyL{sf] pTkfbgfTds Ifdtf / ;lqmo ;xeflutfdf hf]8 lbg] ljlw g} efiff ;+;u{ ljlw xf] . k|ToIf efiff ljlwsf ¿kdf lrlgg] o; ljlwn] lgod l;sfOnfO{ uf}0f / Ifdtf / ;lqmo ;xeflutfdf hf]8 lbg], z'4 / :t/Lo efiff k|of]unfO{ k|d'v dfGg] h:tf dfGotf /fVb5 . Jofs/0fnfO{ cnu} k':ts / 5'6\6} ljwfsf ¿kdf lzIf0f gu/L efiff kf7\o k':tsleq} Jofs/0f ;dfj]z u/]/ lzIf0f ug{] ljlw g} efiff kf7\o k':ts ljlw xf] . o;n] Jofs/0f efiffleq 5 / efiff Jofs/0fa4 5 eGg] dfGotf /fVg] x'Fbf Jofs/0fsf lzIf0fLo j:t'x?df cfwfl/t u/L kf7x? k|:t't ug{] / kf7df k|o'St efiffaf6 Jofs/0fsf] vf]hL ug'{ kg{] dfGotf /fVb5 . To:t} Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf] csf{] b[li6sf]0fdf Jofs/0f efiffleq} cGt/lglxt /xg] x'Fbf afnsn] efiff l;Sbf Jofs/0f :jtM l;Sb} hfG5 . af]nL, Jojxf/ cflbsf] cjnf]sgaf6 u|x0f u/]sf] efiff afnssf] af]nfOdf k|s6 x'Fb} hfG5, t;y{ Jofs/0f ;Gbe{ ljxLg geO{ /rgfdf cfwfl/t / ;Gbe{k"0f{ ¿kdf l;sfpg' kb{5 eGg] Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf] dfGotf g} /rgfd'vL Jofs/0fsf] cjwf/0ff xf] . Jofs/0fnfO{ efiffsf] sfo{;Fu hf]8\g] b[li6sf]0f g} sfo{d"ns Jofs/0f xf] -clwsf/L, @)&! M #_ . o;sf] clek|fo Jofs/0fsf] ;}4flGts 1fg u/fpg' geO{ ljwfsf kf7sf] k|s[lt cg';f/sf Jofs/0f tTTjsf] klxrfg / ltgsf] pko'St k|of]u ug{] Ifdtf ljsf; ug'{ /x]sf] x'G5 . sfo{d"ns cjwf/0ff cg';f/ Jofs/0fnfO{ kf7a4 u/L l;sfpg] b[li6sf]0f /flvG5 . o;df kf7leq lh1f;f, cf1f, cfzª\sf, ;xdlt, c;xdlt, lzi6frf/, cfZro{ cflb cleJoSt ug{] sfo{df s] s:tf] ;+/rgf cfpF5 To;} cg';f/ Jofs/0f lzIf0f ug{' kg{] wf/0ff /flvG5 .

The Mega Journal 2020 [37] k|:t't n]vdf dfly pNn]v ePsf Jofs/0f lzIf0f ljlw tyf cjwf/0ffx?sf] 1fg lzIfsdf /x] g/x]sf] clg lzIfsn] ltgsf] pkof]u s] s;/L ug{] u/]sf 5g\ < pgLx?n] tLdWo] s'g} Pp6f jf ;f]eGbf a9L ljlw tyf cjnDag u/L Jofs/0f lzIf0f ug{] u/]sf 5g\ < tL kof{Kt, k|efjsf/L / pko'St 5g\, 5}gg\ < cflb klxNofO{ Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf] jf:tljs l:ylt cfsng ug{] sfo{ ePsf] 5 . kl/0ffd tyf 5nkmn o; v08 cGtu{t k|ZgfjnLaf6 k|fKt Jofs/0f lzIf0f ;DaGwL lzIfsx?sf] b[li6sf]0f / sIffsf]7f ul/Psf] sIff cjnf]sgaf6 k|fKt pkof]u ;DaGwL k|fKt tYox?, ltgsf] ljZn]if0f / To;af6 k|fKt lgisif{x? pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 . k|ZgfjnLdf Jofs/0f lzIf0fdf kf7 of]hgfsf] pkof]u, lzIf0f ljlw tyf k|lqmofx?, d"Nofª\sgsf cfwf/, z}lIfs ;fdu|L, kf7\o k':ts pkof]usf] ;Defjgf, Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf ljBdfg ;d:of / ltgsf] ;dfwfgsf pkfox? h:tf ljifo j:t'x? ;dfj]z ul/Psf 5g\ . of]hgfa4 lzIf0f M b}lgs kf7 of]hgf lgdf{0f u/L ;f] cg'¿ksf] lzIf0f af/]sf] lh1f;fdf clwsf+z lzIfsx? o;af/] k"0f{ hfgsf/L /x]sf clg tbg'¿k g} lzIf0f ug{] u/]sf] pgLx?sf] k|ltlqmof /x] klg sIff cjnf]sg ubf{ kf7 of]hgf lgdf{0f u/L lzIf0f ug{] lzIfsx?sf] ;ª\Vof clt Go"g kfOPsfn] lzIfsx?df of]hgfa4 lzIf0fsf] pgLx?n] ;}4flGts hfgsf/L eP klg o;sf] pkof]u lzIf0fdf guGo /x]sf] b]lvG5 . o;af6 5nkmnsf qmddf lzIfsx?n] cfjZost} eP lgdf{0f ug{] u/]sf] cGoyf dfgl;s ¿kdf tof/L u/]/ lzIf0f ug{] u/]sf] k|ltlj|mof lbPsf eP klg sIff cjnf]sgdf of]hgfa4 lzIf0fsf] k|ltljDag k]mnf kfg{ ;lsPg . o;n] lzIfsx?df oy]i6 tTk/tf / dxTTj af]w tyf lg/Gt/ cg'udgsf] cfjZostf b;f{Psf] 5 . clt yf]/} lzIfsn] dfq kf7 zLif{s, pb\b]Zo, d'Vo sfo{snfk / u[xsfo{sf nflu s]xL k|Zg /lh:6/df pNn]v ug{] u/]sf] kfOg'n] cfd lzIfsx?df of]hga4 lzIf0fk|lt ;r]ttfsf] sdL /x]sf] b]lvG5 . lzIf0f p2]Zo M lzIfsxn] Jofs/0f lzIf0f ubf{ eflifs z'4tf, lgodsf] 1fg, Jofs/l0fs tTTj klxrfg / pko'St k|of]u Ifdtf ljsf; h:tf p2]Zox? dWo] clwsf+z lzIfsx?n] Jofs/l0fs tTTj klxrfg / pko'St k|of]u Ifdtfsf] ljsf;nfO{ dxTTj lbg] k|ltlqmof lbP klg oyfy{df pgLx?sf] lzIf0f lgtfGt ;}4flGts / lgodd'vL g} /x]sf] kfOG5 . o;af6 lzIfsx?df Jofs/l0fs lgodx? tyf z'4fz'l4nfO{ g} Jofs/0f dfGg] k|j[lTt sfod} /x]sf] b]lvG5 oBlk pgLx?df Jofs/l0fs tTTj / k|of]u Ifdtfdf hf]8 lbg' kg{] s'/fsf] hfgsf/L /xg' ;sf/fTds kIf dfGg ;lsG5 . Jofs/0f lzIf0f ljlw M Jofs/0f lzIf0fdf cfudg, lgudg, efiff ;+;u{ / efiff kf7\o k':ts ljlwx?dWo] lzIfsx?n] pkof]u ug{] ljlwsf ;DaGwdf ldl>t k|ltlqmof kfOG5 . pgLx?dWo] clwsf+zn] cfudg / efiff kf7\o k':ts ljlwsf] dxTTj a'em]sf] b]lvP klg Jofjxf/df To;f]

[38] Nepal Mega college ug{] u/]sf] b]lvFb}g . pgLx?n] cem;Dd klg lgudgfTds ljlwaf6 d'St x'g ;s]sf] tYo cjnf]sgaf6 k'li6 x'Fb}g . o; kIf ;'wf/sf nflu ;do ;dodf lzIfsx?nfO{ gjLg ljlw tyf dfGotfx?sf af/]df hfgsf/L tyf lzIf0f sfo{zfnfx? cfof]hgf ug'{ kg{] dx;'; x'G5 . lzIf0f ug{ ;lhnf / ljz]if tof/Lsf] cfjZostf gkg{] eP/ g} lzIfsx? cGo k|of]ud'vL ljlwtk{m cfslif{t x'g OR5's gePsf x'g ;S5g\ . z}lIfs ;fdu|L k|of]u M Jofs/0f lzIf0fdf z}lIfs ;fdu|L pkof]u ;DaGwdf clwsf+z lzIfsx?af6 zAbkTtL, cy{kTtL, zAbfy{kTtL, jfSokTtL cflb k|of]u ug{] k|ltlj|mof cfPsf] / g]kfnL efiff lzIf0fdf pkof]u ug{ ;lsg] z}lIfs ;fdu|Lx?df uf]hL tflnsf, pbfx/0f tflnsf, cg'R5]b n]lvPsf] kf]:6/, j[Iflrq, k\mnf; sf8{, zAbsf]zx?, pbfx/0fkTtL, pvfg 6'Ssf ;"rL cflbsf pNn]v u/]sfdf k|of]u Tolt ;Gtf]ifhgs /x]sf] b]lvFb}g . sIff lzIf0fsf qmddf z}lIfs ;fdu|Lsf] s]xL dfqfdf k|of]u eP klg To;df ;Gtf]if ug{ ;lsg] cj:yf 5}g . o;/L x]bf{ ;fd'bflos ljBfnox?df lzIfsx?nfO{ z}lIfs ;fdu|Lsf] k|of]utk{m cfslif{t ug'{kg{] dx;'; x'G5 . lzIf0f l;sfO sfo{snfk M Jofs/0f lzIf0fdf ckgfOPsf l;sfO sfo{snfkx?sf ;DaGwdf lzIfsx?n] kf7 k|:t'tLs/0f, cEof;, jfSo lgdf{0f, jfSo klxrfg, jfSo lje]bLs/0f, q'l6 ;ª\sng, ljZn]if0f / lg/fs/0f, cg'n]vg, >'lt n]vg, cg'R5]b n]vg, ;:j/ jfrg, 5nkmn, jfSo n]vg, efiffsf] z'4tf / cz'4tf ;DaGwL lj|mofsnfkx?, lxHh] k|ltof]lutf, zAbsf]z k|of]u sfo{snfkx? u/fpg] u/]sf] clg ;d"xdf sfo{d"ns cEof;x?sf] pkof]u ul/Psf], eflifs ;Dk|]if0fdf hf]8 lbg] ul/Psf] k|ltlqmofx? lbPsf 5g\ . To:t} sfo{sf cfwf/df Jofs/0ffTds ;'em / ;r]ttfsf] ljsf; ug{], ljBfyL{ s]lGb|t k|of]ufTds sfo{snfkx? u/fpg] u/]sf] h:tf Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf ljljw kIfx? pNn]v u/]sf] kfOG5 t/ lzIfsx?sf] sIff cGt/lj|mof / sfo{snfkx?sf] pkof]u kIf klg ;Gtf]ifhgs b]lvFb}g . pgLx?sf] sIff lzIf0f 5nkmn / cGt/lj|mofdf eGbf JofVofgdf a9L cfwfl/t /x]sf] b]lvPsfn] lzIfsx?n] 1fgnfO{ Jojxf/df ptf{g bTtlrTt aGg'kg{] / JofVofgnfO{ eGbf sfo{snfkx?nfO{ hf]8 lbFbf o; kIfdf ;'wf/ Nofpg ;lsg] b]lvG5 . Jofs/0f lgodsf] hfgsf/L M cfwf/e"t txdf Jofs/0f lzIf0f ubf{ o;sf lgodx?sf] hfgsf/L k|:t't ug{] ;DaGwdf lzIfsx?df dt leGgtf b]lvG5 . pgLx?dWo] cfwfh;f]n] o;sf] cfjZostf dx;'; u/]sf] eP klg afFsLaf6 lgoddf hf]8 lbFbf ljBfyL{sf] l;h{gzLntf ;d]t gi6 x'g] k|ltljmof k|fKt ePsf] 5 / s]xL xb;Dd lgod af]w u/fpg' pko'St b]lvP klg cEof; / Jojxf/af6 g} lgodsf] ;'em af]w u/fO{ lzIf0f ug'{ a9L plrt x'g] lgisif{df k'Ug ;lsG5 . ljBfyL{x? pbfx/0fsf dfWodaf6 cfk}Fm lgod agfpg ;S5g\, lgod hfgsf/L u/fpFbf ljBfyL{sf] cEof; ug{] afgLdf sdL cfO{ k|of]u kIf sdhf]/ x'Fb} hfg] ePsfn] klg o; dfGotfnfO{ cfTd;ft ug'{ plrt b]lvG5 . sfo{d"ns ¿kdf Jofs/0f l;sfpg] b[li6sf]0faf6 x]bf{ klg kf7 / eflifs sfo{;Fu Jofs/0fsf s'/fx? l;sfpFb} nlug' pko'St x'g] b]lvG5 .

The Mega Journal 2020 [39] d"Nofª\sg kl/kf6L M Jofs/0f lzIf0f kZrft\ ul/g] d"Nofª\sg ;DaGwdf lzIfsx?df ce}m cGof]n /x]sf] b]lvG5 . emGg} krf; k|ltzt lzIfsx? lgod klxNofpg nufP/ d"Nofª\sg ug{ cu|;/ b]lvg'n] lzIfsx?df kf7\oqmdsf] dd{af]w x'g ;s]sf] b]lvFb}g . o; cfwf/df x]bf{ lzIfsx?n] Jofs/0f d"Nofª\sg kl/kf6Ldf kl/dfh{g ug'{ kg{] b]lvG5 . pgLx?n] lgod cfwfl/t lzIf0f kZrft\ kf7sf cEof;x? ug{ nufP/ d"Nofª\sg ug'{ kof{Kt 7fGg] u/]sfn] lzIf0fdf h;/L g} d"Nofª\sg klg ;'wf/ Nofpg' cfjZos b]lvG5 . Jofs/0f lzIf0f k/Dk/f M ljBfno txdf Jofs/0f lzIf0f k/Dk/f xfn;Dd cfOk'Ubf ;'wf/f]Gd'v cj:yfdf /x]sf] 5 . kf7\o k':tsdf ;'?b]lv clGtdsf] kf7;Dd Jofs/0fsf cEof;x?sf] k'g/fj[lTt eO/xg' ;sf/fTds ¿kdf lng ;lsG5 . kf7sf] ;flxlTos ljwf cg';f/ Jofs/0ffTds cEof; lgdf{0fdf cem hf]8 lbFb} lzIf0f klg cEof;, k|:t'tLs/0f, 5nkmn, cGt/lj|mof h:tf dfWodaf6 x'g' kb{5 . Jofs/0fnfO{ efiff lzIf0f;Fu} hf]8]/ PsLs[t lzIf0f ul/g' cfjZos b]lvG5 . ;Fu;Fu} lgudgfTds ljlwsf] k|of]u u/L Jofs/0f lzIf0f ug{] k|j[lTtnfO{ lg?T;flxt u/L ;;Gbe{ k|of]u kIfnfO{ hf]8 lbg] Jofs/0f lzIf0f ljlw ckgfpg' cfjZos b]lvG5 . dfWolds txdf efiff kf7\o k':ts ljlwaf6 Jofs/0f lzIf0f ug'{ kg{] u/L kf7\o k':ts lgld{t eP tfklg Jofs/0fsf ljljw cEof;x? yk ug'{ kg{] dx;'; x'G5 . ;du|df lzIfsx?sf wf/0ffx?nfO{ dgg ubf{ g]kfnL efiffsf] Jofs/0f ;'wf/f]Gd'v cj:yfdf /x]sf] eP klg o;nfO{ cem k|of]ufTds, ;Gbe{k"0f{ / sfo{d"ns agfpg' kg{] b]lvG5 . yk cEof; lgdf{0f M Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf j|mddf kf7sf afx]s yk k|Zg agfP/ cEof; u/fpg] ;DaGwdf ;Dk"0f{{ lzIfsx?n] To:tf k|Zg lgdf{0f u/]/ cEof; u/fpg] u/]sf] k|ltlj|mof lbPsf eP klg jf:tjdf Jojxf/df To:tf] k]mnf kfg{ ;lsPg . lzIfsx?n] /rgfTds, l;h{gfTds cEof;sf ;fy} k|;ª\u cg';f/ kf7df cfwfl/t cGo ;fGble{s cEof;x? klg u/fpg] u/]sf] hgfP klg sIff cjnf]sgdf of] tYo k'li6 x''g ;s]g . efiff kf7\o k':ts pkof]usf] ;Defjgf M Jofs/0f lzIf0fdf efiff kf7\o k':tssf] pkof]usf] ;Defjgf af/] /flvPsf] lh1f;fdf ;Dk"0f{ lzIfsx?n] To:tf] ;Defjgf /x]sf] wf/0ff k|s6 u/]sf 5g\ . pgLx?af6 kf7\o k':tsdf z'4 eflifs ¿ksf] k|of]u x'g] / o;af6 :t/Lo efifftTTjsf] 1fg lgdf{0f ug{ ;lsg] x'Fbf efiff kf7\o k':tsljgf Jofs/0f lzIf0f cw'/f] /xg], o;n] dfgs Jofs/0fsf] lzIf0f ug{ ;xof]u k'¥ofpg], ljBfyL{df k|of]uk/s Jofs/0ffTds wf/0ff ljsf; ug{ ;xh x'g] h:tf k|ltlqmofx? k|fKt x'g'nfO{ ;sf/fTds dfGg ;lsG5 . pgLx?sf] sIff cjnf]sgnfO{ cfwf/ dfGbf ;d]t lzIfsx?n] lstfa / To;sf cEof;df a9L e/ ug{] u/]sf] kfOPsfn] ;du| k7g kf7g k':tsdf dfq ;Lldt x'g] xf] ls eGg] eo l;h{gf ePsf] 5 . Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf ;d:of M ljBfno txdf Jofs/0f lzIf0fdf cfO k/]sf ;d:ofx?sf ;DaGwdf lzIfsx?sf] k|ltlqmof / sIff cjnf]sgaf6 lgDg lnlvt ;d:ofx? ljBdfg /x]sf] dx;'; x'G5 M

[40] Nepal Mega college á k/Dk/fut ;f]r clg Jofs/0f lzIf0fdf To;sf] k|efj ljBdfg x'g', á lzIfsdf Jofs/0f lzIf0fk|ltsf] gjLg b[li6sf]0f tyf ;'emsf k|lt tTk/tf gb]lvg', á lzIfs ljBfyL{df Jofs/0f cnu} ljifosf ¿kdf cWoog cWofkg u/fpg] k|j[lTt /xg', á g]kfnL ljifonfO{ ;fdfGo / sfdrnfp ljifosf] ¿kdf x]g'{ clg eflifs z'4tfsf] Vofn gug'{, á ljBfyL{sf] j}olSts leGgtf tyf eflifs cfjZostf Vofn u/L lzIf0f ug{] b[li6sf]0fn] :yfg gkfpg', á k/Dk/fut Jofs/0fsf] k|rngn] sfo{d"ns Jofs/0f k|of]udf cfpg ;d:of x'g', á g]kfnL ljifosf z}Ifl0fs Jofs/0fx? ;j{;'ne x'g g;Sg' clg dfgs Jofs/0fsf] cefj x'g' ;fy} j0f{ljGof;af/] dt}So gkfOg', á kf7;Fu Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf] tfnd]n gldNg', kf7k/s / /rgfd'vL Jofs/0f lzIf0f ug{ ldNg] u/L kf7\o k':tsx? tof/ gx'g', á :yfgLo efiff / dft[efiffsf] k|efj tyf ljBfyL{sf] k"j{eflifs k[i7e"ld Vofn gx'g', á g]kfnLsf eflifsfut k[i7e"ldsf sf/0f lzIf0fdf sl7gfO b]vfkg'{, á ljBfyL{n] ;flxTo lzIf0fdf hlt pT;'stf Jofs/0f lzIf0fdf gb]vfpg', á z}lIfs ;fdu|Lx?sf] kof{Kt pkof]u gx'g' cflb . o;/L ljBfno txdf cWofkg/t g]kfnL ljifo lzIfsx?df kof{Kt hfgsf/L /x]sf] kfOG5 tfklg lzIf0fsf plNnlvt ;d:of tyf sl7gfOx?sf sf/0f Jofs/0f lzIf0f k|efjsf/L aGg ;Sg] b]lvFb}g . Jofs/0f lzIf0fnfO{ k|efjsf/L / p2]Zod"ns agfpg pko'{St ;d:ofx?sf] ;dfwfgdf ljz]if Wofg lbg' cfjZos b]lvG5 . ;dfwfgsf pkfo M Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf pSt ;d:of ;dfwfgsf pkfox?df efiffleq}af6 Jofs/0f ;DaGwL ;'em ljsf; u/fpFb} efiff kf7\ok':tssf] clws pkof]u, ub{} ;Gbe{k"0f{ cEof;fTds lzIf0fdf hf]8 lbg'kg{] b]lvG5 . ;do ;dodf Jofs/0f lzIf0f ;DaGwL tflnd, 5f]6f] cjlwsf] k'gtf{huL tyf cGt/lqmofTds sfo{qmdx? ;~rfng, j0f{ljGof; ;DaGwL :ki6tf, ljBfyL{d}qL tyf ;xeflutfd"ns lzIf0f, k"j{eflifs k[i7e"ldsf] klxrfg, ;}4flGts d"Nofª\sg k|0ffnLdf kl/jt{g h:tf sfo{x?nfO{ k|efjsf/L agfpFbf ljBdfg ;d:ofx? ;dfwfg x'Fb} hfg] b]lvG5 . lzIfsx?af6 k|fKt ;'emfpx?sf] cfwf/df eGg'kbf{ klg efiff kf7\o k':tsdf k|of]u ul/g] Jofs/0fdf j0f{ ljGof;ut Ps ¿ktf, tNnf sIffb]lv g} Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf] k|efjsf/L 9ª\uaf6 ;~rfng, k|of]ud"ns / cEof;d"ns eP ce}m /fd|f] x'g], bf];|f] efifL ljBfyL{nfO{ ;d]t Vofn u/]/ k|of]ud"ns / cEof;d"ns tl/sfn] Jofs/0f lzIf0f ug'{kg{] h:tf pkfo cjnDjg u/L ;sf/fTds ;'wf/sf] af6f]df cu|;/ x'g'kg{] b]lvG5 .

The Mega Journal 2020 [41] lgisif{ ljBfno txdf Jofs/0f lzIf0faf/] ul/Psf] o; cWoogaf6 lgDg lnlvt d'Vo lgisif{x?df k'Ug ;lsG5 M Jofs/0f lzIf0faf/] lzIfsx?df kof{Kt hfgsf/L /x] klg sd} -@) k|ltzt_ lzIfsx?n] dfq Jofjxfl/s ¿kdf o;nfO{ ptf/]sf] b]lvG5 . pgLx?df Jofs/l0fs lgodnfO{ eGbf k|of]unfO{ dxTTj lbg] k|j[lTt s|dzM a9\b} uPsf] eP klg cBflk To;n] Jofkstf kfpg ;s]sf] 5}g . cem z'4fz'l4nfO{ g} Jofs/0f 7fGg] k|j[lTt oqtq /x]sf] b]lvG5 . lzIfsx?sf] sIff k|:t'lt JofVofgdf cfwfl/t geO{ cGt/lj|mof / sfo{snfkdf hf]8 lbg] vfnsf] x'g' kg{]df lgod / pbfx/0f s]lGb|t lzIf0f ljlwn] g} k|d'vtf kfPsf] kfOG5 . To:tf lzIf0f ljlw tyf sfo{snfkx?df ;'wf/ u/L eflifs sfo{ / k|of]ufl>t lzIf0fdf g} ljz]if hf]8 lbg' cfjZos b]lvG5 . Jofs/0f lzIf0fdf z}lIfs ;fdu|L pkof]uaf/] ;sf/fTds k|ltlqmof cfP klg ax';ª\Vos lzIfssf] lzIf0fdf ;f]sf] pkof]u gkfOg'n] o;dfly zª\sf ug{ ;lsG5 . To:t} clwsf+z lzIfsx?n] kf7sf cEof;x? dfq ug{ nufPsf] / Hofb} sd -% k|ltzt_ lzIfsn] dfq ;;Gbe{ k|of]u ug{ nufPsf] b]lvg' l;sfOsf b[li6n] pko'St b]lvFb}g . Jofs/0f lzIf0f kf7\o k':tssf gd'gf cEof;x?df dfq ;Lldt /xg', sfo{d"nstf / kf7k/s Jofs/0fsf] sd pkof]u x'g' o;sf sdhf]/ kIfx? b]lvG5g\ . To:t} ljBfyL{sf] ?lr / ;xeflutf, sfo{snfkx?sf] pko'Sttf, lzIf0fdf kf7sf] pkof]u, ljBfyL{ d"Nofª\sg cflb b[li6n] Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf] l:ylt ;Gtf]ifhgs dfGg ;lsFb}g . To:t} lzIfsx?af6 ljBfyL{ d"Nofª\sg, kf7sf] k'g/fj[lTt / k[i7 kf]if0f k|bg ug{] sfo{ klg lj/n} ;DkGg x'g] u/]sf b]lvG5g\ . o; ;fgf] cWoogdf clwsf+z lzIfsx?df Jofs/0f lzIf0f ;DaGwL rflxFbf] hfgsf/L /x] klg pgLx?df Jojxf/df To;sf] pkof]u ug{] tTk/tf / OR5fzlStsf] k|foM cefj /x]sf] kfOG5 . Jofs/l0fs tTTj / ltgsf] k|of]udf hf]8 lbg nufpg vf]Hg' eg] ;sf/fTds kIf g} dfGg' kg{] b]lvG5 . ;Gbe{ ;"rL clwsf/L, x]dfª\u /fh -@)^&_, efiff lzIf0f M s]xL kl/k|]If tyf k4lt, sf7df8f}F M ljBfyL{ k':ts e08f/ . clwsf/L, x]dfª\u /fh -@)&!_, efiff lzIf0fsf nflu /rgfd'vL Jofs/0fsf] vf]hL, lzIffzf:q ;f}/e, jif{ !$–!%, cª\s !&–!*, sf7df8f}F} lzIff SofDk;, /fdzfx ky, sf7df8f}F .

[42] Nepal Mega college Oln;, cf/ -;g\ @)!@_, s/]G6 O:o'h Og b l6lrª ckm u|fd/ M Pg P;=Pn=P= k|:k]lS6e, 6];f] n Sjf6/nL, https:\\doi: org\10.2307\40264512. s+8]n, k"0f{ -@)^^_, g]kfnL efiff lzIf0fk|ltsf] wf/0ff, ;Dk|]if0f, jif{ ^, cª\s ^, g]kfnL efiff lzIff ljefu, lq= lj= sLlt{k'/ . kf}8]n, kbdf -@)^%_, g]kfnL Jofs/0f lzIf0fsf k|rlnt ljlwx?, ;Dk|]if0f, jif{ %, cª\s %, g] kfnL efiff lzIff ljefu, lq= lj= sLlt{k'/ . kf}8]n, dfwj k|;fb -@)&!_, Jofs/0f lzIf0f M r'gf}tL / ;Defjgf, lzIffzf:q ;f}/e, jif{ !$–!%, cª\s !&–!*, sf7df8f}F} lzIff SofDk;, /fdzfx ky, sf7df8f}F . ofbj, of]u]Gb| k|;fb -;g\ @))&_, Yof]l/h ckm u|fd/, sf7df8f}F M :6'8]G6 a'S; klAn;;{ . nD;fn, /fdrGb| -@)^@_, g]kfnL efiff / Jofs/0f, sf7df8f}F M ;gnfO6 klAns];g . ;'j]bL, t'n;L -@)^$_, g]kfnL Jofs/0f lzIf0f M k|of]hg / ;d:of, ;Dk|]if0f, jif{ $, cª\s $, g]kfnL efiff lzIff ljefu, lq= lj= sLlt{k'/ . lxª\s]n, O=, ;G8«f, Pkm -;g\ @))*_, Go' k|:k]lS6E; cg u|fd/ l6lrª Og ;]s]G8 Nofª\Uj]h Snf;?D;, Go'of]s{ M 6]n/ PG8 k]|mlG;; u|'k .

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The Mega Journal 2020 [43] Sports Tourism Initiatives For Sustainable Livelihood Adaptation In Nepal

Dwarika Upreti Nepal Mega College [email protected]

Abstract The main objective of the paper is to clarify the different adaptive strategies and livelihood pattern based on sports tourism initiatives in Nepali rural villages. This has drawn our attention. The livelihood is shaped as per the natural resources and other means provided in the area. This study has attempted to survey the climate change effects in the territory in long run. It has been possible by studying the changes and advancements experienced for twenty years back to today. While analyzing the different researches and studies of the past and the study has concluded that there are number of challenges despite of some progress and advancement in the livelihood. The majority of the population of Nepal resides in the rural areas so that the livelihood in general is critical in such areas. While studying for 20 years there have been changes and progresses in the livelihood pattern and adaptation strategies. The sports tourism has been found effective and efficient tool for the advocacy and lobbying in favor of livelihood promotion as well as sustainable development. The study and analysis of the documents have revealed that there has been tremendous efforts carried out in local level and more demand has been raised for national as well as international events. The sports tourism initiatives have been demanded for the accumulation of the climatic change effects as well as the environmental factors for poverty alleviation along with socio-cultural prosperity.

Keywords: Sports Tourism, Livelihood Adaptation, Sustainable Development, Empowerment, Youth Exchange Programs

[44] Nepal Mega college Introduction Sports tourism initiatives for sustainable livelihood of any household depends on effective security measures i.e. ownership, resources and income-earning activities, including resources and assets to offset risk, ease shocks and meet contingencies; ownership of land and livestock; rights to grazing, fishing, hunting or gathering; and stable employment with adequate remuneration.

Sports tourism initiatives for livelihood is determined by a number of factors, such as diversity in livelihood strategies that exist at every level within geographic areas, across sectors, within households and over time which are mainly determined by environmental, socio-economic and cultural factors. It is determined by the peoples' perceptions evaluation of the possibilities offered by these physical as well as socio- economic environments (Knowledge and Wareing, 1996). Livelihood is also shaped by political system within which they operate, how Panchayat vs. multiparty or Congress vs. Communist? Does the author mean economic system within a certain political framework? (Hoeck, 2001). Sports tourism initiatives for many livelihood patterns are largely predetermined by accident of birth and their parents’ occupations. It is also predetermined through education and migration and living conditions of families does the author mean this? (Chambers & Conway, 1991). In general, Sports tourism initiatives for the adaptations refer to responses or actions of individuals that have survival value for the individual and the group that constitute the plan of actions carried over a specific time by specific group of people to allow them to adjust or to cope with their local environment. During the latter parts of the 1990's, Nepalese began to migrate to the Gulf countries for work, particularly to Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Kuwait and Qatar within a short period. Sports tourism initiatives and the livelihood pattern implications of this situation are far-reaching for Nepal as a whole, for the structure and dynamics of regional and local economy and society. Livelihood strategy varies from place to place. Particularly, two characteristics of physical environments of the existing resources together with the socio-economic/cultural factors control human activities (Young, 1973).

Sports tourism initiatives for the livelihoods comprise the capabilities and material and social assets necessary for a means of living (Chambers & Conway, 1992). A sustainable livelihood includes the idea of coping with and recovery from external stresses to maintain or enhance existing capabilities and assets - a notion central to the definitions of resilience being discussed in relation to climate change.

The Mega Journal 2020 [45] Institutions influence the livelihoods and adaptation of rural households in three important ways.

• They structure the distribution of climate risk impacts. How particular social groups and populations will be affected by climate hazards is in part a function of the physical and structural characteristics of the hazard. It is also in part a function of the way macro- and micro-level institutions in a variety of domains affect distribution of risks related to climate hazards. • They constitute and organize the incentive structures for household and community level adaptation responses which shape the nature of these responses. Institutional incentives are key factors in determining whether adaptation responses will be organized individually or collectively because institutions affect the emergence of leadership in different contexts, costs of collective action, and the extent of transactions costs. • They mediate external interventions into local contexts, and articulate between local and extra-local social and political processes through which adaptation efforts unfold. External interventions in the shape of finances, knowledge and information, skills training, new institutional inputs, and technological support can assume many different forms. Local institutions shape the acquisition and distribution of these interventions in fundamental ways, thereby affecting the degree of success of such interventions. Objective The objective of this paper is to clarify the different adaptive strategies and livelihood pattern based on sports tourism initiatives in Nepali rural villages. Methodology The methodology adopted is use of relevant literature and interview with the key personnel involved in tourism sectors. Such five people who were involved in tourism sectors more than 3 decades were contacted. Problems Faced by Livelihoods The concept of static equilibrium envisaged in eco-system analysis of man- environment relation has attracted the scholars in recent days. Humans are capable of modifying the rate of such changes or even to reverse it. In fact, man modifies the natural environment for the production of both plants and animals for subsistence

[46] Nepal Mega college and exchange. Sports tourism initiatives and the sustainability of livelihood depends on different factors. Among them, the climate condition plays a significant role. In recent years, the global climate has changed due to various human Induced causes. In this research, climate and socio-economic change varies from local to regional, country and global level and in cases the spatial unit of inquiry is the administrative region. This is formal, which is not necessarily characterized by natural process and associated system in which ecological and physical factors, infrastructural provision, population, ethnicity and social-cultural tradition differ markedly within a short spatial distance. This factor shapes sports tourism initiatives and livelihood directly and indirectly as these factors provide opportunities as well as constraints for people's livelihood. Thus there is need of study at rural level. Emergence of the Concept of Sports Tourism Initiatives for Livelihood The concept of livelihood dates back to the work of Robert Chambers in the mid- 1980s and was further developed by chambers and Conway and others in the early 1990s (DFID, 1999). The Brundtland Commission in 1987 introduced sustainable livelihoods in terms of resource ownership and access, basic needs and livelihood security especially in rural areas. Likewise, the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development legitimized and adapted the concept referring "sustainable livelihoods for all" in its Agenda 21. The Copenhagen Social Summit linked sustainable livelihoods explicitly to full employment and the Beijing Platform reemphasized the importance of women's livelihoods to successful development (DFID) adopted sustainable livelihoods approaches from its 1997 White Paper on International Development to its development activities particularly in poverty elimination (DFID, 1999). Besides, international Organization like the European Commission, the World Bank, Food and Agricultural Organization of United Nation (FAO), International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) are further developing this approach (Wyss, 2004). Sports tourism initiatives and the livelihood approach is a way of thinking about the objectives, scope and priorities for development. DFID has introduced the sustainable livelihood framework with six guiding principles as a tool to improve understanding of livelihoods particularly of poor. Theoretical Discourse and Conceptual Framework There are two schools of thought on poverty. One school of thought argues poverty from the point of view of employment, while others argue livelihood as crucial,

The Mega Journal 2020 [47] especially, in the context of geographic context, for example rural vs. urban poor people). The employment school of thought views income at the center of analyzing poverty and ponders over the concepts of urban areas, industries, and other formal sector of economy where an individual can hold a job and get regular payment as daily, weekly or monthly pay and perks. It is perhaps true in an urban setting.

The second school of thought considers livelihood as a complex phenomenon, primarily in a rural setting. Poverty is one of the components interlocking the entire dimension of deprivation, which has five clusters of disadvantages: physical weakness, isolation, poverty, vulnerability and powerlessness (Chambers, Saxena &Shah, 1991, pp. 8-11). Poverty has no single component; understanding it requires complex and exhaustive efforts. The rural poor reside very far from the formal sector of economy with timetable (with time table yes, but with formal economy no, this sentence needs rephrasing what the author mean, rural areas have more formal economy than urban sector), employment, salary, and market economy. Thus, they can think of the ways to seek livelihood by exploring? exploiting a whole range of activities in different seasons.

Professionals, planners, and policymakers strongly believe that poverty can be reduced by creating off-seasonal employment for the rural poor through sports tourism initiatives. Great idea.has initiated in India to provide employment to the poorest in the slack seasons and build infrastructures, though the “outcomes do not support the set assumptions” (Singh, 1995: pp.180-198). Similarly, in the 1990s with the onset of multiparty democracy, the government of Nepal initiated a special program- Garib Sanga Bisheshwar which was designed to serve 100 families from each of the 205 parliamentary electoral constituencies every year. In order to identify the problems and implement programs, it developed criteria of the poor people who could benefit from the program, e.g. landless state, nutrition level, social deprivation, marginalization, gender, and age but no remarkable achievement been noticed from this program (Hakal, 2002, pp. 71-83). In Nawalparasi district, both the programs Garib Sanga Bisheshwor and West Tarai Poverty Alleviation have been implemented. Despite the fact that the relevant Village Development Committees (VDCs have met all the criteria to implement the anti-poverty programs, 42 percent of the households are yet without land (www.cbs.gov.np). Due to their varied and conflicting interests, the central and district level policymakers never implemented the anti-poverty programs in the concerned VDCs.

In order to measure the programs in society, the modern world has developed several indicators, Viz. Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Gross national product (GNP),

[48] Nepal Mega college Physical Quality of life Index (PQLI), Human Development Index (HDI), Human Empowerment Index , and Gender Empowerment Index (GDI), etc. Similarly, a number of approaches for rural development have been used, viz. top-down approach, bottom-up approach, integrated rural development approach, etc (Devkota, 1999: p. 67).

Almost all of development approaches so far devised and advocated by the economists have not addressed the ground realities. UN has become one of the vanguards for development. At the end, past development efforts have left either behind, or in the same way even created, large areas of poverty, stagnation, marginality and exclusion (quoted in Esteva, 2000, p. 18). Nepali Anthropologists have recently recognized these issues and have included in their research agendas (Grillo, 1997:p.1-2).

Since the failure of anti-poverty agenda of the US in the 1960s, the issue of poverty has gradually been taken away from the economists and it now falls under the modernization paradigm and due importance is given to the social aspects. It is noteworthy to mention that there are several theories in sociology and anthropology, which explain the status of poverty. For example: Social Theory of Poverty, Culture of Poverty, Situational Theory of Poverty, and Structural. These theories form the foundations for the analysis of the situations.

Social Theory of Poverty was propounded by Charles Darwin. Vigorous proponents of this view have been found in the US recently as a 'new right ' which includes George Gilder, Murry and Richard Hernstein. They hold an extreme belief that the poor are genetically blueprinted to be at the bottom of the social hierarchy; to invest for them is a sheer wastage of resources.

The theory of Culture of Poverty was developed by Oscar Lewis (1959) which was based on his observations and experiences in Mexico. The Situational Theory of Poverty gives importance to the condition of society that contributes toward magnifying poverty. The Structural Theory of Poverty holds is caused by the structure of large scale social-economic order. It is the macro and holistic structure of the society that produces inequality and as a result poverty emerges which becomes widespread. Various theories have been used to describe the issue related with poverty but their perspectives are different. However, the examples of the Third World countries, especially from the neighboring country, are relevant. Please take this section up at the beginning of the Conceptual concepts and then narrow down to the cases of Nepal to explain if these theories apply to the context of Nepal.

The Mega Journal 2020 [49] Figure: DFID Livelihood Model

Source: DFID. Project Appraisal, 2007 (Copyrights do not allow such a copy and paste, please make your own diagram though it may be very similar and state Adapted from DFID, Project Appraisal 2007. This diagram represents the global phenomena, thus, taking it right after the discussion of different theories would make more sense).

The word 'livelihood' can be used in many ways on the basis of context and culture which comprises the capabilities, assets (material as well as social resources), and activities that are required for a means of living.

Nepal has pursued livelihood security at the household level, which can only be achieved by integrating the needs and opportunities related to individual security components like economic security food security, potable water, health services, educational opportunities and time for community participation (GON, 2014). But it has undermined the decision-making component, which is one of the crucial factors, at all levels in policy framework. Oxfam and UNDP have also used the livelihood approach in their programs to analyze the poverty issue.

Approaches to Sports Tourism Initiatives for Livelihood Improvement The livelihood concept is a recent one. The concept of sports tourism initiatives dates back to the work of Robert Chambers in the mid-1980s and was further developed by Chambers and Conway and others in the early 1900s (DFID, 1999). The sustainable livelihood approach as a development concept is legitimized through several international forums. Take this section to the theoretical concept.

[50] Nepal Mega college With regard to sustainable livelihoods DFID (1999) published a set of guidance sheets with a view to attempting to summarize and share on sports tourism initiatives for the sustainable livelihoods approach. The guidance sheets are the outcomes of the White paper on International Development issued by Government of the UK in 1997. Following the approach of Chambers and Conway (1999), DFID define livelihoods with some modifications but it is exactly the same as defined by Carney (1998). The guidance sheet presents origin, core concepts and framework of sustainable livelihoods. The framework presents the main factors that the affect people's livelihoods and interrelationship between these factors. It begins with simultaneous of people's assets, their objective and the livelihood strategies, which they adapt to achieve their objectives. The framework shows five capital assets- human, social, natural, physical, and financial in a shape of pentagon, which lies at the core the framework and it is connected to the other components which vulnerability context, transforming structure and processes, livelihood strategies and livelihood outcomes. The capital assets are defined as:

• Human capital represents the skills, knowledge, ability to labor and good health that together enable people to propose different livelihood strategies and achieve their livelihood objectives. • Social capital includes networks and connectedness, membership of more formalized groups and relationships of trust, reciprocity and exchanges. • Natural capitals are the natural resources stock from which resources flow and service useful for livelihoods are derived. These include land, forest, marine/ wild resources, water, air quality, erosion protection, waste assimilation, storm protection, biodiversity degree and rate of change. • Physical capital comprises the basic infrastructure and produce goods needed to support livelihoods. • Financial capital denotes the financial resources that people use to achieve their livelihood objectives. There are two main sources of financial capital- available stocks (cash, bank deposits, livestock, and jewelry) and regular inflow of the money such as pension or remittances. Though Nepal lacks adequate resources for sports development, it has potentials in human capital, social capital. If these capitals can be harnessed carefully keeping them away from political bickering, it is likely that sports management could be a part of employment generation and poverty alleviation. More research is needed

The Mega Journal 2020 [51] to connect Nepali lifestyles of sports management with various activities. Sport management may very well material the proverbial of, “health is wealth”. Today, we have been receiving news that people are dying at early age due to congestive failure, obesity, lethargic habits, and drinking. We have also noticed many nefarious activities in various parts of the country. Sports management can serve as one of the active vehicles to generate employment, which will also carry the message of “healthy, wealthy, and wise” is the only way to improve the Nepali living style as body and mind work together. Conclusion While studying the different researches and studies made by NGO's, INGO's and many other organizations, we can conclude that still there are number of challenges despite of some progress and advancement to the sports tourism initiatives for the livelihood improvement. The majority of the population of Nepal resides in the rural areas so that the livelihood in general is critical in such areas. While studying for 20 years there have been changes and progresses in the livelihood pattern and adaptation strategies. The study and analysis of the documents have revealed that there has been a tremendous efforts carried out for the implementation of the programs of interventions in future. The sustainable programs have been demanded for the accumulation of the climatic change effects as well as the environmental factors for poverty alleviation through sports tourism initiatives. References

GON. (2014). An approach of livelihood improvement. Annual Report. Kathmandu: Author.

Carney, G. (1998). Sociology of arch land. New Delhi: McGraw Hill Book.

Chambers, R., & Conway, G. (1991). Sustainable rural livelihoods: Practical concepts for the 21st century. Paper 296 (1991).

Chambers, R., Saxena, K., & Shah, (1991). Rural economic intervention and development. pp. 8-11. Calcutta: Chand and Company Limited.

Devkota, C. B. (1999). People's participation in regional planning & rural development in India. Annual Report.

Estiva, L. (1999). Development for sustainable livelihood: An approach of development intervention, Strategic Paper, pp. 67.

[52] Nepal Mega college DFID. (1999). Sustainable livelihoods guidance sheets. A Strategic Paper. London: Author.

Grillo, B. ( 2002). Poverty reduction and economic reform in developing countries (2nd ed.), pp. 71-83. Calcutta: S. Chand & Company. Hakal, A. (2001). Climate change and its impacts (5th ed.), pp 231. New York, NY: Sage Publication. Hoeck, M. (1996). Livelihood analysis and impact on development. New Delhi: McGraw Hill Publication. Oscar L., R. (2007). Sustainable rural livelihood approach. Phathalung Watershed, Southern Thailand. Singh, S. B. (1995). Culture of poverty and livelihood (7th ed.), pp.180-198. New Delhi: Sage Publication. Wyss, P. (2004). Land pooling practice. New Delhi: Sage Publication Young, D. (1973). Sustainable development and livelihood (3rd ed.). Uttarakhad: Three Brothers’ Publication.

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The Mega Journal 2020 [53] Grounds of Maoist Insurgency in Nepal

Gunanidhi Sharma Resunga Multiple Campus, Tamghas, Gulmi [email protected]

Abstract

This paper analyzes the Maoist movement in Nepal from a large scale and long-term perspective. This perspective from the field of macro sociology has been utilized in tandem with a comparative study of revolution in order to test the assumption that the origin and impact of the Maoist movement may be defined as having been constructed globally: revolution against Bourbon dictatorship in France in the eighteenth century, anti-colonial movement against Britain for American independence of federal republicanism, Maoist revolution in China in 1949 to establish new peoples’ democracy, the Naxalite movement in India, and Marxist socialism against feudal and capitalist structure. There is, however, a local angle, of course: discriminations in Nepal in terms of caste, gender, ethnicity, corruption, poverty, unemployment, class exploitation, socio-cultural fundamentalism, and inequality. Even these local causes are not just limited to Nepal but are pan-South Asian. Neo-Marxists, however, do not agree with the primacy given to the class cleavage or the mode of production; for them it is the mode of exchange. According to them, the rise or the fall of a state is not something that can be comprehended locally but as a continuum of a changing world system. The Maoist insurgency, which was started with a radical socialist core strategy, followed the global trend of violence-prone movements or revolutions against the feudal and / or capitalist systems.

Keywords: Maoist movement, long term large-scale perspective, macro sociology, comparative study of revolution, discriminations in Nepal, Marxist socialism, Neo-Marxists, and changing world system

[54] Nepal Mega college Introduction: Origin of Movement The growth of communist movement in Nepal has become an important topic for study in the 21st century even as communist regimes fell one after another around the world in the century just gone by. The communist movement expanded rapidly in Nepal despite the declaration of an end of ideology after the end of cold war and despite lack of significant external support (Fukuyama, 1993). In terms of large scale and long run perspective, so far as the communist movement in Nepal is concerned, it arrived through its southern democratic neighbour—India—in the preliminary stage. The Communist Party of Nepal (CPN) was established in 1949 in Calcutta, India, with the support of Indian communist leaders. At the outset, it was banned from 1952 to 1956, but later it was allowed to participate in the first general election for the Parliament in 1959. The party won only four seats out of a hundred and nine (K.C., 1999). It was again banned when the multi-party system was toppled to pave the way for what is known as the Panchayat era. The party went underground and insidiously grew from strength to strength. It was, to a great extent, instrumental to the 1990 change in political system and, thereafter, it functioned as a key challenger to the Nepali Congress. But it worked alongside the Nepali Congress for the peace process, the ouster of King Gyanendra Shah in 2006-07, and the declaration of republican democracy in Nepal. Despite such momentous roles, what has plagued CPN is the intra-party conflict that it has faced in many times since its existence. As K. C. (ibidem) has said, the communist movement in Nepal has faced a chronic problem of factionalism and frequent splits. There have been around a dozen communist parties and factions in the country since 1960.

So far as the radical movement of the communist party is concerned, the Maoist insurgency occupies a top spot. The Nepali communists had earlier launched a violent movement for the first time in 1971. That movement had been influenced by the then Naxalite violence in West-Bengal, India. A group of young communists had killed some ‘class enemies’ in Jhapa district in eastern Nepal. The movement was brutally crushed by the Panchayat government. Later, a radical communist group emerged as a communist party of Nepal-Marxist Leninist (CPN-ML) in 1978 and CPN-UML in 1990 (Lawoti & Pahari, 2010).

In this paper, I want to draw attention to how Maoist the Maoist movement in Nepal evolved and made its impact in the country. The Maoist party was a small communist faction among a number of extremist communist parties before 1996. Scholars, who have dug out its the history, identify its origin with the establishment of the

The Mega Journal 2020 [55] CPN’s fourth Congress in 1974 under Nirmal Lama and Mohan Bikram Singh. After a number of splits, some groups and cadres involved in the CPN-Fourth congress, except Mohan Bikram Singh and CPN-Mashal he led, formed the CPN-Unity centre on 23 November 1990 (Thapa & Sijapati, 2003). The CPN-UC was made up of the CPN-Fourth Congress led by Nirmal Lama, CPN-Mashal led by Prachanda aka Pushpa Kamal Dahal who had replaced Kiran Aka Mohan Baiddya and the break- away faction of the CPN-Mashal led by Baburam Bhattarai, the Maoist ideologue. Later the CPN-UC established a political front led by Baburam Bhattarai—the United People’s Front Nepal (UPFN)—to participate in the election (Maharjan, 1993). Before the mid-term elections in 1994, the CPN- UC and the UPFN split and the factions led by Prachanda and Baburam Bhattarai boycotted the election partly because their front was not recognized by the Election Commission. Meanwhile, Prachanda-led CPN- UC held its third plenum in 1995 during which the party renamed itself as Communist Party of Nepal-Maoist (CPN-Maoist) and decided to begin an armed insurgency (Thapa & Sijapati, 2003). On the other hand, on 4 February 1996, the UPFN led by Baburam Bhattarai submitted a list of 40 demands relating to nationalism, people's democracy, and livelihood with an ultimatum to initiate insurgency if they were not addressed (Lawoti & Pahari, 2010). Among the demands, most were wishful issues like nationalism, livelihood, land rights to tenants, secular state, employment guarantee, etc., but some other demands were ideological and questionable in terms of democratic values such as restricting the activities of NGOs, abolishment of royal privileges, the establishment of a republican state, and the promulgation of a new constitution reflecting these changes. When those genuine demands were not met by the state authority, right after the expiry of ultimatum, the CPN-Maoists declared insurgency on 13 February, 1996 by attacking rural police posts in three districts— two in the mid-western and one in the central region at the same time, and thereafter the insurgency grew rapidly. Theoretical Perspectives Scholars of sociology analyze social phenomena at different levels and from different perspectives: from concrete interpretations to generalizations of society and social behavior, sociologists study both at the macro and micro levels. Pioneering European sociologists, however, also offered a broad conceptualization of the fundamentals of society and its workings. Their views form the basis for today’s theoretical perspectives or paradigms, which provide sociologists with an orienting framework - a philosophical position - for asking certain kinds of questions about the society and its people.

[56] Nepal Mega college Sociologists today focus on three primary theoretical perspectives: the symbolic interactionist perspective, in which micro level of events—face to face individual activities—is to be analyzed, the functionalist perspective which indicates macro parts of the society and their functions—and the conflict perspective which analyses the macro level of the mode of production, competition in resources and how the elites’ control over the poor work globally. These perspectives offer sociologists with theoretical paradigms for explaining how the society influences people, and vice versa. Each perspective uniquely conceptualizes the society, social forces, and human behaviour.

Similarly, so far as the large scale perspective is concerned, the chaos theory maintains that a flutter of bee in the South Atlantic can create the global storm. Every individual, group, institution and entire world is globally connected and interdependent. Each unit is constituted by the whole. The flutters of Duryodhana and Draupadi led to the close of a whole cycle of four Yugas, to the end of a whole era, to the end of an entire political system and ultimately to the end of the Pandavas and the Kauravas— dissolution of an entire historical epoch and a whole historical structure.

Charles Tilly’s work embodies a particularly effective voice for the scope and value of macro-history. Tilly puts the problem of large-scale history this way: How can we improve our understanding of the large-scale structures and processes that were transforming the world of the nineteenth century and those that are transforming our world today? (Tilly, 1984). The presupposition here is evident: there are large- scale structures and processes which persist, recur, and causally interact in such ways as can be understood to transform the world. The point can be extended to Asia and other great historical examples, in which case the macro-historian is looking to identify large-scale structures that transform complex socio-economic formations and bring about typical outcomes. The examples which Tilly offers of large-scale processes and structures include national states, capitalist organization, urbanization, and industrialization. Other large factors commonly invoked in macro-history include population, prices, technological innovations, religion, and class.

It is perhaps hypothetical and arbitrary to begin with a definition; but we need to be able to fix our attention on a specific set of intellectual ambitions that large-scale history is historical inquiry that possesses some characteristics:

• The inquiry defines its scope over a long-time period and/or a large geographical range;

The Mega Journal 2020 [57] • The inquiry undertakes to account for large structural characteristics, processes, and conditions as historical outcomes; • The inquiry singles out large structural characteristics within the social order as central causes leading to the observed historical outcomes; • The inquiry aspires to some form of comparative generality across historical contexts, both in its diagnosis of causes and its attribution of patterns of stability and development. In other words, large-scale history defines both its scope and the outcomes to be studied in large terms. It hypothesizes that some of the causes of these outcomes are themselves large structures, for example, history of the long duration—accounts of the development of the large-scale features of a particular region, nation, or civilization, including population history, economic history, political history, war and peace, cultural formations, and religion. Comparative history is a comparative account, grounded in a particular set of questions, of the similarities and contrasts of related institutions or circumstances in separated contexts e.g. states, economic institutions, patterns of agriculture, property systems, and bureaucracies. The objective is to discover causal regularities, test existing social theories, and formulate new social theories out of the world history accounts of the major civilizations of the world and their histories of internal development and inter-related contact and development (Wallerstein, 1974). In addition to these features of scope, large-scale history has often been associated with explanatory ambitions, in particular, the intention to identify a movement and an inevitable historical process of development.

Furthermore, this paper analyzes the Maoist movement in Nepal from a large scale and long-term perspective. This perspective from the field of macro sociology has been utilized in tandem with a comparative study of revolution in order to test the assumption that the origin and impact of the Maoist movement may be defined as having been constructed globally: revolution against Bourbon dictatorship in France in the eighteenth century, anti-colonial movement against Britain for American independence of federal republicanism, Maoist revolution in China in 1949 to establish new peoples’ democracy, the Naxalite movement in India, and Marxist socialism against feudal and capitalist structure. There is, however, a local angle, of course: discriminations in Nepal in terms of caste, gender, ethnicity, corruption, poverty, unemployment, class exploitation, socio-cultural fundamentalism, and inequality. Even these local causes are not just limited to Nepal but are pan-South Asian. Neo- Marxists, however, do not agree with the primacy given to the class cleavage or the

[58] Nepal Mega college mode of production; for them it is the mode of exchange. According to them, the rise or the fall of a state is not something that can be comprehended locally but as a continuum of a changing world system. The Maoist insurgency, which was started with a radical socialist core strategy, followed the global trend of violence-prone movements or revolutions against the feudal and / or capitalist systems. Causes of Movement: Long-Run and Large-Scale Insight Theda Skocpol, a pioneer analyst, believes that revolutions or movements pose a unique challenge in social sciences. Why revolutions or movements occur in certain societies at given times, while not in other societies, or at other times in the same societies? Apparently, recent American social science should have much to say in answer to this question, for, like a hundred flowers blooming, theories of revolutions have sprung up. Mostly recent attempts of revolutions can be identified primarily with one or another three major approaches: (i) aggregate psychological theories which attempt to explain revolutions in terms of people’s motivations for engaging in political violence or joining oppositional movements; (ii) systems/value consensus theories which attempt to explain revolution as violent responses of ideological movements to severe disequilibrium in social systems; and (iii) political conflict theories- which argue that conflict between governments and organized groups contending for political power must be placed at the centre of attention (Skocpol, 1995).

In connection with the cause of Maoist movement in Nepal, we can find different structural variables in long run and larger scale perspectives. The beginning and the growth of Maoist movement in Nepal in around the late twentieth and early 21st century confounded the world by defying some conventional thoughts about politics and society. During the insurgency, CPN-Maoist controlled over swaths of territory within a decade, and armed conflict led to the death of more than thirteen thousands people, in addition to many other costs of people's war such as destruction, displacement and gross human rights abuses. Meanwhile, the Maoists successfully negotiated a peace settlement in their favour and went on to win the post-war election (ibidem).

Basically, the question arises as to why that movement emerged and flourished and what the causes behind it might be. Generally, internal as well as external circumstances seemed to be negative towards the then recent revolutions or movements. At a time when the communist regimes were falling like ninepins, the communist insurgency

The Mega Journal 2020 [59] in Nepal was expanding rapidly. In fact, the Maoist insurgency grew in what was an adverse international climate.

Secondly, even after the restoration of democracy in 1990, the launch and rapid growth of Maoist revolution challenges the notion that democracy could settle conflicts peacefully. It defeated the notion of democracy because this type of liberal democracy is supposed to defuse violence by transforming such tendencies into non-violent conflict through electoral politics and non-violent protests. The third concern is that at a time when Nepal was enjoying reasonable growth, expansion of development and improvement in human development index in the early 1990’s, the insurgency gained ground. The average real GDP for 1987-88 to 1994-95 was 4.1 percent compared to 3 percent during the previous decade from 1976 to 1987 (Sharma, 2018). Similarly, the HDI increased in 2001 in comparison to 1996 in most districts. Other sectors like roads, schools, health facilities, universities, banks, infrastructures and service sectors expanded in the 1990’s. The principle of social movement is that class-based rebellions are said to ignite when economic conditions of the nation worsen. But contrary to that, Maoist people’s war was successfully launched and gained momentum when national economic and development indicators demonstrated positive trends in the country (Lawoti & Pahari, 2010). Lawoti & Pahari raised up another concern as to why the insurgency occurred surprisingly, given that Nepal was considered to be a Shangri-La.

So, if we keep all these historical and conventional thoughts in mind, the growth of Maoist movement in Nepal raised many challenging questions. This paper zeroes in on the macro-large-scale and long-run insights-and structural perspective in order to find out the causal factors of the Maoist movement in Nepal. As Lawoti raised many questions like how a violent Maoist movement grew and succeeded in the post-cold war, communist-adverse global environment, why a party that had participated in the elections launched the violent movement and got support from the an appropriate volume of the people, why people supported the rebellion when economic and development indicators were improving, why people disagreed with the existing structures of the state and the society, and whether the movement in Nepal meant a resurgence of a radical communism in the region. With the help of different significant literatures and perspectives, I would like to dig out the matter of its causal relationship through the structural approach as put forward by Theda Skocpol.

[60] Nepal Mega college Grounds for Revolution

This paper focuses on the multidimensional aspects that contributed to the growth of the Maoist insurgency, strategies of the rebels and state and impact of insurgency. This topic should be interpreted by applying the structural approach which takes into account several factors such as indoctrination and recruitment of rebels, the role of revolutionary student organization and cultural troupe, organizational mobilization, strategies of the rebels and state, structure and strategies of Peoples Liberation Army (PLA) and Royal Nepal Army, ethnic dimension of involvement, caste-based dimension, role of electoral democracy and liberal market economy, geography, ideology, incentives of leaders and cadres and external factors as well. Insight into these factors requires inter-disciplinary inquiries spanning disciplines like sociology, economics, anthropology, political science, and conflict management. Poverty and Economic Inequality

From economics point of view, poverty and inequality are challenging and debatable phenomena. Basically, poverty and inequality depend on how they are perceived: as relative deprivation or as the gap between expected and achieved wellbeing of a person or group leading to an increase in the fascination of the push groups towards violent conflict. There are two angles to this perspective.

Firstly, although the economic indicators in the decade of 1990’s showed improvement, infrastructure and service sectors also expanded such as road access, transportations, banking, school and universities, access of media and networks, growing all these activities were witnessed by the Nepalese people, but the question is: do these data address the poverty, inequality and relative deprivation theories. This is problematic and the gap is that the despite the growth and progress in the decade, Nepal remained through the long history, except during the Lichhavi regime a country of extreme poverty vis-à-vis the South Asian neighbours and in relation to the global HDI indicators on a large-scale perspective. Nepal never came out from the list of the poorest countries of the world. Lives and per capita income were always crucial. Poverty intensified and expanded owing to an increase in population and a decrease in land productivity. Moreover, ethnographic study also provides the vivid picture of every day increase in poverty, especially in the hilly rural areas. So this created dissatisfaction among the marginal class and caste and middle class as well.

The Mega Journal 2020 [61] Secondly, the number of the poor was increasing in the country. The then government statistics showed around forty percent of people as poor who were unable to access basic human needs. The proportion of the poor in the country remained constant in the decades from the 1970’s to 1990’s, but absolute number of the poor grew sharply. Similarly, next problematic issue is that all developed infrastructure and service sectors covered the urban areas basically and benefited the better-off section of the society living in and around urban areas. Infrastructure development and access of service sectors were unbalanced geographically and ethnographically. Inequality in Nepal existed among different sectors: geographic regions—mountains, hills and the terai, far east and far west, rural and urban, gender, caste and ethnic groups. Social and Cultural Inequality

Right from the very beginning of the structure of Nepali society, it has faced not only class inequality but also extreme socio-cultural inequality among the numerous linguistic, ethnic, religions, caste and regional groups. It is said that citizen from the hill caste, hill Hindu, elite male monopolized the political, economic, social and cultural power. Moreover, Bahun, Chhetri, Newar and high caste/class from the terai have better access to material resources in the country while Dalit, indigenous people, Madhesi lower caste and even Muslims are generally in worse conditions. In a statistical data, the HDI of Brahmin was 135 in 1996 compared to the national index of 100, while the indigenous nationalities, Dalit, Madhesi and Muslims, had 92.21, 73.62, 96.28 and 73.67 respectively. Similarly, the decreasing level of poverty among them is slower compared to the Brahmins and Chhetris. Within all groups, women generally face the discrimination as well.

Greater percent from the upper caste, specially from the hill, are among those who hold executive positions in Nepal. They are politically dominant to such an extent that even ideological adversaries are also from the same group. Even the mainstream of civil society sectors—the NGOs—are monopolized by the dominant caste / class. Lawoti argues that because of this political, social and economic domination, the marginalized groups face cultural domination. On the top of this, Hindu Nepal discriminated against the people of other non-indigenous religions. Special privileges enjoyed by the Khas Aryans in terms of native language, nationalism and citizenship vis-à-vis the Madhesi people bordered on cultural imperialism and ethnic domination. All these became the causal factors for dissatisfaction in a larger section of the people. All these account for the ferocity and support of the Maoist insurgency.

[62] Nepal Mega college Modernization and Social Change The growth of liberal economy, privatization in the name of globalization, access to communication and technology—the so called-modernization—has exerted positive as well as negative impact on the society. Many among the marginalized were left out of the loop of modernization. Even the political transformation of the 1990’s was no exception. The so-called multi-party democratic system ironically paved the way for the outbreak of the Maoist insurgency. Moreover, the spread of education challenged traditional norms and practices and lessened respect for the older order of hierarchies of class, ethnicity, caste, gender and age. Education also enabled dissatisfied groups to form alternate collective imaginations, including the revolutionary one. Penetration of global markets eroded the traditional professions of artisan, like domestic professional occupation of lower caste, including dalits, even tradition of modernization has made social change to some extent, but it displaced the identity of specific section. Such type of multi-level changes eroded the order, created fluidity and destabilized the society. No doubt the groups in fluid conditions are prone to mobilization against the government mechanisms. Meanwhile, the Maoist recognized the plight of the fluid groups like the marginalized indigenous people, women, unemployed youth, unskilled dalits, and others, and mobilized and incorporated many among them into armed insurgency. Structural Strategy of Maoist Theda Skocpol, analyst of revolution theory, proposes the basic structural approach in identifying the causes of revolution, through three dimensions: state organizations, class structures; and dominant ideologies. Skocpol further asks as to why and how social movements or revolutions occur in the society, the rejection of an existing structure, from a group of persons, theories, organization that converts into new transformed state organization, class structure and dominant ideologies, such as we have found in French, Russian and Chinese revolutions and their outcomes. From the viewpoint of Skocpol’s thoughts, the Maoist rebellion in Nepal appears to have occurred because of structural factor: it was aimed at overhauling the structure of the political system and a corresponding realignment of the state’s functioning. Hence the violence was used as tool for radical change—a development that went very well with quite a chunk of the educated intelligentsia and the professionals who had also been engaged, at the underground level, in the task of both training the guerrillas and spreading awareness among the masses. Tactful agency, telling ideology, and effective were three major cogs in the wheel of the Maoist insurgency.

The Mega Journal 2020 [63] Leadership became the key agency to make the rebellion more technical and effective right from the beginning of the insurgency. Maoist leadership played a crucial role in developing and refining ideology, building and expanding organization, mobilizing people, exploiting conditions, and developing strategies to outsmart a more resourceful enemy—the state security agencies. The Maoists built a well-oiled party organization and established an armed group—the people’s Liberation Army—PLA. The ideologies of the rebels contributed to preventing splits within the party. Ideologically, Maoism was a basic guideline; the party followed Mao’s strategy of guerrilla warfare and mass political mobilization in pursuit of a communist republic. Following Maoism, the Maoists adopted three strategies that had worked in China—strategic defence, strategic balance and strategic offence. With the use of these strategies, the Maoists became a formidable force.

Besides, the Maoist launched the insurgency very artfully and tactfully: the leadership unleashed violence selectively in geographical regions and among the different targeted layers of the community. Creating binary oppositions like the oppressed and the oppressor, the proletariat and the feudal, and the reactionary and the revolutionary, they weakened the feudal social structure and undermined the state authority. In different pockets of the country, there was virtually the rule of the Maoists. The state was becoming weaker day by day due to the relentless onslaughts by the Maoists as well as the exclusionary nature of Nepali nationalism and ineffective governance. External Factors If we look at the issue from the lens of larger-scale perspective, the Maoist movement in Nepal seems to have received the much-needed shot in the arm from some external factors. In terms of macro perspective, the capitalist world system, defined by Wallerstein (1974) links together micro-macro activity in a causal relationship. Additionally, from the macro level perspective, the origin of the Maoist rebellion can be linked to a global phenomenon. Since the Second World War, both capitalism and socialism had binary rivalries. The Maoists were dead against capitalist ideology which they also saw in the Nepali political system and its functioning. Maoist leaders alleged that “capitalist imperialism” and “Indian expansionism” had caused underdevelopment in Nepal, thereby creating a situation of “semi-colonialism” and “semi feudalism.” The Maoist themselves have pointed to such international factors as structural causes of the rebellion in Nepal. Moreover, the global economy had affected the insurgency indirectly through remittance economy which was the larger contributor of income to many Nepali households. The Maoist used to tax them,

[64] Nepal Mega college thereby tapping into remittance earning in a significant way. With the donation (euphemism for tax) networks spread across the country, they grabbed the resources to intensify insurgency.

Very few scholars have analyzed the impact of external factors on Nepali insurgency. Some scholars have pointed to India’s attempt to exploit the Maoist insurgency by allowing the Maoists free movement in India. On the contrary, others have observed that India aided the Nepali state by providing large amounts of arms, ammunition and training to the Royal Nepal Army. Similarly, in the wake of the post-9/11 environment, democratic countries like India, the USA and the UK considered the rise of the Maoists in Nepal a global threat. Meanwhile, the US and India labelled the Maoist as terrorists (Lawoti & Pahari, 2010). Because of the multiple causes and factors, Maoist insurgency grew up and reached the pinnacle. As a result, the state had to go for a comprehensive peace agreement in 2005. Right after the end of the twelve years conflict, the Maoists obtained electoral victory. Consequently, the revolutionary impact of the Maoist movement on the state and the society started to be felt palpably. Conclusion

The objective of this paper was to identify and analyze the Maoist movement in Nepal: why and how it emerged. Through the structural approach and large scale-long run perspective of revolution, the paper has tried to understand the unfolding of the Maoist movement in Nepal. It has come to the conclusion that the Maoist insurgency had its own dynamics and factors like poverty, unemployment, exclusion, corruption, bad governance, etc. which had not only contributed to enlarge its canvas on a larger scale. Additionally, both the internal and external factors had helped it directly and / or indirectly succeed in securing structural socio-political changes. References

K. C., Surendra. (1999). Nepalma Communist Andolan ko Itihas (The history of communinist movement in Nepal). Kathmandu: Vidyarthi Pustak Bhandar. Lawati, M., & Pahari, A. (2010). The Maoist insurgency in Nepal: Revolution in the twenty- first century. New York, NY: Routledge. Skocpol, T. (1995). Explaining revolution: In quest of a social structural approach, social revolution in modern world. London: Cambridge University Press.

The Mega Journal 2020 [65] Sharma, G. (2018). Discourse of Maoist movement: An empirical overview based on structural approach (M. Phil Term Paper Presented in CDSO, T.U). Thapa, D., & Sijapati, B. (2003). A kingdom under Siege: Nepal’s maoist Insurgency, 1996 to 2003. Kathmandu: The Printhouse. Tilly, C. (1984). Big structures, large processes huge comparisons. New York, NY: Russel Sage Foundation. Wallerstein, I. (1974). The modern world system I: Capitalist, agriculture and the origins of the European world economy in the sixteenth century. New York, NY: Free Press.

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[66] Nepal Mega college Disputed Territories Between Nepal and India: The Cases of Kalapani, Limpiyadhura, Lipulekh and Susta

Keshav Bhattarai University of Central Missouri, MO 64093, USA [email protected]

Madhukar Pandey Nepal Mega College [email protected]

Abstract Nepal shares a border with India in the east, west and south that extends 1,808 km in length, as per the article 5 of the Sugauli treaty of March 4, 1816. Nepal also shares a 1,414 km long dispute-less border between China and Nepal mainly because of the Himalayas. Though for 200 years since the Sugauli treaty, no border dispute surfaced between Nepal and India, disputes have been becoming too frequent since as far back as 1962, after the Indian transfixed military station was created at Kalapani after the Sino-India war. A few rivers’ courses extending up to 326 km long, serve as the international border between Nepal and India. Along the Nepal-India border, poor manmade pillars, frequently changing river courses in Susta of Nawalparasi district and Dodhara-Chadani of Kanchanpur district coupled with poor institutional border records have made the border disputes even harder to resolve.

Nepal covers a total area of 147,181 sq. km., but in reality, the territory of Nepal is gradually shrinking. Until today, India has encroached Nepal’s 605 sq. km area in over 71 places of 21 districts out of 77 districts of Nepal. Nepal’s government has failed to make firm stands regarding border disputes on several occasions, such as

The Mega Journal 2020 [67] the military transfixed in Kalapani since 1962, where there is barely any presence of Nepal. Many controversial views have been raised regarding the Kalapani’s military transfix by India. One of such claims is the verbal green node from King Mahendra in kind favor for India’s clandestine silence of King Mahendra’s action of dismissing the elected government of B. P. Koirala in 1961 within 1.5 years of its five years term. One of the Nepal’s foreign ministers in 2015 stated that King Mahendra traded this area with India in 3 quintals of gold. As a result, King Mahendra remained silent about the Kalapani military installment by India while removing other 17 Indian military check-posts in 1969 that were installed along the Nepal-China border in 1952 as per the Indian PM Nehru’s doctrine. However, none of the blames on King Mahendra has been justified with any institutional records as of today.

A review of 1816, 1819, 1827, 1830, 1834, 1835, 1837, 1846, 1856, 1860, 1879, and 1880 maps prepared by the Survey of British India clearly revealed that the Kali River bordering Nepal-India border in the west originates from Limpiadhura (30.4186580 N, 80.5677450 E). This river flows east via Parvati Kunda (30.3550470 N, 80.6568720 E), Kuthi Village (30.3079480 N, 80.7601610 E), Navi Village (30.207760 N, 80.8386340 E), and Gunji Village (30.1793130 N, 80.8589020 E). Kali River joins Tinkar Khola at Chhangru Village (30.1267800 N, 80.8761130 E). This Tinker Khola originates from the Lipulekh Pass (30.2328080 N, 80.9211590 E) and flows west via Kali Temple (30.2224540 N, 80.9106580 E). Kali River with its tributaries meets Mahakali River below Chhangru Village and flows south forming Nepal-India’s western border. As per the Sugauli treaty, Kali and Mahakali rivers make the westernmost border between Nepal and India. The Lipulekh Pass makes the tri-juncture point of Nepal, China and India within the Nepali territory. In 2015, India and China signed a bilateral agreement to establish Lipulekh Pass as the trading entreport between China and India without the permission of Nepal. Despite having clear evidence from the British Raj that both Kali and Mahakali Rivers form the international borders between Nepal and India and Lipulekh being an integral part of Nepal, India has been ignoring these facts. This paper provides a detail account of Nepal-India international border disputes. Though the border issues have been very serious for the integrity of Nepal, there are no options other than following diplomatic courses to resolve these crises.

Keywords: Nepal, India, border, disputes, Kali River, Mahakali River, Lipulekh Pass, Tikkar Khola

[68] Nepal Mega college Introduction International borders are permanent fixtures. They serve as the legal boundaries and delineate territories of both friendly and hostile nations. These borders may change only under special circumstances such as swapping the lands between countries or altering boundaries due to bordering rivers changing their courses. Until the 19th century, land was often swapped between Kings in Europe. For example, the town of New York was famously swapped by the Netherlands giving it to Britain in return for an island in the East Indies. Britain held the East Indies (Indonesia) for 7 years during the Napoleonic war and gave it back to the Netherlands. After World War II, Germany and Poland swapped their lands, especially the areas in the Silesia district. Israel occupied the Sinai Peninsula for many years after the 6 days war and gave it back to Egypt. Britain returned Hong Kong to China in 1997. The occupier country may use various means to occupy the territory of other countries, and may continue to occupy for a long time even though the occupation may not be legal and international society may not recognize it. The occupied territory may not be a legal part of the occupier country. Turkey, with the help of Cypriots of Turkish origin, invaded the northern part of Cyprus in 1974. It has been occupying this land since then. No countries of the world have recognized this area but Turkey recognizes it in the name of “The Northern Republic of Turkey.” There are incidences when large countries take smaller countries and annex them within their territories. For example, Tibet became a part of the People's Republic of China in 1959, under the “One China Policy.” On 15 May 1975, Sikkim became the 22nd state of India.

International borders change only under special circumstances, such as wars or rivers changing their courses. For example, the borders of many European countries altered many times, more specifically, after World War II. Germany united in 1990, the post- devolution effects of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) occurred in 1990. Types of borders indicate countries' relationships with each other. Between friendly countries, borders often remain fuzzy. In many European countries with similar cultures and traditions, it is difficult to identify the international border. One nation resides in different states. Sometimes roads and other manmade features serve as the international borders. The 210 km long international border between Czechoslovakia and Slovakia created after the velvet separation in 1993 is one of such examples. In some countries, rivers serve as the border; for example, the 3,145 km long Rio Grande River serves as the international border between the U. S. A. and Mexico. The almost 256 km long Kali and Mahakali River work as the westernmost

The Mega Journal 2020 [69] boundary between Nepal and India, and the 720 km long Chenab River serves as an international border between India and Pakistan. Sometimes mountains work as international boundaries, for example, the 3,570 km long Andes Mountains separates Argentina and Chile. Likewise, the 290 km long Hengduan Mountain separates Myanmar and China. Yet, manmade features such as the 2 km wide and 240 km long 38 parallel, the “demilitarized zone,” separates North and South Koreas (Bhattarai and Werner 2020).

Some countries have disputed borders such as the 345 km long border between India that occupied Kashmir and that of China that occupied Aksai Chin. Since the separation of Pakistan and India in 1947 on a religious basis, Pakistan occupied Kashmir (Azad Kashmir) and India occupied Kashmir are separated by 770 km long disputed border. A Line of Control is drawn to maintain peace between the two countries of India and Pakistan, and this Line of Control is under the supervision of the International Peace Keeping Force. There are many cases of such international borders; some have never ending disputes since the day they are created. Some countries occupy a portion of other countries as enclave such as Nagorno-Karabakh, a territory of Azerbaijan under the control of Armenian military forces. Some countries have their land area separated by other countries, such as the Kaliningrad of Russia that is away from the Russian main land and is located between Lithuania and Poland. In 1946, the USSR grabbed this land from German occupied territory and renamed it in honor of the Soviet leader Mikhail Kalinin. Later, the USSR populated this area with Russians under the Russification scheme. Still there are cases when big countries occupy the territories of smaller countries, such as when Indonesia occupied East Timor from 1975 to 1999 until unbearable international pressures were exerted on Indonesia to relieve East Timor. Sometimes countries are completely surround other country, such as South Africa surrounding Lesotho and South Africa and Mozambique surrounding Swaziland (Bhattarai and Werner 2020).

The above account reveals that the history of border disputes, a country occupying a portion of other country, and a country remaining completely within the territory of other countries have been in practices. A large body of literature exists on various issues of international borders. However, scholarly work on the issue of border between Nepal and India are both limited and ideologically divisive. Moreover, the nature of their border issues are unique too. Nepal covers a total area of 147,181 square kilometers, but in reality, the territory of Nepal is gradually shrinking because of the increasing encroachment by

[70] Nepal Mega college India in over 71 places of 21 districts out of 77 districts including the major disputes over Kalapani, Susta and Mechi. Indeed, Nepal’s government has failed to make firm stands regarding border disputes on several occasions, such as the presence of Indian military force in Kalapani since 1962, where Nepal’s presence is almost non-existent. Indian perception toward Kalapani is transfixed by a military occupation at the time of the crisis of the Indo-China war to use Kalapani as a military strategic point to watch Chinese activities from this high point. Many controversial views have arose regarding this military transfix. One of such claims is that India stationed its military at Kalapani after it got a verbal green node from King Mahendra in exchange of India’s clandestine support of King Mahendra’s action of dismissing the elected government of B. P. Koirala in 1961 within 1.5 years of its five years term. One of the foreign ministers in 2015 bluntly stated that King Mahendra traded this area with India in some quintals of gold. None of these blames has any authenticity and no reliable peer reviewed journals have published such records.

The goal of this paper is to improve upon our collective comprehension of the Nepal-India boundary dispute. It aims to examine the circumstances and the history of Kalapani (approximately 400 sq. km) along with its geostrategic location at the higher elevation from where India can monitor Chinese military activities. Over the past decades, this issue has drawn increasing attention because of its tri-juncture location between Nepal, India and China. This paper also highlights the tri-juncture strategic and trade links importance Lipulekh Pass (30.2337290 N, 81.02468160 E) located at 5,200 m ~ 17,270 ft) elevation. It is believed that India has established military bunkers in this area. Nepal has taken only minimal diplomatic actions to evacuate this area despite the fact that visits by Nepali government officers of neighboring districts, satellite imagery, interviews of local residents, and archaeological studies provide overwhelming evidence that Kalapani, Limpiadhura, and Lipulekh are located inside the boundary of Nepal (Dhungel 2020; Shrestha 2020; BBC Nepali Sewa 2019; Tripathi and Chaturvedi 2019; Pun 2020; Zehra 2020). The arguments about the military stationed in Kalapani is all an educated guess.

The climate of Kalapani is very hostile to human settlements because of extreme cold. Despite this being so unhospitable, India has developed military infrastructures. Records indicate that India establishes military stations even at naturally hostile locations. For example, it has established a military station at the Siachen glacier

The Mega Journal 2020 [71] (35.4614150 N, 77.0400470 E; 5,753 m) on the area of the Pakistan-India disputed Kashmir. Though the Kalapani area is hostile from humanitarian concerns such as casualties due to frostbites, India that has established “Meghdoot” on the Siachen glacier (Nair 2009) must have established a military base camp at Kalapani too (Tripathi and Chaturvedi 2019). Establishing military base camps on the northern parts of Nepal was a strategy of India.

Indian Prime Minister Nehru during the time of Nepali Prime Minister Matrika Prasad Koirala established 17 military posts in the northern Nepal China border to watch Chinese activities from Walungchung Gola in the east to Tinker in the west. Nehru was successful in getting it endorsed by the Nepali cabinet in May 1954 that stated: “….Indian Missions abroad will undertake to represent the Government of Nepal and to look after Nepalese interests…..exchange information relating to foreign affairs and relations with foreign power…” (Nepali Cabinet Aide Memoire 1954, in Pun 2020:1). India realized the strategic importance of Nepal's Kalapani/Limpiyadhura on her UP middle sector front. Kalapani, thus, became the unfortunate casualty of India's 1961 policy "to go forward and be in effective occupation of the whole frontier" (Pun 2020:1). Earlier, the British while recognizing the importance of the Tibetan trade route through the Lipulekh Pass had already resorted to several "cartographic aggressions" on the Nepali map during their rule in India. However, actual "physical aggression" had never occurred during the British Raj (Pun 2020:1). After the establishment of 17 Indian military posts, Chinese surveillance increased and in one of the incidences on June 1960, Chinese troops killed one Nepali and captured another 17 in Mustang assuming that they were Khampas. Indian PM Nehru attempted to catch fish in the muddy water and was looking for an opportunity to engage in tussling with China through Nepal, but PM B. P. Koirala skillfully handled this incidence without involving India stating that it is a case to be handled between the independent nations of Nepal and China (Pun 2020:1).

Following the Sugauli treaty of 1816 (article 5), Nepal and the British Raj (now India) came to a border agreement. This agreement limited Nepali rulers to the east of the Kali River (a tributary of the Mahakali River) clearly indicating that the land east of Kali and Mahakali exclusively belongs to Nepal. This agreement separates Nepal and India by a 1,808 km long international border. Of this border, some boundary lines

[72] Nepal Mega college pass through the Himalayan territories in the northwest and northeast (Fig. 1), while in the south, there are many manmade features such as pillars along the Indo-Gangetic Plain with “Ten-Yards No-man’s Land.” The border between the two countries is so porous that the Indian and Nepali nationals do not need passports or visas to enter each other's countries. Tens of thousands of people cross the border every day for various purposes. Security forces of the two countries-- Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB) of India and Armed Police Force (APF) of Nepal—amicably regulate the porous border (The Himalayan 2019). There are over 7 entry and exit points between Nepal and China and 19 exit points between Nepal and India (Fig. 1). Nepali-Chinese and Indian district officials meet regularly to discuss security challenges and other issues on their respective border portions and help to regulate the respective borders between the countries (The Himalayan 2018) through the designated entry points. Yet, people- to-people contacts occur almost on a daily basis, mainly along the southern border, where informal economy between the two countries has been a traditional practice.

Nepal barely encompasses 0.3 percent of the total land area of Asia and 3.12 percent of South Asia including Afghanistan. Nepal is 22 times smaller than India and 44 times smaller than China. Despite the border security provisions (17 armed police posts along the Nepal China border and 248 armed police posts along the Nepal India border) and meagre size of the country, India has occupied over 606 sq. km. areas of Nepal in 71 locations ranging from 400 sq. km (150 sq. miles) Kalapani (30.2273670 N, 80.9204170 E) area to 0.000204 sq. km. in Pashupatinagar (26.9450060 N, 88.1245720 E) of Jhapa district. The Government of India brushes aside the claim from the Government of Nepal (GoN) about the encroachment of Nepali territories, and claims that India strictly follows the Sugauli treaty of 1816.

Of these 71 locations, the Kalapani and Susta (140 sq. km. ~ 54 sq. mi.) area (Fig. 1) are the areas most disputed over (IBC 1998; The Himalayan 2016) and the two locations Nepal is truly concerned. Likely, disputes in 69 locations can be resolved at the local levels, the case of Kalapani and Susta has become truly contentious. India has placed military at Kalapani. Many Nepali villages are annexed in India in Susta. In this paper, we mainly focus on Kalapani, Limpiadhura and Lipulek, Susta, and Mechi disputed areas. Our study is based on the review of grey literature, YouTube interviews of border experts, inquiries with politicians, university faculty, diplomats, journalists, and intellectuals, researchers, elite and informative community by

The Mega Journal 2020 [73] phone, historical documents, hydrological facts, and old maps of 1816, 1819, 1827, 1830, 1834, 1835, 1837, 1846, 1856, 1860, 1879, and 1880. The rest of the paper is structured as follows. First, it present the geography of disputed areas. Second, it presents the recent disputes between Nepal and India over the international border. Third, it presents the discussion how borders are manipulated. Fourth, it presents a conclusive summary followed by some recommendations. The Geography

India surrounds Nepal from the east, west and south with a border extending 1,808 km long as per the Sugauli treaty of March 4, 1816. “Over 200 years later, the dispute regarding the border and the surrounding no-man’s land area flares up now and then in different areas of the Indo-Nepal border” (Zehra 2020:1). Altogether, the 336 km long distances are bordered by various rivers. These bordering rivers include, Mechi in the east covering 62 km long border; Mahakali in the west covering 256 km, and Naryani in the Susta area covering 18 km. It is natural that rivers often change their courses. The lack of manmade artifacts on the site and poor institutional records have made the border disputes even harder to resolve. Nepal claims that India has encroached on over 606 sq. km. of land in 23 of the 77 bordering districts in 71 places (Zehra 2020). The major areas of dispute include Kalapani, Limpiyadhura, Tanakpur, Susta, and Mechi (Figs. 1 to 8).

Fig. 5 India manipulated the locations of Kali Fig. 6. India attempted to manipulate the location river for the third times. https://www.youtube. of Kali River to the east of its actual current com/watch?v=ui9e8n6cIGA location.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ui9e8n6cIGA

[74] Nepal Mega college Fig. 7 Manipulating the location of Kali River Fig. 8. India is arguing that the actual location (This figure was taken from, map of 1860). It is of Kali River is in the northern part of Darchula very blurry. district.

The original maps of 1816, 1819, 1827, 1830, 1834, 1835, 1837, 1846, 1856, 1860, 1879, and 1880 prepared by the Survey of British India show that the Kali River originates from Limpiadhura (30.4186580 N, 80.5677450 E). It flows to the east and meets Parvati Kunda (30.3550470 N, 80.6568720 E), then it flows through the Kuthi Village (30.3079480 N, 80.7601610 E), passes through the Navi Village (30.207760 N, 80.8386340 E), and then to Gunji Village (30.1793130 N, 80.8589020 E) before entering the Darchula district. It joins a stream originating from Lipulekh Pass (30.2328080 N, 80.9211590 E) via Kali Temple (30.2224540 N, 80.9106580 E). Kali River meets Tinkar Khola at Chhangru (30.1267800 N, 80.8761130 E) confluence. At the basin of this confluence in the Chhangru Village, there are settlements of Byansis people of Tibetan origin (Nawa 2000). These Byansi people use Limpiyadhura Pass (west) and the Lipulekh pass for trade with Nepal and India (Negi and Das 1996). The Lipulekh Pass leads to the Tibetan trading town of Burang also known as Taklakot (Chatterjee 1976, Sherring 1996). Thus, the Lipulekh Pass makes the tri-juncture point of Nepal, China and India within the Nepali territory. In 2015, India and China signed a bilateral agreement to establish Lipulekh Pass as the trading pass between China and India without the permission of Nepal. Nepali Prime Minister Sushil Koirala sent Nepal’s disagreement with this bilateral agreement between India and China. China apologized, but India has not. India’s unilateral occupation of Kalapai and India and China using Lipulekh (Figs. 9 a-d) as their trading route without the permission of Nepal has developed several border disputes.

The Mega Journal 2020 [75] Disputed areas Nepal shares a border with China in the north and India in the south

Border agreements with China

Nepal and China signed a border agreement in 1960 during the time of Nepal’s Prime Minister (PM) B. P. Koirala’s visit to China at the invitation of Chinese PM, Zhau Enlai. According to Badri Narayan Shrestha (2020), an international border expert, until 1960, there were disputes between Nepal and China for 32 border locations. Of the 32 locations, 30 disputed locations were resolved at the local level, but disputes over the Mt. Sagarmatha (Chomolungma ཇོ་མོ་གླང་མ; Chinese: Zhumulangma 珠穆朗玛) and Gauri Shankar were resolved only with the dialogues between the PMs of two countries. Per Shrestha (2020), before going to China, Nepali PM Koirala himself visited the private residence of Historian, Babu Ram Acharya, and gathered historical evidence to justify that Mt. Everest and Gauri Shankar Himal are within the territory of Nepal. With these evidences, B. P. Koirala was able to convinced Chinese PM Zhou Enlai, who in a joint press conference in Beijing declared that Mt. Everest and Gauri Shankar indeed belong to Nepal. Later on April 1960, Chinese PM Zhou Enlai visited Nepal at the invitation of B. P. Koirala. In a press conference at the Singh Durbar, Nepali Journalist Mr. Ramesh Nath Pandey asked PM Enlai about Mt. Everest, and PM Enlai said that documents presented by PM Koirala justified from legal, diplomatic, political, and military strategic perspectives that Mt. Everest indeed belongs to Nepal. In 1962, King Mahendra and Liu Shaoqi (erstwhile PM of China) signed another treaty between Nepal and China on various matters. Since then, Nepal-China border issues have been very smooth. Additionally, the northern mountains serve as the natural border between the two countries.

Border agreement with India

In November 2019, India released a series new map highlighting the newly created Union Territories (UTs) of Jammu and Kashmir, and Laddakh. This map is inclusive of the Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (Azad Kashmir) as a part of Jammu and Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan as a part of Ladakh. While Kashmir and Gilgit are not Nepal’s concerns, the inclusion of Kalapani within the Indian Territory (TheWeek 2020) on the same map is the major headache for Nepal. The Government of Nepal (GoN) has lodged a protest against the inclusion of Kalapani as a part of the Pithoragarh district in the state of Uttarakhand. India argued that it has not revised its boundaries with

[76] Nepal Mega college Nepal; rather it states, “we are committed to finding a solution through dialogues in the spirit of our close and friendly bilateral relations" (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10. Spoke person of the Indian External Affairs Ministry Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bryiwa1CoQs

On November 15, 1860, Nepali Prime Minister Jung Bahadur Rana brought back Naya Muluk (Banke, Bardiya, Kailali, and Kanchanpur districts) from the British India. On the following year, he wrote a letter to the British East India Company to return 160 Bighas of land of Jamuna territory (27.0243560 N, 88.0031000 E) of the Ilam district that has been included on the map prepared by the Survey of British India.

Despite easy fixing of border disputes between the Ranas and British India, India has been occupying some 606 sq. km. of Nepali lands in 71 places of 21 districts of 77 districts of Nepal. The dispute between Nepal and India over Kalapani goes back to the Sino-Indian War of November 1962. In 1962, under the Indian “Forward Policy” of "to go forward and be in effective occupation of the whole frontier," India occupied Kalapani / Limpiadhura. The British recognized the importance of the Tibetan trade route through the Lipulekh Pass (Fig. 9 a-d). Having recognized the trade importance of the Lipulekh Pass, British India started several "cartographic aggressions" during their rule in India. The "physical aggression" of the strategic Kalapani/Limpiyadhura

The Mega Journal 2020 [77] area by the Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) occurred only after India's October 1962 debacle. Additionally, after facing defeat with China, the Indian Army set up a camp inside “Nepali-territory at Kalapani” to monitor Chinese activities (Zehra 2020:1). Since then Kalapani’s villages of Parvati Kunda, Kuthi, Nabi, and Gunji (along the River Kali) came under Indian occupation (Pun 2020). The Indian military continues its camp in Kalapani until today.

International boundary expert Buddhi Narayan Shrestha states that maps of 1816, 1819, 1827, 1830, 1834, 1835, 1837, 1846, 1856, 1860, 1879, and 1880 prepared by the Survey of British India clearly puts Limpiadhura, Kalapani, and Lipulekh within Nepali territory and Kali river (a tributary of the Mahakali River) and Mahakali River serve as the Nepal-India western border. These maps show that Kali River originates from Limpiyadhura located 15.4 km northwest of Kalapani, but India brushes aside Nepali claims. India rather argues to follow the map of 1875 on which Nepal has no certification. India has built a Kali Temple in between the Lipulekh Pass and Tinkar Valley (Fig. 11 a-d) and claims Kali temple is the source of Kali River (Zehra 2020). Historical records dating back to British India1 reveal that the Kali River forms the western boundary between India and Nepal (Gupta 2009; Manandhar and Koirala 2001; Atkinson 1981).

Fig. 11 (a) Map of Greater Nepal [Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PX7xMyBDCbo]

1 . The map 'District Almora' published by the Survey of India [during 1865–1869] for the first time shifted the boundary further east beyond even the Lipu Khola (Map-5). The new boundary moving away from Lipu Khola follows the southern divide of Pankhagadh Khola and then moves north along the ridge."

[78] Nepal Mega college Fig. 11 (b) Fig. 11 (c)

Fig. 11 (d) Construction of the Kali Temple in Kalapani by India to justify that Kali river originated from Kali Temple. Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PX7xMyBDCbo

Kalapani is located in the Darchula District of Nepal, but India claims that it is located in the Pitahuragarh of Uttarakhanda of India. A joint technical committee of Indian and Nepali officials have been discussing the issue since 1998, along with other border issues (Gupta 2009). Sugauli treaty (article 5) clearly states that Nepali rulers will not be allowed to contact people living west of the Kali and Mahakali Rivers. This statement clearly indicates that Kali River is a border between Nepal and India. Despite the evidence revealed on various maps that Kali River originates from the Limpiadhura, India claims that the name Kali Nadi (river) signifies that it must

The Mega Journal 2020 [79] have been originated near the Kali Temple (Pampha Gad spring). Recently, India has manipulated the map published by the British at the end of the British Raj 1947. Old maps are ignored, especially the maps of 1827 and 1856 prepared during the time of Jung Bahadur Rana. These maps show Kalapani and Limpiadhura within Nepali territory. The valley of Kalapani, with the Lipulekh Pass (Qiangla) at the top, forms the Indian route to Kailash–Manasarovar, an ancient pilgrimage site (IBC 1998). It is also the traditional trading route to Tibet for the Bhotiyas of Uttarakhand (The Economic Times 2015).

Like the Kalapani, there are other border disputes with India in the south. Of these disputed areas, Susta located in Nawalparasi West (Fig. 12). In addition to this, there are areas in various Tarai districts where land has been illegally held by India.

INDIA

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Fig. 12 (a). Meandering of Narayani River at Susta Fig. 12b. Border Pillar at Susta

The image on figure 12 (a) was excerpted from Google Earth because images are frequently 'data' in science. Their proper interpretation can reveal the chronological fact. Data integrity requires that one maintains and assures the accuracy and validity of data. Altering data, even if researchers believe they are well intended may seriously mislead the fact (Clinical Tool 2006). Figure 12(a) shows the exact location of Susta at the Nepal-India border.

[80] Nepal Mega college INDIA

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Fig. 12 (b). Susta Gaun is under dispute between India and Nepal. On the left, India has occupied Nepal’s land and on the right, the land belongs to Nepal. Nepali people have their land title deeds but India has been currently occupying these lands. On the Common Question forum operated by the BBC Nepali Sewa on 24 November 2019, Left leader Bamdev Gautam said that all the Nepali land areas illegally taken by India would be brought back to Nepal within 1-1.5 years. Foreign policy expert Dr. Dinesh Bhattarai said it is an encouraging remark, and he suggested giving continuity to the work of previous governments until the problems are completely resolved. Dr. Prakash Sharan Mahat said that diplomatic approach is the only out to bring the land back from India.

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ui9e8n6cIGA

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NEPAL NEPAL-INDIA BORDER

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Fig. 12 (c). Susta of Nawalparasi (West) district. Nepali have to cross the river to go to their lands.

The Mega Journal 2020 [81] Although border areas are marked by pillars, like in many South Asian countries, Nepal has been one of the most disaster-prone countries with high vulnerability to global warming and climate calamities (Chaturvedi and Doyle 2015; Chaturvedi and Sakhuja 2016). These realities pose a question: Can we remodel or even reimagine contemporary South Asia with fewer borders and boundaries. Susta is one such example.

Fig. 12 (d). Some pillars in Susta are damaged by water current. Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PX7xMyBDCbo

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Fig. 12 (e): Susta (40,000 ha, of which 14,000 has been forcefully occupied by India). Left leader Mr. Bamdev Gautam promised that Susta’s problems will be resolved within 1.5 years, however, Member of Parliament of the Samajbadi Party, Mrs. Renu Yadav disagrees with Mr. Gautam.

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ui9e8n6cIGA.

[82] Nepal Mega college Broder disputes between Nepal and India are common in Kanchanpur, Kailali, Sarlahi, and Mahottari districts, but these disputes are at different scales. In the Kanchanpur district, Govind Gautam was killed by the Indian Seema Sahashtra Bal (SSB) while defending Nepal’s border. Such unfortunate incidences clearly suggest that boundaries and borders acquire utmost prominences to safeguard the lives of nations (Tripathi and Chaturvedi 2019).

Fig. 13 a. Border pillar in Fig. 13b. Kanchanpur district where Indian Police killed Govind Gautam Kanchanpur district in border dispute.

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Fig. 14 (a) Kailali district Fig. 14 (b). Kailali district, riverbed as border between Nepal-India. Source: https://www.youtube.com/ https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=ui9e8n6cIGA watch?v=ui9e8n6cIGA Border pillars and river as natural border at Kailali district (Aushalpur Village, Ailari Village Gaun Palika). Students in this village have to cross the river each day to go to a school in India.

The Mega Journal 2020 [83] Fig. 15 (a) Fig. 15 (b)

India Fig. 15 (d) Fig. 15 (e) Fig. 15 (c) Fig. 15. Border village in the Mahottari district (Madhawa village), where the village completely submerges during the rainy seasons because of the unilateral constructions of dam by India at the border.

Mechi is another disputed area with the disappearance of “border Junge pillars” that were marked as the benchmarks of the Sauguli Treaty indicating the main boundary pillars. Discussions During the British India Raj, Nepali PM Jung Bahadur Rana skillfully brought back the Naya Muluk (Banke, Bardiya, Kailali and Kanchanpur) in November 1860. In 1962, India has established its military base in Kalapani. Despite the established fact that Kali River (a tributary of the Mahakali River) and Mahakali River form the western border of Nepal with India, recently India has developed a new map. In this new map, India includes Nepali territories mainly Limpiadhura, Kalapani, and Lipulekh Pass within the Indian territory. Nepal has strongly objected this act of

[84] Nepal Mega college India, but none of the actions have been effective. Various facts have established that Limpiadhura, Kalapani, and Lipulekh are the integral parts of Nepal (Satya 2018:1).

• First map was produced in January 1816. It shows Kali River originating from Limpiadhura. This map was certified by A. Arrowsmith No. 10 Soho Square, Hydrographer to His Majesty of British, London.

• Captain H.S. Webb, Surveyor of Kumao sketched maps in 1819. It shows Kali River originating from Limpiadhura.

• The map of 1827 prepared by the Survey of British India has clearly shown the Kali River originated from Limpiyadhura in the Zanskar Range of the Himalayas. This map was certified by James Horst as per the Act of Parliament, Hydrographer to the East India Company 1st Feb. 1827.

• In 1830, Parbury Allen & Co. London published a map (scale 1″ = 20 English Miles), this map and its updated edition of 1846 entitled “Western Provinces of Hindoostan” also shows that the Kali River originates from Limpiyadhura..

• In 1834, Vorder-Indien Orderdas Indo-Britische Reich, Steilers Hand Atles- Germany prepared another map. That also shows Kali River originating from Limpiadhura.

• In 1835, Baldwin & Cradock produced Index Map-XII of India that also shows Kali River originating from Limpiadhura.

• In 1837, J. B. Tassin produced Anglo Asian Map that shows Kali River originating from Limpiadhura.

• In 1846, The Atlas of India was edited by London: Charles Knight and Co. This map incorporates some socioeconomic information. It shows Kali River originating from Limpiadhura.

• In 1856, British Surveyor General’s office (British India), Calcutta, published a map entitled “Nepal and the Countries Adjoining South, West and East.” This map Certified by the Deputy Surveyor General shows Kali River originating from Limpiyadhura. In Note No. 3, it mentions the contributions of “Jung Bahadur of Nipal ” who provided Sketch Map in Devanagari and it was available through foreign department sent thereto by Resident of Nipal” (Satya 2018:1).

• In 1860, was developed by the Survey of India. It also shows Kali River

The Mega Journal 2020 [85] originating from Limpiyadhura and flowing east along the western border of Nepal-India. This map does not identify the rivers originating from Lipulekh Pass (Satya 2000).

• Other maps published from 1860 to 1880 have maintained that the geographical position of the Kali River from Limpiyadhura, but there are some cartographic aggressions. These maps have changed the name of Kali as Kuti and then named Kuti Yangti River. • The map developed in 1879 changed the name of the river Kali as Kuti and Kuti Yangti. This map is entitled “Nepal, Almorah, United Province” with 1″ = 1 mile. The Survey of India published this map. It has altered the border to the east and south with the cartographic symbol, however, it has kept the location of Kali and Lipu rivers and Kalapani the same (Satya 2018:1). • The maps published after 1880 have changed the name of Kali River as Kuti Yangti though the river originates from Limpiadhura. These maps started naming river originating from Lipulekh Pass as Kali River making Nepal loose almost 310 sq. km. of land, west of Lipu River (Satya 2000). • The map published in 1881 by the Survey of India entitled “Nepal, Tibet & United Province has shown that Kali River flows from Limpiyadhura.” This map however has left the river flowing from Lipulek unnamed (Satya 2000:1). • Maps published after the 1881 still justified that the western border of Nepal with India follows the courses of river, but not the hills and watershed, and the names of rivers are modified. • Recently, India has claimed that the artificially formed pond in front of the Kali Temple is the source of Kali River. A one and half kilometer long rivulet (canal) is created as the mighty Kali River. The cartographic aggression has made Kalapani on the “Indian side” making Nepal loose a further 62 sq. km. of territory (Satya 2018:1). • Serious cartographic aggressions have been done while showing the Lipulekh Pass just south of high mountains reaching 6,180 meters in height on the south of Kalapani. This is a serious breach of cartographic techniques.

During the Panchayat System in Nepal, Chief District Officers of Darchula reported to the center again and again about the activities of the Indian army and the permanent structures it has built there (Satya 2018:1), but the center never heeded seriously to

[86] Nepal Mega college such reports. Likely, there was a tacit understanding with the Royal Government of Nepal with India not to raise any voice against it. After the restoration of democracy in 1990, Nepali people have raised their voices on the issues of Kalapani/ Limpiyadhura. Even protest letters were delivered to the Indian Embassy several times. Indian Ambassador KV Rajan made two press releases relating to Kalapani on the 3rd and 7th June 1998 (Satya 2000:1). He mentioned that because of the lack of proper records and the complicated historical background of the boundary between the two countries dating back to the 19th century, further research is needed to understand the reality of Kalapani (7 June 1998). On 10th of June 1998, Ambassador KV Rajan made another statement and said that India would leave the area of Kalapani there and then, if Nepal produces authoritative documents. On 2nd of August 1999, HE Rajan stated that India inherited certain territories from British India and since then India has not altered the boundaries. He also warned that only the joint border technical team could produce a convincing document to resolve the boundary dispute. On September 2, 1999, the Chinese Ambassador Mr. Yong said that the Boundary Agreement between Nepal and China was performed about three decades ago. This agreement puts Kalapani area within the Nepali territory (Satya 2018:1). Mr. Yong also said that Kalapani is situated near the tri-junction point, but is not the subject of three countries.

During the Panchayat Raj in Nepal, PMs, Lokendra Bahadur Chand, Surya Bahadur Thapa and Kirti Nidhi Bista. Marich Man Singh had expressed their commitments to evacuate Kalapani from the Indian military. Indian President KR Narayan, a civic welcome hosted by the Kathmandu Metropolitan City on 30th May 1998 admitted that the issues over borders can be solved amicably between the two countries as Nepal and India have “no doors and walls to obstruct the border.” The border issues between Nepal and India were raised several times in the Indian Parliament too, but the problems have never been solved. Nepali PM GP Koirala had said that Kalapani is within the territory of Nepal as depicted on the maps of 1850 and 1856, published by Survey of India (9 June 1998). Mr. Koirala told to his counterpart Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee that there are historical maps and documents that clearly depict Kalapani belonging to Nepal (Colombo, 28 July 1998). Prime Minister KP Bhattarai said “Kalapani is a part of the Nepalese territory, Kalapani is ours according to the maps of that area” (23 July, 1999). Foreign Minister RS Mahat said “the government will handle the problem of Kalapani from a technical, political, administrative and diplomatic level as well” (26 July 1999). PM S B Deuba said in the parliament “Indian army men will go back to Kalapani after the demarcation of that area” (6 March 1997). Despite these expressions by Nepali leaders, India has

The Mega Journal 2020 [87] never said like China that “Kalapani belongs to Nepal.” The Nepal-India Boundary Joint Working Group were formed several times and reports were prepared, but no progresses have been made.

Nepali have united voice that “Kalapani belong to Nepal.” Irrespective of the party affiliations, Nepali youths pour onto streets and protest against India (Fig. 16) when it comes to border and Kalapani issues but no achievements have been made as of today.

Fig. 16 Irrespective of the political association, students of all forums are protesting against the recent maps of India. Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bryiwa1CoQs. According to Nepali Foreign Minister, P Gyawali, on November 23, 2019, Nepal sent a formal letter to the government of India “for a dialogue to resolve the border issue” (THEWEEK 2020:1). India responded positively assuring that "India is ready

[88] Nepal Mega college to resolve the border issue through diplomatic channel" (PTI 2020:1). “On November 18, Nepal's Prime Minister K. P. Sharma Oli said that he would ask India to withdraw its forces and asserted that its "patriotic government" will not allow anyone to encroach on "even an inch" of its territory” (THE WEEK 2020:1). The Party Central Committee of the ruling Nepali Communist Party has asked PM K. P. Oli to issue a new map of Nepal including Limpiadhura, Kalapani, and Lipulekh within the Nepali territory. PM Oli has gone several steps ahead and has said, “I am working to bringing Limpiadhura, Kalapani, and Lipulekh back,” instead of just focusing on the preparation of a revised map. It is time to see how effective the Communist Party’s government with almost 2/3rd majority would be to fullfill its commitment. PM K. P. Oli has the backing of all the political parties of Nepal in this endeavor, but the progresses are yet to be seen. Conclusion Landlocked Nepal sandwiched between China (north) and India (south), maintains good relationships with both India and China based on the principle of Panchsheel, and both countries desire solving their border issues diplomatically. The northern neighbor, China has agreed to review its border issues and resolve it at the quickest pace possible. China has been investing heavily in Nepal. After 23 years in Nepal’s history, Chinese President Xi Jinping visited Nepal, and announced Rs 56 billion aid to help the country's development programs. During his visit, China agreed to upgrade the Araniko Highway linking Kathmandu with Tibet that was closed since the 2015 earthquake and conduct a feasibility study of trans-Himalayan railway at the earliest as per Nepal's request to connect Keyrung-Kathmandu-Lumbini. To these developments, India blames that “Nepal's Communist government is inching closure to its northern neighbor” (THEWEEK 2020).

Nepal and India enjoy a special relation due to their “geographical, historical, cultural and economic linkages,” and these countries have “Roti-Beti ka Rishta” (relation of food and family). Bilateral meetings are held frequently as needed. Utilizing this relationship, the territorial disputes between India and Nepal, over the Kalapani territory, a 400 sq. km. (150 sq mi) area, Lipulekh, a tri-juncture at the India-Nepal- China border in North West Nepal, and Susta a 140 sq. km. (54 sq mi) area in Southern Nepal must be solved before these incidences take ugly turns. Since 1962, India has unilaterally stationed a military barrack in Kalapani and India does not want to leave this place. India often asks three questions: a) what happens if India

The Mega Journal 2020 [89] wants to occupy this area militarily; b) what if India claims that the Nepal’s Royal Government granted it to India; and c) if India wants to take this land under lease for 100 years what would Nepal say about it. Nepal needs to furnish answers to these questions and take strong step to bring back Limpiadhura, Kalapani, and Lipulekh back within the Nepali territory. Recommendations Since the border dispute has been one of the most serious and longstanding issues between India and Nepal affecting their close people-to-people and bilateral ties, the two sides must work together to reach an early resolution before these affairs take some ugly turn.

• A Think Tank comprising of a high-ranking Diplomat, Cartographer, and Security Strategy Expert is needed. The coordinator of such a Think Tank should be at the rank of a former Prime Minister.

• The border issues should be under the Nepal Military’s commands coordinated by the Foreign Ministry.

• Kathmandu really has no choice, but to look for a diplomatic outlet. Nepal needs to make the New Delhi establishment realize how counterproductive this will become ignoring the class of Nepal.

• The no man’s land between Nepal and India is encroached and the border posts (Jange Pillars) are being shifted over-night. All the international borders should now be set with the use of advanced digital technology. Once the border is set with a hi-tech method, it cannot be changed in any way.

• Nepal needs to study all the old maps prepared by the British Raj and Survey of India and analyze them seriously. The government needs to follow the precedent set by B. P. Koirala, who tactfully resolved the issue of Mt. Everest with China by collecting evidence from historians, security personnel, local people, journalists, international boundary experts, geographers, and sociologists to name a few. All the maps from 1816 to 1880 published by Survey of India, maps archived at the British Library, London (India Office Records & Collections) and Library of Congress, Washington DC (Geography & Map Division) must be reviewed carefully. In additions, some of the maps mentioned in this paper can be referred to find out the reality.

[90] Nepal Mega college References

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The Mega Journal 2020 [91] Nair, P. (2009). The Siachen war: Twenty-five years on, Economic and Political Weekly 44, no. 11: 35–40. Nepal Foreign Affairs. (2019, November 11). Limpiadhura is trilateral point and we want a tripartite agreement to resolve the issue: Interview of Jhalanath Khanal, Former Prime Minister and Senior Leader of Nepal Communist Party, Nepal Foreign Affairs: Nepal’s First Foreign Affairs Online. Retrieved from: https://nepalforeignaffairs. com/limpiadhura-is-trilateral-point-and-we-want-a-tripartite-agreement-to-resolve- the-issue/. Accessed February 19, 2020. Pun, S. (2020). Nepal’s Kalapani/Limpiyadhura casualty of India’s 1961 ‘Forward Policy’: It is sincerely hoped that the Government of India will respect Nepal’s “undoubted right and give prompt and full effect.” SPOTLIGHT, Vol. 13 No. 11, Jan. 24-06, Feb. 2020 (Magh. 10, 2076 BS) Publisher: Keshab Prasad Poudel Online Register Number: DOI 584/074-75. https://www.spotlightnepal.com/2020/01/27/nepals- kalapanilimpiyadhura-casualty-of-indias-1961-forward-policy/ Rose, L. E. (January–February 1999). Nepal and Bhutan in 1998: Two Himalayan Kingdoms. Asian Survey, 39 (1): 155–162, JSTOR 2645605 Satya, J. (2018, October 27). Kalapani belongs to Nepal- A brief history of Kalapani. Retrieved from: https://digitalample.com/kalapani-belongs-to-nepal-a-brief- history-of-kalapani/ Schrader, H. (1988). Trading patterns in the Nepal Himalayas, Bow Historical Books, ISBN 978-3-88156-405-2. Sherring, C. (1996). Western Tibet and the British border land, Asian Educational Services (p. 166), ISBN 978-81-206-0854-2. RSS. (2019, January 7). Armed police force, SSB start joint patrolling on no man’s land, The Himalayan Times. Retrieved from: https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/armed- police-force-ssb-start-joint-patrolling-on-no-mans-land/ RSS. (2018, October 16). Nepal-India border security meeting concludes, The Himalayan Times. Retrieved from: https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/nepal-india-border- security-meeting-concludes/ THEWEEK. (2020, January 2). Explainer: Kalapani territory dispute between India and Nepal & upcoming talks to resolve it. The region lies in a geographically significant tri-junction with China (Tibet). Retrieved from: https://www.theweek.in/news/ india/2020/01/02/explainer-kalapani-border-dispute-between-india-nepal-and- upcomingt-talks-for-resolution.html.

[92] Nepal Mega college Tripathi, D. (2019). Influence of borders on bilateral ties in South Asia: A study of contemporary India-Nepal relations. International Studies 56, no. 1–2: 186–200. doi: 10.1177/0020881719851420 [Crossref], Tagliacozzo, E. (2016). Jagged landscapes: Conceptulizing borders and boundaries in the history of human societies. Journal of Borderlands Studies 31, no. 1: 1–21. doi: 10.1080/08865655.2015.1106332 Tripathi, D., & Chaturvedi, S. (2019). South Asia: boundaries, Borders and Beyond. Journal of Borderlands Studies. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1080/08865655.2019.16 69483 The Economic Times. (2015, June 9). Nepal objects to India-China trade pack via Lipu- Lekh Pass. The Economic Times: Politics and Nation. Retrieved from: https:// economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/nepal-objects-to-india- china-trade-pact-via-lipu-lekh-pass/articleshow/47604908.cms. Accessed February 18, 2020. Timilsina, B., & Khatry, R. (2019, November 16). Nepal’s border pains: Burning effigies of Modi and Xi. Retrieved from: https://www.southasia.com.au/2019/11/16/nepals- border-pains-burning-effigies-of-modi-and-xi/ Varma, U. (1994). Uttar Pradesh State Gazetteer, Govt. of Uttar Pradesh, Dept. of District Gazetteers (p. 41). Walton, H. G. (Ed.). (1911). Almora: A Gazetteer, District Gazetteers of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. Retrieved from: archive.org. Zehra, I. (2020, February 4). India and Nepal’s slow-motion border dispute: Alleged Indian encroachment on Nepal’s border area is a persistent cause of tensions. The Diplomat: Read the Diplomat. Know the Asia-Pacific. Retrieved from: https://thediplomat. com/2020/01/india-and-nepals-slow-motion-border-dispute/

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The Mega Journal 2020 [93] Impact of Credit Risk Management on Prformance of Commercial Banks of Nepal

Rabin Dahal Nepal Mega College [email protected]

Abstract

Profitability of commercial banks are highly exposed due to credit default. This relationship between profitability and credit risk is being studied using longitudinal data also known as panel data. A fixed effect model is being used to study the pooled variables of five commercial banks of Nepal for the period of fifteen years. The model is being used after conducting Hausman Test to determine the suitable models between Fixed Effects Models and Random Effects Model of Panel data regression. The results show that profitability of commercial banks has significant relation with their exposure to credit risk.

Keywords: Performance, Credit risk, Capital Adequacy, Non-Performing Loan Commercial Banks Introduction The performance of any commercial banks is shown by the profit earned by them. The income and expenses of commercial banks are classified into interest income and interest expenses and non-interest income and expenses (Madura, 2012). Net interest income of commercial banks is difference between gross interest income and gross interest expenses (Madura, 2012). After adding non-interest income on net interest income and deducting non-interest expenses and loan losses and taxes return on asset of commercial banks is achieved. Commercial banks have their Capital structure

[94] Nepal Mega college policies which is termed as financial leverage and is measured as assets/equity, that gives return in equity (Madura, 2012). Overall performance of a commercial banks is return on equity. Return on equity (ROE) compares net profit after tax with equity that shareholders have invested in the firms (Van Horne and Wachowicz).

There are various factors that effects the performance of commercial banks. Madura (2012) had identified composition of assets and liabilities, quality of assets and liabilities, maturity and sensitivity of assets and liabilities, loan pricing policies, efficiency of personnel, cost of office spaces and equipment, marketing costs, loan collecting capabilities of concern department, tax planning and capital structure policies affects the performance of commercial bank.

Credit risk refers to the promised cash flows from loans and securities held by banks may not paid in full (Saunders and Cornett, 2013). Indeed, the most common reason by far for the failure of bank is loan losses. The assessment and bearing of credit risk is an important part what financial intermediaries do. So there is no question of avoiding it entirely. The key is to manage it carefully and to keep it under control (Kohn, 2013).

Credit risk result only in loss for the financial institutions (Kohn, 2013). Credit quality problems, in the worst case, can cause a financial institution to become insolvent or can result in such a significant drain on capital and net worth that they adversely affect its growth prospects and ability to compete with other domestic and international financial institutions (Saunders and Cornett, 2012).

Credit risk is one of the significant risks of banks by nature of their activities. Through effective management of credit risk exposure banks not only support the viability and profitability of their own business but also contributed to systematic stability and to an efficient allocation of capital in the economy (Rime, 2001). The default of a small number of customers may result in very large loss for the banks (Gestel and Baesens, 2008). It has been identified by Basel Committee as main source of risk in the early stage of Basel Accord. Credit risk is a risk of borrower default, which happens when the counterpart fails to pay on time.

Credit risk situation of a bank can be exacerbated by inadequate institutional capacity, inefficient credit guidelines, inefficient board of directors, low capital adequacy ratio, compulsory quota lending as a result of government interference and lack of proper supervision by the central bank. Therefore, efficient risk management is crucial and

The Mega Journal 2020 [95] valuable for banks to improve the performance and reduce the damage caused by risks (Afriyie and Akotey, 2012).

The strength of banking industry is and safety of banking system is depending on the profitability and capital adequacy of bank (Saunders and Cornett, 2013). Profitability is a parameter which shows management approach and competitive position of bank in market-based banking. The liquidation of Nepal Development Bank and Samjhana Finance, management take over action of Nepal Rastra Bank to Lumbini Bank, Kumari Bank, Nepal Bangladesh Bank, Bank of Kathmandu, Nepal Bank, Nepal Credit & Commerce Bank, huge amount of fraud cases and crisis-ridden reported in Kist Bank, Gurkha Development Bank, H & B Development Bank, Peoples Finance, Nepal Share Markets Finance, Royal Merchant Banking & Finance, liquidity crises of Vibor Development Bank, United Development Bank are the noteworthy ups and downs in Nepalese financial sector that attracted the eye and minds of corporate bodies, depositors, lenders, regulatory authorities, shareholders and other stakeholders including Government (Adhikari, 2014).

Sapkota (2011), analyze that too many BFIs to pop up, created a BFI bubble. This increase follows by intense competition of not only between banks in the same category but also between BFIs in different categories, leading to an informal war in offering high deposit rates and lending without differentiating markets, products, and borrowers’ creditworthiness that reflected bad corporate governance practice. Pandey, (2011) argue that majority of the institutions failure has resulted from misappropriation of bank’s fund by the BOD and the top management.

Thus analysis of credit risk has been prominent in Nepal to study its impact on commercial banks of Nepal.

The study would mainly focus on the analysis of internal determinants because the purpose of this research is to test the impact of credit risk management to firms’ profitability. Data and Method Data The study is based on secondary data for 15 years from 2004-2019. It is a panel or longitudinal data. A panel data set consists of a time series for each cross sectional members in a data set (Woolridge, 2013). Cross section consists of five commercial

[96] Nepal Mega college banks and time series consist of 15 years forming a panel data. The data are collected from the Banking and Financial Statistics published by Nepal Rastra Bank.

The variables studied here are classified into three categories viz. independent variables, dependent variables and control variables. Return on Equity(ROE) is taken as dependent variable. Capital adequacy Ratio (CAR) and Non-Performing Loan Ratio (NPLR) is studied as independent variables. Total asset of commercial banks is taken as control variables. As all the dependent and independent variables are expressed in terms of percentage total assets are converted into percentage term using natural logarithm. Method

Model Specification

The study is based on secondary data for 15 years from 2004-2019. It is a panel or longitudinal data. A panel data set consists of a time series for each cross sectional members in a data set (Woolridge, 2013). Cross section consists of five commercial banks and time series consist of 15 years forming a panel data. The proxy of credit risk are capital adequacy ratio and non-performing loan ratio whereas proxy of profitability is return on equity. According to Basel Accord II (BCBS, 2004) has suggested its own way of measuring, mitigating and managing risks. This framework has provided a spectrum of approaches ranging from simple to advance measurement of credit risks, market risks and operational risk, all of which could lead to asset quality and value deterioration (Suresh and Paul, 2019).

The Basel Accord II is based on three mutually reinforcing ‘pillars’, which together are expected to contribute to the safety and soundness of the international financial system. The first Pillar of Basel Accord discuss about minimum capital requirements for measuring credit risk, market risk and operational risk. The Capital Adequacy Ratio consists of total capital and risk weighted assets. Risk weighted assets consist of standardized approach, Internal rating based approach and securitization framework of measuring credit risk. Thus, CAR is used as proxy for Credit Risk.

Capital adequacy ratio (CAR) is defined as the ratio of capital to the risk weighted sum of banks’ assets (Saunders and Cornett, 2013). It measures the amount of bank’s capital relative to the amount of its weighted exposures (NRB 2010).

(BCBS, 2001)

The Mega Journal 2020 [97] A loan is normally defined as non-performing when customer’s payments are arrears (Saunders and Cornett, 2008). Generally, default can be defined in the following ways according to Nepal Rastra Bank (NRB, 2010).

Non-payment of interest 90 days after the interest due date

Non-payment of a loan 90 days after the loan maturity date

Restructuring of the borrower’s loans

Filing for bankruptcy

Return on equity(ROE) is the value of overall profitability of fixed income per unit of currency of equity which is defined as (Saunders and Cornett, 2013)

Or,

(Ross, Westerfield and Jordan, 2018)

The above mention identity is called DuPont Identity, after DuPont Corporation (Ross, Westerfield and Jordan, 2018)

Ross, Westerfield and Jordan (2018) said that DuPont identity tells us that ROE is affected by three things

Operating efficiency as measured by profit margin

Asset use efficiency as measured by asset turnover

Financial leverage as measured by equity multiplier

Thus, ROE is a best measure of overall performance of commercial bank.

The findings of the study made by Kurawa nad Garba (2014) on Nigerian banks found that CAR have strong and positive effect on return on equity. Poudel (2012) had found risk management as a major predictor of bank financial performance. Bhattarai (2015) concludes that there is negative effect of non-performing loan ratio on bank performance whereas capital adequacy ratio is insignificant determinant of bank performance.

[98] Nepal Mega college Total assets represent the size of the commercial banks and it is taken as control variable. To minimize the influence or effect of extraneous variable (s), an additional variable is introduced as control variable. Independent variables that are not relating to the purpose of study, but may affect the dependent variables are extraneous variables (Kothari and Garg, 2019). Total asset here is an extraneous variable and it is not merely possible cause but plausible cause.

Where, ROE is the dependent variable, CAR and NPLR are the explanatory variables or regressors,↋ the stochastic disturbance term, and i is the ith observation at time t.

β0 is the intercept term. It gives mean or average effect on ROE of all the variables excluded from the model, the coefficient β1 and β2 are the partial regression coefficients.

The data is of longitudinal in nature so panel regression is being used. For estimating panel data there are four major techniques viz. Pooled OLS method, fixed effect least square dummy variables (LSDV), fixed effect within-group model and random effect model can be used (Gujarati, Porter and Gunasekar, 2012).

This paper studies data on the basis of fixed effect models and random effect models and compare the results of both. And a discussion on the basis of Hausman test is made which model is better fit for this analysis. The fixed effect and random effect model are studied because if the model is pooled regression model the estimators are consistent (Gujarati, Porter and Gunasekar, 2012)Fixed effect model is used because although the intercept may differ across the five commercial banks (cross-sections), each entity’s intercept does not vary over time, that is, it is time in variant. The fixed effect on intercept is made using dummy variable technique, known as the differential intercept dummy technique.

If dummy variable does in fact represent a lack of knowledge about the model, random effect model or error correction model is used.

The major problem is which model is best. Gujarati et al. (2012) has discussed some aspect on choosing fixed effect model or random effect model. The reliability of the result given by fixed effect model and random effect model is given by Hausman test. Hausman test is used to shed light on reliability and choice between two models.

The Mega Journal 2020 [99] Results and Discussions The summary statistics are presented as under

ROE CAR NPLR Mean 17.56337 -1.062833 8.030000 Maximum 195.2610 19.36000 57.60000 Minimum -82.08880 -50.30000 0.100000 Std. Dev. 41.38560 19.38048 13.82744 Observations 75 75 75

Here, Mean return on equity on the period studied is 17.56, Similarly, average capital adequacy ratio is -1.06. Average non-performing loan ratio of the period is 8.03. Similarly, the maximum observed value of ROE, CAR and NPLR are 195.26, 19.36 and 57.6 respectively. On the other hand, observed minimum values of ROE, CAR, and NPLR are -82.089, -50.3 and 0.1 respectively. The standard deviation of ROE is 41.38 represents the is less consistency of ROE in the industry. The value of ROE is fluctuating with the time. Similarly, the standard deviation of CAR is 19.38 and NPLR is 13.82. Thus, there is significant deviation of the actual value from average value. It is because the difference between maximum and minimum observed values are high. Interpretation of Fixed Effect Model The dependent variables in the regression model is ROE. The sample period is taken as 15 years from 2004-2019.Which form a panel consisting 5 banks and 15 years of time period. The results of regression are presented as follow

Variables Coefficients Standard error t-statistic Probability C 3.032 0.59 0.375 0.0050 CAR 15.74 0.62 7.954 0.0000 NPLR -8 0.54 1.645 0.0000 LNTA 1.8 0.64 2.863 0.0000

R-squared 0.344 Mean dependent var 17.563 Adjusted R-squared 0.256 S.D. dependent var 41.385 S.E. of regression 35.691 Akaike info criterion 10.111

[100] Nepal Mega college Sum squared resid 66.24 Schwarz criterion 10.390 Log likelihood -295.33 Hannan-Quinn criter. 10.220 F-statistic 3.904 Durbin-Watson stat. 2.183 Prob. (F-statistic) 0.0005 Note: cross-section is fixed

The value of β1 , β2 and β3 are 3.032, 15.74 and -8 respectively. To support the assumption that stochastic distribution is normally distributed, t test is used to test the hypothesis (Gujarati, Porter and Gunasekar, 2012). Let’s postulates following hypothesis

The null hypothesis states that, with NPLR held constant, CAR has no linear relation with ROE. To test the null hypothesis, t statistic is studied. The t-value of β1 is 7.9. At 5% level of significance t-value is significant. Thus, null hypothesis is rejected. It means that when NPLR is kept constant, CAR is linearly related to ROE.

Another hypothesis for NPLR is tested as follows

The null hypothesis states that, with CAR held constant, NPLR has no linear relation with ROE. To test the null hypothesis, t statistic is studied. The t-value of β2 is 1.64. At 5% level of significance t-value is significant. Thus, null hypothesis is rejected. It means that when CAR is kept constant, NPLR is linearly related to ROE.

Overall significance of the observed or estimated regression line is tested using F-statistic. For testing overall significance of estimated regression following hypothesis are being set

The null hypothesis is β1 and β2 are jointly or simultaneously equals to zero. P-value

The Mega Journal 2020 [101] of F-statistic is almost equal to zero. Thus, null hypothesis is rejected. It means, the

β1 and β2 are not simultaneously zero. So, there exist linear relation between CAR, NPLR and ROE.

R-squared measures goodness of fit. It means how well the sample regression line fits data. In other words, goodness of fit measures the total variation in ROE explained by the regression model. The R-squared is 0.344 or 34.4%. Therefore, 34.4 % of variation on ROE is explained by exploratory variables, i.e., CAR and NPLR. Remaining 65.6% variation is due to unexplained or random variable.

Thus, the estimated regression equation from fixed effect model is

Here ROE is dependent variable, which depends on CAR and NPLR, whereas total asset is only control variable for each unit of for the time period . Here mutually exclusive intercept shift is 3.03 is estimated for each unit of to capture the distinctive, time variant features of each unit. This results in an estimate of βS that is purged of the influence of between-unit time-invariant cofounders.

It can be interpreted as one unit change in capital adequacy ratio leads to 15.7 units change in ROE of any commercial bank at period . Similarly, one unit change in NPLR could lead to inverse change in ROE of commercial bank at time by 8 units.

Interpretation of Random Effect Model

The dependent variables in the regression model is ROE. The sample period is taken as 15 years from 2004-2019.Which form a panel consisting 5 banks and 15 years of time period. The results of regression are presented as follow

Variables Coefficients Standard error t-statistic Probability C 20.90 7.80 2.679 0.009 CAR 0.792 0.43 1.805 0.076 NPLR -0.311 0.52 -0.587 0.559 LNTA 0.28 0.34 2.346 0.000

Effects Specification S.D. Rho Cross-section 11.077 0.89 Idiosyncratic 35.380 0.9107 Weighted statistic

[102] Nepal Mega college R-squared 0.143 Mean dependent var 11.905 Adjusted R-squared 0.113 S.D. dependent var 39.1946 S.E. of regression 36.895 Sum squared resid 775.94 F-statistic 4.79 Durbin-Watson resid 0.885 Prob(F-statistic) 0.0119 Unweighted Statistic

R-Squared 0.143 Mean dependent var 17.563 Sum squared resid 878.77 Durbin-Watson stat 0.7808

The value of β1, β2 and β3 are 0.792, -0.311 and -0.28 respectively. To support the assumption that stochastic distribution is normally distributed, t test is used to test the hypothesis (Gujarati, Porter and Gunasekar, 2012). Let’s postulates following hypothesis

The null hypothesis states that, with NPLR held constant, CAR has no linear relation with ROE. To test the null hypothesis, t statistic is studied. The t-value of β1 is 1.805. At 5% level of significance t-value is insignificant. Thus, null hypothesis is accepted. It means that when NPLR is kept constant, CAR is not linearly related to ROE.

Another hypothesis for NPLR is tested as follows

The null hypothesis states that, with CAR held constant, NPLR has no linear relation with ROE. To test the null hypothesis, t statistic is studied. The t-value of β2 is -0.587. At 5% level of significance t-value is insignificant. Thus, null hypothesis is accepted. It means that when CAR is kept constant, NPLR is not linearly related to ROE.

Overall significance of the observed or estimated regression line is tested using F-statistic. For testing overall significance of estimated regression following hypothesis are being set

The Mega Journal 2020 [103] The null hypothesis is β1 and β2 are jointly or simultaneously equals to zero. P-value of F-statistic is almost equal to zero. Thus, null hypothesis is rejected. It means, the

β1 and β2 are not simultaneously zero. So, there exist linear relation between CAR, NPLR and ROE.

R-squared measures goodness of fit. It means how well the sample regression line fits data. In other words, goodness of fit measures the total variation in ROE explained by the regression model. The R-squared is 0.143 or 14.3%. Therefore, 14.3% of variation on ROE is explained by exploratory variables, i.e., CAR and NPLR. Remaining 85.7% variation is due to unexplained or random variable.

Thus, the estimated regression equation from fixed effect model is

Here ROE is dependent variable, which depends on CAR and NPLR, whereas total asset is only control variable for each unit of for the time period . Here mutually exclusive intercept shift is 20.90 is estimated for each unit of to capture the distinctive, time variant features of each unit. This results in an estimate of βS that is purged of the influence of between-unit time-invariant cofounders.

It can be interpreted as one unit change in capital adequacy ratio leads to 0.792 units change in ROE of any commercial bank at period . Similarly, one unit change in NPLR could lead to inverse change in ROE of commercial bank at time by 0.311 units. Result of Hausman Test The results of Hausman Test are as follows:

Test cross-section random effects

Test Summary Chi-Sq. Statistic Chi-Sq. d.f. Prob. Cross-section random 6.98 2 0.030 The chi-squared value is statistically significant. Therefore, we can choose the fixed effects model over the random effects model (Gujarati and Porter, 2010).

As fixed effect model is selected from the Hausman test, the result shows that both CAR and NPLR has significant effect on ROE. CAR has positive relation with ROE. It means as the CAR increases ROE of the commercial banks also increase and vice- versa. On the other hand, NPLR inversely related to ROE. It means when NPLR increases ROE falls and vice-versa.

[104] Nepal Mega college The result is similar to the findings of Bhattarai (2015) in terms of CAR and on NPLR and TA has found significant relationship between bank performance. Similarly, the previous studies conducted by Ara, Bakeva and Sun (2009) in Sweden, the research conducted by Uwaigbe, Ratiuwigbe and Oyewo (2015) in Egypt, Erina and Lace (2013) in Latvia. All of these research found positive relationship between CAR and ROE. Conclusion Capital adequacy ratio has been developed to ensure that banks can absorb a reasonable level of losses before solvency and before depositor fund cost. Applying minimum capital adequacy ratio aims to protect depositors and promote the stability and efficiency of the financial system. NPLR is a financial soundness indicator which demonstrates the quality of bank loan. Bank strength is needed for the stability and growth of the economy, and it is shown by profitability and capital adequacy of banking and financial institutions.

The relationship between credit risk and profitability is significant which would suggest to maintain the proper control on credit risk. References

Afriyie, H., & Akotey, J. (n.d.). Credit risk management and profitability of selected rural banks in Nigeria. Catholic University College.

Ara, H., Bakaeva, M., & Sun, J. (2009). Credit risk management and profitability in commercial banks in Sweden. Gothenberg: University of Gothenberg.

Bank for International Settlement. (2004). The New Basel Capital Accord. Basel: BCBS.

Basel Committee for Banking Supervision. (2001). The New Basel Capital Accord. Basel: Bank for International Settlements.

Bhattarai, Y. (2015). Effects of credit risk management on the performance of Nepalese commercial banks. NRB Economic Review.

Erina, J., & Lace, N. (2015). Commercial banks profitability indicators: Empirical evidences from Latvia. IBIMA Business Review. Getsels, T., & Baesens, B. (2009). Credit risk management. Oxford: Oxford Scholarship Online.

The Mega Journal 2020 [105] Greene, W. (2015). Econometric analysis. Noida: Pearson. Guru, B., & Staunton, J. B. (1999). Determinants of commercial banks profitability. 12th Annual Australian Finance and Banking Conference. Perth. Kothari, C., & Garg, G. (2019). Research methodology: Methods and techniques. Delhi: New Age. Nepal Rastra Bank. (2010). Risk management guideline. Kathmandu: NRB Banking Supervision Department. Rime, B. (2001). Capital requirements and bank behavior: Empirical evidence from Switzerland. Journal of Banking and Finance. Saunders, A., & Cornett, M. M. (2013). Financial institutions management: A risk management approach. New Delhi: McGraw Hill Education . Suresh, P., & Paul, J. (2018). Management of banking and financial services. Chennai: Peardon. Van Horne, J. C., & Wachowicz, J. (2018). Fundamentals of financial management. Noida: Pearson. Woolridge, J. M. (2013). Introductory econometrics: A modern approach. Delhi: Cengage Learning.

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[106] Nepal Mega college Performance Appraisal and Employee Motivation in Nepalese Commercial Banks

Sarad Sharma Dhungel Nepal Mega College [email protected]

Abstract

This study examines the impact of performance appraisal and employee motivation in Nepalese commercial banks. Performance appraisal is dependent variable. The independent variables are integrity, benevolence, outcome instrumentality and accuracy. The primary source of data is used to assess the opinions of the respondents regarding performance appraisal and employee motivation in Nepalese commercial banks. The study is based on 50 respondents from 14 Nepalese commercial banks. To achieve the purpose of the study, structured questionnaire is prepared. The regression models are estimated to test the importance of performance appraisal and employee motivation in Nepalese commercial banks. Keywords: Performance appraisal, integrity, benevolence, outcome instrumentality and accuracy. Introduction

Human resource management focuses on personnel related areas such as job design, resource planning, performance management, recruitment, selection, compensations and employee relations. Out of these, performance evaluation plays a critical role for the global success of the organization (Dechev M., 2013). Organization tries to

* Lecturer at Department of English, CIL, TU

The Mega Journal 2020 [107] satisfy and motivate their employees to get better result. Performance appraisal is one of the main functions of human resource management. It is a method/ process which evaluates the individual’s job performance in accordance with the objectives of the organization. Performance appraisal is effective and efficient for every organization (Saeed et al. 2013). Alvi et al. (2013) defined performance appraisal as a structured and formal interaction between a subordinate and supervisor, that usually takes the form of a periodic interview (annual or semiannual), in which the work performance of the subordinate is examined and discussed, with a view to identifying weaknesses and strengths as well as opportunities for improvement and skills development. Scott (2009) asserted that performance appraisal is the measurement or evaluation of the desired quantity and quality of the performance of the employee at work.

As an organization struggles to remain sustainable and competitive, strategic planners and human resources professionals need to collaborate more intensely in designing strategies that are productive and humane (Dechev Z., 2010). According to Marquardt (2004), the most successful organizations in the 21st century will be those to adopting a focused and integrated HR processes and systems. The art and science of empowering people, organizations and communities to create maximum productivity, quality, opportunity and fulfillment has never encountered so many challenges and opportunities (Marquardt, 2004).

According to Brown (2005), performance management is important to provide information on organizational and/or employees’ effectiveness, improve organizational and/or employees’ efficiency, provide information on organizational and/or employees’ efficiency, improve organizational and/or employees’ efficiency, improve employees’ level of motivation, link employees’ pay with perceptions of their performance, raise levels of employee accountability, and align employees’ objectives with those of the organization as a whole.

Baron et al (2005) defend the performance appraisal as a more limited approach which involves managers making top-down assessment and rating the performance of their subordinates at an annual performance appraisal meeting. Likewise, Chapman (2009) argued that important changes relating to age discrimination in UK employment law became effective in October 2006, with implications for all types of appraisals and job performance and suitability assessment. Szilagy & Wallace (1990) argued that better use of technology skills and attributes will develop both the organizational and individual capabilities and reach agreement on areas where performance needs to be effective.

[108] Nepal Mega college According to Meyer and Smith (2000), the aim of appraisal is to identify the development and training needs and potential for future developments of an individual, while Arbaiy and Suradi (2007) argued that it is a source of competitive advantage among employees of any organization and that is used in SWOT analysis of any organization to measure the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. Kalimullah (2010) argued that motivated employee has his/her goals aligned with those of the organization and directs his/her efforts in that direction.

In addition, these organizations are more successful, as their employees continuously look for ways to improve their work. Employees can also be motivated through proper leadership, as leadership is all about getting thing done the right way. In order to achieve these goals, the leader should gain the employees’ trust and make them follow him. Nevertheless, in order to make them trust him and complete their tasks properly for the organization, the employees should be motivated (Baldoni, 2005).

Performance appraisal system is an important drive that looks for better, more accurate, more cost-effective ways for of evaluating job performance and employee motivation. Performance appraisal system is a significant technique aimed at enhancing the performance of the employee in the organization (Vasset et al., 2011). Performance appraisal is often considered one of the most important human resource management functions (Selvarajan and Cloninger 2008), and an effective performance appraisal and management system is an integral part of organization’s human resource management effectiveness. Motivation is an important subject area for practitioners of management all over the world. Motivation is equally relevant to public and private sectors and civil and private establishments. An employee performance appraisal can act as motivation for an employee to improve his productivity. When an employee sees his goals clearly defined, his performance challenges identified, and career development solutions in place to help advance his career, he gets motivated to achieve the organizational goals. Once employee performance is measured against the set goals and objectives, a need can be identified about the future strategies of employee motivation.

In the context of Nepal, Bista (2016) concluded that majority of employees are satisfied and very few are dissatisfied regarding the performance evaluation conducted by their respective organization and also express that the employees perceive very less impact on their work motivation.

The above discussion reveals that there is no consistency in the findings of various studies concerning performance appraisal and employee motivation. Therefore,

The Mega Journal 2020 [109] this study has been conducted to analyze the impact of performance appraisal on employee motivation in Nepalese commercial banks. Specifically, it examines the impact of integrity, benevolence, outcome instrumentality and accuracy on employee work motivation in Nepalese commercial banks.

The remainder of this study is organized as follows. Section two describes the sample, data and methodology. Section three presents the empirical results and the final sections draws conclusion and discusses the implications of the study findings. Methodological Aspects The study is based on the primary data which were gathered from 50 respondents of 14 Nepalese commercial banks. The respondents’ views were collected on integrity, benevolence, outcome instrumentality, accuracy, and employee work motivation.

Table 1: Number of commercial banks selected for the study along with the number of respondents

S.N. Name of commercial banks Number of respondents 1 Agriculture Development Bank Ltd 2 2 Bank of Kathmandu Ltd 3 3 Century Commercial Bank Ltd 4 4 Civil bank Ltd 4 5 Global IME Bank Ltd 5 6 Kumari Bank Ltd 3 7 Laxmi Bank Ltd 2 8 Machchhapuchchhre Bank Ltd 2 9 Nabil bank Ltd 3 10 Nepal Bank Ltd 3 11 NIC Asia Bank Ltd 4 12 NBM Bank Ltd 7 13 RastriyaBanijya Bank Ltd 1 14 Sanima Bank Ltd 7

Thus, the study is based on 50 observations. The Model The model estimated in this study assumes that employee work motivation depends on integrity, benevolence, outcome instrumentality and accuracy. Therefore, the model takes the following form:

[110] Nepal Mega college Employee work motivation = f (integrity, benevolence, outcome instrumentality and accuracy).

More specifically, Where, EWM = employee work motivation INT = integrity BEN = benevolence OUT = outcome instrumentality ACC = accuracy

The following section describes the independent variables used in this study. Integrity Integrity was measured using a 5 -item scale. The respondents were asked to indicate the level of agreement or disagreement on top management’s quality of being honest and having strong moral principles on a 5-point Likert scale (1= strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree). Sample items include “I never have to wonder whether top management will stick to its word” and “top management tries hard to be fair in dealings with others”. The reliability of the construction of responsiveness was measured by the Cronbach's alpha (α = 0.9).

The study Employee Motivation from Performance Appraisal Implications (Sanjyal & Biswas, 2014) has found the importance of integrity of line managers in the practice of the appraisal process wherein it also reviewed different dilemmas regarding appraisal practice and employee motivation as the outcome. Performance appraisal is one of the main functions of human resource management where it has to take a good care while executing because a slight hint of lack of integrity from the management may have a huge impact on the acceptability and motivation of the employees (Mehta, 2014). Lloyd (2018) argues that ethical issues in the workplace have always been important because with strong feedback on employee appraisal forms, we can prevent unethical behaviors from expanding and contaminating the company. Mack (2013) mentions that integrity entails honesty not just in communication, but also in self- perception. An effective manager will perform frequent self-assessments to ensure her leadership style is helping her employees perform better. Based on it, this study develops the following alternative hypothesis:

The Mega Journal 2020 [111] H1: There is positive relationship between integrity of management during performance appraisal and employee’s work motivation. Benevolence Benevolence was measured using a 5 -item scale. The respondents were asked to indicate the level of agreement or disagreement on top management’s act of kindness or an inclination to be kind on a 5-point Likert scale (1= strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree). Sample items include “Top management really looks out for what is important to me” and “Top management will go out of its way to help me”. The reliability of the construction of responsiveness was measured by the Cronbach's alpha (α = 0.9).

To shed light on the issue of benevolence (Lind, 1997) stated that demonstrating concerns for the welfare of the staff can bring upon a positive triggering factors towards the employee’s motivation as well as their satisfaction. Considering the personality, benevolence seems to be connected with people temperament. Temperament refers to those dispositions that are closely linked to biological or physiological determinants and that consequently show relatively little modification with development. In the field of relational management, when a person engages another in ways that honor his/her existence and value, at least two important things happen to this person: a self- esteem feeling, and the fact to be drawn close to the person who is affirming you; this helps to be stronger, more vibrant, more resilient, to develop a sense of social dignity that confirms our worth and even our sense of competence (Dutton & Heaphy, 2003). Based on it, this study develops the following alternative hypothesis:

H1: There is positive relationship between benevolence of management during appraisal and employee’s work motivation. Outcome Instrumentality Outcome instrumentality was measured using a 3 -item scale. The respondents were asked to indicate the level of agreement or disagreement on the impact of actual instrumentality on a 5-point Likert scale (1= strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree). Sample items include “Whether or not I get a raise depends on my performance” and “If I perform well, my chances of moving up are improved”. The reliability of the construction of responsiveness was measured by the Cronbach's alpha (α = 0.9).

Instrumentality is the belief that if you perform well then a valued outcome will be received (Vroom, 1964). It denotes the degree to which a first level outcome will lead

[112] Nepal Mega college to the second level outcome. Vroom's expectancy theory works on perceptions – so even if an employer thinks they have provided everything appropriate for motivation, and even if this works with most people in that organization, it doesn't mean that someone won't perceive that it doesn't work for them. Thus, Vroom's expectancy theory of motivation is not about self-interest in rewards but about the associations people make towards expected outcomes and the contribution they feel they can make towards those outcomes. Graen (1969) has stated that Instrumentality theory hypothesizes that a person's attitude toward an occurrence (outcome) depends on his perceptions of how that outcome is related (instrumental) to the occurrence of other more or less preferred consequences. Based on it, this study develops the following alternative hypothesis:

H1: There is positive relationship between outcome instrumentality and employee’s work motivation. Accuracy

Accuracy was measured using a 7 -item scale. The respondents were asked to indicate the level of agreement or disagreement on the impact of actual instrumentality on a 5-point Likert scale (1= strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree). Sample items include “The evaluation of what skills I have is pretty accurate” and “How many mistakes I make in my work is important to my performance review”. The reliability of the construction of responsiveness was measured by the Cronbach's alpha (α = 0.9).

According to the study ‘The Effect of Accuracy of Performance Evaluation on Learning from Experience (Ellis, Mendel, & Aloni-Zohar, 2009), it is found that the more accurately individuals evaluated their performance, the better they performed on a subsequent task. It was also found that the more individuals overestimated their previous performance; the lower was their performance on the next task. In contrast, the evaluation accuracy of the under estimators was unrelated to their subsequent performance. Also, it is found that when participants received feedback from an external authority, the effect of the inaccuracy of self-performance evaluation on subsequent performance was reduced.Based on it, this study develops the following alternative hypothesis:

H1: There is positive relationship between accuracy of appraisal and employee’s work motivation.

The Mega Journal 2020 [113] Results and Discussion

Correlation Analysis

On analysis of data, correlation analysis has been undertaken first and for this purpose Pearson’s correlation coefficients have been computed and the results are presented in Table

Table 2: Pearson’s correlation matrix

This table presents the correlation coefficients between dependent and independent variables. EWM (Employee work motivation) is the dependent variable. The independent variables are INT (Integrity), BEN (Benevolence), OUT (Outcome instrumentality) and ACC (Accuracy).

Mean S.D. INT EWP OUT ACC BEN INT 3.764 .7863 1 EWP 3.558 .8557 .625** 1 OUT 3.616 .8539 .536** .465** 1 ACC 3.653 .7189 .472** .576** .533** 1 BEN 3.840 .7521 .653** .564** .287* .349* 1

Notes: The asterisk signs (**) and (*) indicate that the results are significant at 1 percent and 5 percent levels respectively.

The result shows that Integrity is positively related to employee work motivation. It indicates that better the integrity, higher would be employee work motivation. The Results also show that outcome instrumentality is positively related to Employee work motivation. It indicates that better outcome instrumentality, higher would be employee work motivation. Similarly, the table shows that Accuracy is positively correlated to employee work motivation, which indicates that more accurate the evaluation, higher the level of employee motivation towards work. Likewise, the result shows that there is positive relationship between Benevolence and employee work motivation. Higher the benevolence, higher would be the employee work motivation. Regression Analysis Having indicated the correlation coefficients, the regression analysis has been carried out and the results are presented in Table 3. More specifically, it presents the regression results of Integrity, Benevolence, Outcome instrumentality and Accuracy with Employee work motivation of Nepalese commercial banks.

[114] Nepal Mega college Table 3: Estimated regression results of Integrity, Benevolence, Outcome instrumentality and Accuracy

The results are based on 50observations by using linear regression model. The model

EWM= β0 + β1INT+ β2 BEN + β3OUT + β4ACC+ e where, EWM (Employee work motivation) is the dependent variable. Whereas, INT (Integrity), BEN (Benevolence), OUT (outcome Instrumentality) and ACC (Accuracy).The values in the parenthesis are t-values. Regression coefficients Adj.R_ SEE F-Value of bar2 Model INT BEN OUT ACC Intercept 1 1.060 .679 .378 .6733 30.813 (2.255)* (5.551)*

2 1.613 .563 .304 .7123 22.407 (3.708)* (4.734)* 1.104 .654 .318 .7052 23.840 3 (2.108)* (4.883)* 1.600 .552 .200 .7639 13.212 4 (2.831)* (3.635)* -.114 .286 .257 .363 .94 .490 .6101 12.747 5 (-.207) (1.697)* (1.894)* (2.543)* (.602) -.005 .325 .247 .396 .497 .6058 17.113

(-0.10)* (2.101)* (1.843)* (3.026)*

Notes: The asterisk signs (**) and (*) indicate that the results are significant at 1 percent and 5 percent levels, respectively.

Table 3 shows that the beta coefficient for integrity is positive with employees work motivation in Nepalese commercial banks. It indicates that the integrity of management during performance appraisal have positive impact upon the work motivation of the employees. This finding is similar to the findings of Mehta (2014). Also the coefficients are significant at given significance level of 5%. Likewise, the beta coefficient for benevolence is also reflected to be positive. This indicates that the expressed intention of the management for the welfare of the staff during the performance have a positive impact on the work motivation of the employees. This conclusion is consistent with the conclusion set by the research conducted by Dutton & Heaphy (2003).

The Mega Journal 2020 [115] Similarly, the table shows that the beta coefficient for outcome instrumentality is positive with employees work motivation in Nepalese commercial banks. It indicates that the belief that if you perform well then a valued outcome will be received have a positive impact on the wok motivation of the employees. This conclusion is in line with the findings of the study conducted by Vroom (1964) Also, the coefficient is significant at 5% confidence level. Similarly the beta coefficient for accuracy is also positive with the employee work motivation. It indicates that the accurate evaluation of the employee’s performance and matching them with the performance appraisal have positive impact upon the work motivation of the employees. This conclusion goes in line with the finding of the study conducted by Ellis, Mendel, & Aloni-Zohar (2009). Also, the coefficient is significant at the confidence level of 5%. Conclusion

This study attempts to assess the relationship between aspects related with performance appraisal such as integrity, benevolence, outcome instrumentality and accuracy of the management on work motivation of the employees in Nepalese commercial Banks. This study is based on primary data of 14 commercial banks with 50 observations. The information related to the study was administered through questionnaires.

The result revealed that all the variables considered for the study, i.e., integrity, benevolence, outcome instrumentality and accuracy are positively correlated to the work motivation of the employees. It indicates that higher the input from management during performance appraisal, higher will be the work motivation of the employees. The regression results also show that the variables coefficients are significant at the confidence level of 5%. On the basis of the same, we can clearly conclude that higher the integrity, benevolence, outcome instrumentality and accuracy of the management, higher will be the work motivation of the employees. References

Alvi, Z., Zeesan, M., Arshad, W., Hussain, M., Khan, M. I., & Ahsan, K. (2013). Estimate of performance of employees after yearly appraisal. International Journal of Advanced Research, 1 (5), 24-29. Arbaiy, N., & Suradi, Z. (2007). Staff performance appraisal using fuzzy evaluation. International Federation for Information Processing, 247, 195-203. Baldoni, B. (2005). The effects of perceived co-worker involvement and supervisor support on

[116] Nepal Mega college service provider role stress, performance and job satisfaction. Journal of Retailing, 72, 57-75. Barin, S., Knickmeyer, R., Belmonte, M., Epstain, S., & Neville, H. J. (2001). Gender differences in performance evaluation.Houston Journal of Psychology, 1 (3), 78-91. Baron, C., Knickmeyer, R., & Belmonte, M. (2014). The mediatory effect of self-efficacy. Applied Journal of Social and Behavioral Sciences, 130, 96-104. Bista, P. (2016). Job satisfaction among employees of commercial banks in Nepal. The Journal of Developing Areas, 62 (2), 163-177. Brown, K. (2005). Performance appraisal system: determinants and change. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 5 (3), 224-251. Chapman, A. D. (2009). Performance evaluation in respect to employee’s age. London Journal of Administration, 8 (2), 50-62. Dechev, M. (2013). Effects of performance appraisal quality on job satisfaction in multinational companies in Malaysia. International Journal of Enterprise Computing and Business Systems, 2 (1), 230-249 Dechev, Z. (2010). Effective performance appraisal - a study into relation between employer satisfaction and optimizing business result. Department of Economics. Erasmus University Rotterdam. Dutton, J. E., & Heaphy, E. D. (2003). The power of high quality connection. American Journal of Public Administration, 263-278. Ellis, S., Mendel, R., & Aloni-Zohar, M. (2009). The Effect of Accuracy of Performance Evaluation on Learning from Experience: The Moderating Role of After‐Event Reviews. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 39 (3), 541-563. Graen, G. (1969). Instrumentality theory of work motivation: Some experimental results and suggested modifications.Journal of Applied Psychology, 53 (2), 1-25. III, E. E. (1994). From job-based to competency-based organizations. Journal of organizational behavior, 15, 3-15. Kalimullah, K. (2010). Impact of employees motivation on organizational effectiveness. Research Journal of International Studies, 14, 37-52. Lind, M. C. (1997). HRM Practices and Organizational Commitment. Organizational Management Journal, 256-269. Llyod, K. (2018). Employee appraisal phrases: professional ethics. Retrieved from: http:// www.dummies.com/business/human-resources/employee-relations/employee- appraisal-phrases-professional-ethics/

The Mega Journal 2020 [117] Mack, S. (2013). Examples of integrity in a manager. Retrieved from: https://yourbusiness. azcentral.com/examples-integrity-manager-8366.html Marquardt, F. (2006). Action learning, leadership and organizational development. Oxon: Routledge. Mathis, R. L., & Jackson, J. H. (2005). Human Resource Management. Cengage South- Western: Thompson. Mehta, A. K. (2014). Impact of performance appraisal system on employee motivation. Abhinav International Monthly Referred Journal of Research in Management & Technology, 3, 17-21. Meyer, P., & Smith, A. (2000). Organizational commitment and HRM practices. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 17, 319-331. Muhammad, K. (2010). Examining the role of organizational variables in the salesperson job satisfaction model. Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, 146, 33-46. Saeed, A. I., Maiya, I., Farah, L., & Hina Mustaq. (2015). Factors affecting employee's performance: a case study of baniking sector of Pakistan. European Journal of Business and Social Sciences, 4 (8), 235-267. Sanjyal, M. K., & Biswas, S. B. (2014). Employee Motivation from Performance Appraisal Implications. Procedia Economics and Finance, 11, 182-196. Scott, D. (2006). Developing country perceptions of high‐ and low‐involvement products manufactured in other countries. International Journal of Emerging Markets, 5 (3), 746-809 Selvarajan, R., & Cloninger, F. (2008). Effectiveness of performance appraisal on performance of employees. Journal of Business and Management, 16 (6), 173-178. Szilagy, R., & Wallace, S. (1990). Impact of tenchnology on employee;s performance. Management Journal of Manila, 6 (2), 121-154. Szilagyi, A. J., & Wallace, J. (1990). Organizational Behavior and Performances. Open Journal of Applied Sciences, 6 (4), 232-256. Vasset, F., Manburg, E., & Trude, J. (2011). Impact of performance appraisal on the motivation of teachers. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 5 (12), 784-789. Vroom, V. H. (1964). Expectancy Theory. The study of the motivations behind decision making.

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[118] Nepal Mega college Education and Economic Growth: What Does the Literature Say?

Satis Devkota University of Minnesota, Morris, USA [email protected]

Abstract

This paper reviews the existing literature on the impact of education on economic growth and concludes that the quality of education is substantially more important for economic growth than the mere quantity of schooling. First, it highlights the private vs. social returns of education and discusses why education is the means as well as the ends of development. Second, it discusses the role of the increase in average years of schooling on economic growth. Third, the paper highlights the effect of an increase in the quality of schooling on economic growth and came to the conclusion that adding educational quality in the growth model reduces the effect of years of schooling greatly, leaving it mostly insignificant. At the same time, adding other factors in the model leaves the effects of quality of education basically unchanged. That is the quality of education has a robust significant effect on economic growth.

Key words: Economic Growth, Years of Schooling, Education Quality, Private and Social Returns to Education, Human Capital Introduction Education is a crucial development objective as well as an essential instrument for growth and development. It is simultaneously an end and a means of development (Sen, 1999). Education is fundamentally valuable to individuals for their wellbeing. In the labor market, the quality of education serves as a signal for unobservable abilities which helps employers in selecting qualified workers. Education helps to

The Mega Journal 2020 [119] improve health and increase labor productivity. Thus, increasing the average years of schooling by promoting equal access to education for everyone is an important development objective in itself. There is another side to the story of education. The quality of education, measured by the knowledge that students gain as reflected in the scores on cognitive skills tests, is much more important for economic growth than the quantity of schooling measured in terms of the years of education completed (Hanushek and Kimko, 2000). Thus, together with equal access to education, enhancing the quality of education is important to sustain higher economic growth. Better education not only raises labor productivity and hence earnings but facilitates innovation and the quality of entrepreneurship. From a development policy perspective, education offers another attractive feature in terms of the difference between private and social returns. The private return to education is around 6-10% (Card, 1999) whereas the social return is approximately three times larger – approximately 18-30% (Acemoglu and Angrist, 2000). Education not only benefits individuals personally through better jobs, higher incomes, and better partners, it also benefits others as it helps to generate more jobs, improve the human capital of others, particularly children, and foster better citizenship and greater political participation. Because education has these social externalities, it is a public good. Education is non-rival and non-excludable. It is therefore an end as well as a means of development (Sen, 1999).

However, returns to education should be distinguished from returns on investment in education. The former is the effect of one more year of schooling on output while the second is the effect of an additional dollar of investment in education. The private returns to investment in primary, secondary, and higher education for Asian countries are on average 20%, 15.8%, and 18.2%, respectively, whereas the social returns are 16.2%, 11.2%, and 11.0%, respectively (Psacharopoulus & Patrinos, 2004). Similarly, the private returns to investment in primary, secondary, and higher education for Nepal are 15.7%, 8.1%, and 9.1% respectively and the private returns are 16.6%, 8.5%, and 12.0% respectively. Thus, there are strong positive private and social externalities associated with individual education. Education and Economic Growth

Education has long been viewed as an important determinant of economic wellbeing. Literature emphasizes at least three mechanisms through which education

[120] Nepal Mega college may affect economic growth. First, according to the augmented neoclassical growth theories, education increases human capital inherent in the labor force. As a result, labor productivity increases which leads to a higher equilibrium growth (Mankiw et. al., 1992).

Second, endogenous growth theories posit that education can promote the stock of human capital that increases the innovative capacity of individuals and the economy (Nelson and Phelps, 1966). Endogenous growth theories also emphasize that the accumulation of human capital helps to acquire new knowledge on innovative technologies, products, and processes. All of these factors help promote economic growth (Lucas, 1988; Romer, 1990; Aghion and Howitt, 1997).

Third, Aghion and Howitt (1997) distinguish another framework within the endogenous growth literature. This emphasizes technology transfer which speeds up economic growth and helps developing countries to catch up with higher income countries possible. In this framework, education can facilitate the dissemination and transmission of knowledge needed to understand and process new information and to successfully implement new technologies devised by others (Nelson and Phelps, 1966; Benhabib and Spiegel, 1994).

To understand the link between education and innovation, we can compare economic growth rates of the US and Europe for the late 1990s or early 2000s. Sapir (2004) argues that the slower growth in Europe may have been caused by the European Union's relatively meager investment of 1.1 percent of its gross domestic product in higher education, compared to 3 percent in the U.S. That indicates the rate of innovations in the U.S. was higher than in Europe contributing to higher economic growth in the U.S. in that period.

Similarly, to understand the imitation or other channels through which education affects economic growth we can look at European growth in the thirty years after World War II. Europe grew faster than the U.S. even though it invested mainly in primary and secondary education. Similarly, the "Asian miracle" (high productivity growth in such Asian countries as South Korea) is associated with greater investment in primary and secondary education than investment in higher education. Thus, for developing countries like Nepal, this approach could be very useful.

The Mega Journal 2020 [121] Figure 1: Labor Productivity Schooling Quantity and Economic Growth The standard method of estimating the effect of education on economic growth is to estimate cross-country growth regressions where average annual growth in the gross domestic product (GDP) per capita over several decades is expressed as a function of measures of schooling and a set of other variables deemed important in economic growth. The most common measure of education is years of schooling, averaged across the working-age population. Following the classical contributions by Barro (1991, 1997) and Mankiw et. al. (1992), a substantial body of literature on cross- country growth regressions has found a significant positive association between quantitative measures of schooling and economic growth.

For example, Sala-i-Martin et al. (2004) found that primary schooling turns out to be the most robust factor (after an East Asian dummy) influencing growth in GDP per capita during the 1960–1996 period, based on an extensive robustness analysis of 67 explanatory variables in growth regressions for a sample of 88 countries. Even though the average years of schooling have a significant effect on economic growth, the robustness of the impact increased after an East Asian dummy was added in their model. This dummy acted as a proxy for the educational quality in the East Asian region.

A common, albeit an imperfect, measure of educational quality is educational expenditure per pupil. Between 1970 and 1989, real expenditures per pupil at the

[122] Nepal Mega college primary level rose in Korea by 355% compared to 64% and 38% respectively in Mexico and Kenya. In Pakistan, the expenditure on primary scholing rose by only 13% between 1970 and 1985 (Birdsall and Sabot, 1994). These dramatic differences reflect mostly differential changes over the period in income growth and in the number of children entering schools, both of which favored the Korean economy.

However, those studies neglect the effect of the cross-country differences in the quality of education on economic growth. Most importantly, using average years of schooling as an education measure implicitly assumes that a year of schooling delivers the same increase in knowledge and skills regardless of the education system in different countries. This measure also assumes that formal schooling is the primary source of education and that variations in the quality of non-school factors affecting learning have a negligible effect on educational outcomes. This neglect of cross-country differences in the quality of education is a major drawback of such quantitative measures. Schooling Quality and Economic Growth Over the past 20 years, growth research has demonstrated that accounting for the quality of education, measured by the cognitive skills learned, dramatically alters the assessment of the role of education in economic development. Hanushek and Kimko (2000) used a statistical model that relates annual growth rates of real GDP per capita to the measure of educational quality, years of schooling, the initial level of income, and several other control variables (including, in different specifications, the population growth rates, political measures, openness of the economies, and the like). Adding educational quality in this model reduces the effect of years of schooling greatly, leaving it mostly insignificant. At the same time, adding other factors leaves the effects of cognitive skills (a proxy for the quality of education) basically unchanged. The evidence thus suggests that the quality of education, measured by the knowledge that students gain in terms of the cognitive skills test scores, is substantially more important for economic growth than the mere quantity of schooling.

More recent evidence from Hanushek and Woessmann (2008, 2009) considers international student achievement tests not previously available and uses the most recent data for a longer period of time (1960–2000) to analyze economic growth. This study was based on the cross-country data for 50 countries around the world over a 40-year period. Based on their data, the authors confirm the findings made by Hanushek and Kimko (2000).

The Mega Journal 2020 [123] Conclusion Both quantity and quality of education are important for economic development. Education generates not only private but high social returns. Further, the quality of education has robust significant effect on economic growth of a country particularly in the early stages of development. In light of these findings, Nepal needs to focus on two questions: First, should the government continue to provide free education up to the secondary level? In other words, is free schooling beneficial from the private and social standpoints? Secondly, how can Nepal enhance the quality of its public education at least at the primary and secondary school levels? References

Acemoglu, D., & Angrist, J. (2000). How large are human-capital externalities? Evidence from compulsory schooling laws. NBER Macroeconomics Annual, 15(2000), pp. 9-59. Aghion, P., & Howitt, P. (1997). Endogenous growth theory. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Barro, R. J. (1991). Economic growth in a cross section of countries. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 106(2), pp. 407–443. Barro, R. J. (1997). Determinants of economic growth: a cross-country empirical study. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Benhabib, J., & Spiegel, M. M. (1994). The role of human capital in economic development: Evidence from aggregate cross-country data. Journal of Monetary Economics, 34(2), pp. 143–174. Birdsall, N., & Sabot, R. H. (1994). Virtuous circles: Human capital growth and equity in East Asia. World Bank, Policy Research Department, Washington, D.C. Processed. Card, D. E. (1999). The causal effect of education on earnings. In The Handbook of Labor Economics, Vol. III, O. Ashenfelter and D. Card (eds.). Amsterdam: Elsevier. Hanushek, E. A., & Kimko, D. D. (2000). Schooling, labor force quality, and the growth of nations. American Economic Review, 90(5), pp. 1184–1208. Hanushek, E. A., & Woessmann, L. (2008). The role of cognitive skills in economic development. Journal of Economic Literature, 46(3), pp. 607–668. Hanushek, E. A., & Woessmann, L. (2009). Do better schools lead to more growth? Cognitive skills, economic outcomes, and causation. NBER Working Paper No. 14633.

[124] Nepal Mega college Cambridge, MA, National Bureau of Economic Reasearch. Lucas, R. E. (1988). On the mechanics of economic development. Journal of Monetary Economics, 22, pp. 3–42. Mankiw, N. G., Romer, D., & Weil, D. (1992). A contribution to the empirics of economic growth. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 107(2), pp. 407–437. Nelson, R. R., & Phelps, E. (1966). Investment in humans, technology diffusion and economic growth. American Economic Review, 56(2), pp. 69–75. Romer, P. (1990). Endogenous technological change. Journal of Political Economy, 99(5, pt. II), S71–S102. Sala-i-Martin, X., Doppelhofer, G., & Miller, R. I. (2004). Determinants of long-term growth: A bayesian averaging of classical estimates (BACE) approach. American Economic Review, 94(4), pp. 813–835. Sen, A. (1999). Development as freedom. New York, NY: Anchor Books.

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The Mega Journal 2020 [127] uf]/vfkq ;+:yfgn] lzj /]UdL, lzjk|;fb e§/fO{, hob]j e§/fO{sf] ;Dkfbgdf uf]/vfkqsf] Oltxf;-@)^&_ gfds k':ts k|sfzg u/]sf] 5 . of] k':tsdf uf]/vfkqsf af/]df ;'?b]lv k|sflzt ePsf] ljleGg n]vssf n]vx?nfO{ ;°ng ul/Psf] 5 . o;df uf]/vfkqsf ljifodf n]lvPsf $( n]vx? ;°lnt 5g\ . To:tf n]vx?n] uf]/vfkqsf] cf/lDes / pQ/f]Q/ ljsf;sf] cj:yfnfO{ ljleGg sf]0faf6 cfTdk/s / j:t'k/s tl/sfn] ljZn]if0f u/]sf] kfOG5 . o:t} lszf]/ g]kfnn] ldl8of l;4fGt, ;"q / k|of]u -@)&@_ k':tsdf uf]/vfkqsf] Oltxf;nfO{ ljZn]if0f ug]{ k|oTg u/]sf 5g\ . ;+lIfKt Oltxf;df pgn] uf]/vfkqsf] k|]; :jtGqtfsf] cj:yf / zf;sx?n] o;nfO{ cfgf] d'vkq agfpg u/]sf] s;/tnfO{ pNn]v ug]{ k|oTg u/]sf 5g\ . o;qmddf pgn] uf]/vfkqsf] ;DkfbsLo :jtGqtfdf a9L hf]8 lbPsf] kfOG5 . Ps/fh kf7sn] cfd;~rf/ / kqsfl/tf -@)&^_ k':tsdf uf]/vfkq / kqsfl/tf zLif{ssf] Ps cWofo ;dfj]z u/]sf 5g\ . o;df pgn] uf]/vfkqsf ljljw kIfsf] ;/;tL{ ljj]rgf u/]sf] kfOG5 . o;df ljz]ifu/L uf]/vfkqsf] of]ubfgsf] rrf{ ul/Psf] kfOG5 t/ uf]/vfkqsf] af/]df ulx/f] ljZn]if0f eg] kfOb}g . z}lIfs k|of]hgnfO{ hf]8 lbPsf] cfefif x'G5 . of] cfn]v tof/ ubf{ d"ntM log} k"j{cWoogx?nfO{ cfwf/ agfOPsf] 5 . uf]/vfkqsf] P]ltxfl;s of]ubfg g]kfnL kqsfl/tfsf] Oltxf;n] Ps ztfAbLeGbf nfdf] 5 . …uf]/vfkqÚsf] :yfkgf lj=;+= !(%* j}zfv @$ ut] ;f]daf/af6 o;sf] Oltxf; ;'? ePsf] b]lvG5 . o;sf] k|sfzgsf] ## jif{kl5 lj=;+= !((! …zf/bfÚ ;flxlTos klqsfsf] k|sfzg ;'? eof] . g]kfnL kqsfl/tfsf] Oltxf; sfg'gL lx;fan] zf/bf klqsf klxnf] aGg k'u]sf] 5 . o;sf]] btf{ gDa/ ! /x]sf] 5 eg] uf]/vfkqsf] btf{ gDa/ @ /x]sf] 5 . uf]/vfkq lj=;+ @))) c;f]h @( ut]b]lv xKtfdf b'O{ k6s / @))# k'if * ut]b]lv xKtfdf # k6s k|sfzg x'g yfNof] . of] b}lgs klqsfsf ?kdf @)!& kmfu'g & ut]b]lv k|sfzg x'g yfNof] . @)!( b]lv @)@@ ;Dd ;GWofsfnLg k|sfzg ;d]t ePsf] -rfln;], @)^% M !@(_ of] klqsf xfn b}lgs ?kdf lg/Gt/ k|sflzt 5 . …uf]/vfkqÚ k|sfzg x'Fbf s7f]/ /f0ffsfnLg Joj:yf lyof] . ;jf ;o jif{ cufl8 o;sf] :yfkgf x'Fbf b]zdf /f0ff k|wfgdGqL b]jzdz]/ lyP . lzIff;]jL ;d]t /x]sf b]jzdz]/n] uf]/vfkqsf] :yfkgf u/]/ kqsfl/tfdf lbPsf] of]ubfg klg clj:d/0fLo / cd"No /x]sf] 5 . …uf]/vfkqÚ k|sfzgdf cfpFbf g]kfnL efiffdf b]zaflx/af6 …uf]vf{ ef/t hLjgÚ / b]z leqaf6 …;'wf;fu/Ú ;flxlTos klqsf k|sflzt eO;s]sf lyP . …;'wf;fu/Ú ;flxlTos klqsf lyof] . …/fhLjnf]rg hf]zLsf Znf]sdf eLdzdz]/nfO{ k|;Ë ldnfP/ dNnfx;Fu t'ngf ul/Psf] sf/0fn] of] klqsf aGb ePsf] xf] eGg] s'/f Oltxf; lz/f]dl0f afa'/fd cfrfo{n] u/]sf] s'/fÚ pNn]v kfOG5 -/]UdL, @)^& M k[=!%(_ . o;sf/0f ;'wf;fu/ aGb x'g'df /f0ffx?s} s'b[li6 /x]sf] b]lvG5 .

[128] Nepal Mega college Tolta]nf g} of] klqsfn] /f0ffx?sf lj?4 n]Vg] b':;fx; ;d]t u/]sf] b]lvG5 . ;flxlTos klqsf ePsfn] ;flxlTos ljifoj:t' k|sfzg ul/P klg o;nfO{ /f0ffx?n] cfkm"lj?4s} xltof/ 7fg]sf] cg'dfg 5 . ef/tdf …ef/t hLjg k|];Ú lyof] . o;n] g]kfnL efiffsf k':tsx? k|sfzg ub{Yof] . ToxL k|];af6 …uf]vf{ ef/t hLjgÚsf] k|sfzg x'GYof] . o;sf ;Dkfbs /fds[i0f adf{ lyP t/ To;sf] k|sfzgsf] pTk|]/s eg] df]tL/fd e§ g} ePsf] cg'dfg ul/G5 -k/fh'nL, @)$% M k[=!#(_ . To;df e§ n]vs jf cGo k|sf/n] dfq} hf]l8Psf] x'g'k5{ . Tof] klqsfnfO{ klg /f0ffx?n] cfgf unt lqmofSnfk k|sfzg xf]nfg\ eg]/ e§nfO{ g]kfn lemsfP/ cnkq kf/]sf lyP eGg] egfO klg kfOG5 . t;y{ …uf]vf{ ef/t hLjgÚ / …;'wf;fu/Ún] bL3{hLjg kfpg ;s]gg\ . oL kqklqsfn] bL3{hLjg kfpg g;s] klg …uf]/vfkqÚn] eg] cvaf/L kqsfl/tfsf] o'u ;'? ug]{ ;kmntf kfof] . uf]vf{ ef/t hLjgaf6 …uf]vf{Ú zAb ;fk6L lnP/ cyf{t …ef/t hLjg sf6]/ uf]vf{af6Ú of] cvaf/ k|sfzg ;'? ul/of] -ld>, @)^& M k[=#^_ . o;/L uf]/vfkqsf] ;'?jft g]kfnL kqsfl/tfsf] cf/DeljGb'sf ?kdf ePsf] b]lvG5 . cWoogsf nflu sfzL k'u]sf ax'd'vL k|ltefsf wgL df]tL/fd e§n] gf6s, sljtf, ;dfnf]rgf, kqsfl/tf cflbsf dfWodaf6 dfWoldssfnLg cGwsf/sf] o'udf klg hgr]tgfsf nflu cg]s k|of;dWo] kqsfl/tfnfO{ Ps agfPsf lyP eGg] s'/f dflysf] b'O{ kqklqsfx?sf] k|sfzgsf] b[i6fGtaf6 k'li6 x'G5 . To; qmddf pgn] …uf]/vfkqÚ k|sfzgsf] jftfj/0f tof/ kfg{df klg of]ubfg lbP . 5fkvfgfsf] sfd ul//x]sf …pgL Pp6f va/ sfuh lgsfNg] kIfdf lyP . To;sf nflu pgn] b/af/;Fu /fd|f] ;DaGw ePsf cfgf dfdfx? -s[i0fb]j kf08], g/b]j kf08]_nfO{ /ftlbg bafa lbGy] .===b]jzdz]/ k|wfgdGqL x'gf;fy g/b]jn] cfgf] jiff}{sf] ;kgf ;fsf/ t'Nofpg] cj;/ kfP . To;} jif{ !(%* j}zfvb]lv uf]/vfkq k|sflzt x'g yfNof], ;fKtflxs va/ sfuhsf] ?kdf . df]tL/fd e§sf] ;kgf t k"/f eof] t/ pgL d/]sf] em08} kfFr jif{kl5dfqÚ-kf08] M @)^&, k[=&)÷&!_ . t;y{ g]kfnL kqsfl/tfsf] :yfkgf / pGgogdf of]ubfg ug]{ csf{ JolQm df]tL/fd e§ x'g\ . g]kfnL ;flxTosf] dfWolds sfnsf s]Gb|Lo k|ltef ;d]t /x]sf e§ g]kfnL kqsfl/tfsf] klg cf/Destf{ ePsfn] pgnfO{ klxnf] kqsf/sf ?kdf klg lng ;lsG5 . ;'?df xKtfsf] Ps k6s k|sfzg ePsf] uf]/vfkq qmdzM xKtfsf] b'O{ / tLg k6s x'Fb} cfh b}lgs ?kdf k|sfzg x'g yfn]sf] klg cfwf ztfAbLeGbf a9L eO;s]sf] 5 . ;'?df …uf]/vfkqÚ k|sfzgsf] klxnf lhDdf g/b]j kf08]n] kfP klg To;sf] nuQ} rGb|zdz]/n] cfgf HjfO{+ hok[YjLaxfb'/ l;+xnfO{ klxnf] …k|wfg ;Dkfbs tyf Joj:yfksÚsf] lhDd]jf/L lbP . o'/f]ksf b]zx?sf] klg e|d0f u/]sf l;+xn] /f0ffzf;gsf st'{thGo …;xL ;"rgfÚ uf]/vfkqsf dfWodaf6 hgtfnfO{ lbP . of] s'/f lzIff;]jL ePs} sf/0f / hgtfnfO{ r]tgzLn agfpg vf]h]sf sf/0f b]jzdz]/nfO{ ;QfRo"t u/]sf /f0ff k|wfgdGqL rGb|zdz]/nfO{ dg kg]{ s'/f ePg . To;}n] cfkm\g} HjfO{+n] cfkm\gf lj?4 n]Vg yfn]kl5 tTsfnLg k|wfgdGqL rGb|zdz]/n] l;+xnfO{ uf]/vfkqaf6

The Mega Journal 2020 [129] dfq} lgsfn]gg\, b]z} 5f8\g afWo t'NofP -sIff !), g]kfnL, k[=#!_. of] uf]/vfkqsf] ;/sf/ / Joj:yfksaLr k/]sf] klxnf] n8fO{+ lyof] . kqsfl/tfn] lzIffsf nflu cf}krfl/s sIff rnfpg] t xf]Og t/ cfkm\gf …;xL ;"rgfÚsf dfWodaf6 dflg;x?nfO{ r]tgzLn t'NofpF5 / hgdt lgdf{0f ub{5 . kqsfl/tfsf dfWodaf6 hufOg] r]tgf cGo dfWodsf] eGbf :yfoL / ulx/f] x'G5 . uf]/vfkqn] klg To:t} lzIff lbg] / hgdt lgdf{0f ug]{ sfd ;'?b]lv xfn;Dd g} ul//x]sf] 5 . ;Qf / zlQmdf x'g]x?sf unt sfo{lj?4 hgtfnfO{ clek|]l/t klg ul//x]sf] 5 -kf]v/]n, @)%* M (_. t;y{ …uf]/vfkqÚ kqsfl/tfsf] ljZjljBfno g} xf] eGbf cTo'lQm x'Fb}g . of] blIf0f Pl;ofs} h]7f] klqsfx? dWo] Ps aGg k'u]sf] 5 . g]kfndf kqsfl/tfsf] hu xfNg] / To;nfO{ pQ/f]Q/ ult lbg] sfd klg uf]/vfkqaf6} eof] . ax'eflifs kqsfl/tf, ;flxlTos kqsfl/tf, Dofu]lhg kqsfl/tf, afn kqsfl/tfsf] ljsf; klg uf]/vfkqaf6} eO/x]sf] 5 . cfh klg o;sf] ljljwtfnfO{ c?n] pl5Gg ;s]sf] cj:yf 5}g . ;fy;fy} ljwfut kqsfl/tf h:t} v]n, cy{, snf, afn, ;DkfbsLo cflbsf] ;'?jft klg uf]/vfkqaf6} eof] eGg] s'/fsf] k'li6 of] klqsfsf] b}lgs cg'udgaf6} yfxf nfU5 . kqsfl/tfnfO{ sfg'gL ?kdf Jojl:yt t'Nofpgsf nflu tTsfnLg /f0ff k|wfgdGqL b]jzdz]/n] lj=;+= !(%* j}zfv !! ut] uf]/vfkq k|sfzgsf] ;gb hf/L u/]sf lyP . o;nfO{ g]kfnsf] klxnf] k|]; sfg'g jf cfrf/ ;+lxtf dflgG5 . of] ;gb hf/L x'Fbf cd]l/sfn] klg k|]; cfrf/ ;+lxtf agfO;s]sf] lyPg . cd]l/sfdf ;g\ !(@# df cfP/ k|]; cfrf/ ;+lxtf lgdf{0f eof] . t;y{ g]kfnL kqsfl/tfsf nflu sfg'gsf] ;'?jft klg …uf]/vfkqÚaf6} eof] . g]kfnL efiffsf] cfw'lgs sfnfjlw …uf]/vfkqÚsf] k|sfzg -!(%*_ af6} ;'? ePsf] dflgG5 . p;s} kqsfl/tfaf6 g]kfnL efiffn] n]Vo, :t/Lo tyf dfgs :j?k k|fKt u¥of] . …uf]/vfkqÚ g]kfnL ;dfhdf cfkm}df efiffsf] cflwsfl/s kf7\ok':ts h:tf] klg ag]sf] 5 . j0f{ljGof;sf] z'4 k|of]usf nflu cfh klg ;a} ju{ / pd]/ ;d"xsf dflg;x?n] …uf]/vfkqÚ x]g]{ rng sfod} 5 . g]kfnL efiffnfO{ ;/n, Jofks / Ps¿k t'Nofpg] sfd klg o;}af6 eof] . lj= ;++ @)@) sf] bzsdf cfP/ cª\u|]hL efiffdf ;xk|sfzgsf] cf/De ug]{ uf]/vfkqn] cfkm"nfO{ ax'eflifs agfpFb} g]kfnsf ljleGg /fi6« efiffx?sf] ;d[l4df of]ubfg lbO/x]sf] 5 . efiffsf] Oltxf; vf]Hbf … uf]/vfkqÚsf] g]kfnL efiff / cGo efiff cfkm}df cWoogsf] ljifo aGg k'Ub5g\ . P]ltxfl;s ljsf;qmd, ljifout tyf ;fdflhs ljljwtfsf ;fdu|Lx?sf] k|:t'ltx?sf sf/0fn] ubf{ efiffsf] P]ltxfl;s ljsf;qmd / k|of]hgk/s kIfsf] cWoogdf klg …uf]/vfkqÚsf] ;xof]u lng ;lsG5 . …uf]/vfkqÚ k|sfzg x'Fbf g]kfnL ;flxTo dfWolds sfndf cufl8 a9\b} lyof] . Toltv]/sf] g]kfnL ;flxToaf6 o;n] sljtf, syf / pkGof; ljwfnfO{ lnof] / ltgsf] /f]rstfaf6 kmfObf p7fpFb} :jo+ cfkm\gf] kf7s;Fusf] ;DaGw sl;nf] agfpFb} tL ljwfnfO{ klg kf7s;Dd k'¥ofof] .

[130] Nepal Mega college hLjgL n]vg k/Dk/fsf] ;'?jft klg …uf]/vfkqÚn] g} u¥of] . /fli6«o tyf cGt/fli6«o k|]/0ffbfoL JolQmx?sf] hLjgLnfO{ cfh klg uf]/vfkqn] :yfg lbO/x]sf] 5 . o; afx]s lgaGw, ;dLIff, ;dfnf]rgf h:tf ljwfx?sf] :yfg klg …uf]/vfkqÚdf ;'/lIft 5 . cg'jfb ;flxTosf] ;'?jft klg o;}af6 eof] . @)!( ;fnaf6 k|sflzt x'Fb} cfPsf] zlgaf/Lo kl/lzi6fª\s …uf]/vfkqÚsf] ;flxlTos km"naf/L aGg k'u]sf] 5 . o;df ljz]ifu/L efiff ;flxTo, k':ts ;dLIff, Joª\Uolrq cflbsf] k|sfzg ePsf] kfOG5 . o;y{ g]kfnL kqsfl/tfsf] Oltxf;df …uf]/vfkqÚsf] P]ltxfl;s of]ubfg /x]sf] b]lvG5 . … uf]/vfkqÚsf nflu hf/L ePsf] ;gb cfh klg plQs} ;fGble{s 5 . g]kfnL kqsfl/tfsf] cfh klg ckgfpg g;s]sf] ljsf; kqsfl/tfsf] lahf/f]k0f pQm ;gbn] g} u/]sf] 5 . cvaf/L kqsfl/tf, ;flxlTos kqsfl/tf, eflifs ljsf; nufot ;"rgf, lzIff, dgf]/~hg / pTk|]/0ffsf If]qdf uf]/vfkqn] P]ltxfl;s of]ubfg lbPsf] kfOG5 . of] g]kfnsf] dfq geP/ Pl;ofs} k'/fgf] dWo]sf] Ps ;dfrf/ kq xf] / o;n] g]kfnL kqsfl/tfsf] ljZjljBfno x'g] Ifdtf /fVb5 . o;s} hudf g]kfnL kqsfl/tf cgk]lIft l56f] ultdf 5fkf, ljB'tLo / gofF dfWodsf ?kdf ultzLn ag]sf] 5 . ljwfut kqsfl/tf, ;flxlTos kqsfl/tf, afn kqsfl/tf, ax'eflifs kqsfl/tf, eflifs ljljwtf, /fhgLlts of]ubfg cflb o;n] lbPsf of]ubfg x'g\ . ;DkfbsLo :jtGqtfsf] ;+ª\3if{ pbf/jfbL /f0ff zf;s b]jzdz]/ t'ngfTds ?kdf ;'wf/sf sfd u/]/ b]z ljb]zdf nf]slk|otf cfh{g ug{ rfxGy] . ToxL qmddf pgn] lzIff, kqsfl/tfsf nufotsf If]qdf cfgf ultljlwx? cufl8 a9fP . o;qmddf pgn] …uf]/vfkqÚ k|sfzgsf nflu ;gb hf/L u/] . pQm ;gb lj=;+= !(%* j}zfv !! hf/L ePsf] lyof] . pQm ;gbdf s'g s'/f 5fKg] / s'g s'/f g5fKg] eGg] af/]df k|i6 lgb]{zg lbPsf] b]lvG5 . ;f] ;gbdf …xfd|f tfl/kmsf s'/f g5fKg'Ú eg]/ uf]/vfkqnfO{ ;Qfdf a:g]x?ssf] cfjfh gagfpg' a? cfjfhljxLgx?s} cfjfh agfpg' eGg vf]h]sf] x'g;S5 . csf]{ s'/f pQm ;gbdf gsf/fTds s'/fnfO{ dfq} xf]Og, ;sf/fTds s'/fnfO{ klg ;dfrf/ agfpg lgb]{zg lbP/ ljsf; kqsfl/tf / b"/ eljiosf] kqsfl/tfnfO{ ;d]t lgb]{z u/]sf] kfOG5 . tTsfnLg cj:yfsf] pQm ;gb /f0ffsfnLg ;ª\s'rgsf] 3]/faf6 lgs} aflx/ lg:s]/ cfhsf] kqsfl/tfnfO{ ;d]t dfu{lgb]{zg ug]{ Nofst /fVb5 . t/ b]jzdz]/sf] ;'wf/jfbL sfd pgs} efO rGb|zdz]/nfO{ dg k/]g . kmntM uf]/vfkqsf] k|sfzg ;'? ePsf] s]xL dlxgfg} b]jzdz]/nfO{ pgn] ;QfRo"t u/L sf7df8f}Faf6 wkfP . b]jzdz]/ wkfOP;Fu rGb|zdz]/n] uf]/vfkqsf] k|sfzgg} aGb ul/lbPsf lyP t/ uf]/vfkqsf]

The Mega Journal 2020 [131] u|fxs eO;s]sf] a]nfotn] zf]wvf]h ug{ yfn]kl5 pgL uf]/vfkqsf] k|sfzgnfO{ lg/Gt/tf lbg afWo ePsf lyP -k|wfg, @)^& M k[=*$_ . To;}n] rGb|zdz]/n] afWotfjz uf]/vfkqnfO{ lg/Gt/tf lbP tfklg To;nfO{ cfgf] d'7\7Lleq /fVg rfxGy] . To;}n] pgn] g/b]j kf08]nfO{ x6fP/ cfg} HjfO{+ hok[YjLaxfb'/ l;+xnfO{ uf]/vfkqsf] lhDdf lbP . t/ l;+xsf] k|hftflGqs / dfgjtfjfbL ljrf/sf] sf/0f rGb|zdz]/;Fu s'/f ldn]g . kmntM l;+x uf]/vfkqaf6 dfq} xf]Og b]zaf6} alx{udg x'g'k¥of] . l;+xsf] alx{udg s'g sf/0faf6 ePsf] lyof] eGg] af/]df dfWolds txsf] g]kfnL ljifo -@)%&_ sf] kf7\ok':tsdf lgDg s'/f pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 M hok[YjLaxfb'/ l;+xn] !(%* b]lv !(&# ;Dd uf]/vfkqsf] k|wfg;Dkfbs Pjd\ Joj:yfks eO{ ;]jf u/] . pgsf] sfo{sfndf o; klqsfdfkm{t g]kfnL jfª\dosf ljljw ljwfn] km:6fpg] df}sf kfP . cfgf ;;'/f tTsfnLg >L # rGb|zdz]/;Fu lj=;+= !(^% df klxnf]k6s hok[YjLaxfb'/ l;+x o'/f]k]nL /fi6«x?sf] e|d0fdf uPsf lyP . ToxfFsf] ljsf; / k|hftflGqs kl/kf6Laf6 k|efljt eO{ tTsfnLg zf;gJoj:yfsf] lj?4df lgeL{stfsf ;fy pgL snd rnfpg yfn] . cfTdljZjf; / kljq wf/0ff /fVg] ePsfn] pgL ;To s'/f JoQm ug{ slxNo} 8/fpFb}gy] . To;}n] of] s'/f pgsf ;;'/f >L # rGb|zdz]/nfO{ kr]g . cfg} HjfO{F eP/ klg /f0ffzf;gsf] lj/f]w u/]sfn] rGb|zdz]/ nufot w]/} /f0ffx? pgLaf6 ?i6 x'Fb} uP . pgnfO{ o;f] gug{ cg]sf}F k|nf]eg b]vfOof] / wDsL lbOof] . b]z / hgtfsf] sNof0fdf nfUg] dflg; ;fgf]ltgf] k|nf]eg / wDsLdf k/]/ cfgf] :jfledfg sxfF u'dfpg rfxG5 / Û pgn] cfgf] Jojfx/df clnslt klg kl/jt{g NofPgg\ . kl/0ffd:j?k pgnfO{ uf]/vfkqsf] ;Dkfbs kbaf6 dfq} xf]Og b]zaf6} lgsfNg] l:yltsf] l;h{gf ul/of] -sIff !), g]kfnL @)%& M k[=#)_. hok[YjLaxfb'/ l;+xn] …uf]/vfkqÚdf hgcfjfhnfO{ k|ltlalDat ug{ vf]Hbf rGb|zdz]/;Fu n8fO{+ k/]sf] / b]zaf6} lgjf{l;t x'g' k/]sf] s'/f dflysf] p4/0faf6 k'li6 x'G5 . of] uf]/vfkqsf] klxnf] ;DkfbsLo ;+3if{ lyof] . of] 36gfn] …uf]/vfkqÚ Psflt/ …;DkfbsLo :jtGqtfÚsf nflu ;'?af6} ;+3{if/t /x]sf] b]lvG5 eg] csf]{lt/ k|hftGqsf nflu …d;fnÚ klg uf]/vfkqn] Tolta]n} p7fPsf] b]lvG5 . To;kl5 uf]/vfkqdfly ;/sf/L lgoGq0f ug{ ljleGg sfg'gx? ;d]t lgdf{0f eP . o;qmddf lj= ;+= !(*@ df3 @^ ut]sf] ;gbdf uf]/vfkqsf] 5fkvfgfsf] gfddf …of] klqsf :jtGq geO{ ;'?b]lv g} ;/sf/L d'vkqsf] ?kdf ;/sf/åf/f k|sflzt u/fOPsf] x'gfn] o;df 5flkg] n]v, ;dfrf/ cflb o;sf tfn'sjfnfåf/f ;]G;/ eP/ dfq 5flkG5 .Ú elgPsf] 5 ->]i7 M @)^&, k[=!*_. o;af6 o;sf] k|sfzg ;/sf/sf] d'vkqsf ?kdf g} ePsf] b]lvG5 t/ @))& ;fndf ;/sf/n] /fhkq k|sfzg ug{ yfNof] . To;kl5 eg] of] s]jn ;/sf/L d'vkq dfq} geO{ ;dfrf/ kq xf] eGg ;lsg] eof] . uf]/vfkqn] ;'?;'?df …Pl86/sf] /foÚ zLif{sdf ;DkfbsLo n]VYof] . Tof] Pl86/sf] /fo klg zf;sx?n] dg gk/fPsf] sf/0f kl5 x6fOof] . ;'?df Pl86/sf] /fo n]Vg] s'g} lglZrt :yfg

[132] Nepal Mega college lyPg . slxn] klxnf] k[i7df t slxn] bf];|f] k[i7df of] n]lvGYof] . n]Vg] dflg; klg tf]lsPsf] lyPg . ;'?;'?df lgoldt n]lvP klg kl5 cj:yf / cfjZostf adf]lhd dfq} n]Vg] ul/of] . lj=;+= !(() ;Dd ;Dkfbssf] Joj:yf gePsf]n] uf]/vfkqdf Tof] Pl86/sf] /fo s;n] n]VYof] eGg] cg'dfgs} s'/f /x]5 . ;Dkfbs geP klg uf]/vfkqdf kl08t kbdf ljleGg JolQmx?nfO{ lgo'lQm lbg] rng lyof] . lj=;+= !(#( df 5fkvfgfsf] sfdsf lglDt lgo'Qm ePsf ;fw'/fd b]jsf]6fnfO{ lj=;+= !(^) df x6fOof] . hok[YjLaxfb'/ l;+xn] pbob]j kf08], lr/~hLlj kf}8]n / g/]Gb|s];/L cHof{n u/L ltg hgfnfO{ kl08t kbdf lgo'lQm u/]sf] b]lvG5 . logLx? dWo] kf}8]n lj= ;+= !(^# / cHof{n !(&# ;Dd uf]/vfkqdf ;f]xL kbdf sfo{/t /x]sf] kfOG5 . lj=;+= !(() b]lv k|]d/fh kf}8\ofn uf]/vfkqdf lgo'Qm eP . pgL g} !((! h]7 % ut]b]lv uf]/vfkqsf] ;Dkfbs aGg k'u] . …Pl86/sf] /foÚsf ljifodf sdn bLlIftsf] egfO u|Lidaxfb'/ b]jsf]6fn] cfgf] …g]kfnsf] 5fkvfgf / kqklqsfsf] Oltxf;Ú eGg] k':tsdf pNn]v u/]sf 5g\ . Tof] k':tsdf pNn]v ul/P cg';f/ lr/~hLlj kf}8]nn] Pl86/sf] /fo eg]/ n]Vg] ;DkfbsLox?df s;}sf] 8/ gdfgL ;Tosf kIfdf snd rnfpFy] . pgn] o;/L n]Vg] ;DkfbsLo zf;sju{nfO{ zfob dg k/]g . To;}n] s]xL ;dokl5 logs} ;Dkfbssfndf …Pl86/sf] /foÚ eGg] :tDe uf]/vfkqaf6 x6\of] -b]jsf]6f M @)%(, k[=^^_. o;/L Pl86/sf] /fonfO{ ;dfKt ul/of] / ;DkfbsLo dfkm{t p7fpg vf]lhPsf] hgcfjfhnfO{ aGb ul/of] . o'uslj l;l4r/0f >]i7n] klg uf]/vfkqdf sfd u/]sf] kfOG5 . pgn] j}hgfy ;]9fO, ;'Aaf cd[tgfy / k|]d/fh zdf{sf ;fydf uf]/vfkqdf sfd u/]sf lyP . pgn] uf]/vfkqsf] s'g} Pp6f ;dfrf/nfO{ …a'9f]sf] t?gL :jf:gL a]kQfÚ zLif{s lbP5g\ . of] zLif{ssf sf/0f pgn] g/fd|f] xKsL vfg'k/]5 . To;kl5 g]kfnsf ;dfrf/x?df zLif{s glbg] rng rnfOP5 ->]i7 M @)^&, k[=!^^_. lj=;+= !((& sflQ{s @ ut] >]i7sf ;fy …uf]/vfkqÚsf ;Dkfbs k|]d/fh zdf{ / kl08t s]zj xn'jfO{ ;d]t kqmfpm k/]sf] Oltxf; kfOG5 . kfFr jif{kl5 y'gfd'Qm ePsf >]i7 @))$ ;fnlt/ kbd\zdz]/ k|wfgdGqL ePsf a]nf k'gM …uf]/vfkqÚsf] ;x;Dkfbs eP . To;a]nf pgn] låb}lgs ePsf] …uf]/vfkqÚsf] lgoldt u|fxs afx]s c? gf} ;o hlt u|fxs u/fP . t/ u|fxs a9fP/ hgtfsf] r]tgf a9fpg] sfd /f0ffzf;snfO{ dg kg]{ s'/} ePg . kl/0ffdtM >]i7n] /f0ffx?sf] vKsL vfg'k¥of] . Tolta]nf o'uslj >]i7n] k|wfgdGqL df]xg zdz]/sf af/]df …df]xg k|e'sf] ho ho ufcf}F, sfnf] h8tfnfO{ k5f/f}FÚ h:tf ljifoj:t' ;dfj]z u/]/ sljtf n]v]sf] klg kfOG5 . pQm sljtfs} sf/0fn] >]i7nfO{ dfq} geP/ ;Dkfbs k|]d/fh zdf{nfO{ ;d]t …uf]/vfkqÚaf6 /flhgfdf lbg'k/]sf] lyof] -P]hg, k[=!^&_. uf]/vfkqsf] pGgltsf nflu k|oTgzLn l;l4r/0f >]i7sf] …uf]/vfkqÚsf] ofqf lgs} ptf/r9fjk"0f{ b]lvG5 . xKsLbKsL, h]ng]n / /fhLgfdf pgL cfkm"n] dfq gef]u]/ pgsf ;Dkfbs / ;xof]uLn]

The Mega Journal 2020 [133] ;d]t ef]Ug'kg]{ lttf] oyfy{ /x]sf] 5 . kqsfl/tfsf] Ifdtf a'em]sf >]i7n] hgtfdf r]tgf a9fpg …uf]/vfkqÚsf la:tf/sf ;fy ;fdu|Lx?df ljb|f]xL r]tgf kl:sPsf] ;lhn} cg'dfg nufpg ;lsG5 . lj= ;++= @))& kmfu'gdf g]kfndf /f0ffzf;gsf] cGTo eO{ k|hftGqsf] :yfkgf eof] . k|hftflGqs lbgdf k|];n] lgs} :jtGqtf klg k|fKt u¥of] . lghL If]qaf6 ;d]t kqklqsfx? k|sfzg x'g yfn] t/ @)!& ;fn k'if ! ut]b]lv k'gM bnLo Joj:yfdfly k|ltaGw nfUof] / lgb{nLo k+rfotL Joj:yfsf] ;"qkft ul/of] . ;f]xL ;fn df3b]lv …uf]/vfkqÚsf] ;Dkfbs uf]kfnk|;fb e§/fO{ aGg k'u] . e§/fO{ …uf]/vfkqÚdf @)!& b]lv @)!* ;Dd / @)@@ b]lv @)#@ ;Dd u/]/ b'O{ sfo{sfn ;Dkfbs ag] . pgL …uf]/vfkqÚnfO{ ;/sf/sf] d'vkqaf6 clns leGg agfO{ To;df af}l4s ultljlwsf] cEof; ug{ klg rfxGy] . To;}sf] kmn:j?k pgs} sfo{sfndf …uf]/vfkqÚ b}lgs aGg k'Uof] . /f0ffsfnLg zf;gJoj:yfdf h:t} e§/fO{nfO{ lj=;+= @)!* df 5flkPsf] Pp6f ;DkfbsLos} sf/0fn] ubf{ …uf]/vfkqÚaf6 x6fOof] . kl5 k'gM lj=;+=@)@@ df pgsf] k'g{jxfnL eof] . t/ lj=;+= @)#@ df Ps n]vdf gfd km/s kg{ uPsf] ljifodf …;Dkfbsn] g}lts lhDd]jf/L lnof]Ú eGb} k'gM pgnfO{ ;Dkfbsaf6 x6fOof] -uf}td, @)^& M k[=!^#_. e§/fO{sf] sfo{sfndf ;dfrf/ tyf n]v/rgfsf cfwf/df pk;Dkfbs nufotsf sd{rf/Lx?nfO{ hflu/af6 x6fpg], lgnDag ug]{, wDsL lbg] h:tf sfo{x? w]/}k6s ePsf] b]lvG5 . e§/fO{nfO{ ;d]t kbaf6 ha/h:tL x6fOPsf] s'/fn] pgsf] sfo{sfn lgs} sl7g lyof] eGg] cg'dfg ;xh} nufpg ;lsG5 . /fhgLlts k[i7e"ldsf e§/fO{ Tolt ;lhn} cjZo klg uNg] vfnsf lyPgg\ xf]nf . o;/L /f0ffsfnb]lv k+ofrtL Joj:yf;Dd uf]/vfkqn] hgtfsf cfjfhx? ;do;dodf hf]8bf/ ?kdf g} p7fPsf] b]lvG5 . t/ plNnlvt b[i6fGt x]bf{ To;afkt p;n] zf;sx?af6 bl08t x'g'k/]sf] tLtf] oyf{y Oltxf;df kfOG5 . To;f] t lj=;+= @)!( df uf]/vfkq P]g hf/L eof] . ToxL P]g adf]lhd @)@) ;fnb]lv uf]/vfkq ;+:yfg aGg k'Uof] . ;+:yfg ag]kl5 ;DkfbsLo :jtGqtf cem a9L k|fKt x'g'kg]{ xf] t/ k|hftGq x'Fb} u0ftGqsf cfh;Ddsf lbgdf klg uf]/vfkqn] Tof] :jtGqtfsf] cg'e"lt eg] ug{ gkfPsf] xf] ls < of] k|Zgsf] hGd ;Qf kl/jt{g;Fu} …uf]/vfkqÚdf ul/g] g]t[Tjsf] kl/jt{gn] pAhfpF5 . :d/0fLo t of] 5 ls lj=;+=@)#^ b]lv s'g} klg ;/sf/L ;xof]u kfpFb}g a? ;/sf/nfO{ g} /fh:jdfkm{t cfly{s ;xof]u k'¥ofpF5 . tfklg ;Qfdf a:g]x?sf] s'b[li6 eg] o;dfly cfhsf lbg;Dd klg kg{ 5f8]sf] 5}g . hf] ;Qfdf cfpF5 p;sf] u'0fufg ufpg'kg]{ afWotf …uf]/vfkqÚnfO{ 5 . ljZj;gLotfsf] k||Zg ;DkfbsLo :jtGqtf ljZj;gLotfsf] k"j{zt{ xf] eGg] s'/f dfly pNnn]v ul/;lsPsf] 5 . To;sf/0f uf]/vfkqn] Tof] ljZjf; hufpg Oltxf;df k|oTg u¥of] . To;n] cfd kf7sdf ljZjf; l;h{gf ug{ ;Sof] of ;s]g of] k|Zgsf] pQ/ vf]Hg] k|of; oxfF ul/Psf] 5 . o;qmddf s]xL k|ltlglwd"ns lsl;dn] ljleGg If]q / ljifodf sfd ug]{x?nfO{ Pp6f u'un kmf/fd e/fOPsf] 5 .

[134] Nepal Mega college Tof] kmf/fddf :jb]z tyf ljb]zdf /x]sf ljleGg k]zf Joj;fo ug]{ ;f7L hgf g]kfnLx?nfO{ Ps} k|sf/sf ljleGg k|Zgx? ;f]lwPsf] lyof] . To;/L ;f]lwPsf dWo] t]O; hgfn] dfq pQm kmf/fd e/]sf lyP . pgLx? dWo] !@ hgf lzIfs, # hgf ljBfyL{, # hgf ;/sf/L sd{rf/L, @ hgf kqsf/, ! hgf k|fWofks, ! hgf :jf:YosdL{ / ! hgf a}+s/ lyP . pgLx? dWo] b'O{ hgf ljb]zdf a;f]af; ug]{ lyP eg] afFsL sf7df8f}F, x]6f}+8f, af/f, gjnk'/, gjnk/f;L, kj{t, DofUbL, c3f{vfFrL, ?kGb]xL, afun'ª, s}nfnL, bfª, ?s'dsf lyP . ;xefuLx? ^ hgf dlxnf lyP eg] afFsL k'?ifx? lyP . pgLx?nfO{ …s] tkfO{nfO{ uf]/vfkq yfxf 5 <Ú eg]/ ;f]lwPsf] k|Zgdf ztk|ltzt …uf]/vfkqÚsf af/]df hfgsf/ ePsf] kfOof] . …s] tkfO{+ uf]/vfkq b}lgs x]g'{'x'G5 <Ú eGg] k|Zgdf afpGg bzdnj b'O{ k|ltztn] x]g]{ / ;trfln; bzdnj cf7 k|ltztn] gx]g]{ atfP . …uf]/vfkqdf tkfO{+ ;dfrf/ tyf n]v/rgf / ;/sf/L lj1fkg dWo] s] x]g'{x'G5 <Ú eGg] k|Zgsf] pQ/df ;f7L bzdnj gf} k|ltztn] ;dfrf/ jf n]v/rgf x]g]{ atfP eg] afFsLn] eg] lj1fkgsf nflu uf]/vfkq x]g]{ atfP . …uf]/vfkqsf ;dfrf/ slQsf] lgikIf nfU5g\ <Ú eGg] csf]{ k|Zgdf $& bzdnj * k|ltztn] lgikIf nfUg] atfP . To:t} #$ bzdnj * k|ltztn] eGg ;lSbg eGg] hjfkm lbP eg] !& bzdnj $ k|ltztn] lgikIf gnfUg] atfP . uf]/vfkqsf] ljZj;gLotfsf af/]df ;f]lwPsf] k|Zgdf %^ bzdnj % k|ltzt pQ/bftfn] ljZj;gLo 5 eGg] hjfkm lbP eg] cf7 bzdnj ;ftn] ljZj;gLo 5}g / #$ bzdnj * k|ltztn] eGg ;lSbg eGg] hjfkm lbP . kmf/fddf …uf]/vfkq ;/sf/sf] d'vkq xf] of hgtfsf] cfjfhsf] k|ltlglw klg xf] <Ú eg]/ k|Zg ;f]lwPsf] lyof] . tL dWo] lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf Ps k|fWofkssf] hjfkm lyof], …s'g} a]nf hgtfsf] cfjfhsf] k|ltlglw lyof] t/ cr]n of] t ;/sf/jfbL .Ú o:t} k|fWofkss} af]nL;Fu d]n vfg] hjfkm lyof], g]kfn ;/sf/sf Ps clws[tsf] . pgsf] hjfkm lyof], …n]v /rgf kx'Frsf cfwf/df 5gf}6 x'g] kl/kf6Lsf] cGTo x'g'k¥of] . uf]/vfkq hgtfsf] cfjfh aGg'k5{ .Ú ;xefuL Ps lzIfsn] uf]/vfkqnfO{ …d'vkq a9L / hgtfsf] cfjfhsf] k|ltlglw sdÚ ePsf] atfP . af/f lhNnfdf sfo{/t csf{ dfWolds txsf lzIfsn] …d'vkq;lxt s]xL hgtfsf] cfjfhsf] k|ltlglw cfjfh klg xf]Ú eGg] k|ltlqmof lbP . j}t8Lsf csf{ Ps lzIfssf] egfO klg …hgtfsf] cfjfhsf] k|ltlglw klg xf]Ú eGg] 5 . afun'ªsL Ps lzlIfsfsf] egfO klg a}t8Lsf lzIfs;Fu Ps} k|sf/sf] 5 . df]km;ndf sfo{/t csL{ Ps kqsf/n] …;/sf/sf kIfdf ;dfrf/ t /fVg] g} eof] . To;df hgtfsf ;d:of, u'gf;f nufotsf ljifox?nfO{ ;d]6]sf] kfPsL 5' . slxn]sfxL eg] ;/sf/s} d'vkqs} ?kdf cfpF5 .Ú eGg] pQ/ lbOg\ . sf7df8f}Fl:yt Ps ;+:yfut ljBfnosf ;xfos k|wfgfWofkssf] hjfkm klg cfkm}df /f]rs 5 . pgsf] egfO 5, …;/sf/sf] d'vkq xf] vf;u/L h'g kf6L{sf] ;/sf/ aG5, ToxL kf6L{sf] d'vkq xf] .Ú pgLeGbf cem Ps sbd cufl8 a9]/ csf{ Ps ;xefuL eG5g\, …r'gfj lhTg] g]tfsf] d'vkq xf], ;/sf/sf] xf]Og .Ú gjnk'/sf Ps ljBfyL{n] …hgtfsf] k|ltlglw t/ s]xL ;'wf/ cfjZos 5Ú eGg] hjfkm lbP . ltg hgf ;xefuLn] of] b'j} ePsf] hjfkm lbP eg] b'O{ hgfn] cfkm"nfO{ yfxf gePsf] atfP . cGon] hgtfsf] cfjfhsf] k|ltlglw eg]sf 5g\ .

The Mega Journal 2020 [135] of] ;j]{If0fnfO{ cfwf/ dfGbf …uf]/vfkqÚ cfd hgtfsf] kx'Frdf k'u]sf] b]lvG5 . t/ o;sf] lgikIftf / ljZj;gLotfsf nflu cem} w]/} sfd ug'{kg]]{ b]lvG5 . o:t} kqklqsfdf ^) k|ltzt ;dfrf/ / $) k|ltzt lj1fkgsf] c+z x'g'k5{ eGg] ;}4flGts dfGotf 5 . sl/a $) k|ltztn] lj1fkgs} nflu uf]/vfkq x]g]{ u/]sf] kfOof] . o;n] uf]/vfkqnfO{ ;dfrf/d"ns agfpg cem d]xg]t ug'{kg]{ cfjZostf bzf{pF5 . ;a}eGbf dxTjk"0f{ s'/f t hgtfsf] cfjfhsf] k|ltlglw xf] eGg] s'/fdf w]/} z+sf /x]sf] kfOof] . sl/asl/a ^^ k|ltztn] o;nfO{ ;/sf/L d'vkqs} ?kdf a'em]sf] kfOof] . #$ k|ltztn] dfq} hgtfsf] cfjfh af]N5 eGg] ljZjf; u/] . cem bnLo d'vkq eGg] cfIf]k ;d]t o;nfO{ nfu]sf] b]lvG5 . h;n] h] eg]klg of] …uf]/vfkqÚ hgtfsf] cfjfh af]Ng] Psdfq ;~rf/ dfWod xf] . t/ of] dfGotfnfO{ o;n] :yflkt ug{' g;Sg' b'ef{Uok"0f{ xf] . To;sf/0f ;DkfbsLo :jtGqtfsf nflu …uf]/vfkqÚn] cem w]/} ;+3if{ ug'{kg]{ cj:yf cfh klg plQs} 68\sf/f] 5 . gjnk'/sf ljBfyL{n] eg]h:t} o;df ;'wf/sf] cfjZostf 5 . lgisif{ …uf]/vfkqÚ kqsfl/tfsf] Oltxf; t x'Fb} xf] ;fy} lj=;+= !(%* kl5sf] b]zsf] P]ltxfl;s clen]v klg xf] . uf]/vfkqsf] k|sfzg ;'? x'Fbf g]kfndf lg/+s'z / s7f]/ /f0ffzf;g Joj:yf lyof] . @))& ;fndf k|hftGq cfof], @)!& df k+rfotL Joj:yf nflbof], @)$^ ;fndf k|hftGq k'g{axfnL eof], @)^# ;fndf g]kfn ;+3Lo u0ftGqdf kl/0ft eof] . tfklg …uf]/vfkqÚsf] cj:yfdf hlt kl/jt{g cfpg'kg]{ Tolt cfpg g;s]sf] dx;'; x'G5 . cfhsf lbgdf klg hgtfsf] ;dfrf/kqsf] xfnt ;/sf/ jf bnsf] d'vkqsf] ?kdf a'em\g'kg]{ la8Dagfk"0f{ cj:yf 5 . …kx/]bf/Úsf] e"ldsf lgjf{x u/L hgcfjfhnfO{ k|ltlalDat ug{sf nflu o;n] ;'?jftb]lv g} ;+3if{ u/]sf] b]lvG5 . /f0ffzf;gb]lv ;'? ePsf] o;sf] ofqf u0ftGq;Dd cfOk'u]sf] 5 t/ k|hftGq / u0ftGqsf] dl;xf 7fGg] bn / ltgLx?sf] ;/sf/n] cem} klg o;nfO{ ;DkfbsLo :jtGqtf ;d]t k|bfg ug{ g;s]sf] b]lvG5 . hgtfsf] cfjfhsf] Psdfq k|ltlglwsf ?kdf /xg'kg]{ …uf]/vfkqÚn] hgljZjf; cfh{g ug{ eg] ;s]sf] 5}g . To;sf/0f …uf]/vfkqÚn] ;DkfbsLo :jtGqtf k|fKt u/L hgcfjfhsf] k|ltlglw aGgsf nflu ;'?b]lv yfn]sf] ;DkfbsLo ;+3if{nfO{ cem lg/Gt/tf lbg'kg]{ cfjZostf 5 . To;f] eof] eg] dfq} o;n] cfgf] uf}/jk"0f{ ljutnfO{ sfod /fVb} kqsfl/tfhut\df cfkm"nfO{ k|ltikwL{ agfpg ;Sg]5 . cfly{s / k|fl1s lx;fan] xfn;fn}sf lghL k|sfzgx?n] pl5Gg' t/ …uf]/vfkqÚ eg] b'j} lx;fan] kl5 kg'{ /fd|f] s'/f xf]Og . eljion] xfdLnfO{ bl08t gu/f];\ . c:t' Û ;Gbe{ u|Gy;"rL >]i7, uLtfd}of -@)^&_, …uf]/vfkq lxhf] / cfhÚ, uf]/vfkqsf] Oltxf;, sf7df8f}F M uf]/vfkq ;+:yfg -k[=!&–@)_ . >]i7, bof/fd / cGo -@)%&_, -;Dkfbs_ g]kfnL sIff bz, eStk'/ M g]kfn ;/sf/ zIff dGqfno kf7\oqmd ljsf; s]Gb| .

[136] Nepal Mega college >]i7, l;l4r/0f -@)^&_, …uf]/vfkqdf d}n] latfPsf tL lbgx?Ú uf]/vfkqsf] Oltxf;, sf7df8f}F M uf]/vfkq ;+:yfg -k[=!^%–!^*_. uf}td, >Lk|;fb -@)^&_ uf]kfnhL …cld6 ;Demgfsf k|;ª\ux?dfÚ uf]/vfkqsf] Oltxf;, sf7df8f}F M uf]/vfkq ;+:yfg -k[=!^!–!^$_ . rfln;], ljho -@)^%_, ;dfrf/ ;°ng tyf ;Dkfbg, sf7df8f}F M ;femf k|sfzg . t'kmfg, /d]z -;Dkf=_ -@)^&_, gofF g]kfnsf] gofF ;~rf/, sf7df8f}F M /fli6«o ;dfrf/ ;ldlt . b]jsf]6f, u|Lidaxfb'/ -@)%(_, g]kfnsf] 5fkvfgf / kqklqsfsf] Oltxf;, sf7df8f}F M ;femf k|sfzg . g]kfn, lszf]/ -@)&@_, ldl8of l;4fGt, ;"q / k|of]u, jL l/8 M sf7df8f}F . kf]v/]n, uf]s'n -@)%*_, …cfd;~rf/ l;4fGt / Jojfx/Ú, kqsfl/tf xft] lstfa, sf7df8f}F M g]kfn k|]; OlG:6Ro'6, -k[=&–#!_ . k|wfg, e'jgnfn -@)^&_, …kqsfl/tfsf] ljsf;df b]jzdz]/ / uf]/vfkqÚ uf]/vfkqsf] Oltxf;, sf7df8f}F M uf]/vfkq ;+:yfg -k[=*!–*&_ . k/fh'nL, 7fs'/-@)$%_, g]kfnL ;flxTosf] kl/qmdf, sf7df8f}F M ;femf k|sfzg . kf08], afnd's'Gbb]j -@)^&_, …;'g]sf s'/fx?Ú uf]/vfkqsf] Oltxf;, sf7df8f}F M uf]/vfkq ;+:yfg, -k[=^(–&!_ . kf7s, Ps/fh -@)&^_, cfd;~rf/ / kqsfl/tf, sf7df8f}F M k}/jL k|sfzg . /]UdL, lzj -@)%*_, …g]kfndf kqsfl/tfsf] ljsf;Ú, kqsfl/tf xft] lstfa, sf7df8f}F M g]kfn k|]; OlG:6Ro'6 . jfUn], gf/fo0f -@)^$_, …5fkf dfWod b'O{Ú ldl8of ;+jfb, sf7df8f}F M dfl6{g rf}tf/L .

1jfnL, lzjz/0f / dw';"bg kGyL -@)&)_, g]kfnL kqsfl/tf, sf7df8f}F M k|To'if k|sfzg .

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The Mega Journal 2020 [137] Guidelines for Submission

• Articles for submission must be original and not previously published in any other journals either in printed or in electronic form. They also should not be under review for publication in any other journal

• All the articles should follow the APA guideline

• Articles must be double spaced throughout

• Articles must be written in English save for those on or about a particular language or literature

• Authors will be held accountable for their views and, therefore, the articles published in the journal do not reflect the views or policies of either Nepal Mega College or the Editorial Board

• Articles should follow the structure –Abstract, Introduction, Objectives of the Study, Review of Literature, Theoretical Methodology, Analysis, and Conclusion

• The journal follows a blind review policy and articles are anonymously reviewed by peers before inclusion

• The decision of the Editorial Board is final

Email address for article submission: [email protected] [email protected]

[138] Nepal Mega college [140] Nepal Mega college