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Colorectal-Cancer-Staging Executive Comparative Effectiveness Review Number 142 Effective Health Care Program Imaging Tests for the Staging of Colorectal Cancer Executive Summary Background Effective Health Care Program Colorectal Cancer The Effective Health Care Program In the United States each year colon cancer was initiated in 2005 to provide is diagnosed in approximately 100,000 valid evidence about the comparative people and rectal cancer is diagnosed in effectiveness of different medical another 50,000.1 Colorectal cancer usually interventions. The object is to help affects older adults, with 90 percent of consumers, health care providers, cases diagnosed in individuals 50 years of and others in making informed age and older.2 Colorectal cancer is often choices among treatment alternatives. fatal, with approximately 50,000 deaths Through its Comparative Effectiveness attributed to it each year in the United Reviews, the program supports States.1 As such, it is both the third most systematic appraisals of existing common type of cancer and the third most scientific evidence regarding common cause of cancer-related death for treatments for high-priority health both men and women. Health care costs conditions. It also promotes and associated with care of these cancers is generates new scientific evidence by high, second only to breast cancer.3,4 identifying gaps in existing scientific evidence and supporting new research. Colorectal cancers may be diagnosed The program puts special emphasis during screening of asymptomatic on translating findings into a variety individuals or after a person has developed of useful formats for different symptoms. Colon cancer symptoms stakeholders, including consumers. include abdominal discomfort, change in bowel habits, anemia, and weight The full report and this summary are loss. Rectal cancer symptoms include available at www.effectivehealthcare. bleeding, diarrhea, and pain. The U.S. ahrq.gov/reports/final.cfm. Preventive Services Task Force currently recommends screening for colorectal examination of tissue samples (most often cancer in asymptomatic normal-risk obtained through biopsies performed individuals using fecal occult blood during colonoscopy). testing, sigmoidoscopy, or colonoscopy, beginning at age 50 years and continuing Staging 5 until age 75 years. Diagnosis is usually Once the diagnosis has been established, established through histopathologic patients with colorectal cancer undergo Effective Health Care 1 testing to establish the extent of disease spread, known improve patient outcomes. A secondary objective is to as clinical staging. Staging is used primarily to determine identify gaps in the evidence base to inform future research appropriate initial treatment strategies. For colorectal needs. cancer, the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) endorses the widely accepted “TNM” staging system. The Key Questions and Scope AJCC system aims to characterize the anatomic extent of colorectal cancer based on three tumor characteristics: Key Questions the extent of tumor infiltration into the bowel wall (tumor The Key Questions are listed below. stage, designated as “T”), the extent of local or regional lymph node spread (nodal stage, designated as “N”), Key Question 1: What is the comparative effectiveness and the presence of distant metastatic lesions (metastatic of imaging techniques for pretreatment cancer staging in spread, designated as “M”). patients with primary and recurrent colorectal cancer? Treatment options for colorectal cancer differ depending a. What is the test performance of the imaging on the clinical stage of disease at diagnosis. For example, techniques used (singly, in combination, or in tumors confined to the rectal wall can be treated primarily a specific sequence) to stage colorectal cancer by upfront surgical resection, but tumors that have compared with a reference standard? penetrated the bowel wall usually require preoperative b. What is the impact of alternative imaging chemotherapy and radiation (neoadjuvant therapy) prior to techniques on intermediate outcomes, including definitive surgical resection. Clinical stage is not the only stage reclassification and changes in therapeutic determinant of treatment options; patient comorbidities management? and preferences and clinician and institution preferences c. What is the impact of alternative imaging techniques are also used in decisionmaking. However, stage is the key on clinical outcomes? determinant of the management strategy. Staging is also used to inform patient prognosis and identify patients at d. What are the adverse effects or harms associated with higher risk of relapse or cancer-related mortality. using imaging techniques, including harms of test- directed management? Clinical staging is performed at two distinct timepoints in the management of colorectal cancer. The first is e. How is the comparative effectiveness of imaging immediately after diagnosis, before any treatment has techniques modified by the following factors: been given. Imaging and clinical examination are used to i. Patient-level characteristics (e.g., age, sex, body assign a clinical stage, which is used to make decisions mass index)? about primary treatment and management. The second timepoint (interim restaging) applies only to patients who, ii. Disease characteristics (e.g., tumor grade)? on the basis of their primary staging, were treated with iii. Imaging technique or protocol characteristics neoadjuvant chemotherapy or radiotherapy instead of by (e.g., use of different tracers or contrast agents, immediate surgery. Chemotherapy/radiotherapy affects radiation dose of the imaging modality, slice the metabolism and structure of the tissues such that some thickness, timing of contrast)? forms of imaging may be less accurate for restaging than in the pretreatment setting. Also, the role of imaging at Key Question 2: What is the comparative effectiveness each of these two timepoints is very different, and for these of imaging techniques for restaging cancer in patients reasons they are addressed in separate Key Questions in with primary and recurrent colorectal cancer after initial this review. treatment? a. What is the test performance of the imaging Objectives of This Review techniques used (singly, in combination, or in a The primary objective of this review is to synthesize the specific sequence) to restage colorectal cancer available information on the comparative accuracy and compared with a reference standard? effectiveness of imaging for staging of colorectal cancer. b. What is the impact of alternative imaging The availability of this information will assist clinicians techniques on intermediate outcomes, including in selecting protocols for staging, may reduce variability stage reclassification and changes in therapeutic across treatment centers in staging protocols, and may management? 2 c. What is the impact of alternative imaging techniques Outcomes: on clinical outcomes? • Test performance outcomes d. What are the adverse effects or harms associated with – Test performance (sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, using imaging techniques, including harms of test- understaging, overstaging) directed management? • Intermediate outcomes e. How is the comparative effectiveness of imaging techniques modified by the following factors: – Stage reclassification i. Patient-level characteristics (e.g., age, sex, body – Changes in therapeutic management mass index)? • Clinical outcomes ii. Disease characteristics (e.g., tumor grade)? – Overall mortality iii. Imaging technique or protocol characteristics (e.g., – Colorectal cancer–specific mortality use of different tracers or contrast agents, radiation dose of the imaging modality, slice thickness, – Quality of life and anxiety timing of contrast)? – Need for additional staging tests, including invasive procedures Scope – Need for additional treatment, including surgery, An analytic framework showing the populations, radiotherapy, or chemotherapy interventions, comparators, outcomes, timing, and setting (PICOTS) in diagram form is shown in Figure 1 of the full – Resource use related to testing and treatment report. • Adverse effects and harms Populations: – Harms of testing per se (e.g., radiation exposure) • Adult patients with an established diagnosis of – Harms from test-directed treatments primary colorectal cancer (e.g., overtreatment, undertreatment) • Adult patients with an established diagnosis of Timing: recurrent colorectal cancer • Primary staging Interventions: • Interim restaging Noninvasive imaging using the following tests (alone or in combination) for assessing the stage of colorectal cancer: Setting: • Endoscopic rectal ultrasound (ERUS) All settings were considered. • Computed tomography (CT) Methods • Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Search Strategy • Positron emission tomography combined with computed tomography (PET/CT) Medical librarians in the Evidence-based Practice Center (EPC) Information Center performed literature searches Reference Standards To Assess Test Performance: following established systematic review protocols. We • Histopathologic examination of tissue searched the following databases from 1980 through November 2013 using controlled vocabulary and text • Intraoperative findings words: Embase®, MEDLINE®, PubMed, and the Cochrane • Clinical followup Library. The full search strategy is shown in Appendix A Comparators: of the full report. Literature screening was performed in duplicate using • Any direct comparisons of the imaging tests of the database DistillerSR
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