CO2 is back!
CO2-refrigeration in a historic perspective (2000)
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Armin Hafner Professor Refrigeration Technology NTNU, EPT 7491 Trondheim Norway
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Professor Gustav Lorentzen 1915-1995 First draft made for a patent application on how
to operate and control transcritical CO2- vapour compression systems November 1988 CO2-refrigeration technology prior 1988?
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Inventors and pioneers of mechanical refrigeration Content Vapour compression cycle: – Oliver Evans (1755-1819), USA • How developed refrigeration technology? ”The Abortion of the Young Steam Engineer’s Guide”, 1805 • Factors which contributed to the development – Jacob Perkins (1766-1849), American living in London British Patent No 6662, 14. August 1834 •CO2 i relation to other working fluids Machine applying sulphur-ether, build by John Hague • The people behind the innovations • Synergies to todays situation
• CO2 processes / system configurations and modifications
• Reasons why CO2 refrigeration technology was absent between 1960 to 1990
MOTIVATION:
Can we learn something when studying the historic CO2 refrigeration systems?
GIAN @ Indian Institute of Technology Madras; October 2017 5 GIAN @ Indian Institute of Technology Madras; October 2017 6 Inventors and pioneers of mechanical refrigeration Inventors and pioneers of mechanical refrigeration Air cycle: Absorption cycle: – John Gorrie (1802-1855), Florida, USA – Ferdinand Carré (1824-1900), France
”An engine for ventilation and cooling air in tropical climates by mechanical power” 1842-1844 Patent NH3/H2O absorption system in 1859
London World Exhibition 1861
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Three important ‘drivers’ in the late 19th century 150 years ago: ICE = refrigeration
Factors pushing the development of mechanical refrigeration technology from 1850 Source: Disney
“Artificial” ice production Brewing of beer (all year long) Transport of meat
Norwegian Ice Export from 1860 to 1915 GIAN @ Indian Institute of Technology Madras; October 2017 9 GIAN @ Indian Institute of Technology Madras; October 2017
Natural working fluids also common in the US: Three important ‘drivers’ in the late 19th century
Factors pushing the development of mechanical refrigeration technology from 1850
“Artificial” ice production Brewing of beer (all year long) Transport of meat
Advertisement in ICE and REFRIGERATION, 1922, vol. 63 GIAN @ Indian Institute of Technology Madras; October 2017 GIAN @ Indian Institute of Technology Madras; October 2017 12 Three important ‘drivers’ in the late 19th century Theory and Practice 1840-1870 Factors pushing the development of mechanical • Perkins, 1834 refrigeration technology from 1850 (inventor, designer) • 2. law of thermodynamics: Carnot, 1824 • Gorrie, 1842 Le Frigorifique, Buenos Aires – Rouen 1876-77 • 1. law of thermodynamics: Clausius, Helmholz, (medical doctor) Joule, Mayer, Thomson (Lord Kelvin), 1842-1852 “Artificial” ice • Harrison, 1850-1860 production • Joule-Thomson expansion, 1862 (journalist, publisher) Brewing of beer (all ”Perkins had little, if any, real understanding of the year long) fundamental nature of his cycle” J. F. Sandfort, 1962 Transport of meat 1870: Carl Linde established the fundamental thermodynamically base for mechanical refrigeration
End of 19th century: Development moved from single pioneers/developers to companies with economic and technical resources
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Franz Windhausen (1829-1904) CO2-refrigeration technology was born Britisk Patent No 2864, 1886 Mercury applied as ”pressure fluid” (fluid piston), to transfer the movement of the • 1850: CO2 mentioned (?) as potential working fluid in patent application of Alexander C. Twining (1801-1884), USA plunger (B) to the compression of CO2 in ”...a volatile liquid, as alcohol, ether, sulfuret of carbon, &c.” chamber C
• 1866: First machine build (?) by Thaddeus Sobeski Carlincourt Lowe (1832-1913), USA.
• Applied compressed CO2 to inflate military balloons 1865-1866 • British Patent No 952 on CO2 system in 1867 • Build Ice machines in Dallas, Texas, and Jackson, Mississippi 1869
• 1882: Carl Linde designed a CO2 - machine for F. Krupp in Essen, Germany
• 1884: British Patent of Wilhelm Raydt (Hannover, Germany) for an ice-machine with a CO2 vapour compression process • 1886: British Patent of Franz Windhausen, Berlin
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Carl von Linde (part1) First industrial refrigeration machine: (1842 – 1934) developed for a brewery Linde’s articles on refrigeration • Linde's first refrigeration system used technology had aroused the interest Dimethyl ether as the refrigerant and was built by Maschinenfabrik Augsburg of brewers who had been looking (now MAN AG) for the Spaten Brewery in 1873. for a reliable year-round method • He quickly moved on to develop more of refrigeration for the fermentation reliable ammonia (R717)-based cycles. and storage of their beer. These were early examples of vapor- compression refrigeration machines,
Carl Linde (1868) and ammonia is still in wide use as a The first Linde refrigeration machine. refrigerant in industrial applications. (1873)
GIAN @ Indian Institute of Technology Madras; October 2017 GIAN @ Indian Institute of Technology Madras; October 2017 Spaten Heineken Carlsberg Linde: godfather of industrial refrigeration
Rotterdam based Heineken Brewery ordered an ice machine in 1877 for ice production. In • Linde’s efficient new refrigeration technology his collaboration with the Heineken Brewery, offered big benefits to the breweries, and by Linde developed “natural convection cooling” with a system of cooling pipes under the 1890 Linde had sold 747 ammonia refrigeration ceiling of the cellar. machines. In addition to the breweries, other uses for the new technology were found in slaughter- Fermentation cellar of a brewery with natural convection cooling houses and cold storage facilities all over Europe. Linde came in contact with J.C. Jacobsen, head of the Carlsberg Brewery in Copenhagen, who ordered a large refrigeration unit in 1878. +++ GIAN @ Indian Institute of Technology Madras; October 2017 GIAN @ Indian Institute of Technology Madras; October 2017
Carl von Linde and ”Refrigeration as a Science ” (part 2) Linde’s comparison of NH3 and CO2 systems
• Developed the fundamental thermodynamics for Theory, 1894: ”..[CO2] can never reach the mechanical refrigeration in 1870-71 (Amanuensis, efficient performance ratio of ammonia [NH3] ...” TH München) Had to correct the existing thermodynamic (Zeuner) due to operation at supercritical high • Experimental investigation funded by Spatenbrauerei side pressure 1872-73 ; (ether), NH3 • Consortium with Maschinenfabrik Augsburg-Nürnberg Results from experimental investigations (MAN) 1873-79 performed at test facility in Munich published • Established ‘Gesellshaft für Linde’s Eismaschinen’, 1879- in Zeitschrift des VDI, 1895
• Test facility for refrigeration machines, Munich 1888-? Published later ”Ungleichwertigkeit von Ammoniak, Kohlensäure und schwefliger Säure in Kompressions-Kaltdampfmaschinen” Carl von Linde, 1842-1934 non – equivalence of NH3, CO2, and sulphurous acid in vapour compression machines
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Hans Lorenz (1865‐?) Results from field tests, Lorenz 1892-1901
NH3 systems CO2 systems SO2 systems 3500 3500 3500 3000 3000 3000 2500 2500 2500 2000 2000 2000 1500 1500 1500 1000 1000 1000 500 500 500 0 0 0 g ) Capacity per unit compressor power n z n n rg r rg n e i hen e or c unde b sd Bu nbe nb r e den (2) Ma e r m e s Zwickau Apolda Gube e Dr Mun nn Nu t Pad Dre Ro Nurnberg (2 Gees Similar results are shown by Stetefeld, 1904
23 GIAN @ Indian Institute of Technology Madras; October 2017 24 CO2 as a working fluid • High working pressures • Small compressor displacements • Low critical temperature Applications and systems o CO2: 31.1 C o NH3: 132.4 C o SO2: 157.5 C
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Marine Refrigeration Reefer, ca 1930
1890
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Freezing of fish Marine Refrigeration Göttsche, 1915) (Ottesen, Nekolai Dahls method), 1915
CO2
Compr.
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Compressors
Components
Slow rpm cross head compressors Stuffing box and piston rings i leather Lubricant: glycerine GIAN @ Indian Institute of Technology Madras; October 2017 33 GIAN @ Indian Institute of Technology Madras; October 2017 34
Compressor ca. 1930 Condenser concepts (1)
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R-744 (carbon dioxide) as Working Fluid
specific refrigerant capacity and COP is reduced at high cooling water/ambient temperatures compared to other refrigerants. COP optimization in transcritical operation by operating the system at the optimum
high side pressure: s=const tex=const CO Prosess- and system- 2 100 q h 3 h 2 gc modifications ÷ ÷ 3 2 = -COP 80 ÷ ÷ q COPe = q 0/ w p p = w T s 60
t COPAC = (h1-h3) / (h2-h1) 40 4 0 1 q w COP = (h -h ) / (h -h ) 0 HP 2 3 2 1 20 h 1928 H. Inokuty, (Mitsubishi Laboratory, Japan) developed the mathematical basis and a graphical method to find the optimum high side pressure, which maximizes the COP. GIAN @ Indian Institute of Technology Madras; October 2017 39 GIAN @ Indian Institute of Technology Madras; October 2017
Opt. high side pressure versus gascooler temperature Expansion losses Goosmann, 1933 (Göttsche, 1915)
Modified processes can reduce these losses GIAN @ Indian Institute of Technology Madras; October 2017 41 GIAN @ Indian Institute of Technology Madras; October 2017 42 ”Multiple effect compression” Two-stage compression in one cylinder G.T. Voorhees Patent 1905 Lightfoot, 1893, Windhausen, 1903
HP
MP
LP
”Dual-effect” compression
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”Zusatzkompression” Experimental investigation of add.-compression (Plank, 1912b and 1913) (additional compression) (Plank, 1921)
Rudolf Plank 1886 -1973
• Volume of high pressure “pump” ca. 10-15% of compressor displacement • Measurement: 18% more capacity & 10% higher
COP, at 30°C CO2- gascooler exit temperature • Potential for even larger improvements with higher gascooler exit temperature and at higher pressure ratio in the second stage
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Other process modifications Expander (piston) and ”flash gas bypass” (Goosmann, 1936) Use of suction line heat exchanger Fra Ostertag, 1933
• Expander (piston type) with mechanical controlled inlet valve
• Maybe only a paper study?
• Plank (1912a) was very skeptical: • Not enough time to develop vapour • Low pressure in the chamber Use of high pressure fluid to and risk for dry ice be evaporated in a sub-cooler • Requirement for variable volume to reduce CO2 inlet temperature upstream of expansion device.
GIAN @ Indian Institute of Technology Madras; October 2017 47 GIAN @ Indian Institute of Technology Madras; October 2017 48 th Later compressor versions (Plank, 1929) Why CO2 disappeared in the early/midt 20 century?
Pressurized- crank case and -lubrication Frick • Problems with leaks 90 Still slow rpm machines with cross head, i.e. heavy • Reduced cooling capacity at elevated heat 80 and large footprint machines rejection temperatures CO2 • Cold cooling water not available everywhere 70 R22 (especially USA) 60 R12 • Design of compressors with pressurized crank % 50 a 40 York case and high rpm (50/60Hz) not adapted for CO2 30
• Development and offensive marketing of CFC’s (”Freon”) 20 NH3 • Opinion that high working pressures are a problem 10 • Missing production- and material-technology 0 • The safety standards and laws reduced the motivation to 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 apply CO2 in the US more than in Europe. Prosentvis andel av kuldemedier i eksisterende • 1. world war in Europe lastkuldeanlegg på skip klasset av Lloyd’s Register Fra Stera (1992)
a: (Ballantine, 1877)
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References 1 References 2
Brier, H. 1924. Pre‐Cooling by Primary Evaporation and Multiple Effect Compression as applied to Inokuty, H., 1928. Graphical Method of Finding Compression Pressure of CO2 Refrigerating Machine CO2 Refrigerating Machines. Proceedings from 4th International Congress of Refrigeration, pp. for Maximum Coefficient of Performance, Proceedings from 5th International Congress of 473‐500. Refrigeration, pp. 185‐192. Donaldson, B., and Nagengast, B., 1994, Heat & Cold – Mastering the Great Indoors, A Selective Linde, C, 1894. Zur Theorie der Kohlensäure‐(Kaltdampf‐)maschinen. Zeitschrift des Verein deutscher History of Heating, Ventilation, Air‐Conditioning and Refrigeration from the Ancients to the 1930s. Ingenieure, Band XXXVIII, No 6, Februar, pp. 161‐165 ASHRAE, Inc. Linde, C, 1895. Zur Theorie der Kohlensäure‐(Kaltdampf‐)maschine (Ein experimenteller Beitrag). Dravn kjøleanlegg – Håndbok i behandling av frysemaskiner fra Drammens Jernstøberi og Mek. Zeitschrift des Verein deutscher Ingenieure, Band XXXIX, No 5, Februar, pp. 124‐127 verksted, 1937 Lorenz, H. 1902. Die praktische Gleichwertigkeit der drei Hauptsysteme von Goosmann, J. C. 1933. Carbon Dioxide Thermodynamics, Refrigerating Engineering, October, pp. Kompressionskühlmaschinen. Druck und Verlag von R. Oldenbourg. 190‐191, 205. November, pp. 245‐248. December pp. 304‐306, 318, 325 Lowe, T.S.C., 1867. Refrigerating, British Patent No 952, 30 March. (Registered by William Edward Goosmann, J. C., 1936. Gaseous, Liquid and Solid Carbon Dioxide, Proceedings from 7th Newton) International Congress of Refrigeration, pp. 827‐852. Ostertag, P., 1933. Kälteprozesse, Zweite, Verbesserte Auflage. Verlag von Julius Springer Göttsche, G., 1915. Die Kältemaschinen und ihre Anlagen, Verlag für Kälte‐Industrie, Hamburg Plank, R., 1912. Die Verbesserung der Kohlenzäure‐Kältemaschine durch Einführung eines Hubendick, E., 1921. Kylteknik, Albert Bonniers Förlag Expansionszylinders. Zeitschrift für die gesamte Kälte‐industrie, Vol 19, No 3, March, pp. 41‐44 Hård, M., 1991, Überall zu warm – Vorbilder und Leitbilder der Kältetechnik, in Unter Null – Kunsteis, Plank, R., 1912b. Arbeitsverfahren an Kompressionskältemaschinen, insbesondere für Kälteträger Kälte und Kultur, Verlag C. H. Beck, München, pp. 69‐85 mit tiefer kritischer Temperatur. German Patent No 278095, 27 June. Hård, M., 1994. Machines are Frozen Spirit. The Scientification of Refrigeration and Brewing in the 19th Century – A Weberian Interpretation, Campus‐Verlag, Westview Press.
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References 3 Thank you for your attention Plank, R., 1913. Beitrag zur Erhöhung der Kälteleistung und der Leistuingsziffer von Kohlenzäurekältemaschinen insbesondere bei hohen Kondensatordrücken, Zeitschrift für die gesamte Kälte‐industrie, Vol 20, No 10, October, pp. 189‐196 Contact: Plank, R., 1921. Versuche an einer Kohlenzäurekältemaschine mit Zusatzkompression bei hohen Kondensatordrücken, Zeitschrift für die gesamte Kälte‐industrie, Vol 28, No 11, Novemberr, pp. 157‐162 Plank, R. 1929. Amerikanische Kältetechnik. VDI‐Verlag GmbH [email protected] Plank, R., 1954. Geschichte der Kälteerzeugung und Kälteanwendung, in Handbuch der Kältetechnik, Band 1, Springer‐Verlag, pp. 1‐160 Stera, A. C. 1992. Ammonia Refrigerating Plant on Reefer Ships. Introduction to Ammonia as a Marine Refrigerant. Lloyd's Register Technical Seminar, London June. Thevenot, R., 1979. A History of Refrigeration Throughout the World, translated from French by J. C. Fidler, International Institute of Refrigeration Voorhees G. T. 1905. Improvements relating to systems of fluid compression and to compressors thereof. British Patent 4448 Voorhees, G. T. 1907. Operation of Multiple Effect of Compressors. Ice and Refrigeration. January, pp. 52‐ 59. Windhausen, F., 1886. Improvements in Apparatus for Refrigerating Purposes, British Patent No 2864, 27 February
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