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Year: 2015

Ultra-marathon

Knechtle, B ; Nikolaidis, P

Abstract: An ultra-marathon can be defined as any running performance lasting for longer than six hours and/or longer than the classical marathon distance of 42.195 km. An ultra-marathon can be held as a single stage race in distance- and time-limited races and as a multi-stage race. The longest ultra- marathons cover several thousands of kilometres and can endure for up to two months. Ultra-marathoners are generally married and well-educated men at the age of 45 years. Female ultra-marathoners account for 20%. Ultra-marathoners differ from marathoners regarding anthropometry and training. Ultra- marathoners complete more running kilometres in training than marathoners do, but they run more slowly during training than marathoners. Previous experience is the most important predictor variable for a successful ultra-marathon performance apart from specific anthropometric characteristics (i.e. low body mass index and low body fat) and training characteristics (i.e. high volume and speed during running training). Women compete slower than men in ultra-marathon running; however, they were able to reduce the sex gap in recent years. The fastest ultra-marathon race times are generally achieved at 35-45 years for both women and men.

Posted at the Zurich Open Repository and Archive, University of Zurich ZORA URL: https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-114975 Journal Article Published Version

Originally published at: Knechtle, B; Nikolaidis, P (2015). Ultra-marathon running. Dansk Sportsmedicin, 19(4):6-10. 6 Fagligt Ultra-marathon running

Beat Knechtle 1,2, Pantelis Nikolaidis 3 1 Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland, and 2 Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland 3 Department of Physical and Cultural Education, Hellenic Army Academy, , Greece

Abstract An ultra-marathon can be defined as any running performance lasting for longer than six hours and/or longer than the classical marathon distance of 42.195 km. An ultra-marathon can be held as a single stage race in distance- and time-limited races and as a multi-stage race. The longest ultra-marathons cover several thousands of kilometres and can endure for up to two months. Ultra-marathoners are generally married and well-educated men at the age of ~45 years. Female ultra-marathoners account for ~20%. Ultra-marathoners differ from marathoners regarding anthropo- metry and training. Ultra-marathoners complete more running kilometres in training than marathoners do, but they run more slowly during training than marathoners. Previous experience is the most important predictor variable for a successful ultra-marathon performance apart from specific anthropometric characteristics i.e.( low body mass index and low body fat) and training characteristics (i.e. high volume and speed during running training). Women compete slower than men in ultra-marathon running; however, they were able to reduce the sex gap in recent years. The fastest ultra-marathon race times are generally achieved at 35-45 years for both women and men.

What is an ultra-marathon? Who are ultra-marathoners? an inverse relationship between the An ultra-marathon can be defined as Ultra-marathoners seem to be a very number of years of regular running any athletic event involving a running specific kind of athlete. Hoffman and before the first ultra-marathon and the distance longer than the traditional colleagues systematically investigated calendar year of the race [3]. Active ul- marathon length of 42.195 kilometres in recent years socio-demographic tra-marathoners had a median running [1]. Alternatively, an ultra-marathon characteristics of ultra-marathoners training distance of 3,347 km during can also be defined as any running [2,3]. In a survey completed by 489 of the previous year, which was mini- competition lasting longer than six 674 runners competing in two of the mally related to age but mostly related hours, whereas six hours and longer is largest 161-km ultra-marathons held to their longest ultra-marathon compe- defined as any ultra-endurance perfor- in North America, the included athle- tition of the year [3]. mance. Ultra-marathons can be held tes had a mean age of 44.5 years, were as distance-limited races in kilometres generally men (80.2%), were married Women in ultra-marathon races or miles and in time-limited races in (70.1%), had a bachelor’s (43.6%) or a The share of women competing in hours or days [1]. The most often held graduate (37.2%) degree [2]. In the UL- ultra-marathon races was very low in ultra-marathons in distance-limited ra- TRA-Study, Hoffman and Krishnan [3] the first ultra-marathon races [4-6]. In ces are races in 50 km, 100 km, 50 miles interviewed 1,345 current and former 161-km ultra-marathon races held in and 100 miles. However, there are also ultra-marathoners. The age at the first the United States of America, partici- longer running races up to 1000 km ultra-marathon race was 36 years and pation among women increased from and 3100 miles. For the time-limited they had 7 years of regular running none in the late 1970s to ~20% since races, these are held as 6-hour, 12-hour, training before the first ultra-marathon 2004 [4]. In two of the most demanding 24-hour, 48-hour, 72-hour, 6-day, and [3]. The age at the first ultra-marathon ultra-marathons in the world, women 10-day races as the most common du- did not change across the past several accounted on average for ~21.5% in rations. decades, but there was evidence of the ‘Badwater’ (217 km) and ~10.8% in

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the ‘’ (246 km) [5]. In most ultra-marathon races, the number of female finishers increased across recent years [5,6]. For example, in the ‘Swiss Alpine Marathon’ (78.5 km) held in the Alps of Switzerland, female participa- tion increased from ~10% in 1998 to ~16% in 2011 [6]. In the 217-km ‘Bad- water’ and the 246-km ‘Spartathlon’ there was an increase in female parti- cipation in ‘Badwater’ from 18.4% to 19.1% and in ‘Spartathlon’ from 11.9% to 12.5% in the last decades [5]. The rather low female participation might have different reasons. A potential ex- planation could be different motivation between women and men in ultra-ma- rathon running. Female ultra-mara- thoners were task-oriented, internally motivated, health, and financially con- scious individuals [7]. Men, however, trend rather to compete in order to beat States of America increased exponen- of America. In men, the fastest finishes a concurrent or to win a race. tially [14]. For women, runners from were achieved by runners from Greece, Canada became slower while those Japan and Germany [15]. Where are ultra-marathons held? from Italy became faster [14]. For men, In the 230-km multi-stage ultra-ma- Ultra-marathon races are offered all- runners from Belgium, Canada and rathon ‘’ held in over the world [1]. There are some Japan became slower [14]. Although the Moroccan desert, local athletes se- well-known races such as the 217-km most 100-km ultra-marathoners ori- emed to dominate [8]. In men, Moroc- ‘Badwater’ held in the United States of ginate from European countries, the cans won nine of ten competitions, and America, the 246-km ‘Spartathlon held ten fastest 100-km race times were one edition was won by a Jordanian in Greece, and the 230-km ‘Marathon achieved by Japanese runners for both athlete. In women, however, eight ra- des Sables’ held in Morocco just to women and men with ~7:37 h:min and ces were won by Europeans (i.e. France name the most famous races [1]. Some ~6:33 h:min, respectively [14]. five, two, and Spain one, of these races are taking place under In ultra-marathons longer than respectively), and two events were extreme conditions such as extraordi- the 100-km distance, athletes from won by Moroccan runners [8]. The abo- nary heat such as the ‘Marathon des other countries seemed to dominate vementioned studies show a variation Sables’ held in the desert of Morocco both participation and performance of nationalities that excel in this sport, [8]. A problem of races held in the heat [8,15]. Ultra-marathoners competing however, a small advantage of athletes is the fact that performance will be im- in the well-known ‘Badwater’ and who race in their country, possibly due paired [9,10], thus, heat acclimation is ‘Spartathlon’ originated from different to a better acclimatization to the local recommended to help preventing exer- regions [15]. In the ‘Badwater’ held in environmental conditions, was indi- tional heat illnesses and optimizing the United States of America, most of cated. performance [11]. the finishes were achieved by athletes from the United States of America, How ultra-marathoners differ Where do ultra-marathoners Germany and Great Britain. In the from marathoners? originate from? ‘Spartathlon’ held in Greece, however, Several studies compared recreational It is well known that East-African the highest number of finishes was ultra-marathoners to recreational ma- athletes such as Kenyans and Ethio- obtained by athletes originating from rathoners regarding anthropometric pians dominate marathon running all Japan, Germany and France. Regar- [16,17] and training [16-19] characteri- over the world since decades [12,13]. ding performance, athletes from other stics. Ultra-runners start with finishing In ultra-marathon running, however, countries were dominating. In the a marathon before completing the first athletes from other regions than East- ‘Badwater’, women from the United ultra-marathon. In ultra-marathoners, Africa dominate both participation and States of America were the fastest, fol- the number of previously completed performance. For example, in 100-km lowed by women from Canada. For marathons is significantly higher than ultra-marathons competing between men, the fastest finishes were achieved the number of completed marathons 1998 and 2011, most of the finishers ori- by competitors from the United States in marathoners. However, recreational ginated from Europe, especially from of America, Mexico and Canada. In marathoners have a faster personal France [14]. The number of finishers the ‘Spartathlon’, the fastest female best marathon time than ultra-mara- from other countries such as Japan, finishes were obtained by women from thoners. Successful ultra-marathoners Germany, Italy, Poland and the United Japan, Germany and the United States have about eight years of experience

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in ultra-running. Ultra-marathoners were highly predictive of short-di- Sex difference in ultra-marathon complete more running kilometres in stance track runners [26] - were only performance training than marathoners do, but they predictive in bi-variate analyses, but no Women compete slower than men run more slowly during training than in multi-variate analyses, with ultra- in ultra-marathon running [6,30,31]. marathoners [18,19]. marathon running performance [24,27]. Coast et al. [31] compared the world Ultra-marathoners show differences In ultra-marathoners, body mass index best running performances for race in anthropometric characteristics (e.g. and body fat seemed to be the most im- distances from 100 m to 200 km. Run- skinfolds thickness, limb circumferen- portant anthropometric characteristics ning speeds were different between ces) compared to marathoners. Compa- [22,28]. In 161-km ultra-marathoners, women and men where men were red to 100-km ultra-marathoners [16], lower values of body mass index were ~12.4% faster than women. There was marathoners had a significantly lower associated with faster race times [22]. a significant slope to the speed dif- calf circumference and a significantly Body fat is also an important anthropo- ference across distances where longer thicker skinfold at pectoral, axilla, metric predictor variable. In 161-km ul- distances were associated with greater and suprailiacal sites. When 24-hour tra-marathoners, faster men had lower sex differences [31]. In 24-hour ultra- ultra-marathoners were compared to percent body fat values than slower marathons held between 1977 and marathoners [17], ultra-marathoners men, and finishers had lower percent 2012, the sex differences were ~5% for were older, had a lower circumference body fat than non-finishers [28]. all women and men, ~13% for the an- at both the upper arm and thigh, and a When different anthropometric nual fastest finishers, ~13% for the top lower skinfold thickness at the pecto- and training characteristics such as ten and ~12% for the top 100 finishers ral, axillary, and suprailiacal sites than mass, body fat, run- [30]. These findings indicate a variation marathoners. ning kilometres and running speed of sex differences by performance level, Ultra-marathoners show also dif- were compared, body fat and training i.e. the higher the level, the larger the ferences in training compared to ma- characteristics were associated with sex differences. rathoners. Ultra-marathoners rely on a ultra-marathon race times [19]. For In recent years, women were, howe- high running volume during training 100-km ultra-marathoners, weekly run- ver, able to reduce the gap to men [16,19] whereas marathoners rely on ning kilometres and average running [6,30,32]. In 24-hour ultra-marathoners, a high running speed during training speed during training were negatively female and male ultra-marathoners [16]. When 100-km ultra-marathoners and the sum of skinfolds were posi- improved performance across years were compared to marathoners [16], tively related to race time [25]. Apart [6,32]. The sex differences decreased marathoners completed fewer hours from anthropometric and training for the annual fastest to ~17%, for the and fewer kilometres during a training characteristics, age seems also to be an annual ten fastest to ~11% and for the week, but they were running faster important predictor variable for ultra- annual 100 fastest to ~14% [30]. In during training than ultra-maratho- marathon performance. In 100-km ul- 100-mile ultra-marathons, the fastest ners. When 24-hour ultra-marathoners tra-marathoners, age, body mass, and women and men improved their race were compared to marathoners, ultra- percent body fat were positively and time by ~14% between 1998 and 2011 marathoners completed more weekly weekly running kilometres were nega- [32]. The relative improvement of wo- running hours and running kilometres tively related to ultra-marathon race men’s performance across years might during training, but were running slo- times [16]. be attributed to the larger number of wer than marathoners [17]. Ultra-ma- Previous experience seems, howe- women participating to sports due to rathoners have a greater pain tolerance ver, to be the most important predictor the amelioration of their socio-econo- than controls [20] which might enable variable in ultra-marathon running mic status. ultra-runners to endurance longer un- performance [22,24,29]. Personal best der different circumstances than others. marathon time was a strong predictor The age of the best in mountain ultra-marathoners [22]. In ultra-marathon performance Predictor variables for successful 24-hour ultra-marathoners, anthropo- In very recent years, the age of peak ultra-marathon running metry and training volume had no ma- ultra-marathon performance and a performance jor effect on ultra-marathon race time potential change in the age of peak per- Several studies tried to find the most but a fast personal best marathon time formance has been intensively investi- important predictor variables for a suc- showed the only significant association gated [5,6,30,32,33-36]. The best ultra- cessful outcome in ultra-marathon run- with ultra-marathon race time [24]. To marathon race performance is achieved ning. Among these variables, the most achieve a maximum of kilometres in a at a higher age compared to the best important were age [16,21], anthropo- 24-hour ultra-marathon, ultra-runners marathon race performance. The fastest metric characteristics such as body fat should have a personal best marathon female and male marathoners achieved [16,19], body mass index [22] and limb time of ~3:20 h:min and complete a their best race times at the age of ~29.8 circumferences [23], training characte- long training run of ~60 km before the and ~28.9 years, respectively [37]. In ristics such as running speed [16,19,21] start of the ultra-marathon, whereas 100-km ultra-marathoners, the fastest and training volume [16,19,21] and pre- anthropometric characteristics such as race times were observed between 30 vious experience [24,25]. low body fat or low skinfold thicknes- and 49 years for men and from 30 to Regarding anthropometric charac- ses showed no association with ultra- 54 years for women [34]. In 161-km ul- teristics, leg skinfold thickness - which marathon performance [29]. tra-marathoners, the fastest times were

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achieved by athletes ranked in the 30-39 Contact: year age group for men and the 40-49 year age group for women [38]. PD Dr. med. Beat Knechtle Women achieved the best ultra-mara- e-mail: [email protected] thon performance at about the same age like men [30,32]. For 100-km ultra-ma- rathoners competing between 1960 and 2012, the age of the fastest female and male finishers remained unchanged at ~35 years [33]. In 24-hour ultra-mara- References thoners, the best performances were [9] Parise CA, Hoffman MD. Influ- achieved at ~40-42 years [35]. In some [1] running; http:// ence of temperature and perfor- instances, the age of the fastest finishers www.ultramarathonrunning.com/ mance level on pacing a 161 km trail increased across years [6], in other in- ultramarathon. Int J Sports Physiol stances, it remained unchanged [30,32] [2] Hoffman MD, Fogard K. Demo- Perform. 2011;6:243-251. or it even decreased [5]. In the annual graphic characteristics of 161-km fastest male 24-hour ultra-marathoners ultramarathon runners. Res Sports [10] Wegelin JA, Hoffman MD. competing between 1994 and 2012, the Med. 2012;20(1):59-69. Variables associated with odds of fi- age of peak running speed increased nishing and finish time in a 161-km from 23 to 53 years [30]. [3] Hoffman MD, Krishnan E. Exer- ultramarathon. Eur J Appl Physiol. There seemed to be a trend that the cise behavior of ultramarathon 2011;111:145-153. fastest finishers were older in the very runners: baseline findings from the long ultra-marathon distances [30,32]. ULTRA study. J Strength Cond Res. [11] Costa RJ, Teixeira A, Rama In 100-mile ultra-marathoners, the 2013;27(11):2939-45. L, Swancott AJ, Hardy LD, Lee B, mean ages of the annual top ten fastest Camões-Costa V, Gill S, Waterman runners were ~39 years for women and [4] Hoffman MD, Ong JC, Wang JP, Freeth EC, Barrett E, Hankey J, ~37 years for men [32]. In 24-hour ultra- G. Historical analysis of partici- Marczak S, Valero-Burgos E, Scheer marathoners, the ages of peak running pation in 161 km V, Murray A, Thake CD. Water and speed were unchanged at ~41 and ~44 in North America. Int J Hist Sport. sodium intake habits and status of years for the annual ten and the annual 2010;27:1877-1891. ultra-endurance runners during a 100 fastest men, respectively. For wo- multi-stage ultra-marathon condu- men, the ages of the annual fastest, the [5] Fonseca-Engelhardt K, Knechtle cted in a hot ambient environment: annual ten fastest and the annual 100 B, Rüst CA, Knechtle P, Lepers R, an observational field based study. fastest remained unchanged at ~43 ye- Rosemann T. Participation and per- Nutr J. 2013;12:13. ars, respectively [30]. In ‘Badwater’ and formance trends in ultra-endurance - ‘Spartathlon’ as two of the toughest ul running races under extreme condi- [12] Larsen HB. Kenyan dominance tra-marathons in the world, the fastest tions - ’Spartathlon’ versus ’Badwa- in distance running. Comp Bio- race times were achieved by athletes at ter’. Extrem Physiol Med. 2013;2:15. chem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol. the age of ~40-42 years [36]. 2003;136:161-170. [6] Eichenberger E, Knechtle B, Rüst Master ultra-marathoners CA, Rosemann T, Lepers R. Age and [13] Wilber RL, Pitsiladis YP. Ken- The number of master ultra-maratho- sex interactions in mountain ultra- yan and Ethiopian distance runners: ners increased and their performance marathon running - the Swiss Al- what makes them so good? Int J improved in recent years [39,40]. In the pine Marathon. Open Access J Sports Sports Physiol Perform. 2012;7:92-102. 78-km ‘Swiss Alpine Marathon’, the Med. 2012;3:73-80. number of women older than 30 years [14] Cejka N, Rüst CA, Lepers R, and men older than 40 years increased [7] Krouse RZ, Ransdell LB, Lucas Onywera V, Rosemann T, Knechtle and performance improved in women SM, Pritchard ME. Motivation, goal B. Participation and performance aged 40-44 years [40]. In the 230-km orientation, coaching, and training trends in 100-km ultra-marathons - ‘Marathon des Sables’, the number of fi habits of women ultrarunners. J worldwide. J Sports Sci. 2014;32:354- nishers of masters runners older than 40 Strength Cond Res. 2011;25:2835-2842. 366. years increased for both sexes and men aged 35 to 44 years improved running [8] Knoth C, Knechtle B, Rüst CA, [15] Knechtle B, Rüst CA, Rosemann speed [39]. A potential explanation for Rosemann T, Lepers R. Participation T. The aspect of nationality in parti- the rather high age of ultra-maratho- and performance trends in multista- cipation and performance in ultra- ners could be the finding that the me- ge ultramarathons-the ’Marathon marathon running – a comparison dian age at the first ultra-marathon was des Sables’ 2003-2012. Extrem Physiol between ‘Badwater’ and ‘Spartath- 36 years in the study of Hoffman and Med. 2012;1:13. lon’. OA Sports Medicine. 2013;1:1. Krishnan [3] when investigating 1,345 current and former ultra-marathoners.

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