DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 392 683 SO 025 763
TITLE Vital Connections: Young Children, Adults & Music. International Society for Music Education Early Childhood Commission Seminar (Columbus, Missouri, July 11-15, 1994). PUB DATE 94 NOTE 212p.; "Musical Play of Preschoolers and the Effects of Teacher-Child Relationship" by Josette Silveria Mello Feres (Brazil)is not available for ERIC reproduction. PUB TYPE Collected Works Conference Proceedings (021)
EDRS PRICE MF01/PC09 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Child Development; Childhood Attitudes; Childhood Interests; *Children; Elementary Education; Fine Arts; *Folk Culture; *Music; Music Activities; Music Appreciation; *Music Education; Music Techniques; Popular Culture; *Young Children; Youth
ABSTRACT These papers were collected from participants at a conference on young children, adults, and music. Papers include: (1) "Preschool Children's Responses to Music on Television" (Katharine Smithrim, Canada);(2) "Learning to Observe in Order to Join the Musical Activities Better to the Total Development of the Young Child" (Margre van Gestel, The Netherlands);(3) "Classroom Music for Non-Music Major Students in Kindergarten Teacher Training Fostering a Positive Attitude for Enjoyment of Music with Young Children" (Atsuko Omi, Japan);(4) "Emotional Growth through Musical Play" (Mary Stouffer, Canada);(5) "Action Research--Getting Involved" (Olive McMahon, Australia);(6) "Music as Mediator Element in the Mother-Baby Relationship" (Josette Silveria Mello Feres, Brazil); (7) "A Model for Enhancing Music Development Through the Inclusion of Informed parents and Other Primary Caregivel3 in Early Childhood Music Classes" (Kenneth K. Guilmartin and Lili Levinowitz, USA); (8) "Music in Early Childhood: The Search for Effective Models of Adult Parti,ipation and Interaction" (Carol Scott-Kassner, USA); (9) "Training of Early Childhood Music Educators at the Musical University in Heidelberg-Mannheim/Germany" (Maria Seeliger, Germany); (10) "Developing the Educational Connections in the Swedish Preschool: How Do We Integrate the Theories with Musical Practice?" (Berit Udden, Sweden); (11) "Effect of Pitch Relationship Between Text and Melody in Young Children's Singing" (Lily Chen, Hong Kong); (12) "Some Observations on the Singing Development of Five-Year-Olds" (Peta J. White, Desmond C. Sergeant, Graham F. Welch, England);(13) "Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Preschool Children's Spontaneous Music Behaviors" (Danette Littleton, USA); (14) "Using Jack Tales and Folk Music from Our American Appalachian Heritage to Involve the Young Learner, Including Those with Special Needs" (An Integrated Arts Approach Employing Folk Music, Folktales, and Puppets)" (Michelle Hairston, Linda High, USA); (15) "Doing What Comes Naturally: Generating A Music Curriculum for Young Children" (June Boyce-Tillman, England); (16) "Sound Mosaic: Young Children's Musical Development Program" (Eleonora Rybakova, Nikolai Kravtsov, Russia); and (17) "The Window of Opportunity" (Sheila C. Woodward, Republic of Sou0 Africa).(EH) INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FORMUSIC EDUCATION 00 c1 EARLY CHILDHOODCOMMISSION SEMINAR CT cn
LL1
Vital Connections: Young Children, Adults& Music
11-15 July, 1994 Memorial Union/Mark TwainBallroom -PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEE GRANTED BY iv Ea University of Missouri-Columbia le Columbia, Missouri, USA
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC).-
U S DEPARTMENT OF Office of Educational ResearchEDUCATION and trnprovernem EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION XsThis CENTER (ERIC) document has beenreproduced as }eceived from theperson or organization originating it. 0 Minor changes have been made to improve------reproduction quality ----- Points of view or opinions stated in Ihis document do not necessarilyrepresent official OERI positionor policy
JES1 CCTV' PNAILW3Lb
2 lab International Society For Music Education Early ChildhoodCommission Seminar:
Vital Connections: Young Children, Adults &Music July, 1994 - University of Missouri-Columbia,USA 1
Contents
Katharine Smithrim (Canada): Preschool Children'sResponses to Music on Television Better to Margit van Geste! (The Netherlands): Learning toObserve in Order to Join the Musical Activities the Total Development of the Young Child Teacher Training Atsuko Omi (Japan): Classroom Music forNon-Music Major Students in Kindergarten Fostering a Positive Attitude for Enjoyment ofMusic with Young Children
Mary Stouffer (Canada): EmotionalGrowth Through Musical Play
Olive McMahon (Australia): Action Research -Getting Involved (Susan M. Tarnowski (USA): Musical Play of Prescho9lers and the Effects ofTeacher-Child Interaction Style on Those Behaviors KI-(- 4.dek[)ie -( yr E I< IC yerc'clu c-koo Relationship Josette Silveria Mello Feres (Brazil):Music As Mediator Element in the Mother-Baby Through the Kenneth K. Guilmartin & Lili Levinowitz (USA):A Model for Enhancing Music Development Classes Inclusion of Informed Parents and OtherPrimary Caregivers in Early Childhood Music
Carol Scott-Kassner (USA): Music in EarlyChildhood: The Search for Effective Models ofAdult Participation and Interaction University in Maria Seeliger (Germany): Training of EarlyChildhood Music Educators at the Musical Heidelberg-Mannheim/Germany Preschool: How do We Bent Udden (Sweden): Developing theEducational Connections in the Swedish Integrate the Theories with MusicalPractice? Young Lily Chen (Hong Kong): Effect of PitchRelationship Between Text and Melody in Children's Singing Observations on the Peta J. White, Desmond C. Sergeant, &Graham F. Welch (England): Some Singing Development of Five-Year-Olds Spontaneous Danette Littleton (USA): Cross-CulturalPerspectives on Preschool Children's Music Behaviors Using Jack Tales and Folk Music fromOur American Michelle Hairston & Linda High (USA): Needs (An Appalachian Heritage to Involve the YoungLearner, Including Those with Special Integrated Arts Approach Employing FolkMusic, Folktales, and Puppets) A Music Curriculum for Young June Boyce-Tillman (England): DoingWhat Comes Naturally: Generating Children Children's Musical Development Eleonora Rybakova & Nikolai Kravtsov(Russia): Sound Mosaic: Young Program
Sheila C. Woodward (Republic ofSouth Africa): The Window ofOpportunity
,wd1.0({(A".;<-4: \ G.,
t) Preschool Children's Responses toMusic on Television
by Katharine Smithrirn
Abstract
in most children's Television is an important, yetpreviously unexamined factor designed to (a) determine preschool music experience.This multiple case study was certain types of responses whether particular kinds oftelevised musical stimuli elicit environment affects children's in young children, (b)show how the home music adult co-viewer on children's response, and (c)examine the effect of an involved response. they viewed a Canadian The investigator videotapedfour children at holm'. as background information preschool television programme.Parent interviews provided 'environment. Analyses ofthe about each'child's musicalexperience and home musical musical segments served asthe base for the examinationof tach child's response. response The four case descriptions werecompared in order to determine emergent patterns. the level of musical Active responses occurredwhen features appropriate to development of the child were presentin the musical materialand presentation. repetition of simple words,lyrics, Critical factors in elicitingactive response were (a) melody lines and tunes; (b)enticing introductions; and(c) invitations to participate. of musical skills. The Home musical environmentaffected the level and performance presence of an adultresulted in increased response. Katharine Smithfim, Assistant Professorof Music Education, K7L 3N16. Faculty of Education, Queen's University,Kingston, Ontario, Canada.
This paper is submitted for considerationfor the Seminar 'Vital Connections: Young Children,Adults & Music' 11-15July,1994.
Preschool Children'sResponses to Music onTelevision
Television is an important factorin a child's preschool experience.Canadian figures indicate that childrenbetween the ages of two and 12watch an average of 18.8 hours of television per week(Statistics Canada, 1991). Manychildren's programmes feature music as an integral partof the program content. Allchildren's programs and commercials use music as a formalfeature: as background music, as anelement in dramatic tension and release, or as asignal for the beginning andending of programs including and for sections within those progr&Tnies.While other musical exptriences be important records and tapes, family musicmaking, music classes and concerts may factors, television provides aconsiderable portion of a child's earlymusical invol vement.
Real musical experiences areembedded in rich social andpersonal context.If we wish to understand moreabout how musical meanings are acquired, we need to turn to theeveryday real-life acts of musical involvement that make up a child'smusical life. (Sloboda, 1990,p.34)
Television viewing is one ofthese everyday real-life actsof musical involvement and researchers. This study yet, it has not beenaddressed by music educators or musical content of preschool investigates the response offour-year-old viewers to the children's television. It opens an important newfield of research which concerns literature in two subject areasis musical experience throughtelevision. The research relevant to the scope of thisstudy: children's television andearly childhood musical development. and The context in which childrenwatch television affects their attention Lorch, Smith, Bradford &Levin, response (Anderson& Bryant, 1983; Anderson, Responses to televised music2
1981; Lorch, Anderson& Levin, 1979; Sloboda, 1990; Sproull,1973). Parental knowledge of their child'snormal viewing behaviour can be ahelpful verification or 1973; Sims, refutation of research findingsregarding their child's response(Sproull, that different 1985). The semiotic approachof Hodges and Tripp (1986) suggests television must be taken levels, modes and social dimensionsof children's response to into consideration. In order tostudy children's response tomusic on television, it is therefore important to (a) observechildren watching television intheir normal viewing environment, (b) examine all typesof responses, and (c) useparental knowledge to validate or refute findings. The stage of musical developmentin young children affectstheir musical Rainbow, behaviours (Davidson, McKernon& Gardner, 1981; Moog,1968/1976; child's level of musical 1981). The home environment canbe a significant factor in a development (Gordon, 1967; Kelly &Sutton-Smith, 1987; Kirkpatrick,1962). Characteristics of musical material andmodes of presentation affectchildren's 1968/1976; Rainbow, 1981; response (Davidson,McKernon & Gardner, 1981; Moog, Vaughn, 1981; Walters, 1983). Theteacher's modelling behavioursand modes of presentation affect children's movementresponse (Metz, 1989).In interpreting children's response to music ontelevision; the stage of the child'smusical development, the characteristics ofthe musical material presented,and the modes of presentation must be taken intoconsideration. The research questions formulated toguide this study concern children's response to music onpreschool television, and thefactors which affect thei: response. of 1. Do particular kinds oftelevisedmusical stimula elicit certain types responses from youngchildren? 2. How does the homemusical environment affectchildren's musical response? the children's 3.In what ways does the presenceof an involved adult affect musical response?
Design of the study
television viewing greatly The literature suggests thatthe context of children's embedded in rich affects the children's response.Since "real musical experiences are choose a research and personal context" (Sloboda,1990, p. 34) it was important to by Yin (1989) is "an design which addresses context.A case study, as defined phenomenon within its real-life empirical inquiry that: (a)investigates a contemporary Responses to televisai music 3 context; when (b) theboundaries between phenomenon and context are notclearly evident; and in which (c) multiple sourcesof evidence are used" (p. 23).This multiple case study designevolved through an initial trial and a pilot casestudy. I videotaped four children at home asthey viewed the samethree programmes preschoolers and of Fred Penner's Places a CanadianTV programme designed for centred on music. The four children wereregular watchers of FredPenner's Place and interviews represented a wide range in musicalexperience and envirOnment. Parent and observations of the childprovided background information aboutthe child's musical experience, and the homemusical environment. In each casestudy, written served as transcripts of the programmes andthe analyses of the musical segments the musical the base for the examination of thechild's response. The analyses of elements of the program include the typeof song, its key, range, melodicoutline, sound effects, actions, tempo, metre, accompaniment,and other components such as repetition, and modes of performance.The child's responses to eachmusic segment the soundtrack of the were analysed andrecorded on a response form. Because television programme is audible on thevideotapes of the viewing child, I wasable to match responses exactly with thestimulus. Six categories of responsesemerged. I the songs, constructed a graph for each programmewhich showed the time in minutes, modelled actions, and the six categories of response:keeping the beat, performing The data from whole body movement, singing, visualattention and visual inattention. 1,2&3). The graphs of the response forms wastransferred onto the graph (Figures In the cross case each programme rew'aled theemerging patterns of response. each analysis, emergent patterns of responsein the pilot case were tested across the presence of a co- ensuing case. The effects of thehome musical environment and viewing adult were also considered acrossthe four cases.
Conclusions and discussion
the music on Fred Penner'sPlace in 1. Four year old children respond to tapping and jogging. Whole several ways. They keep thebeat by bouncing, banging, metrical, and body movement like dancing,jumping and ninning is sometimes sometimes non-metrical. When aco-viewer is present, childrenfrequently respond to the verbally to song material. Theyrarely sing. The most frequent response tend to look away musical segments of the programmeis visual inattention. Children from the screen dunng songs.(VIDEO ILLUSTRATION) Responscs to televised music4
particular types of 2.Certain musicalfeatures and presentation modes do elicit have a quick tempo response. Childrenphysically keep the beat of songs which melody, and repetitionof (M.M.= 100-120), strongrhythmic pulse, simple four phrase viewer at words and tunes; andwhen the performer keeps thebeat and invites the during songs which areabout least twice to participate.Whole body movement occurs hop), have a quick tempo,and dancing and movement (e.g.Doing the country hop, hop, performer models wholebody involve repetition of wordsand tune; and when the Children movement and invitesthe viewer to do the same(VIDEO ILLUSTRATION). levels: single words, wholelines of sing parts of songs thatcontain repetition at all In some cases, the the lyric, melodic phrases,entire tunes and choruses andrefrains. external children had seen theparticular programme severaltimes which makes The common pitch rangeof the repetition another factor(VIDEO ILLUSTRATION). performer during any sung songs isC4-B4. There is no modellingof movement by the characteristics are present in songswhich of the songs thechildren sing. Several spoken narrative attract and maintainvisual attention: enticingspoken introductions, modelled actions embedded in the song,simple verse and chorusform, the absence of on the programme.The children do or movement,and placement as the opening song slow tempo (M.M. 56-96) orwith long not watch musicalsegments with a relatively neither attract or maintainvisual attention verses of complexlyrics. The songs which participate. Factors whichdo not affect lack enticing introductionsand invitations to accompaniment present onscreen oroffscreen response in thisstudy are the type of and sung harmony.
musical behaviours offour- 3. These findings areconsistent with expected particular features of music ontelevision year-old children.Four-year-olds respond to features in live music.Keeping the beat in the same ways theyrespond to the same children's bodies are and whole body movementoccur at quicktempi because the Walters (1983) determinedthat the closer small and they makeshort, quick motions. tempi, the easier it wasfor children the music's tempo was tothe children's personal Metz (1989) reports thatmodelling, describing to coordinate movementto the music. effect on children's movement and suggesting incombination have considerable the two of these adultbehaviours response to music.Modelling and suggesting, segments which elicitkeeping the possible in television, arepresent in the musical Young children learn newskills through beat and whole bodymovement responses. and repetition is a criticalfactor in self-selected repetition (e.g.building a block tower) lyncs, melody linesand tunes is a factor ineliciting rote learning.Repetiticn of words, Responses to televisai inais3c.5
common to all patterns of responseexcluding visual inattention. The pitch range preschool children is C4 or04 to G4 or A4 (McDonald andSirnons, 1989). The pitch range of C4-134. children in this study singonly the songs that lie within the
children's response to the 4. The home musicenvironment plays a role in the musical skills, the two music. Although al! thechildren demonstrate many of the same combinations of several children from the more musicalhouseholds do so in creative physically keeps the skills at once. For example, onechild sings parts of the song, beat, demonstrates the endof musical phrases withwhole body movement, and Thi: kind of creative vocally improvises rhythm,melody and harmony during one song. skills is not present in the response and confident synthesisof well developed musical (VIDEO ILLUSTRATIONS) of the children from theless musical home environments.
children's response in 5. The presence of aninvolved adult co-viewer alters they several ways. When childrenwatch preschool televisionwith an involved adult, funLly or surprising moments, talk frequently, consistentlyshare smiles and glances at if the adult does. The imitate the adult's body movementand sometimes begin to sing attention to presence of afamiliar adult co-viewer does notaffect the children's visual the programme. If theadult co-viewer is anon-unfamiliar adult, attention-getting behaviour and decreasedvisual attention result.
Recommendations for furtherstudy
are more This study shows thatchildren's attention and physical response in the likely to be engaged iffeatures appropriate to thelevel of musical development additional young child are presentwithin the musical materialand presentation. Some questions need to be addressed toprovide an accurate measureof children's musical experience gained fromtelevision: programming in general? 1. What is the musical contentof children's television early childhood musical 2. How does thatmusical material correspond to development? gaining from television? 3. What are the musicallearnings that children are
children learn musicallyfrom The significant questionfor me is "What couki effective and powerful mediumfor television?" This study showsthat television is an television can get children up out involving children in musicalexperiences. Music on Responses to televisedmusic6
of chiidren'stelevision of their chairs to moveand dance and sing and play. Producers have taken a first stepby have recognized -theimportance of music for children and take the further stepof including music in mostchildren's programming. We need to development and of ensuring that the best of ourknowledge of children's musical children's response totelevision is reflected in the musicwithin children's television could work programming. Music educatorsand producers of children's developmentally appropriate, together to enrich the livesof our children by providing active and delightful earlymusical experiences. Minutes 6 7 9 10 11 12 13 14 161 u 15 16 17 18 19 20 Talk to the Animals 21 22 23 24 25 26 When 9 Songs I'm Gansu Sit RightDOwn and Wm. Lotter Bs Be ..1 ' ma & Dancingng. gbi Sanutinses I Foto MontClosing keeping Pcur Enc 01)484 rho* Myself ...P..*** CD bent Kalknne--. body Peter ;41 441..9,* -rtr 777-1"""th....4 A I . Eric " movement Katherine 4 1., -" "'" `11.- , 1' 6.4 ....iv .,,, Nisch,* Pon .4...... 4,40 .... ' . . _ ...... 7.1...7.1., ...., . Co actions Kathenney7.74...... Enc.,' ' ...... 7.,...t1 tr..,:..1.74...... ,,,..,0.41i. Irr'tjt1.71-- ;hi , singmg mactisc1.4 Enc :,...... ;,.. I ...... i4...-. .4,473, ...4.7'.....:...,..,- ttc 9 Kathenns tioN'; . .4. ! 1,1 05 attentionvisual Kathennto.=.1 MIiwt.,,,a_....-.. Peicri*.74,A sc V'.1 ',Ft7:141,T; visual Martisc....,r . Pifer '41 I. 1t. 1,11,*1, `.° 11,.,',1 Inattention fix BEST 7.4 MEM COPY AVAILABLE VIII MI MI all UN gm là MI Mt nit ow 1111P 11111 11111 111111 IIIIIII OM MI 11111 Mill144111101111110111*111111111111SIMINI Minutes 21i Puy This Who Will 21p 1.1 .tni Pin! 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 Bang* 1.9 2.0 2.1 Pros ie 2.2 a Family2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 beatkeeping Songs 01:1491 Vicniciful !.40aims? vitT4--r-r7r---' . MalISK bodymovement Nur r . " '7".:"1117% r actions Pour frc . t"..fl11. ...14.t Kothanno ' 11 7 ' ' singing marts,. Piler 7. I I 11 .7"11r..7."....' 4; visual Maass p,,. I ' . ' .1 . 10....., 101, .1A'...... attention Kthe anne' ' . . I: 4.7..''' .1 . , .1:!...----;'-*-,1 2 4;41. 1 ., ,,,,,.. . 'o- v isual N4.1.4...... ,.,...... 14, 1 .,,,. '4 vi, L'ilr ri ... 4,01::.! 51.0Pi.--14-'10ir 'T, f; inattention KallwrIns .--,-- ....2.1 ,,,...i.: 00v. Mi nutes 6,er .y.*,.'.11 6 7 Q 11',P.r.'1A1r,1 a 113 11 12 1.3 11 1 .4,1Et 16 1.7 12 12 20 21 2 2.3 2,4 2.5 26 Foolish Songs 9 The Workl chrs Mo Uyinii :1 1 .911fthNil. Nft: I e :0291 l:11'....e.41,h Staysails: ills Foolish Fro. Moo Stvuck Swish Wain Fro/ Of Nine CowlsTheme beatkeeping maxim Enc Time ',"7"' . - . body Kathennit Marla{ Kier ;. , 777'71 '44 -.1 ''. movement Kathennt ..... 777:7777t- '.1 . . , actions Menne Nur titc -. . - ;01 77 KAthenot .. . singing manias Pc ter . 77-717 h "1"1"1,7',;:' y 4-01.177r Kathennot .^:^1r-ti"" 41 ...... rH,frir."1":....t. ,...... visual Pew 7:71 777051.1*t 4,1114iiikr..71:',. 1 attention ' , ,.. '4.11", i .1. .trlirlir,ir --.44-1...... - _ ,_ . ... . rrr, I. NI ...... ,,, _ ..... i 1" ....,1..,r___-.1;,....77,--...- 4".' ".".. .'! oh' .1.'j '.. .. Malosc 0. ,:. , oe; .1...... - inattentionvisual Peter I itc ...... effe%.. ...l .3Parigq...... _ _ K.06'1114 .." *out on taps a...... _ rovissmumpasonapomemato IIIIIIM111111111111LOOMM-111 BEST COPY AVAILABLE Responses to televised music10
References
viewing: The Anderson, D. R., & Bryant, J. (1981) .Research on children's television state of the art .In J. Bryant & D. R. Anderson(Eds.) , Children's understanding of television: Research onattention and comprehension(pp. 33 1- 354) . New York: AcademicPress.
Davidson, L., McKernon, P., &Gardner, H. (1981). The acquisitionof song: A developmental approach. InDocumentary Report of the Ann Arbor Symposium: National Symposium onthe Application of Psychology tothe Teaching and Learning of Music(pp. 301-315). Reston, VA:Music Educators National Conference. disadvantaged with Gordon, E. (1967) . A comparisonof the performance of culturally Profile. that of culturally heterogeneousstudents on the Musical Aptitude Psychology in the Schools , 15 ,260-268.
Hodge, R., & Tripp, D. (1986) .Children and television: A semioticapproach. Stanford, CA : Stanford UniversityPress. productivity. .In Kelley, L., & Sutton-Smith , B .(1987).A study of infant musical J.C. Peery, LW. Peery, &T.W. Draper (Eds.), Music andchild development (pp. 35-53) . New York :Springer-Verlag .
Kirkpatrick, W., Jr. (1962) .Relationships between the singingability of prekindergarten children and theirhome environments (Doctoraldissertation, 40 3177-A . Northwestern University ).Dissertation Abstracts International,
McDonald , D. T. , & Simons ,G. M. (1989) . Musical growthand development Birth through six . New York: Schirmer. . children . Metz, E. (1989) . Movement as amusical response among preschool Journal of Research in MusicEducation. 37 (1), 48-60 . London: Schott . Moog, H. (1976) . The musicalexperience of the pre-school child.
Rainbow, E. (1981). A final report on athree-year investigation of therhythmic Council for Research in abilities of preschool agedchildren. Bulletin of the Music Education, 66-67 69-73.
Sims, W. L. (1985) .Television, creative movement andthe preschool child. International Music EducationISME Yearbook ,12, 103-109.
Sloboda, J. A. (1990) . Music as alanguage .In F. R. Wilson & F. L.Roehmann (pp. 28-43) . Si Louis, MO :MMB. (Eds.),Music and child development Responses to tdevised music1 1
Sproull , N . (1973) . Visualattention, modeling behaviors, and other verbaland nonverbal meta-communication of prekindergartenchildren watching Sesame Street.American Educational Research Journal ,10 , 101-114 .
Statistics Canada. (1991) .Television Viewing 1991, Cultural statistics(Catalogue 87-208) .Ottawa: Statistics Canada .
Vaughan, M. M. (1981) . Intercultural studiesin children's natural singing pitchand walking tempo:Bulletin of the Councilfor Research in Music Education ,66-67
96-101.
Walters, D. L. (1983) . The relationshipbetween personal tempo in primary-aged children and their ability to synchronizemovement with music. Reviewedby M. Vaughan (1986) in Bulletinof the Council for Research in MusicEducation , 88 85-89 .
Yin, R. (1989). Case study research.Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Margre van Gestel Foundation for Toddlers and Music
Specialist in "Music on the Lap".
De Meerkoet 1 2761 SM Zevenhuizen
The Netherlands
This Paper is submittedfor consideration for theseminar "Vital Connections:
Young Children and Music"
11- 15 July 1994.
Learning to observe
in order to join the'nusical activities better to the total development
of the young child.
(0 to 4 years) Margré van Gestel Foundation for toddlers andmusic
Specialist in "Music on theLap"
De Meerkoet 1 2761 SM Zevenhuizen
The Netherlands
"Learning to observe
in order to join themusical activities better to the total development of the young child
(0 to 4 years)."
(abstract)
music Good music teaching asksfor knowledge of music, teaching to young teaching and musicaldevelopment. Good music and insight children (0 to 4 years)asksalso for knowledge of of development. in the areas ofdevelopment and the stages importance that the observational It appears to beof great ability of the teacheris good. theoretical knowledge of This paper triesto enlarge the used in the observation and shows someobservation assignments in music training supplementary course"Musicon the Lap" and courses for nurseryteachers. Introduction 2
Preamble 2 3 A Starting points "Music on the lap" Focus points:
Approach 3 3 Comfort Support in the centre of thebody 4
The areas of development 4
What is observation? 5 Ways of observing 6 The purpose of reporting 7
Category systems 8
Learning to observe by means of target observation
exercises 9 young Aspectsto take into account when workingwith
children 9 10 Conclusions
Appendix Observation assignment 1 11 12 Assignment 2 13 Assignment 3 14/15 Assignment 4 16 Assignment 5 17 Literature cited 17 References xtitc) cl i 4::=>
Goodmusic teaching to youngchildren (0 to 4 years) asks for knowledge of music, music teachingand musical development, but also for knowledge ofand insight in the areas of development .and the stages ofdevelopment.
It appears tobe of great importance that the observational ability of the teacher is good.
far In practice, observation seems to be a skill that requires more training than oneexpects.
The topic of this paper is "Learning toObserve."
Preamble
become During the conference in Japan 1992 youmayhave acquainted with the procedure"Music on the Lap".
The starting and focuspoints of "Music on the Lap" are are of great probablynot familiarto everybody. As they the musical importance in learning to observeand linking they are activities to the developmentof theyoung child, summarised briefly below. 151.
E31.7.-ariziLrisg. Pcpi.ril=ga be taken 1. Young children are human beings too, so have to seriously and dealt with in a respectfulway. part of its 2. The child is the focus. Music is an integral
life.
rr CD CZ. IA F3 ID CD I. ri f.s
Approach
Comfort Support in the centre of the body Physical activities in relationwith the physical
development.
Alp ID 3.7 CD E% kl the A respectful attitude of the teacher especially in approach to the children.
The zones of distance:
- The intimate zoneis at elbow length.
- the personal zoneis between 50 and 75 cm. - the social zoneis between 75 cm to approximately2 meters.
- the public zoneis from 2 meters onwards. If the zones of distance are not taken into consideration and adult) the teachercomes too close toosoon, the child (or Thisbehaviour tries to enlarge the distance or freezes. should be allowed for andrespected.
rn lE CD 27 it : relationst.ip is of No effect but affect. To promote a positive
3 comfortable too, great importance.Parents should feel especially duringimprovisation.
S irc,rt in -t tie e ri -t x c f -t
Simple songs are used as aframework for improvising parents must fit the movements. The movement chosen by the the child. Knowledge of physical capabilities and the age of in the correct the physicaldevelopment andof giving support way is of greatimportance. a child when it is Relaxation exercises are based on moving form an laying on the lap, in a mannerthat parent and child
imaginary circle.
rr e r ea s cl e 3_ c> mrit
physical, sensory, social, We distinguish between emotional, intellectual, speech andmusical development. important to For the harmoniousdevelopment of the child it is to eachof the elements, ensure that dueattention is given including during musiclessons.
4 1 E3
d.Es cDv.;e13:7Nreitzi.cri'.? Observation can be described asfollows: with Observation iswatching the behaviour of young children the intention of getting toknow the child through its experiences with the (music) world.*1
things In our surroundings and in our teaching practice we see proper way happen. Wehave to react. However to react in a to requires knowledge. In teaching practice it is difficult observation observe correctly. One of the causes is that requires a certaindistance, but working withchildren brings
one both literallyand figuratively too close.
and for Furthermore, time is needed both for observation processing the informationobtained.
One of the problems during observation is that people project their own feelings to othersvia their behaviour. qualities to For instance, projecting one's ownnegative another person reduces one's ownunpleasant feelings. judgement whilst This is a frequent cause ofmistakes in carrying out observations.
method of gaining It is clear thatobservation should be a in orderto better information as objectively as possible understand the behaviourof another person.
is a certain An important conditionfor successful observation
5 consistency in watching . Training and experience is necessaryfor creating this consistency. Onlyin this way can a manner of observation be and as objective as createdwhich is reliable, repeatable 1 possible. Observation.will always be selective,because it is impossible watching to give attention to everything. However, selective should be tied to certainrules. *1
teachers can optimise With the help of the information gained the child as their understanding of a child andhence guide well as possible.
NAT ays c,f o s Nr1. rx
In different socialsciences observation is used as a controlled way of watching. scientific observation are wellknown. 1. The principles of observation is the 1 2. Central in a specificpedagogical half-grown relation between the adulteducatorand the child entrusted to him.*2 observation, a psychologist only seeks 3. In a psychological researching to observethe developmentof thechild by manifests thedifferent areaswherethis development
itself. *2
For instance, mental,physical, emotional, agreement personality structure, motivation, development of behaviour with age.
6 to trace 4. The purpose of a more didactic observation is all the possible causes which lead toteaching problems.
By systematic observation andrelating the observations to the areas of develo ment and musical activitieswe learn to link musical activities better to the needsof the child.
It isof great importance that the observerhas knowledge of the development process ofthe young child. One of the
failings ofobservation can bethat behaviour andmotivation certain age group are patterns which are characteristic of a not recognised by the observer.
knowledge of Observation techniques related toenlarging the musical activitieswhich are linked to the development of a child, can lead to responsiveobservation. Responsive observation is a direct reaction tothe childs behaviour. is The irportance for our .teaching is obvious: the child motivated andexperiences that new things can happenthrough from this kind of its own activities.Learningwhich results observation begins with the child!
c) se ofIrtirig - we Reporting is recording what we wantto observeand what have observed in such waythat the results can be objectively
used. A report should be a pure recording of whathappened and may not contain aninterpretation. Watching the development of the child becomes meaningful when
7
I 4, it is related toestablished criteria.
Reporting of development takes as abasis two essential III criteria: the same foreach 1. The sequence of development is
child. skills are obtained is 2. The point of time at which different for each child. *3
Examples of reporting methods aretranscripts, audio or a form of videotapes, films andphotographs. There is also reporting which requiresinterpretation: the protocol. description of what A protocol is aprecisely written or taped
has happened. one mustdecide Beforechoosing the method of reporting 1 whether to observe conspicuouslyor surreptitiously. or an obvious Conspicuous observing by means of video, photo which must be observer, sometimescreates different behaviour
allowed for. record the data Whenwe exactly knowwhat toobserve we can using category systems.
sa c 37 3r E; 3r Ea 1: Ern13
When we observe there arecertain things we are paying songs children singwhen attention to. For instance: Which system whenwe have a they areplaying. Wecan speakof a For collection of categorieswhichmeet certain requirements. instance: All songs sungduring jumping.
8 L. e r g t c c t, s e r rEl -tar get c)s -N7 ticri e crci ses
The observation exercises.
We use different types of exercises:
A: Observationby means of actual exercises. slides or videos. B: Observation by way of photographs, Selected exercises are included inthis paper as it is in the impossible to give an example of all the exercises space available. Two exercises of type A and 3 of type B are included.
t a. lc e i xilz c> a. c c, -t
cDricl rig vsy -t1i aor rl
cthi]rricl. -
Next to observationtraining the following aspects are of great importance working with youngchildren and music: with young - A. clear insight of how to associate
children: approach, comfort, supportingwhile carrying,
method in musical activities, the place you give the
parentsduring the lessons. All these items should be
dealt with.
- Theoreticalknowledge of child development.
- Knowledgeof observational procedures.
- Linkingthe correctmusical activities to the stage of development of the child. of handling the Much attentionmust be paid tocreative ways musical material andorganising the activities.
cric) 1 i..i s I or" s
It is possible to learn:
activities. How to observe youngchildren during musical
How to enlarge one'sknowledge of the development processes of a youngchild.
produce musical Observation training for music teachers would activities related to thedevelopment of the child.
,1U
10 Assignment 2 which This instruction teaches you to recognize behaviour belongs to the social and emotionaldevelopment of the toddlers. (3 to 4 years old)
for 45 minutes a situation of free play in a nursery, Observe Choose one or look at toddlers inyourhome surroundings. toddler and note his age. Look whether you see the activities mentioned below and note how manytimes this behaviour occurs.
Name toddler: Observation date:
Size of group: children Age: adults
Time of observation- until Em. Activities: Sc: Soc Chooses between partners Shows shyness when teased.
Whispers with well known adultswhen 1 strangers are present.
Can wait for his turnand gives another child an opportunitywithout getting excited.
Likes doing someone afavour, helps, obeys instructions, acceptslimits.
Shows a sense of humour.Does not take things literally any more.
Joins games and tellsothers to keep the rules.
Plays a fantasy game withother children
Sc = score Soc = Social Em= Emotional Indicate with across whichbehaviour matches the social or emotional development.
12 On MO NM Mt SW MI Ille =I SW III ON MN
-,- r
).4 4 14 .x 5: 4 ) .4 .4 .1: () () (1) >, . 41 .(: 4 ) (1 cii M : (1) (.1) 4.) 4 ( l 4-) c)I). s et)(1 :1 a/ t: 4 V 4 0 cllcl) :1 4 tit Cl. () 0 4 1't t: C.) CI, CD44 (.) E s: c : 0 ti ; t:,tc) >, al C: (1) In (1) 0 I . n . : al t L: / e 1.: ) In n4 .1) 1..) r) ., (1,
c: ' 1- i, '-1.4".k 'T.rS' -1 ), ._ ;.00..-...1,,yth.,,4 i?:.".2.4,T1( ; i',1 0 ,,,,.1 ,,.., . /,/ - ,nt, ',I -Y2) _.-2.4t's4T-! - '1.`b,(.-ii.;...fy, v ti.lts ,,F. ...,.3:, ,, , \v ' . , - , :\e' 0 4!, , . . (t? ,ok-,,,y -0 pi. r " . r tt' 1 : .; v( , t ,rvi PilisiOlt.i!S`l'S ."1 ,; .t, 4.11' 4 r: 4,143011.1k , to. , , -; 1 ;,.tt;. ,`A )iltelp',1L41.041)14,"7,-, 'V ,:1:Y , ` . ' ' ' --N.I.13t'''. ' -,;; .., :it 1, ' 4-4 ":1:',1;',,,,:4,. ..)14`:..; :;J.' 4" 1'°,:`40. 4;-',..,:;,rt,',!..,' ' I '' - fiZt fity 'dktl"?.tA\#4'111:*t-L..-.1,---..".3..)z,,144:3-',1P;111.,,!,,,i,i.i 4.,...... , i ,.. " , .`;',"FA 4.r' lr '' ,,i2It .. I l --f .?1\ . ''',0: , 440..,"' 4.0.0 4745 I. 14. .. , h " ,t V`Yi v Of* .1 ' I .... ',ill tit, Ai , , t . /44 , VII 1 r I t .re I Vi. 't 4. 31 # Ar. ;, I' <.%' 44_ " 4.(14,..1 4, ,I , ?....., '0.-1.% "... .4., ";,. " . ,, , a... /.. ar* 7 tir Assignment 4
Look carefully atthe picture. a songwhere the movements Oneof themusical activitiesis match the song. and its To which areas ofdevelopment does this song associated activitiesrelate.
(Possible answers:)
Areas of Yes/ no Because: development: of the movements Physical: yes
they are playingtogether Social: yes
they are imaginingthings Emotional: yes
r stimulating the imagination Intellectual: yes
yes they have contactwith the Sensory: hands,
, the children aresinging Language: yes the yes they have to react at Musical: proper time, they aresinging il along,
15 4 Assignment 5 recognize After this assignment you should be able to better the musical behaviourof the young child.
On videotape: The age of the childrenis A lesson in a nursery. and approximately 3. This is the firstmeeting. The children with the music their nurseryteachers arenot familiar teacher. 1. Indicate the musicalbehaviour shown by thechildren.
Musical behaviour: Score:
They improvise inmovement.
Listening moments(concentration,listen to)
Singing and physicalactivities
Sing together with: - otherchildren - parents/guide / teacher
Joins in with fragmentsof songs.
Moves arms and legs as areactionto the music.
Reacts well to wordsin songs.
16 Literature cited:
* 1 Sande J.P. v.d. Gedragsobservatie. Een inleiding tot systematischobserveren.
* 2 Bolkestein G., Stilma L.C.,Verschoor R.H.R.A.(1982) Het observeren vanschoolgaande kinderen. I.S.B.N. 90 266 1701 1
Bilo R, A. C. VoorhoeveH.W.A.(1990) * 3 bij de observatie Kind in ontwikkeling. Een handreiking van jonge kinderen. I.S.B.N. 90 352 1208 8
References: Bilo R.A.C. VoorhoeveDr. H.W.A. Kind in ontwikkeling. I.S.B.N. 90 352 1208 8 (1990) Blankenstein van M. WelbergenU.R. Haas de J.H. De ontwikkeling vande zuigeling I.S.B.N. 90 215 1279 3 (1986) Greenberg M. Your children need music. Spectrum (1979)
Greenspan Dr.S.I. De gevoelswereld vanUw kind. I.S.B.N. 90 215 1416 8 (1985) Knaapen M. Het voelen gevoed.(1988) Langelaar Annie Peuter en Muziek. I.S.B.N. 90 3210 4330 (1980) Sande J.P. van de Gedragsobservatie. Een inleiding totsystematisch observeren. Smeijsters Dr. Henk Muziek en Psyche.I.S.B.N. 90 232 2289 X (1987) Vedder Dr.R Observatie van kinderen. I.S.B.N. 90 01 885039 (1972)
17 3 (.; consideration for theSeminar This paper is submitted for Adults, and Music," "Vital Connections: Young Children,
11-15 July, 1994.
Classroom music for non-musicmajor students
in kindergarten teachertraining:
fostering a positiveattitude
for enjoyment of musicwith young children
Omi, Atsuko
Lecturer of faculty ofeducation,
early child educationdevision,
Kawamura Gakuen Woman'sUniversity
1133 Sageto Abiko, Chiba,270-11 JAPAN Classroom music for non-music majorstudents
in kindergarten teacher training:
fostering a positive attitude
for enjoyment of music with youngchildren
Omi, Atsuko
Abstract
Kindergarten teachers have a special roleto raise children's fundamental is basic musicality which is based on humandevelopment and tradition, and which music for for the later learning of music.Therefore the research on classroom
non-music major students in kindergartenteacher training is important. (1) to break the My principles in teachertraining are as follows: (3) to preconceptions about education and music,(2) to conduct model-teaching, satisfaction make compatible the occupational usagefor the future and personal
as musical experiencein the present. musical I tried to turn the 90 minuteclass itself into an improvisational activity units, performance without an audience.Each class consists of musical strategies in examples of which I show in this paper.Also I propose teaching nature of music", classroom music, for the"musical" teaching of "true
utilizing the advantage of "agroup". point of My practice has obtained goodresults as a whole from the view children. fostering a positive attitudefor enjoyment of music with young Classromn music for non-music majorstudents
in kindergarten teacher training:
fostering a positive attitude
for enjoyment of music with young children
Omi, Atsuko
. Introduction
How do we think about the professionof teaching music in kindergarten? for four I have taught classroom music inkindergarten teacher training of time, lack of student's years. I have alwaysfaced such difficulties as lack of music musicai ability e.g. musicalilliteracy, lack of true appreciation of motivation to which mechanical training oftechniques has caused, and lack educate the future inquire about teaching musicto young children. How do we
teachers on music education inkindergarten?
II. Foundation ofkindergarten teacher training in music
A. The property of teachingmusic in kindergarten
genuine Young children by nature need ahuman-to-human relationship and relationships are nourishment. But looking over ourmodern life, man-to-machine sound, to often be busy increasing, and mass communicationcauses the flood of
and noisy. kindergarten as a I would define theprofession of teaching music in strong wizh to provide special and creative workwhich requires: (1) the (2) the reliance appropriate music for everychild in an appropriate situation, of young childrEn's human on the importantrole of music in the process feelings in development, and (3) usual inquiryof music which brings happy
everyday life in kindergarten.
1 B. Principles in teachertraining
mind the following When I conduct my class forteacher training, I keep in three principles. and music, which The first is to break thepreconceptions about education *In kindergarten, students carry into theclassroom. Some students believe: accompanies the song with the children merely.sing anddance, the teacher merely music may well be piano. That's all. It's easy. " Others believe: " Teaching music simply comes strict." Not just a few studentsthink that the learning of the process is dryand down to acquiring thebasic techniques; of which
tasteless. "Teacher work The second is to conductmodel-teaching. Ten times reciting producing a humanistic and is humanistic andcreative" is not effective, but actual teaching creative class is effectiveand attractive. I demonstrate viewpoints: (1) the performances, in which Isynthesize the following four conscious to significance of a teachingjob (2) the necessity of being more group dynamics of one's own teaching behavior(3) the developmental stage or
young children(4) the true nature of music. twin concepts as (1) The last is to balanceand make compatible such satisfaction as musical occupational usage for thefuture vs personal vs [toward] inventive experience in the present(2) [from] imitative learning
teachiag
C. Teaching strategiesin classroom music
class of "music" and that When I conduct a class.I consider that it is a teaching content is "music",the it is "classroom"teaching. I mean that the the advantage of "agroup". way of teaching is"musical", and that I utilize
How do we define "music"? inferiority complexes when it comesto music. They don't Many students have Their concept of musicis too narrow to understand rely on their musicality. children's spontaneousmusical the child's world ofmusic. Observation of musical, and that behavior (Omi 1992 b) teaches usthat by nature children are language and movement.That there is a closerelationship between music,
.x 4-1 reminds us of Carl Orff's concept of"fundamental music". organized Once we adopt John Blacking'sdefinition of music as "huma.11y sound musical. sound". a dozen of our casualbehaviors in daily life can kack", can be Imitating the sound of the blinker(of a car). "tick kack tick pitch and rhythm musical behavior. George Listcategorized the recitation with modern compositions. as "Sprechstimme"."Sprechstimme" is one musical device in landing is Hopping up/down the stairswhile counting with short pauses at every composition. also interpreted as aninterestingly organized sound/movement duration, We reach the idea of fundamentalmusical devices, such as pitch, Receiving all dynamics, repetition, variation,contrast, canon, ostinato, etc. unit", in which I of the above leads me to theidea of a "musical activity utilizing these prepare more positiveteaching occasions in play situations music to something which musical devices. Also we can extend the linking of
children adore, e.g. story-telling. practice The condition of a "musical" wayimplies as follows: (a) to throw out musically (b) to reduce linguisticalindication to the minimum (c) to priority (d) to "music theory on paper", and replaceit with the senses as top 90 minute class keep the order from "by ear"to "at sight" (e) to turn the audience (f) to itself into an improvisationalmusical performance without an
not stereotype the class An intimate In "group" activities theteacher is by no means on a pedestal. the musicality and human atmosphere in theclass encourages students to awaken formation of a circle sleeping within them. Spacemanagement is important, e.g. equal chance and an is more personal. I keep itin mind to give each person an Free discilgion indispensable role in the processof musical class activities. exchange of impressions after a series of musicalactivites allows a mutual reflection. which fosters greater groupdynamics and encourages further
EQ. Practice of music:fostering a positive attitude
for the enjoyment of musicwith young children.
A. Process of teaching and processof learning
which all The title of the class I conductis "Theory of music education", first graders study in the first term. About twenty-fivefemale students attend a 90 minute class once a week. They alsoattend a 45 minute group lesson of piano playing, and a 45 minute chorus classes.
.Figure 1. illustrates the structure of my class. In the processof teaching, each of Stages 1, 2, 3 corresponds to "plan", "do", "see". Looking into the "(Understanding of) children's world ofmusic" and csidering the
"definition of music", some ideas of "musical activity units" cometo mind. In order to make these ideas into substantial andself-contained ones, "Principles in teacher training" and "teaching strategiesin classroom music" are indispensable.
In Table 1. I show the categories of "musicalactivity units" and the examples of each category. Most of them areclass activities with my students, some of them are proposed to students as anexample which tells of the further 1 possibilities to make musical experience with children.Each naming is intended
to break the preconceptions about music with thefeelings of joy and surprise.
In principle each class is complete by itself. Eachclass varies from the
other; that makes students anticipate the followingclasses. I require students
to introspect the musical experience in theclass through discussion at the end
of the class or by writing as homework. Theynecessarily analize my "model-
teaching" not only from the learner's viewpointbut also from the teacher's
viewpoint. Therefore students trace my teaching processbackwards.
In the process of learning, There are three phases.I keep the order "from
experience to knowledge". In Phase 2, students areoriented to generalize each
of the particular musical activities. InPhase 3, students become the creators.
Each eight member group creates a 3-5 minutemusical performance according to
the theme. I adjust so that the themevaries among each group. I have made it a
rule to conclude my class by giving students anoccasion to present their own
creative group performance. This serves as anexamination as well. But the
concert surely delights all the members.
B. Musical activity units
Now I illustrate the musical activityunits according to Table 1. Seven 1 categories are induced from my experienceand named by me. I owe my practice to
.1 Carl Orff, Murry the great music educators orthinkers such as Zoltan Kodaly, approach by Shafer, John Paynter. etc. Some insightfulpractices on the creative and Japanese teachers gave me good suggestions.Kazuo Shigeshita encouraged me gave me useful adviceabout hand-made music instruments.
Adapting my research (Omi 1992 b),Category 2 corresponds to "Syllable
Song", Category 4 to "Story Song",Category 7 to "Message Song"(Table 2).
(1) Every student explores soundenthusiastically. Kitchen tools change requires much into fine music instruments(Video Ex.11. Tuning wineglasses cooperate to concentration to the sound, andeach player with each tone should sound is pure produce music. A milk-cartonrecorder is attractive because its concept about and it costs nothing. Thefeeling of accomplishment and the new
music makes the students feeldelighful. song (2) Vocal sound ("MouthMusic") is "almighty" to not only accompany a ("tiki-tiki") [a]. with harmony ("Human Organ")[Music score(D1 or with rhythm
but also to make a musical piece [0. between (3) In my research (Omi 1992 a).I discuss the relationship I take language and music. Children talk asif singing, and sing as if talking.
language. I notice of the sound color, intonation,and rhythm of the Japanese meaning of want to emphasize the combinationof sound expressiveness and the *Concocting aword KOI. A rhyme is very closeto music. "Chanting a rhyme" and [Video Ex.2]. We might music from rhyme" leads us tothe child's world of music sound composition. utilize the way of learningJapanese drum performances into "Shoga" which You can find, in video example6, that children are reciting
shows rhythm, timbre, and execution[v. favoriteM. (4) I composed a riddle picture bookwhich was my children's students also love Adapting the category of "StorySong" has been sucessful! My rhyme in both western it. Utilizing the idea of"Riddle Song', I composed the tonal organization [ cn and Japanese style in orderto teach the concept of order to teach a.bl. On the other hand I arcangerlthem into ensemble pieces in variation, etc. various musical devices such asostinato, echo, repetition and linking of music to other or the idea of*Mouth Music"[CD b]. Positive
activities is attractive tochildren [Video Ex.3,4][0.W.
(5) "Name Music" [4)] is alsocombined to "MouthMusic","Tiki-tiki"[0]. "do, re, mi, fa. The rule is simple: fivevowel. *a, I,u, e, o" turns into "sol-re-do-mi-sol". Using the toneset, not sol". "O-mi. a-stu-ko" sounds improvise one's "Name changing the order, the ownerof the name is able to
Music". changing Using the same syllable "mama", wemight enjoy an improvisation,
the pitch, volume, sound color.etc. treasure house (6) I think traditional game songsand folk culture are a Ex.5.61. to raise the fundamentalmusicality of our nation (Video We enjoy these (7) I never substitute musicfor daily teaching routines.
activities as music.
C. Considerations for the future
class Overall, my methods have beensuccessful. At first, they perceive my Secondly, they have awakened as interesting,joyful, fresh, and enlightening. of music has become the musicality sleepingwithin them, and their view of teaching music flexible. Thirdly, they realizethe property and significance urged their thinking. I in kindergarten. Readingand writing after experience writing. can ascertain theseresults through their final developing each The trouble is lack of timefor deeply appreciating and performance. In order to musical activity, and forelaborating their creative towards inventive realize my teaching objective,"from imitative learning
teaching", we need sufficienttime.
pi. Conclusion
children's fundamental Kindergarten teachers have aspecial role to raise tradition, and which is basic musicality which is based onhuman development and
for the later learningof music. major students in Therefore the research onclassroom music for non-music research includes (1)the kindergarten teacher trainingis important. This appropriate teaching contentfor exploration of creativeteaching methods and future teachers. Thelatter children. and (2)thedevelopment of musicality of
approaches to music as adults.The former means to keep means students'creative music and the researcher of the mutual relationshipbetween the child's world of
1-; t music education, and future teachers as well.
Overall, my methods have been successful fromthe view point of fostering
a positive attitude forenjoyment of music with young children.
-References-
Blacking, John University of Washington 1973 How musical is man?. Seattle. Washington:
Press..
List, George Ethnomusicology. 7 (1). 1963 The boundaries of speech and song. In
Omi, Atsuko of teachimg music to 1992 a Kotoba to ongaku (Language and music: a study
early childhood education students). In Thejournal of Kawamura Gakuen
Woman's University. 3(2). 115-133. Procedings of Early 1992 bExplaining children's spontaneous singing. In
Childhood Commision of ISME 5th Seminar. 45-51.
7 Categories of and Examples : Table 1 "Musical activity units"
Music Notes Category name and title of musical activityunits Video examplescore
. Let's Ex. 1 ()) 1-1 Kitchen Music 1-2 Wineglass Harmonica (Q) 1-3 Handmade Milkcarton Recorder
2. "Mouth Music is almighty." 2-1 Accompaniment with "HumanOrgan" 2-2 Accompaniment with "tiki-tiki" 2-3 Music for imitated instrumentalsounds 2-4 Onomatopeia Music
3. "Let's play with the Japaneselanguage!" 3-1 Sound expression of sense of word 3-2 Chanting a rhyme with percussioninstruments 3-3 Concocting music from rhyme 3-4 Vocal sound simulation of theJapanese drum
4. 'Music links to something." 4-1 Riddle Song 4-2 Story-telling with a spoonful of music Ex . 3 4-3 Associating illustrations with music * 4-4 Imaginative movement with music Ex .
5. "Compasition according tothe rules" 5-1 Name Music 5-2 Calling mother
6. "Welcome to a world of music!" 6-1 Invitation to Japanese children's gamesongs Ex.5 6-2 Experiencing a Japanese drumperformance Ex.6 6-3 The enlightenment of the musicbox.
7. "Why not season dailyteaching routines?" 7-1.0pening song, ending song 7-2 Calling roll 7-3 Collecting reports inturn 7-4 Passing out printed material 7-5 Distributing smallinsruments
------
: enthusiastically accepted unit class : not yet practiced in a children : educational video for young Table 2 Categories of songs and their characteristics
Contents of Word Usage No. Category Name Text Motive for Singing Song
---ineaningfui--- Message Song sentences -to-c6thmuriicate a message
an imaginative story meaningful 2 Story Song sentences imaginative play
emotion meaningful 3 Keyword Song words to express emotion
sound itself nonsense 4 Syllable Song nonsense words/ to enjoy sound- syllables formation understandingchildren's worldof definition music of Explanatory Notes Process: of teaching (Stage 1) V musical activity units Process of learning teaching strategies in principles teacher in clasroom music (Phase 3) training (Stage 2) (Phase 1) 0-0 1 creative group performance v 90 minute class (Phase 2) constructive critiC'isr-n-11] (Stage 3) V reflection IIIII SIM MI MI MI ME UM Figure 1 Structure of the class OM 111111111- 4 U Appendix : List of video examples
Notes No. Activity unit Tytle studentscreative Ex.1 Kitchen Music "A song-medley of a year" group perfornmance
students' creative Ex.2Concocting music "Kappa" from rhyme group perfornmance
educational video Ex.3Associating "A green caterpillar" : illustrations for the cognition of a cirle with music ("maru"),a square, and a trianglesong: by Omi
educational video Ex.4Imaginative "Let's go for a walk" : movement a combination contrustive movement with music of a littlr boy, a bear, an ant, rhyme & song: and a frog. by Omi
arangement: by Omi Ex.5 Invitation to "Antagata dokosa" (originally
Japanese children's a ball-bouncing song) :
game songs a combination of singing, varied hand-clapping, and ball-bouncing
(for the purpose of Ex.6Experiencing a showing students 5 Japanese drum performance year old children's performance) Musical scores
(1) Accompanimentwith "Human Organ"
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Cr7
2 Accanpanixent with itilci-tiki" .Aca.7xcx_vma% e. MaAA\C. > > > '.1.1 111.1 V4c,..C40' > > c1111 .Q Pa- PA. PA./4 !
;C4c-
4,74 v,,p 111 I
© Music for imitated instrunental sounds
Orfisurtio.. """" ----.... & C044;"'"°",, car erelre I (1)(JJ *rn s
ryv vo:co,,tr. le t.- r*.e.X; ,tige rI'Are. I (,.(D( t /SP71,1n Kt; I nyrJ .v .1; 0 Ii.J;""; VS* v S ( ITTI TMtj n e IJi rf-,, 02.. '0 irr.CirilittOr, erme.1.**/ 0 `0.---0.--0.0...... 7
Innn)11 Att.t Qv(Oa I I PP 'ZIA";
"sivAkckstutka." (12 Zara7, 3 (1990.6 .19) II I tr....-..cyotk .1,1,4 c,
born bo born' 'k" koitMci" a S' ail I Cr . :.. a a a I 111 1 1 9. I = SG 6 : a I 0 II I I1 S. 111 1.. '.4 I 44. 1 . I s 6. 4' I ... 0 " CDRiddle Song (Snail) : "As I'm anxious about being absent from my house, I alway. go out with my K)use. Who am I?" (7)-1. (Western style]
P ) 3 Ti-.11.401 (1574tt1ia )
Crt' GI.L2 t7A.drr
1 tI ? 4:1771adtrt,L. r _c4 7fr.q3t..5.1 ni VLT; Li rrn I Yrnit I rrrvnrdt, rr r 4 us,
C7)-2. Uapanese style]
1el41. k. 7 CCirtrostA ô. Arritovti Fte.)r 7Yel, ) 073. P
: r 111 ;sss s n CD4 2- v..str
A A 'VW --t
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irmPA 1,4 r ' Loh 7. Ts'
Associating illustrations with music ("Green caterpiller")
meolivissmr ammewmaa mrsimeso mamma.. _sr imnamommmunromm.
kUh4h ("itemC.orhes Cl.re(e)
1 ONNA (111cre comes aftrmen) c()
A ; CiltereC-Ornei One more)coo Pr"
chokon chasm (eye ) GOO
<1.2c.10 ova
;AI MIMINIM11.111MINI .11WEIMMINNI 1111111111MINIWINIMUMNI SIMMS. rm. srAvccri
nvnickiu.; GittrT:iter 00Peor$!), eImaginative movement with music ("Going for a walk."
0 :al aballa IMINEW-2.. InialalanalanaWIENAMAIIMInallatUnlaalhaidataleWEN=.111 -W'rli_MIMMOMMININalaali 11111. 011=11111PlaidainatiMMENCINIINOVAIMINI011..- __''''`011analtalimal Man InalamONMIONMManmININSIMI TM/ - .. lerrall a lia=11111111111111a1MMINOana PasialahalMIMIMIIIMMENONSOMINNINSIManalla-a--- a arnallalMalallinlollawaum _ C rg_ceel< ft_LA 1,14i6c-1 go o I k
%en Abear ,00esf,o- wAk
When a, aAt - chocko .cho cko . chocko Aocka
p/c1 pi Whena
ff Name Music
p 4 ),A,. 4 r Nthei - f 1.2. 1- t xi. 41:11v. kit CI,1 1144.83 ira to4 oh LS 2-Vt.-tors j 1 Ostimato : FITT: ti-ta.V.k; Gce t7 1:1/.11,21: J . tt t1410 T z.
.1 11 Tn-7' NIti-c- Mc(ooly 1-41% /7, 3 sc. xq (11-4..) t rvz,hxj. FITI 77-1 FF7 rrTi 7771 FTTI
4 : 43 re Sol CLOO/ gut re do )5-,2 :( inZ.(3. " ) .Ae4 ;,A01 1 Ch°11k 1.--;= g; 7 I
1 This video is submitted for consideration
for the seminar
"Vital Connections: Young Children,Adults and Music," 11-15 July, 1994
EARLY CHILDHOOD COMMISSION OF ISME
COLUMBIA, MISSOURI
Emotional Growtii
Through
Musical Play
(video tape)
Mary Stouffer Early Childhood Music Educator Royal Conservatory of Music 273 Bloor Street West Toronto, Ontario M5S 1W2 Canada
Home address: 95 Alder Crescent Etobicoke, Ontario M8V 2H7 Canada
Home Telephone: 1-416-253-7464 ABSTRACT Stouffer (Video)
MUSIC WITH YOUR BABY
Emotional Growth Through Musical Play
The healthy development of a baby's emotions starts with the
relationship between parent and baby. Music is a natural catalyst
for this development. In the past, baby songs and games were
passed orally from generation to generation. Today's parents" can
attend music classes to enhance their musical skills and learn age-appropriate and quality material to play with their babies.
Musical activities which promote emotional stimulation and development should be included in a baby's routine tobalance the
physical and intellectual pursuits which often receive greater
attention. The music programme is also designed to focus the parents' attention on the importance of emotionaldevelopment and to encourage them to spontaneously play the musical games athome.
Musical play nurtures confidence and well-being in a child
and helps develop a stronger bond between parentand child. These
factors assist the maturing child to cope with thechallenges of
life. Olive McMahon Consultant, Early Childhood Education 48 Victoria Ave Chelmer, Q 4068 Australia
This paper is submitted for consideration for the Seminar'Vital Connections: Young Children, Adults and Music,' 11-15July, 1994.
ACTION RESEARCH - GETTING INVOLVED
(This paper is an extension of my 1992 ISME EarlyChildhood Seminar paper, Tokyo: Teaching as Research - ProblemSolving).
ABSTRACT
A growing interest in action research isencouraging teachers to explore alternative procedures to help themdevelop more effective strategies in less-than-satisfactoryclassroom encounters. This paper outlines some approachesreported in the literature, and suggests options which might be adoptedby classroom music teachers.
(Material in the paper will be complementedwith discussion of practical illustrative examples). Olive McMahon Consultant, Early Childhood Education 48 Victoria Ave Chelmer, Q 4068 Australia
This paper is submitted forconsiaeration for the Seminar 'Vital Connections: Young Children, Adults andMusic,' 11-15 July, 1994.
ACTION RESEARCH - GETTING INVOLVED
Classroom teachers are ideally situatedto be aware of not only but also individual children's behaviourwithin the group context, their own, the parents' and thecommunity's influences on that behaviour. Too often investigationsof child behaviour appear to assume that the only - ormajor - factor in chiidren'slives are the children themselves, theirchronological ages and their innate abilities.
The early childhood developmentand learning literaturestresses the complexity of interwovenenvironmental influences on children's early development,including factors such as play opportunities, learning 'climate'and parental support.Community attitudes and the press forachievement vary from time totime, but the important elements in thelearning milieu are thechild, the teacher and the parents.'Parenting' itself is still not a regular school elective,let alone a core unit,but as parents also becoming are graduallybecoming better educated, they are more aware of theadvantages of a broad generaleducation.
include basic In many countriesundergraduate courses do not research procedures, soteachers must undertakespecialised post-graduate studies.Research has tended to be seen as a emphasis on university and higherdegree prerogative, with an development and learning. a psychometricapproach to research into approach, The current trend to develop abroader and more flexible 'product,' with an increasing emphasis on'process' rather than is gradually gainingstrength and acceptance.
h,S 3 your own irrvestigationfrom the description. Do notbe afraid to have a try at devising a suitablemethod for your own issue.' This applies particularly to musiceducators.
by 'Ways An open perspective ofclassroom research is provided Genishi. of Assessing Children andCurriculum', 1991, edited by C. The sub-heading of the title is'Stories of Early Childhood Practice.' A collaborative effortbetween early childhood teachers and teacher educators, thebook reflects a reaction against a widespread practice in North Americaof using standardizedtests on children in the veryfirst years of formalschooling. (Mid-1954 2nil1tlirgarten classes so that they could I was required to test be 'streamed' when theyproceeded to Year 1:!!)
in ways 'Story', or narrative,'incorporates lived experience that are sequenced in "realtime" stories allow us to scenes generalize to our own experiences,to see ourselves in new (Genishi, 1992). Stories, or scenes similarto those we know' recorded observations ofindividual children, willinclude interactions with otherchildren, the teacher andother adults, (cited in and the environment itself.Witherell and Noddings Genishi, 1992) believe that'stories are powerfulresearch tools. They provide us with apicture of real peoplein real situations, indifference often struggling with realproblems. They banish the subjects. They generated by samples,treatments, and faceless and with what invite us to speculate onwhat might be changed effect'.
Theories of development -theories of practice
1992), theories According to Fein andSchwartz (cited in Genishi, accounts of of development aredescriptive, giving systematic development should human growth, making nojudgments about how how it does occur inhuman occur, but'describes and explains beings in general' - apassivist approach.
of practice are In contrast, Genishi(1992) argues theories teachers in prescriptive, applying to'particular children and 'about how educational settings',leading to recommendations for children', and adults should arrange environments
L 4
to proviae experiences 'take an activerole in their own settings that benefit the greatestnumber of children.'
imply reflective Tucker (1993) proposesthat '"research" should possibilities in a action, the re-searchingthrough options and be seen in a new systematic fashion, sothat known details may nature of much context. The diagnosticand problem-solving flexible, innovative teaching, with 'the needfor teachers to be opposed to simplyfollowi:ig and interactive inall situations, as and the search for more a formula, isthe basis of questioning appropriate ways toachieve goals.'
music teachers Although Fiske(1992) believes that 'classroom he sees thisshift in should serve astheir own researchers', into two groups - terms of experimentalresearch activity dividing by those trainedto be 'the continuationof studies conducted studies professional researchers'and 'formal experimental teachers interestedin conducted in the musicclassroom by music procedures andmaterials.' testing and evaluatingtheir own teaching
So, what are theoptions for theteachers-would-be-action- researchers and wheremight they begin?
pne-off solutions,
situations. In responseto a These occur regularlyin classroom children may hesitate,look teacher's comment orsuggestion, some Perceptive teacherswill puzzled, fail torespond positively. promptly modifytheir react quickly tosignals received and on-the-wing as it behaviour, teachingstrategies, in some way - the meaning of aword or were. This mayinvolve clarifying expression expression moremeaningful to * by using analternative word or the non-responsivechildren; * by an appropriategesture or mime; with a suitablealternative; * by substitutingmaterial or equipment * by changingthe tempo or timing; * by approaching a setgoal from a differentperspective. 5
child or small groupcan one-off eventwith an individual Often a between two(or more?) by the teacheroffering a choice be resolved reasonable providing thecontext offers a possiblesolutions - prepared to Teachers must, ofcourse,a:.ways be chance of success. such efforts, butalso to regard experiencefailure in their reflective action. experiences as aspur to more sound groundingin human the teacherwho has a At all times recognise will be wellpositioned to development studies development andthe between a child'slevel of discrepancies than one The gap mayentail more teacher's levelof expectation. emotional,social, development -physical, cognitive, area of to Gardner'stheory of cultural. It mayalso relate aesthetic, linguistic, musical,logical-mathematical, multipleintelligences - intrapersonal andinter-personal. spatial,bodily-kinesthetic, of all ofthese. Music in totoinvolves aspects
Sequential changes with a gradualrise involve a stepby stepprogression, These may increments of or directionas small in levelof expectation provide and errorattempts to success areachieved. Trial work, but thereason/s for problems sometimes solutions to understood.Moreover, not beadequately intervention may of successful child mayadd a type failure on thepart of a yet another More effectiveis increasingfrustration. compoundincrement to reflected on teacher hasactively 'educated guess'where the an alternativesand consideredpossible possible'mis-matches,' desired result. likely toachieve the 'selected thoseoptions most encouraged bypartial be immeasurably Reflectiveteachers will been of the finAloutcome has when someapproximation reacted success that theteacher has the childwho realises achieved. And complete harder andstrive for positively willconcentrate satisfaction.
ideas Sharedperceptions, observation of preferably after Discussion withcolleagues, offer additional responsescausing concern, incidentsfeaturing the
'I. A 6
initiating an exchange of or possiblydiffering points of view, is a perceptions and ideas. (Avideo-tape of relevant responses valuable resource). Earlychildhood and specialeducators proviae effective sounding boards formusic educators.
Literature search
material Reference to professional journalsand libraries for relating to the problemunder considerationand/or relevant research will provideadditional information,if not solutions. Clarification of ideas,exploration of possiblecontributing factors and new insights areall possibilities.
Collaboration between teachersand researchers
extend their knowledge Teachers who aresufficiently motivated to will profit from base in order to helpthe children they teach researchers. collaboration with post-graduateand more experienced
interests of the Higher degree researchtends to reflect the necessarily aplaicable graduate stu,..intsthemselves, and is not education are to classroom practice.However, as the arts in increasingly under threat,aqiit8 teaching is to some extent national and being replaced byschool involvement, and as accessible, international professionalcommunication becomes more applied researchand there seems to be amovement towards more researcn.lAiempAdelman (1992) comment :'Action renewed interest inaction more peopleof a research begins withthe awareness by one or impediment to getting persistent "problem"which seems to be an is an awarenessof things done as well asthey could be - there a gap betweendesirable and actualpractice.'
from the Action research 'requiresthe researcher to move scientist to becoming supposedly disinterestedstance of the implementing, withthe engaged in the processesof designing and intervention in theirwork informed consent ofparticipants, an Kemp, 1992). or domesticpractices' (Adelman and
Conclusion
final working session Among the issues of concerndiscussed at the 7
Seminar on Researchin Music of the ThirteenthISME International descriptive Education was theneed for researchers toadc.pt 'more particularly in those areaswhere research research strategies, methodology' questions do notlend themselves to anexperimental the ISmE EarlyChildhood (Kemp, 1991). TheResearch Commission and to be 'moreresearch- Commission activelyencourage teachers sessions/workshops to minded.' Both haveorganised research basic informationto provide practitionerswith sufficient even furtherstudies stimulate informedinvolvement - and perhaps in researchmethodology. about learning to askprobing questions Kemp (1991)suggests: 'By pupil's learningstyles, ono by their teachingmethoas and their methodologies,teachers' seeking to answer them using appropriate effectiveness is boundto be enhanced.'
References
Kemp,A.E.(1992). Case Studyand ActionResearch. Adelman,C.and Research in Music In A.E.Kemp(ed.),Some Approaches to Five. Reading:ISME. Education, ISMEEdition Number Education. InH.Lees(ed.), Fiske,H.(1992).Research-Based Music the World.Christchurch: Music Education:Sharing Musics of ISME. Stories of Theoryand Genishi,C.(1992). LookingForward: Toward of AssessingChilaren and Practice. InC.Genishi(ed.), ways College Press. Curriculum. NewYork: Teachers Planner. 4aurnPonds, Kemmis,S.(1981). TheAction Research University Press. Victoria: Deakin ISME Canadian MusicEducator, Special Kemp,A.E.(1991). Foreword. Edition,33,7-9. Research Special Postscript. CanadianMusic Educator, Kemp,A.E.(1991). ISME ResearchEdition,33,233-235. Research. InA.E.Kemp(ed.), Some Kemp,A.E.(1992)..Approaching Education, ISMEEdition Approaches toResearch in Music Number Five.Reading: ISME. Journal of MusicEducation, Editorial. Queensland Tucker,A.(1993). 1(1),6-7.
with discussionof (Material in the paperwill be complemented practical illustrativeexamples). THE EFFECTS OFTEACHER-CHILD INTERACTIONSTYLE ON THE SPONTANEOUS MUSICBEHAVIORS OF PRESCHOOLCHILDREN
SUSAN M. TARNOWSKI DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC & MUSICEDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN EAU CLAIRE, WI 54702
PURPOSE. This study was designed toinvestigate the spontaneous musicalplay behaviors of preschoolchildren aged 4-5 years and theeffects of four teacher- student interaction styles onspecific vocal musical behaviorsduring free-play time. STUDY. In the first partof this study, 34 early childhoodmajors were trained to observe musical behaviorsin preschool childrm. Thesestudents spent 33.5 hours observing children aged 4-5 at auniversity preschool during thechildren's free-play of the behaviors and time. Two investigatorstallied the number and description inflected speech, rhythrak speech,chant, song, whole- created general categories: manipulation of non-musical body movement,manipulation of musical objects and objects in a musical way.The most frequent musicalLehaviors were vocal in nature. In the secondpart of this study, 16children aged 4-5 years were randomly assigned to one offour groups. The groupsdiffered in the style of interaction between theteachers and students while theteachers presented examples of inflected speech,rhythmic speech, chant, andstandard song materials through the use of handpuppets. The interactionstyles were identified as the Entertainer, theCommunicator, the Director and theObserver. Children participated in six 15-minutesessions with co-teachers. Aftereach session, the children were videotapedusing the puppets for a totalof 90 minutes during free- play time. videotapes and both tallied ANALYSIS. Two investigatorsindependently viewed the 983% agreement between and categorized vocalmusic behaviors. There was a the investigators on thetotal number of behaviors.This small disagreement was viewing of the tapes.An Analysis of Variance(ANOVA) reconciled by a second differences in the was used todetermine whether interactionstyle caused significant amount or type ofvocal music behaviors inthe children duringfree-play. RESULTS. Musical behaviors weremost frequentlydemonstrated by the Observer group, followedby the Communicator,the Entertainer and the musical behavior wasinflected speech followed by Director. The most frequent difference found due song, chantand rhythmic speech.There was no significant the interaction of groupand specific behaviors (p >.05). to either group or materials used by thechildren, Original material accountedfor the majority of by materials used aspresented by the teachers,standard followed in frequency differently than materials not presentedin the special sessionsand materials used presented. THIS PAPER IS SUBMITTEDFOR CONSIDERATION FOR EITHERTHE SEMINAR "VITAL CONNECTIONS: YOUNG CHILDREN,ADULTS & MUSIC" OR THE WORLD CONFERENCE IN JULY1994
Susan M. Tarnowski, Music Ed. Department of Music University of Wisconsin Eau Claire, WI 54701
MUSICAL PLAY OF PRESCHOOLERSAND THE EFFECTS OF TEACHER-CHILD INTERACTION STYLE ON THOSE BEHAVIORS
play Much has been written aboutchildren's play and the role of in preschool education inrecent years. Carter & Jones(1990) speculate that "the height ofdevelopmental achievement forchildren It is in play that ages three throughfive is to become a play master. language children consolidate theirunderstanding of the world, their for and their social skills"(27). However, theoretical support children's play has not transferredeasily into the classroom.Shehan- policy and Campbell (1990) comments:"More often than not, school bureaucratic standards allowfor few opportunities forlearning
through play. Indeed, formalschooling appears to be somewhatthe
antithesis of play" (19).Since experimenting andimprovising with sound may be seen asmusical play, this study examinedthe improvised musical play behaviors ofpreschool children in theirregular classroom settings and theeffects of variousteacher-child
interaction styles on thosemusical play behaviors. social (Rubin Early childhood researchershave defined aspects of (Smilansky, 1968) child- et al, 1983; Smith etal, 1985) and cognitive connections between play and play and some haveattempted to establish well as divergent thinking tasks(Dansky et al., 1973; Li, 1978) as Tarnowski - 2 creativity (Vandenberg, 1980; Liebermann, 1977). Musicalchild-play has been advocated and observed in naturalisticsettings by Davidson,
McKernon & Gardner (1980), Littleton (1991), Miller(1986), Moorhead and Pond (1978 (1941-51)), Shelley & Foley (1979).
The Study: Part I Using information from previous research as well astheir own experiences, the investigators trained 34 undergraduatestudents enrolled in two sections of an early childhoodmusic methods course to
observe and record the spontaneousmusical behaviors of children aged 4-5 during free-play time at auniversity preschool. These students observed for a total of 33.5 hours and recorded 316musical behaviors. The majority of all of the musical behaviors(62%) were vocal in nature: vocal explorations and inflected speech(14%), rhythmic speech
(12%) and pitched songs and chants (48%). Theimfestigators used the definitions of vocal music play described by Pond (1981).Chant is a recitation-note, repeated as many times as necessarywith a descending
minor third at the end of the phrase. It may alsotake the form of two descending minor thirds linked together by an ascendingperfect fourth. In this case it takes on a characteristicrhythmic shape: long-short-short-long-long. It is most often sung in amiddle
register. Song is a very different vocal formusing varying unpredictable melodic undulations and rhythmicshapes (9). This study
included a category for original song and forlearned or standard
songs. OE the total numberof pitched chants and songs, 18% were chants, 47% were original songs, and 35% werestandard songs or song
fragments. Tarnowski - 3
total observedmusical Rhythmic movementaccounted for 20% of the between full body behaviors and this wasfairly evenly divided object (48%). The leastfrequently movement (52%)and movement of an children's interactionswith observed behaviors(6%) consisted of accessible to thestudents. instruments, none ofwhich were easily prevalent mode ofmusic-making, Since vocal musicalbehaviors were the chant, original songs examples of vocalexploration, rhythmic speech, may be seenin Table 1. and standard songsin their social context
The study: Part II teacher as afacilitator of The importanceand the role of the environments has beeninvestigated by play and aprovider of play Caldwell, 1985; Dorman, several researchers(Carter & Jones, 1990; 1985; Huston-Steinet al., 1977; 1990; Graham etal., 1989; Gottfried, Sawyers, & Moore,1988; Levenstein, 1985;Littleton, 1991; Moran, 1983; Shehan-Campbell,1990; Pond, 1981; Rubin,Fein and Vandenberg, Fleming et al. (1991)found that Shelley, 1981;Sutton-Smith, 1979). interacting differentlywith preschool teachers engagein many roles, and Graham et al.(1989) children throughoutthe day. Fein (1979) interactions: 1) described three playstyles observedin adult-child is non-intrusive orpassive the unstructured orimitative style which in which the adulteither imitates in nature anddescribes situations response at all;2) the elaborative the child'sactions or makes no and describessituations in which style which isminimally intrusive make suggestionswhich alter either the adult mayintroduce an idea or with which the child wasplaying; their child'saction or the object style which isintrusive in nature and 3) the structuredor unrelated Tarnowski - 4
or imposeseither describe_; situationsin which the adult is demanding child's play. his or h:!r own view or aspecific object on the Manolson (1992) cites fourroles adults mighttake when relevance to the interacting with youngchildren which appear to have and keep the music educator. Theentertainer does anything to get animated show. The child's attention and mostespecially puts on an to join in the children are treatedpositively but not encouraged instructs with the musical activity. Thedirector demonstrates and skills. This teacher may purpose ofteaching specific concepts or respond only in the way dominate the action andallow the children to upon the musical they are taught. Theobserver watches or comments into the play. Theresponsive play of the childrenbut does not enter materials, partner enables boththe child and theteacher to present 1 music activity. The make suggestions formusical play and adapt the children are allowed toimprovise with thematerials. preschoolers aged 4-5 years In the. second partof this study, 16 each with differing 1 were randomlyassigned to one of four groups director, observer, and teacher-child interactionstyles: entertainer, six times responsive partner. Theinvestigators met with each group each session was spent 1 for 30 minutes each.The first half of via hand puppets presenting vocal musicalmaterials to the children free-play time with the and the second half wasused as the children's included vocal explorations puppets. The presentedmusical materials speech), rhythmic speech,chant, of register and tonecolor (inflected form of vocal music standard song fragmentsand whole songs. one new final day was used toallow behavior was introducedat each session. A In the case of the the children an extrafree-play time period. Tarnowski - 5
the children were observer group, nomaterials were presented and the puppets. given fifteenminutes of free-play time with minutes'per group) were The free-playsessions (total 90 The two videotaped while theinvestigators were out of the room. frequency and investigators independentlyanalyzed the videotapes for investigators were in type of musicalbehaviors in each group. The agreement on 98.3% ofthe total musicbehaviors. This discrepancy was reconciled during asecond viewing of the tapes. recorded. The largest A total of 120musical play behaviors were (41%) followed by number of incidentsoccurred in the observer group (19%) and the responsive partner group(27%), the entertainer group Variance (ANOVA) was doneand the director group(13%). An Analysis of statistically significant (p.> these differences werenot found to be play behavior was .05). The most frequentlyoccurring specific musical (17%) and inflected speech (42%),followed by song (26%), chant be seen in rhythmic speech (16%).Specific behaviors by group may
Table 2. whether the children The investigators werealso interested in small group sessions. used the musicaLmaterials as presented in the largest number of musical Analysis of thevideotapes showed that the (70%), followed by play incidents consistedof original materials not used in materials used as presented(22%), standard materials than presented (2%). presentations (6%) andmaterials used differently original materials occurredin the As expected, thelargest number of observer group which hadbeen presented with nomodels. Analysis of the socialplay context of.themusical behaviors in the observer group showed that all of thecooperative play occurred Tarnowski - 6 while all Other forms of play (solitary, onlooker, parallel and associative) occurred in groups with specific teacher presentations.
The most complex and extended dramatic play occurredin the observer group while the other groups tended to explorethe puppets as objects
and to investigate appropriate sounds.
Discussion Both the largest number of musical play behaviors and thewidest
variety of musical materials occurred in the observer group.
The children's responses covered all identified aspectsof vocal music play: vocal inflections such as the use of glissandi whenthe puppets
climbed up or slid down in the context of the narrative;rhythmic speech such as a time in which the puppets were made to move as on a
walk through the forest; chants such as "You can't catch me!"when one
puppet chased another; original songs usingeither nonsense words or text that enhanced the original narrative; standard songsfrom either
the preschool classroom or popular culture. Children in other groups exhibited fewer musical behaviors and
seemed hesitant to experiment with something new. On oneoccasion, the
children in the director group sat quietly through the entireplay
time, ignoring the puppets left for play. Hutt (1971) found some
evidence to indicate that play with an object beforeit has been fully explored may limit the child's discovery of it'sspecific properties. She cited an example in which preschool teachers reportedthat children did not use the hand puppets in any way exceptthat in which the teachers had modeled when the puppets were new. Theapproach in the director group may have inhibited any further curiosity onthe Tarnowski - 7
actions and sounds hadbeen part of thechildren since the "correct" complex dramatic modelled by theinvestigators. Additionally, the most that the children who play emerged fromthe observer group. It appears puppet action and had not been presentedwith "correct" models of properties of the puppets much sound were able toexplore the physical and even integrate more quicklythan the childrenin the other groups A transcript from oneof the that explorationinto the dramatic play. in Table 3. first play episodes ofthis group is included given puppets, the In addition tocreating sounds for the suit the needs children in the observer groupcreated new puppets to "the announcer" with of their dramaticnarrative: a hand became tube became appropriate vocal inflections; along cardboard mailing affixed to a drinking straw "Snort", a centralcharacter. Even a star created such sophisticatedand was given apersonality. No other group eclectic play scenarios. only if the Bateson (1955) suggeststhat social play would occur children were capable of somelevel of metacommunication - able to communicating aboutcommunication - and if they were In the excerpt communicate to otherparticipants that this is play. that play has begunby cited in Table 3, onechild signals the other that in the more saying, "Let's pretend...".Getz (1981) observed direct cues for the sophisticated cooperativeplay, children gave assignments, direct action behavior of the playpartner such as role dramatic play. It may bethat by and identificationof props for the the freedom and thetime to giving the children inthe observer group tc draw upon awider construct their ownplay, they were able Tarnowski - 8 repertoire of musical and narrative materials and engage in play interactions of a more complex nature. The results of this and other studies confirm the presenceof vocal music behaviors in the play of young children. Theyalso suggest that music educators, of these children must not onlyallow and encourage musical play but must also becomeobservers of musical play, alert to the musical content as well as the cognitiveand social significance of that play for the preschoolers. Shehan-Campbell (1990) suggests that the music of children maybe used as a component of preschool music curriculum toenhance the development of the musical capabilities. A heightened awarenessof the child's own music-making may lead to a strongerappreciation of the abilities and interests preschool children bring to ourclassrooms. Music educators will then be able to approach curricularmaterials and strategies in music that are truly appropriate for this agelevel. Tarnowski - 9
References fantasy. Psychiatric Bateson, G.(1955). A theory of play and Research Reports, 2, 39-50. evaluation. In Caldwell, B.M. (1985)Parent-child play: A playful C.C. Brown & A.W.Gottfried (Eds.) Playinteractions: The role of toys andparental involvement inchildren's development. Skillman, NJ:Johnson & Johnson. The Carter, M. & Jones,E. (1990). The Teacher as observer: director as role model.Child Care InformationExchange, 75, 27-30. Dansky, J.L., &Silverman, I.W. (1973) .Effects of play on associational fluency inpreschool-aged children.Developmental Psychology, 9, 38-43. centers for Dorman, P.E. (1990). Theimportance of musical play 15-17. young children.General Music Today, 3, 3, p. Fein, G.G. (1979). Playwith actions and objects.In B. Sutton- Smith (Ed.) Play andlearning. NY: Gardner Press. C., Venn, M.L.,Weinzierl, C. & Wolery, M. Fleming, L.A., Schroeder, role in (1991). Model forassessing and adapting teachers' mainstreamed preschoolsettings. Topics in earlychildhood special education, 11, 1,85-98. spontaneous cooperativeplay in the Getz, S.(1981). A dual look at Journal of preschool: Free play versusstructured environment. applied developmentalpsychology, 2, 58-78. Gottfried, A.W. (1985). Therelationship of play materialsand parental involvement of youngchildren's development. In C.C. Brown & A.W.Gottfried (Eds.) Playinteractions: The role of toys and parentalinvo/vement in children's development. Skillman, NJ:Johnson & Johnson.
Graham, B.C., Sawyers,J.K. & DeBord, K.B.(1989). Teachers' creativity, playfulness, andstyle of interactionwith children. CreativityResearch Journal, 2, 41-50. Huston-Stein, A., Friedrich-Cofer,L. & Susman, E.J.(1977). The relation ofclassroom structure tosocial behavior, imaginative play andself-regulation of economically 907-916. disadvantaged children.Child Development, 48, R.E. Herron & Hutt, C.(1971). Exploration andplay in children. In B. Sutton-Smith (Eds.)Child's Play. NY: Wiley. conceptual model of play.In Hutt, C.(1982) .Towards a taxonomy and S.J. Hutt, D.A. Rogers& C. Hutt (Eds.)Developmental processes Paul. in early childhood. London: Routedge & Kegan Tarnowski - 10
interactive behaviorin play Levenstein, P.(1985). Mother's achievement. In C.C. children's educational sessions and interactions: Therole of Brown & A.W.Gottfried (Eds.) Play in chillren'sdevelopment. toys andparental involvement Skillman, NJ:Johnson & Johnson responses ofpreschool (1978). Effectsof play on novel, Li, A.K.F. Educational Research,24, 31-36. children. AlbertaJournal of to (1977). Playfulness:Its relationship Liberman, J.N. Academic Press. imagination andcreativity. NY: preschool (1991). Influenceof play settings on Littleton, D. Diss. Universityof Texas children's music andplay behaviors. at Austin.DA9128294. to talk. Toronto,Ontario: Hanen Manolson, A. (1992).It takes two Center Publication. musical behaviors: A descriptionof children's Miller, L.B. (1986). for Researchin Music Naturalistic. Bulletinof the Council Education, 87, 1-16. Young Children. Pond, D. (1978[1941-51]). Music of Moorhead, G. & Foundations for theAdvancement of Santa Barbara,CA: Pillsbury Music Education. The effects Sawyers, J.K. &Moore, A.J. 91988). Moran, J.D. III, and materials onpreschooler's of structurein instructions Journal, 17, 148-152. creativity. Homeeconomics Research children's innate A composer'sstudy of young Pond, D. (1981). for Researchin Music musicaJity. Bulletinof the Council Education, 68, 1-12. B. (1983).Play. In E.M. Rubin, K.H. Fein,G.G. & Vandenberg, psychology: Vol. 4. Hetherington (Ed.),Handbook of child personality and socialdevelopment. NY: Socialization, Wiley. musical play in (1990). Thesignificance of Shehan-Campbell, P. Today, 3, 2, pp.19-20. early childhood.General Music musical capabilitiesof (1981).Investigating the in Music Shelley, S.J. of the Councilfor Research youngchildren. Bulletin Education, 68, 26-34. materials andmethods. (1979). Playingwith sounds - Shelley, S.J. issues in musiceducation: Music In M.R. Tolbert(Ed.) Current of youngchildren, 12, 44-54. Observing the natureof young Shelley, S.J., &Foley, J.R. (1979). issues in In M.R. Tolbert(Ed.) Current children's musicality. children, 12, 44-54. music education:Music of young I Tarnowski - 11 I Smilansky, S.(1968). The effects of sociodramaticplay on disadvantaged preschool children. NY:John Wiley & Son.
Smith, P.K., Vollstedt, R.(1985). On defining play: Anempirical 1 study of the relationship betweenplay and various play criteria. Child Development, 56, 1042-1050. I Sutton-Smith, B.(1979). Epilogue: Play as performance.In B. Sutton-Smith (Ed.), Play and learning.NY: Gardner Press.
Vandenberg, B.(1980). Play, problem-solving andcreativity. In I Rubin, K.H. (Ed.) New Directionsfor Child Development: Children's Play. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass Inc., Pub. I I I I I I I I I I I I . I I Tarnowski - 12
Table Examples of spontaneousvocal music behaviors
Sound Context
Vocal inflection and soundexploration buzzing like a bee bee seen through window wheee (glissando) playing with airplane squeak, squeak imitating wet boots on floor dramatic play in house area puppy sound pilot djun, djun dramatic play - helicopter Rhythmic speech touch the sky, way uphigh kicking foot into the air ants in my pants, (repeat) reading a bug book no, no, macaroni playing with blocks pee tree, pee tree playing with blocks 2, 2,2,I got a 2 using a board game spinner Chant (sol-mi, sol-mi-la-sol-mi) you're gonna get it fighting over a toy Kyle's a rotten Easter egg to last child to line up you can't comein house play area the witch is gonna get you running around room sitting on a fencepost straddling a chair you cut his feetoff at the art table Original songs (variousmelodies, rhythms) time to put the toys away while cleaning up watch out for Daddy Longlegs seeing a spider hop, hop, I'm hopping allaround hopping alone red, red, I like red, green, green,purple and green while coloring oh scissors, where are you at the art table nonsense words rocking in a rocker, ft making dinosaur dance
11 playing with clay playing at sand table Tarnowski - 13
Table 2 Percentages ofbehaviors by group
Director ObserverRes. partner Entertainer
18% 30% 22% Inf.speech 30% 0% 21% 32% Rhy.speech 47% 20% 45% 15% Chant 20% 9% 13% 9% Song 68% Tarnowski - 14
Table 3
Transcript of observer group play
C: (spoken to M, thesecond child) M, let's pretend that I'mthe Mama bunny and you're theMama rat and this is the Baby bunnyand that is the Baby rat and we're taking them across somewherewhere it's along way, OK? M: (spoken in lowregister) One day there was alittle rat skipping into the forestand then the little bunny skippedinto the forest. They both likedeach other. M: (using bunny puppetand a sing-song voice) Let's go into the forest and get someberries for our carrot stew C: (using a rat puppet andimitating the sing-song style) And I'll get some cheese forme! (squeaks in a high register) M: (continues to move puppetand sing) Doo-dee, doo-dee-doh. C: (sings, using aglissando at the end as the puppetslides down) Mee-mee-mee-mee-mee-00000w! berries and twigs M: But one day the . ny had to go home to gather and mushrooms. The rat was verysad. He did not want him to go. (makes crying sounds in a lowregister) C: (adds crying soundsin a higher register) M: But one day the bunny cameback to where the rat wascrying...the rabbit came hopping by and saw thetearmarks of the rat and then the rat saw the bunny'sfootworks. (C and M whisper together) M: It was the bunny! Theyboth hugged and went home. (both sing nonsense wordsusing a wide pitch range and unpredictable rhythm patterns) Name: Josette Silveira Mello Feres Music Educator and tounder of the Jundiai Music School Address: Rua Prudente de Moraes, 1297 Jundiai SP - BRAZIL - 13201-340
MUSIC AS MEDIATOR ELEMENT IN THE MOTHER-BABYRELATIONSHIP.
The idea of having mother andchild together insome classes at
Jundiai Music School, came from theintention of increasingties of affection between parents and theirchildren, and recovering a musical inheritance of songs and musical games, whileproviding the child with the known benefits music brings toits development. The classes which have the parentsparticipation are idealized for
babies from 8 to 24 month of age and for 8children from 2 to 4 years of age (PRE-INIT1ATION). Those classesconsist of different activities
including: free play, songs, marches, dances, movements, aural perception exercises, relaxing exercises andpercussion groups. Josette Silveira Hello Feres Music Educator (since 1954) and founder of the Jundiai Music School (1971) Address: Rua Prudente de Moraes, 1297 Jundiai - SP - BRAZIL 13210-340
This paper is submitted for consideration for the 1994 Seminar "Vital Connections: Young Children, Adults & Music," International Society for Music Education Early Childhood Commission. 11 - 15 July, 1994.
MUSIC AS A MEDIATOR ELEMENT IN THE MOTHER-BABY RELATIONSHIP
The idea of having babies classes at theJundiai Music School came primarily from the necessity of increasing ties of affectionbetween
parents and their children, contributing to improve their
relationship. It is a known fact that working and housekeeping has been steeling fromparents much of the time used to dedicate themselves to theirchildren. Having a specific moment to give
exclusiveattentionto their babies, playing and singing with them, will always be necessary. There was a time in Brazil when most of grandparents, parents and
uncles would sing with the children. Now,specially in large cities
this situation has been changed: adults have a very busylife with no
muchavailable time to those activities. In consequence,children are
not receiving this part of ourmusical tradition. There were lullabies, songs telling stories, songs forclapping, makinggestures
and beating feet. There were also rhymed phraseswith rhythms to draw
players, andmusicto play with wood horses. It issymptomatic that during the last decade many tv shows for children have appeared in Brazil (Xuxa show being the most "successful" of them all having reached audiences in many other americancountries), trying to fill in
the vacuum left by the parents. However, they do not have the compromise of preserving our musical traditionand much less the ability to establish a propergive-and-take relationship of affection. in four The Babies Class and Pre-Initiation to Music have effects benefits differentspheres of action. Babies receive all the known music can b-ring to their development;parents become acquainted with, songs and games to be usedwith their children to which most of them ties of would not have had access; parents and children increase is being affection; and, on thesocial sphere, musictradition preserved. The Children Music Education Courseat theJundiaiMusic School has the following levels: st 1 - Babies -from 8 to 24 month of age. nd of age. 2 - Pre-Initiationto Music - from 2 to 4 years 3rd Initiation to Music - from 4 to 6 yearsof age. th of age. 4 - Pre-ChildrenMusicianship - from 6 to 8 years th 8 to 12 years 5 - ComprehensiveMusicianship for Children - from
of age. levels - This paper will present adescription of the firsttwo participate BABIESand PRE-INITIATION TO MUSIC -in which the parents together with their children.
BABIES - from 8 to 24 monthsof age.
GOALS rules and know its ownlimits. 1. Teach the child to respect to make contact 2. Socialization - give thechildopportunity with other people in a pleasantand expressiveenvironment. mother sings together with the 3. Rescue cultural traditions - child old folkloric songs. providing the mother 4. Give patterns of musical interaction, with a repertory to be workedwith the child. speech - child learns howto sing at 5. Stimulatesinging and the same time its is learning how to talk.
6. Offer the child an environmentwhere it will have greater freedom to create.
7. Stimulate affection in the mother-child relationship.
8. Develop aural perception.
9. Develop musical sense.
10. Develop sensitiveness.
11. Develop sense of rhythm.
12. Stimulatediscipline and, as a consequence, enable thechild to concentrate, reason and pay attention moreeffectively.
PARTS OF A LESSON
1. Free play.
2. Entrance song.
3. Singing time: new song. last lesson's song reminding of a given song
4. Song to be accompanied by a movementwith locomotion.
5. Song to be accompanied by a movementwithout locomotion.
6. Phymes - musical games.
7. March - Dance - Circle.
8. Relaxing - Stretching (laying down).
9. Percussion band: Traditional instruments Scrap-heap instruments
10. Farewell song.
STRATEGY
1. 30 minutes classes - each activitywill take about 3 minutes. under one 2. Each class will have an average of 8 babies adult attention. sitting on the floor. 3. Mothers and children make a circle Adults have their legs crossed andchildren sit in front of or besides should be the mothers. In this case, children and mothers intercalated. take a 4. Mother only take care of her child. In case one child toy from another one, motherhelps her baby t') dal:enditself.
5. The babies' classes are not a formal activity. play beforeentering 6. Children should take part in the free class. Children have access to abox with musical toys to beexplored. Children should play with no adultsinterference. They shouldonly
supervise their children. Adults canmake some observation about the babies attention for those sounds produced by the toys, calling the children to sounds, but can not teach how tohandle the toys, enabling
create different ways toplay them. explored informally. The 7. Thesoundproperties should be intensity, speed, pitch,timbre songsshould be presented varying those properties. withoutcalling the attention of the children for or faster The babies should only accompanythe songs in a stronger
way. shouldbe madeusing the 8. Creating sound-exploringexercises
toy, teeth, hands, feet,animal voices and noises. rattlesandtoys that, when 9. Teachercoulduse also rings, pulled or pushed, make sounds,movements or changecolors.
PRE-INITIATION TO MUSIC - from2 to 3 years of age.
GOALS Enable children to: the music. 1. Develop the ability to beatthe pulse accompanying ability to discriminate, 2. Develop aural perception and the differences. identify and classify sounds,perceiving similarities and concentrate, pay attentionand reason. 3. Develop the ability to
4. Be aware of temporal-spacialrelationships. 5. Have freedom to explore sound characteristics.
6. Develop visual-motor coordination through movements in musical phrases.
7. Be independent in giving musical answers.
8. Participate on musical activitieswith other children in an expressive, positive, and pleasant environment.
9. Increase its curiosity towards expressive sounds and the large variety of ways they can be produced.
10. Participate in an environment where there is greater freedom to
create.
11. Respect rules and.know limits.
12. Rescue culturaltradition learning old folkloric songs, rhymes
and dances.
13. Have greater stimuli towards singing andspeech. PARTS OF A LESSON
1. Free play.
2. Entrance song.
3. Singing time.
4. Aural perception - pitch, duration,intensity, timbre.
5. Psychomotor skill.
6. Time and space perception.
7. Relax-stretching (laying down) - breathing.
8. Percussion band.
9. Farewell song. Aural perception - working soundqualities andnotion of time and
space will have a specialattention in thepre-initiationclasses. identify, Now, in a more explicit waychildren will be encouraged to
classify, and discriminate sounds, perceivingtheir similarities and
differences.
A STRATEGY be of 30 minutes at the 1. Theduration of eachclass should minutes. beginning of the year, and shouldgradually be extended to 45
2. The ideal number of childrenclass is 8. activities with children on 3. Teachershould slowly introduce pairs, during the course of theclasses. make a circle by themselves, 4. Sincechildren don't know how to this age (2 years a circle could be made on thefloor with a tape. At old) children still don'tknow how to.walk online. level as thildren when 5. Teacher shouldbe at the same horizontal the floor. in contact with them,sitting on a small chair or on creativityasking them 6. Teachershould work the children's melodies. Make them singin a to complete musicalphrases, rhythms and their microphone or play "freeze andmove," are good ways torelease
creativity. and toy pipes forbreathing exercises. 7. Teacher could use whistles could be made on "ABA" form. The 8. Some simplechoreographies lyrics of the songs can alsosuggest the choreographies. whichremembersthe lyrics of 9. Use books, posters and figures
the songs. of the songs, making 10. Teachers should take the most advantage and percussion groups. from them exercises such asdances, movements Pre-Initiation, childrenplay together, 11. Inthe beginning of the groups ofinstruments. Every butdivided in two or three different reorder the group in a time the music is repeated,the teacher should way children couldplay all the instruments. recorder. Ask childrento create a 12. Teacher coulduse a tape song, and afterthat, show them therecording. thin 13. Make children dance using a piece of cloth, bandage, a very paper, a bladder or other verylight object. instruments 14. During the "free play," childrencan explore the and toys they have in the class. r
This paper is submitted forconsideration for the Seminar"Vital Connections:Young Children, Adults & Music"11-15 July, 1994
A Model forEnhancing Music DevelopmentThrough theInclusion of InformedParents and OtherPrimary CaregiversinEarly ChildhoodMusicClasses
D. Kenneth K. Guilmartin,Director Lili M. Levinowitz, Ph. Music Education Center for Music andYoung Children Asst. Professor of 217 Nassau Street Rowan College of NewJersey Princeton, NJ08542 Glassboro, NJ 08028
(609)924-7801 h: (215) 646-5863 w: (609) 863-7383
_, I 1 I A ModelforEnhancing Music DevelopmentThroughtheInclusion of InformedParents and Other PrimaryCaregiversinEarly I ChildhoodMusicClasses I I I
Abstract 111 I The purpose of this paper is to constructa rationalefor appropriate parent participation inearly childhood musicclasses by examining current I research findings in music andchild development.Accordingly, a detailed I model is described for an earlychildhood music program thatincludes both content and practicesfor facilitating positiveparent/child interactions I in the classroom and homeenvironments. I
Videotaped examples(approximately 5 minutes)will accompany the I presentation of this paper.For a description of the content,see pages I 9- 10. I I
t. ....1 I I A ModelforEnhancing Music DevelopmentThroughtheInclusion inEarly ofInformedParents and Other PrimaryCaregivers ChildhoodMusicClasses
PartI: RationaleforAppropriateParentParticipation
The media's popularizationof research findings regardingthe importance of the early years inchildren's growth anddevelopment as well as the positive effectsof early educationalintervention efforts have caught the attention of many parents.Subsequently, a large numberof necessary parents considerearly instruct, and preschool participation as future school to the insuranceof their children's academiccompetence and carefully avoiding such success (Kagan,1987).Other parents, however, are organized activities becausethey fear for their child's"miseducation" and resultant damage to theirself-esteem (Elkind, 1987).Both of these tendencies manifest stronglyin early childhood musiceducation where the traditions of formal instruction on aninstrument and the disciplined achievement required forperformance conflict with theplayful, divergent learning styles of youngchildren and the parent'sdesire not to "push" a child.
In addition to thisambivalence, many adultsin our culture alsotend to have extremelyinappropriate expectationsof their own musical behavior, often concludingthat they are not"musit..al" unless they can perform like a professional(Levinowitz, 1993).They often feel this way despite years of lessons oramateur performanceexperiences.They ISME: Adult inclusion Model.page 2 1 consequently tend to feel tooinhibited or unskilled to participate comfortably in music and movementactivities, even in aninformal group suffered from musical er.v ironmentinvolving children.Many, in fact, have deprivation (Guilmartin, 1988) and/or poorinstruction in their early childhood years.Despite early training or successin music activities, many other adults limit theirexperience V music to the passiveconsumption of performances by professionals.Such deprivation and passivity createsa vicious circle of poor modelingfor their own children, who are subsequently "at-risk" fornormal music development(Levinowitz 1993).
Noaetheless, it becomes more and moreevident that the developmental rule of nature ismodel-imperative:no intelligence or ability will unfold until orunless given the appropriatemodel environment (Pearce, 1992). Moreover, mounting evidencesuggests that parental intervention andinteraction styles are linked to competencein their children (Carew,1976).If the model environmentis founded upon music the notion that youngchildren learn best byexperimenting with the information they have acquiredfrom the example of theirprimary caregivers (Katz andHoffman, 1985), parentalinclusion and involvement in the early music learning processis a must.This is true even in the case of parents who present a poortonal or rhythmicmodel, as children can adjust their music expressionbased on discrimination amongmany 1 the models, but the positivedisposition to even engagein music activity in first place is acquiredonly from primarycaregivers.
Their ability to fulfillthis role is compromised,however, because For example, they suffer from anumber of culturaltendencies and biases. ISME:Adult Inclusion Model.page 3
civilization has the public experienceof music in contemporary western Because of the been largelylimited to the performer/audiencemodel. ubiquitous presence ofthe media, the private experienceof music is now following suit.The existence of participatorymodels (family ensembles, community sings, folkmusic performed for eachother by the "folk" In effect, themselves rather thanprofessionals) has been severelyeroded. culture is to the dominant relationship tomusic for most people in our passively consume it ratherthan createit (Guilmartin, 1990).
Moreover, because theirknowledge of music developmentis poor, and because they havelittle or no experience ofwhat normal music development might be underbetter conditions thanwhat children experience in our culture,adults tend to haveinappropriate expectations The worst of these is of children's musicdevelopment (Levinowitz, 1993). the assumption that musicalability is a "gift" foundonly in some children, Adults and that it somehow emergesall by itself just in timefor lessons! understand that language, motorand social skills unfoldin a developmental process overtime and that there aremarkers of developmental achievementalong the way.They have little understanding of this processin music development.
Although primary caregiverssuch as day-care andpreschool staff often share in theinappropriate expectationsfor music development that described above, mosthave at least beentrained to understand childhood. children show widelydivergent levels ofdevelopment in early Parents tend to bemuch less aware andtherefore much morecompetitive. with their ownchildren, Even trained professionals,when attending a class
t. ISME:Adult Inclusion Model.page 4 can tend tolose perspective and pressure theirchild to participate more like another child!
Finally, the musically untrained parentsuffers from neglect (and sometimes, we must admit,derision) on the part of musiceducators.Even when committed to their presencein the classroom, theresults are conclude that parents frequently unsatisfactory,leading music educators to should not be present(Achilles, 1992).Despite the significant progress made towards understandingwhat "developmentallyappropriate" might mean for childrenin the last decade, musiceducators have little understanding of what"developmentally appropriate"consideration might mean when applied toparents in aninformal, participatory, non- since performance environment(Guilmartin, 1992). This is not surprising all of our training andtradition have been focused onquite the opposite in the perfect kind of environment.How unfortunate this is, since we are position to come to the parent'said and, in fact, need the powerof their primary caregiver model toassist us in the educationof the young child.
In order to honor themodel-imperative of childdevelopment yet counteract thesecultural tendencies andbiases, a music environment comprising both parents andtheir young children mustbe created that includes a process and contentto assist parentsin developing realistic foster expectations for their child'smusic behaviors.This process would sufficient parental awareness toavoid frustration whentheir child's new sense of musical skills fail to emerge asexpected.It would also facilitate a and paiznts participatory confidence, competenceand pleasure in children only the program alike.Parents and children canthen freely enjoy not ISME:Adult Inclusion Model.page 5 content but alsothe experience of being togetherwhile the process of music developmentunfolds for both parent and child.
Levinowitz and Ada list-Estrin (1993)studied parent-child interactions in a preschool musicclass that included not only developmentally appropriate musicand movement activities, butalso a substantive parent education component.The researchers foundthat parents' perfectionistic andcomparative interaction styles wereminimized. style that Instead,they more often utilized apositive model interaction encouraged minimal judgements,reasonable expectationsand a balance of power between parentand child.The researchers concludedthat the parent-child interactions duringthis program contributed toand possibly 'enhanced parent-childattachments and the child'sself-esteem, subsequently having a positiveaffect on his/her performanceand competence.
PartII: Program Model
The program model usedfor this study isMusic Together'(Center for Music and YoungChildren, 1987), a musicand movement approach to
has been 1The Music Together early childhoodmusic and movement program development by the Centerfor Music and Young in ongoing research and There are Children sinceit was first offered to thepublic in the fall of 1987. currently three laboratory schoollocations in operation: Music and Princeton, NJ: Rowan Collegeof NJ, Glassboro, Movement Center of Princeton, model NJ; Parent Resource Association,Wyncotc, NJ.The parent education implemented in approximately40 USA discussed inthis paper has been fully teachers trained locations andpartiallyimplementedin many more through by theauthors. ISME:Adult Inclusion Model.page 6 early childhood musicdevelopment for infant, toddler,preschool and kindergarten-age children andtheir parents. teachers andother primary caregivers, including childcareand preschool professionalswho spend significant amounts of timewith the child.As implied by itstitle, the presence of anadult primary caregiver isconsidered an essential partof the program, provided he orshe actually participatesin the music and movement activities tothe best of their ability.Presentation of this participatory model overtime passes on a positivedisposition towards active music involvementin the child (Katz andHoffman, 1985), thus affording her/him the opportunity to,in effect, teach themselvesbasic tonal and rhythmiccompetencies by means ofthis active, playful involvement (Levinowitz &Guilmartin, 1989).
The following significant parenteducation strategies weredeveloped by the authors duringthe 6-year history of theMusic Together program:
1) An opportunity forparents/caregivers to rediscoverthe pleasure and class participation to value of musical experienceswith their child through the best of their abilityin song, chant, movementand instrument play activities chosen ordeveloped with their needsand pleasure in mind as much as the children's;
2) Materials forhome use, including:
A professionallyrecorded cassette tapeof each semester's songs, rhythmic chants, and"play-along" music.The tape helps encourage music-making outsideof class, reinforcesthe child's experience ISME:Adult Inclusion Model.page 7
through repeated listening, and offers aprofessional model of intonation and rhythmic accuracy;
A songbook that includeslyrics, melodies, chord symbols,"play- along" piano music, and suggestionsfor rhythm instrument accompaniment and movementactivities;
3) Music and Your Child: AGuide for Parents and Caregivers, awritt5n resource book onchildren's music develepmentand appropriate supportive roles and attitudesfor parents.This material is handed outin chapters on a weekly basis.
4) A Parent EducationProgram which includes:
"Parent education moments,"short comments or discussionsinitiated by the teacher daringclass time and related totopics in the weekly chapter haudout from Musicand Your Child, or spontaneous comments pointing outexamples of music developmentin the class developmental point of or interpretingclassroom behaviors from a view;
A Parent EducationEvening presented duringapproximately the third week of classes.The format of this90-minute presentation is: a) discpsion of theirexperiences with music andattitudes toward their own ability; b)comparison of how they weretaught music vs. what we now knowfrom research about how youngchildren learn music in early childhood;c) both discussionand experiences reiated ISME:Adult Inclusion Model.page 8
to aspects of thecurriculum design, such as the varietyof tonalities and meters chosen, the use of songswithout words, echoingof tonal and rhythm patterns, and theplayful use of simplepercussion instruments in improvised "play-alongs;"d) how each adult can help their child achieve what manyhave found to be difficult, anatural, participating relationship to musicin our culture.
These strategies result ingreatly increased developmentalawareness and also easy familiarity withthe musical selections in thecurriculum because of the high frequencyof use of the home materials(Levinowitz, 1993). Parent/child musical interactionis further enhanced through positive classroom experiencesin an informal environment, eventhough the group format, usuallyin circle formation, is aninherently formal structure.Circles do encourage moreuniversal participation than a performer/audience model becausethey alleviate the separationof the raised stage.However, they tend to subvertindividual participation and dyadic parent/child interaction to,at best, aleader/follower interaction. This n tend todeteriorate into merelyanother performer/audience experience, with the teacherin the role of performer.The group/circle focus also tends to subvertthe parent's focus onhis/her child to comparisons with or demandsfor conformity to otherchildren in the parents to the group.And it exposes musicallyinhibited or less competent judgmental scrutiny (real orimagined) of other parents.These tendencies are mitigated bythe inclusion of thefollowing two types of class experience which emphasizedyadic, parent/childinteraction (see videotaped examples):
U;, ISME:Adult Inclusion Model.page 9
Unified music/movement activitiesin which everyone is simultaneously active with synchronizedperformances by the adults. However, the focus of attention in thisunified group context is a dyadic one:the parent and child are interactingsolely with each other rather than with the group.
Non-unified experiences where theactivity is simultaneousbut the performances are not synchronized,thus allowing for divergent expressions and experiences that areprimarlily dyadic in focus.
Dyadic interaction is furtherenhanced by the teacher'sfrequent facilitation of its focus:"Teach your Mommy how to dothat,""Get your Dad an instrument, too," aretypical and frequent interventions.In this manner, the teacheris always facilitating theparent's progress towards the following goals:
1) Participation to the bestof their ability, focusing asmuch or more on their ownexperience than on their child'sperformance;
2) Positive, purposeful andenjoyable interaction withthe child rather than a controlling ormanipulative interaction withthe child;
3) Acceptance of a child'schoice to not participateand simply observe;
4) Enjoyment andacknowledgement of the moreextroverted child's enthusiastic participation,but not overpraise; 1SME:Adult Inclusion Model.page 10
5) Tolerance of a child'sseeming lack of attention(wandering around the room, for example);
6) Choosing gentleinterventions designed to redirectthe child's attention to the class activity asopposed to expectations ordemands for developmentallyinappropriate behaviors;
7) Avoidance of unnecessary powerstruggles and confrontations;
8) Avoidance of comparisonswith other children;
9) Group discussion andacknowledgement of mutual ordivergent experiences, such as that mostchildren are very activewith the class materials at home eventhough they may be shy,withdrawn, or prefer an observer mode inclass;
10) Acknowledgement andappreciation of individualchildren's developmental progress, either asdemonstrated in the class or reported from home. ISME: Adult Inclusion Model.page 11
References
Achilles. Elayne R. The roleof parents in the development ofmusical behavior in society of Music Education. preschoolchildren. Paper presentedatInternational Japan, Summer,1992. Carew, J.V., Chan I. &Halfor, C. Observing intelligence in youngchildren. Englewood Cliffs:Prentice-Hall,1976. Center for Music and Young Children.Music Together. K.K. Guilmartin& L.M. Levinowitz, authors. Princeton:Music and Movement Center,1987-93. Elkind. D. Miseducation: preschoolers atrisk. New York:Knopf, 1987. parent/caregiverattitudes, Guilmartin,K.K.Nurturing developmentallyappropriate expectations and involvement inearly childhood music. Unpublishedpaper:1992 Guilmartin, K. K. Kestoring our tribalmusic II.In Connections. Music for People, Fall, 1990. Guilmartin, K. K. Restoring ourtribal music:music for parents and youngchildren. In Connections.Music for People. Summer, 1988. Kagan, S.L. Early schooling: onwhat grounds? In S.L. Kagan &E. F. Zig ler (Eds.) Early schooling: the national debate.New Haven: Yale UniversityPress,1987. research on young children:Implications for Katz, L. & Hoffman, M.E. Recent J. Boswell (Ed.) T he teaching and development,implications for music education.In young child andmusic: contemporary principlesin child development andmusic education. Music- EducatorsNational Conference,1985. Levinowitz. Parent education as abeginning solution to musicalchildhood atrisk. Manuscript accepted for publicationin Update. Probable date:1993 Levinowitz. L.M. andA. Adalist-Estrin. Anexploratory study of the parent-child interactions during a preschoolmusic program. Paper presented atthe MENC Eastern Division Conference, Springfield,Mass., March 1993. guide for parents and Levinowitz, L. M.. & Guilmartin,K. K. Music and your child: a caregivers.Princeton: Music and MovementCenter,1989. intelligence. New York: Pearce, J.C. Evolution's End:Claiming the potential of our Harper San Francisco, 1992. Abstract
This paper is submitted for considerationfor the Seminar "Vital Connections: Young Children, Adults &Music" 11-15 July, 1994 University of Missouri-Columbia, USA by Dr. Carol Scott-Kassner Professor of Music Education School of Fine and Performing Arts Seattle Pacific Universivy Seattle, WA 98119
Music in Early Childhood: The Search forEffective Models of Adult Participation and Interaction
This paper addresses issues ofontological growth in music during the early childhood years and the variousroles adults have traditionally played in affecting that growth. The impactof parenting, enculturation, and schooling is examined. Insightsgained from that examination are then applied to the search foreffective models of early childhood music education, particularly in complexsocieties. Scott-Kassner, The Searchfor Effective Models ..., page 1
This paper is submitted forconsideration for the Seminar "Vital Connections: Young Children,Adults & Music" 11-15 July, 1994 University of Missouri-Columbia,USA by Dr. Carol Scott-Kassner Professor of Music Education School of Fine and Performing Arts Seattle Pacific University Seattle, WA 98119
Music in Early Child'aood: TheSearch for Effective Models of Adult Participation andInteraction
As I considered the title ofthis seminar, I asked myself aseries of questions: 1. How vital is it to haveconnections between adults, youngchildren, and music or will children growmusically without regular musical involvement withadults? 2. If adult/child connections arevital, what kinds of connections seem to be effective and towhat ends? which seem 3. Are there any educationalmodels, formal or informal, particularly promising and why? Scott-Kassner, The Search forEffective Models ..., page2
To help answer thesequestions, I constructedthe following diagram to help in thinkingabout these relationships.[Insert diagram] The child is at the center,representing the potentialfor musical growth. At the next leVel arequestions of how genetic(inherited) and growth of the child. ontogenetic (developmental)factors affect the musical and capable of musical This assumes that eachchild is innately musical musically growth. It also acknowledgesthat some children are more viewed gifted than others andthat such gifts emergeearly and cannot be as the norm. external to the child, The third level of thediagram highlights factors adult participation inthe which I have calledenvironmental, representing musical life of the child.These three areas include:a) the parents and/or stimulation for the family, the first and mostimmediate source of musical from the media to child; b) enculturation,which includes any agent members of the broadercommunity that influencesthe musical structured training in socialization of a child; and c)schooling, defined as music meant to beeducational. I will try toshow relationships between interactions in music. these layers, particularly asit relates to adult/child intelligence and whether My first question, aboutthe nature of musical initial development, seems adult musical involvementis necessary to its tragic of situations, we almost absurd to ask.After all, except in the most At do not raise our babiesin isolated roomswith minimal adult contact. the same time, in theUnited States andperhaps elsewhere, we are page 3 Scou-Kassner, TheSearch for EffectiveModels
minimal stimulation except increasingly seeing youngchildren raised with sounds. In thosesituations, are for television'sblinking eye and erratic children still growingmusically? qualified yes. Thehuman The answer to thatquestion appears to be a sounds, often bygrouping organism is dearlyprogramed to respond to and vocal them. Infants aresensitive to pitchand rhythm patterns, prepare themfor language and timbres. Theirwide-ranging vocalizations sounds appear to bestored and also for music,although non-language language (Deutsch,1982). processed differentlyfrom the sounds of begun to form asensitivity Infants at the age sevenmonths have already melody in their ownculture (Trehub, as to whatconstitutes an effective sing, chant, move,and experiment 1990). Youngchildren automatically Accuracy with sounds as a meansof self-expression, aswell as discovery. with music, seems in singing, as wellthe coordinationof the body in time both cognitively andphysically. to increase asthe child develops Gradually, around the ageof four, children cometo form separate simple language todescribe their thoughts about soundsand can often use perceptions. Unschooled Mind, callsthis kind Gardner, in his recent(1991) book The the child to laterbecome a of knowing, intuitiveknowing., which prepares the child growsbut may disciplinary expert. Thisearly knowing grows as of this growth inmusic not developfurther unlesseducated. The patterns discussed in recent years.(Musical have been muchdocumented and (1976) and Davidson,et. al. production has beendocumented by Moog Scott-Kassner, The Searchfor Effective Models page 4
thinking has been (1981) among others.The growth of musical summarized and discussedin Hargreaves (1986)and Dowling and of a great deal of theexisting Harwood (1986).Comprehensive summaries appear in Scott- research in music withchildren from birth to age seven Kassner (1991) andMcDonald and Simons(1989).] and to be fairly Musical intelligence appearsto develop early of independent of other typesof intelligence(Gardner, 1983). The study possible to be gifted musical savants (Howle,1992) shows that it is Additional evidence for a Musically and low-functioningin other areas. who have separate musicalintelligence comes fromthe study of musicians been brain damaged(Gardner, 1982). earlier than other Studies of musical giftednessshows that it emerges (Shuter-Dyson & Gabriel,1981; kinds of giftedness,usually by age six musical genius has been Bloom, 1985). Although agenetic factor for that theory. In fact, it is postulated, there is notclear evidence to support be born into clear that children who arehighly gifted musically can & families with no clearmusical gifts orbackground. (Shuter-Dyson is that children frombirth or Gabriel (1981); Bloom,1985). What is evident that the even in utero to agesix are extremelysensitive to music and preschool years are crucialtimes for the growthof musical intelligence and early demonstrationof musical gifts. ontological/intuitive base, justwhat is the So, if musical growthhas an John Blacking, impact of adults inenhancing growthduring these years? in 1982 said, addressing the ISME Congressin Bristol, England Scort-Kassner, The Search forEffective Models page 5
Human beings are not born human.They are born only with the potential to become human. Forexample, the most characteristic human attribute of speech isgenetically based. Normal human organisms inherit biologically thecapdcity to speak, but speechwill not emerge eVen in ahealthy person unless it is deve:,opedthrough social intercourse ... . We cannotbecome human without beingsocial and without learning. (p. 11) Parents usually play a very naturaland often unconscious role in stimulating muzical growth ininfants through their verbal/musicalplay. Papousek and Papousek (1982) havemapped these vocalizations and identify both the babytaLk andsinging/rhyming games parents have traditionally played with infants ascrucial to the development of language, music, and creativity. Theydecry the decrease in thesekinds of interactions in much of theindustrialized world. Various studies of the number ofmusical children to emergefrom homes where one or both parents aremusical suggests a strongcorrelation (Shuter-Dyson & Gabriel, 1981). Recentresearch on the musical roots of of a highly talented pianists (Bloom,1985) suggests that parental support child's Musical interests, rather thanparental muscianship, is the most important factor. A number ofstudies show that early musical experiences in the home have apositive affect on the skillsof singing and pitch and rhythm accuracy aswell as attitude toward music(Kirkpatrick, 1962; Moore, 1973; Sloboda,1990; Atterbury and Silcox,1993). Not surprisingly, children who areraised in homes where the parentsmake music with them as well as expresshigh value for music aremuch more likely to become musical thanchildren raised in musicallydeprived Scoct-Kassner. The Searchfor Effective Models .... page 6
households. A separate questioninvolves the role of enculturationin stimulating musical growth. Children come toknow much from many sourcesboth in and outside formalschooling. Margaret Mead (1942)makes the distinction between this typeof education in simple(non-literate) and complex (literate) societies as a: shift from the need for anindividual to learn somethingwhich everyone agreeshe should wish to know, to thewill of some individual to teach somethingwhich it is not agreed that anyone has thedesire to know (p. 633-9)
This brings to mind thewell-known saying from Bali,"We have no art, we do everything as well as wecan." What can youngchildren do musically in cultures where musicand life are not separate?Buckton (1983) found that first graders from Maoriand Polynesian backgroundswhere singing children, not only in is an important aspect oflife were far ahead of other melodic singing accuracy, but intheir ability to sing inharmony. Kwami (1992) indicates that someAfrican children able to performcomplex rhythm patterns learned bylistening, watching, and doing.Blacking (1967) also found this true inthe children of the Vendaof South Africa. Campbell (1991) in a 1987 studyof child-songs onplaygrounds in Indiana found a rich traditionof oral literature whichhad been passed apprenticeship system of among the girls.Harwood (1993) found that an of experts (young or old)teaching novices is commonto the transmission playground songs which areoften made more difficultthrough the addition of complex patternsof body percussion. Scott-Kassner, The Searchfor Effective Models .. page 7
The Kodaly and Suzuki systemsof direct schooling in music are illustrative of the impact such programscan have on awide range of preschool children. Very youngKodaly-trairted children generallysing in rhythmic and beat time, sometimes inharmony (Miklos, 1991), maintain patterns, and improvisemelodically and rhythmically.Often Suzuki- trained four-year-olds canplay, with great facility,works as complex as Vivaldi violin concerti thatthey have learned by rote.Such programs indicate the musical potentialof preschool children andhelp to challenge the notion that musicalabilities exist in only a fewindividuals. Therefore it is clear that theadult/child connection in musicis vital. Yet, in spite of increased accessto early childhoodeducation, the majority of children in complexsocieties are growing upmusically deprived. In cultures where being musical is notuniversally valued, what canbe done to enhance the musicalgrowth of young children? One tactic would be toeducate parents to make musicwith their infants and preschoolers. Manysuccessful model programsfrom throughout the world have been shared inthis forum. However, a greatnumber of those and programs are limitedin their outreach andappeal mainly to middle enroll. upper middle-classparents who can affordthe time and money to ProgTams in the United Stateswith young, economically-deprived mothers are focusing on thedevelopment of familyliteracy. making to those What if we found ways toadd child/parent music programs, perhapsusing music as a vehicle tobroader literacy? Another tactic would be tochange the ways wetrain early childhood Scott-Kassner, The Search forEffective Models ., page8
Children can grow a greatdeal educators to utilize rnusicwithchildren. musically from interaciing withlive and recorded music,instruments, and each other. A play-orientedenvironment, rich in musicalmaterials, has been advocated byAndress et. al. (1991), Kenney(1989), and Littleton (1989). An extension of thatinto a movement environmenthas been suggested by Metz (1989). Acognitive-discovery model, advocatedby McMahon (1992), is common toMontessori settings as well asthat children take developed by Weikart (Ransom,1979). In each of these, the the lead. Perhaps, weshould quit trying to teachpreschool teachers to teach them how to sing in tune and lead musiclessons. Instead we might create environmentsand activities to stimulatemusical exploration and discovery and how to recognizeand reinforce musicalbehaviors. Finally, we might wish todevelop new models forinvolving music educators and musicians inearly childhood settings.Barrett (1992) from Tasmania, suggests a naturallearning model based principlesin the acquisition of literacy.Musicians and \or musiceducators would become resources to childrenby: a) immersing them inmusic, (b) demonstrating music making, (c) engagingtheir thinking and attempts atmusic making, explorations, (f) helping them (d) setting expectations,(e) reinforcing their evolution of use music, and(g) giving them feedback.Models built on the creative thinking have beendeveloped by Pond (1980)and Upitis (1989, present to interact 1991.) In both of theseinstances, trained musicians are with the children as they engagein music making andthinking. Achilles (1992) explores similar ideasin the context of preschoolchildren's Scott-Kassner. The Searchfor Effective Models .... page 9
potential for critical and creativethinking in music. These kinds of contexts could become richsettings for the use of music technologyand the many wonderful software programsdesigned to teach very young children to think about, explore,perform, and create music. MusiCeducators wishing to use instructionalmodels which are more teacher directed may want todevelop programs where music specialists, who are experts in early childhoodeducation, are hired to implement programs in severalschools. Increased justification for thisapproach may emerge from ongoing studiesof the neurological impact of musicmaking on the spatial reasoningskills of three-year-olds includingchildren from inner-city environments. Researchersfrom the Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory andthe University of California, Irvine, have found that musicalinvolvernE.La, both with singing aswell as keyboard experiences seems to impactthe formation of complex spatial relationships (Rauscher, et. al., 1993). Though no single model will provideall the answers, we need to work together to envision and implement newpossibilities - not because we want every child to grow up tobecome a professional musician,but because we know that being musicalcontributes to a lifetime of joy and satisfaction. Scott-Kassner, The Searchfor Effective Models .. ., page10
References children's thinking: Achilles, E. (1992). Currentperspectives on young Implications for preschoolmusic education. InReadings in Early Childhood Music Education.Reston: Music EducatorsNational Conference. Talbert, G. (1992). Music in Andress, B.L., Heimann,H., Rinehart, C., and Early Childhood early childhood: Theenvironment. In Readings in Conference. Music Education. Reston:Music Educators National
Atterbury, B. and Silcox,L. (1993). A comparisonof home musical environment and musicalaptitude in kindergartenstudents. Update, 11(2), 18-22. learning model. Barrett, M. (1992). Musiceducation and the natural International Journal of MusicEducation., 20, 27-34.
Blacking, J. (1967). Vendachildren's songs: A study inethnomusicological analysis. Johannesburg:Witwatersrand University Press. International Journal Blacking, J. (1982). Traditionand change in society. of Music Education, 1982Yearbook (DO, 10-22. people. New York: Bloom, R. S. (Ed.) (1985).Developing talent in young Ballantine Books. New Zealand: Buckton, R. (1983). Sing a songof six-year-olds. Wellington New Zealand Councilfor Educational Research. comaprison of songs by Campbell, P. S. (1991). Thechild-song genre: A Education. 17, 14-23. and for children.International Journal of Music P., and Gardner, H.(1981). The acquisitionof Davidson, L., McKernon, of the Ann song: Adevelopmental approach.In Documentary report the Application ofPsychology Arbor Symposium:National Symposium on Reston: Music Educators to the Teachingand Learning of Music. National Conference. Scott-Kassner, The Searchfor Effective Models ..., page 11
Deutsch, D. (Ed.) (1982). Thepsychology of music. New Yolk:Academic Press.
Dowling, W. J., and Harwood,D. L. (1986). Music cognition.Orlando: Academic Press.
Gardner, H. (1983). Framesof mind: The theory of multipleintelligences. New York: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (1991). The unschooledmind: Haw children think and howschools should teach. New York: BasicBooks.
Hargreaves, D. J. (1986). Thedevelopmental psychology of music. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress.
Harwood, E. (1993). A studyof apprenticeship learning inmusic, General Music Today, 6(3), 4-8.
Howie, M. J. (1992). Musical savants,Update, 11(1), 5-7.
Kenney, S. (1989). Reaching out tothe community. In Promisingpractices: Prekindergarten music education.. B.Andress (Ed.), Reston: Music Educators National Conference.
Kirkpatrick, W. C. (1962).Relationship between the singirtgability of prekindergarten children and theirhome musical environment (Doctoral dissertation, Universityof Southern California). Dissertation Abstracts International,38, 4646.
Kwami, R (1993). Musiceducation in Britain and theschool curriculum: A point of view, InternationalJournal of Music Education, 21,25-39.
Littleton, D. (1989). Child's play:Pathways to music learning. B. Andress (Ed.), In Promising practices:Prekindergarten music education. Reston: Music EducatorsNational Conference.
McDonald, D. and Simons, G.(1989). Musical growth anddevelopment: Birth through six. New York:Schirmer.
McMahon, 0. (1992). Reinforcingcognitive skills throughmusical experiences, InternationalJournal of Music Education, 19,14-19. Scott-Kassner, The Search for Effective Models ..., page12
Mead, M. (1942). Our educational emphases inprimitive perspective. American Journal of Sociology, 48, 633-9.
Metz, E. (1989). Music and movementenvironments in preschool settings. In Promising practices:Prekindergarten music education. B. Andress (Ed.), Reston: Music EducatorsNational Conference.
Miklos, B. (1991). Pre-polyphonic developmentin children aged three to six years, InternationalJournal of Music Education, 17, 37-42.
Moog, H. (1976). The musical experienceof the preschool child. London: B.F. Schott. (Original work publishedin German in 1968)
Moore, D. L. (1973). A study of pitchand rhythm responses of five- year-old children in relation to their early musicexperiences. (Doctoral dissertation, Florida State University).Dissertation Abstracts International, 34, 6689.
Papousek, M. (1989). The 'mother tonguemethod' of music education: Psychobiological roots in preverbal parent-infantcommunication, International Society of Music Education Yearbook,DC, 103-108.
Pond, D. (1980). The young child'splayful world of sound, Music Educators Journal, 66(7), 38-41.
Ransom, L. (1979). The cognitively orientedcurriculum: Children as music makers. Ypsilanti: High/ScopeEducational Research Foundation. Scott-Ka.ssner. The Search for Effective Models page 13
Rauscher, F.H., Shaw, G.L., Levine, L.J. and Wright,E.L. (1993). Pilot study indicates music training of three-year-oldsenhances specific spatial reasoning skills Paper presented at tneNAND.4 economic summit of the music products industry,Newport Beach, CA.
Scott-Kassner, C. (1992). Research on music in earlychildhood. In Handbook of Research on Music Teaching andLearning. New York: Schirmer.
Shuter-Dyson, R. and Gabriel, C. (1981). Thepsychology of musical ability, 2nd Ed., London: Methuen.
Sloboda, J.A. (1990). Music as language. In F.R. Wilson &F.L. Roehmartn (Eds.), Music and child development. (44-62)St. Louis: /s/EMB Music.
Trehub, S. E., Thorpe, L.A., and Trainor, L.J. (1990)Infant's perception of good and bad melodies, Psychomusicology, 9(1),5-19.
lipids, R (1990). This too is music. Portsmouth: Heinemann.
R (1992). Can I play you my sang? Portsmouth:Heinemann. AI VIM MO INN IIIIII NMI MI ala NM NM I= I= In OM OM Parents/Family environmental develo mental enetic developmental environmental developmental Musical Being Child as devel pmental environmental \`---Ontogenetic environmental Maria Seeliger Professorin für Elementare Musikerziehung Staatliche Hochschule fur Musik Heidelberg-Mannheim N 7, 18 68161 Mannheim Germany priv. Brunnenwiese 2 69483 Wald-Michelbach Germany Fax: 06207-82233 September 6, 1993 This paper is submitted for consideration for theSeminar "Vital Connections: Young Children, Adults & Music," 11-15 July, 1994
ABSTRACT
Vital Connections: Young Children, Adults & Music. Training of early childhood music educators at the Musical University inHeidelberg-Mannheim / Germany
A good balance between the adults(parents and teachers) and the children is essential in music education. The childrenhave their own music aptitude, their own way of self- and music expression;whereas the adults tend to shape the future generation. But the child islike a seed of a plantthe whole flower being already inside. How is it possible to find the right balance? At the Musical Universityin Heidelberg-Mannheim we trainearly childhood music educators. The students maystudy "Elementary Music Education" as a main subject within 68 semesters, but only together with an instrumental or a vocal subject. They graduate with adiploma and have good chances to find an employment in a municipal musicschool or in colleges and academies. Eight different subjects belong to the courseof study "Elementary Music Education": Didactics and methodology, practical exercises, teachingexercises, improvization / creative expression with movement and dance,improvisation with instruments in elementary music, speech training and rhetorics, voicetraining. The Musical University in Heidelberg-Mannheimoffers the students practical teaching with children in the university duringthe whole study of 8 semesters. Further, I'll describe with the symbol of the wheel ourmodel of pedagogical practice with children. The human being isalways the focus of interest. With music, dance and speech, the children aretouched and express the impulses given by the teacher in their own way, by makingmusic and dancing. Staying with the symbol of the wheel, what could mean thedifferent parts of it, for exampel: the outer circle, the spokes and the spacebetween, the hub and the inner circle? Ifpossible, my presentation should becombined withpractical exercises (about 15-20 participants).
1 ,- Maria Seeliger Professorin für Elementare Musikerziehung Staatliche Hochschule für Musik Heidelberg-Mannheim N 7, 18 68161 Mannheim Germany priv.: Brunnenwiese 2 69483 Wald-Michelbach Germany Fax: 06207-82233
September 6, 1993
This paper is submitted for consideration for theSeminar "Vital Connections: Young Children, Adults & Music," 11-15 July,1994
Vital Connections: Young Children. Adults & Music, Training of early childhood music educators at the Musical University inHeidelberg-Mannheim / Germarw
A good balance between the adultsand the children
A good balance between the adults (parentsand teachers) and the children is essential in music education. The childrenhave their own music aptitude, their own way of self- and music expression;whereas the adults tend to shape the future generation. But the child is like a seed of aplantthe whole flower being already inside. The adults should only watch andobserve like a gardener, provide the best conditions, help to facilitate the growth ofthe flowerand admire the beauty in all stages.
How is it possible to find the right balance?
According to the research done byProfessor Gordon, the highest level of music aptitude is rooted in the very young age.So the parents can nurture this musical potential by singing lullabies, makingfunny bounces, wiggles, tickles, clapping and tapping with the baby. All rhythmicalrhymes and songs go together with delightful body-games, feeling different partsof the body, expierencing with Marta See tiger 2 g .avity andbalance and, they help to integrate all sensestimula, digesting it mentally and physically. (re. A. Jean Ayres:Sensory Integration and the Child. Western Psychological Services1979)-Look, how the childisalways unconsciously learning by doing, try it in the same waywith music, rhythm, tones and sound. Turning again to the picture "flower andgardener": for the adults it is necessary to provide the best conditions.The gardener looks after good earth, humussoil, where the little roots can find the rightplace ?nd food for growing. The musical earth and roots are the culturaltradition. The adults should sing folksongs and dance, play traditional games andrhymes. Naturally, the gardener is responsible for water, warmness, light and sometimesspecial humus - not too little, not too much. In music teaching it is verydifficult to find the right degree to support the children and not to overfeed them, sothat the individual, especially in a group, is neither asked too much nor too little. From my point of view, the balancebetween adults and the child is given, when the parents and the teachershelp the child to find his or her own innerteacher. "Help, that I can do it alone." is oneof the guiding principles of Doctor Montessori, the well-known phycician and teacher.
Training of early Lhildhood musiceducators at the Musical University in Heidelberg-Mannheiin With this in mind and as a backgroundidea, we, the teachers of the Musical University in Heidelberg-Mannheim trainearly childhood music educators. In 1981 I was appointed asprofessor for "Elementare Musikerziehung" atthe Musical University in Heidelberg-Mannheim.I had the chance to build up this course of study fromthe very beginning. At the moment, we are ateam of 7 assistant professors and myself.We all graduated from Musical Universitiessuch as the Orff-Institute inSalzburg, further the Musical University inHeidelberg- Mannheim and similar universities. Mostof us were trained at the Orff-Institute, so the principles of theOrff-Schulwerk are our musicpedagogical guidelines. The students may study"Elementary Music Education" as a main subjectonly combined with an instrumental or avocal subject. Some study both subjects atthe same time and othersfirst the instrumental or vocal subjectand afterwards they specialize in the pedagogicalsubject "Elementary Music Education".So the
LL. Maru Seeliger 3 students are of verydifferent ages, from 19 to about 40 years.There is a good mutual influence. The course of study"Elementary Music Education" takes6 - 8 semesters and students graduate with adiploma. The examinations consistof a dissertation, practical examination - a modellesson with a group of children -and two colloquia about didacticaland methodological questions. Thegraduates have good chances of finding anemployment at a municipal music school orin colleges or in academies. of study I'll now describe thedifferentsubjects belonging to the course "Elementary Music Education" at ourschool:
Didactics and methodology: 2hours per week during 8 semesters The students learn: goals and contents of ElementaryMusic Educatioa research and description of guidelines toperform a lesson basics on developmentalpsychology different literature on teaching methods methodology in speaking and singing,moving and dancing, playing instruments of elementary music,listening to music, theory of music, getting to know traditionalinstruments etc.
Practical exercises; 1 hour perweek during 6 semesters Students test and experience theeffects of elementary music forthemselves am within themselves. They develop methodologicalideas by improvising andperforming pieces of music, speech and dance.
Practical teaching: 2 hours perweek during 8 semesters This is the most importantsubject. From the first week of studythe students watch childrenlessons, that are directed by a professor. children of different ages The advanced studentsteach - being supervised - in these lessons. During the last year oftheir study, the studentshave a group of their own. They will have to do thepractical teaching examinationwith their own group.
-1 Marta See tiger 4
Presently, we have - at theMusical University inHeidelberg-Mannheim - ten groups of childrenof the age of 4 to 6 and 7 to 9, one groupwith parents and babies (about 1 year old)and one group with laymen adults,who want to sing and dance in the elementary waywithout knowing notes and instruments.
Improvisation _l creative expressionwith nioyemeat and lance: 2 hours perweek during 4 semesters Students experience their own bodyand develop sensibility for movement. They create and exerzise with movements,improvisation and expressive dance, as an individual and in a group,with and without additionalsubjects, with and without music.
Improvisation with instrumentsin _elementary music: 1 hour perweek during 2 semesters Students are experimenting andexercising with percussion-instruments and different kinds of xylophones training techniques improvisation and creative expression studying elementary compositionand arrangement.
Speech training and rhetorics: 1 hour perweek during 3 semesters
Voice training: 1 hour per weekduring 4 semesters (in small goups oralone)
So, you see, the students of the course"Elementary Music Education" have tomake many practical andtheoretical subjects. They playthemselves an instrument for professionals and learn how tomake good elementary music, aswell with children. In our way of training,they are not fixed to a certainteaching curriculum; they get practicalexperience with elementary musicin singing, dancing and playing instruments,they acquire knowledge indifferent teaching methods and turn creative bypractising in their own way. The owninner teacher can be set free.
=model of pedamical practicewith children
The central theme in pedagogicalpractice with children is similar. Maria Seeliger 5
I would like to use an image that came to my mind when I wasthinking about how our courses are conceived. As weall know, children as well as adults - who still liketo play are strongly attracted by pictures, bothemotionally and intellectually. A picture can awaken fantasy and creativity, it canstimulate the imagination. It can allow us to play with shapes and colors, withsigns and ideas, andwhen interpreted as a symbolit can also contribute to our Itriderstanding of an idea.
To me, an adequate image that can appropriately be used indecribing didactics and methodology of Elementary Music Education is the image of a wheel:
The wheel being round is already illustrated by the fact, thatthe children usually form a circle in the course. No one is "in front", there's nobody"in the back". Everybody is equally important, everybody is "in the first line".For this reason, the courses include many games of "making contact" and"getting-to-know-each- other". The participants' personal and social aspects form thebasis of all further musical and dancing actions and interactions. So, the exercises weoffer are designed to reinforce the development of interpersonal skills and, atthe same time, we attempt to support and strengthen the individualin his or her own musical personality. The roundness or the outer circle also expresses the unity of music,dance and speech. In the child, these three elements are still experienced as anintegrated "wholeness" as they are in the adult who has "remained achild". This idea of unity, as you know, is based on the principles of the Orff-Schulwerk.
Staying with the wheel as a symbol for Elementary Music Education, I seethe spokes representing various musical impulses that can beprovided by the teacher:
listening: to achieve a readiness and an ability to listen tosounds, tones, rhythms and appreciate a wide spectrum of music making music by speaking: speech-expression rhythmical rhymes making music by singing: traditional and foreign ;ongs creating songs
1 Mana See tiger 6
songs with fingergames anddances songs with accompaniment Linaitmcm_aaci.siance: body and movement awareness improvisation and expression performance and dance 12.1a..ying.._alcnientary.....initzumcara (usinghands and feet, the whole body as an instrument, percussion instruments,different kinds of xylophones andself-made instruments): finding special sounds, tones and rhythmsfor a poem or a story playing rhythmical and melodical patterns playing songs and instrumental pieces improvising playing their own feelings and expression ::._g_estira_laluis2A_traditionaLinuruments., especially theinstruments the children might begin with after ElementaryMusic Education: hearing, touching and trying varioustraditional instrument, and being observed by an instrumental teacher resulting of getting a personal relationship to aninstrument basic music theory: to get to know elementsof music - loud / soft (dynamic); quick/ slow (tempo); long / short (rhythm); high/ low (pitch); rhythm and tonal patterns musical forms and notation
The teacher makes the choice ofthe topic of the lesson and isresponsible for the depth and the extent of thelearning experience he / she haschosen for the children. He / she always has to observe: What is of interest to the child? How is the child motivated? What can we offer the child thatrelates to his / her inner and outerworld? What kind of games, texts, songs,dances can challenge the child toactive participation with which he /she can identify?
In an ideal situation, theteacher's choice and methodologyshould be so well- suited to the age group andthe people being taught thatthe contents of tile exercises and games reachthe very soul of these human beings.To me, a person's very innermost self -the "center". _the core. the essence - canbe symbolized by Marta Steiger 7 rhe hub of the wheel. _theinner _circle. When the impulses givenby elementary music touch the innerself of the participants, they becomefree to express themselves individually throughmusic and dance. Something veryunique, something creative can emerge ....something that fills the spacebetween the spokes of the wheel, somethingthat fills the gaps between the music notes. In this way, the parts ofthe wheel - the outer circle, thespokes and the space between, the hub and the innercircle - become an unity. The wheel"Elementary Music Education" moves on,makes jokes and creates joy,stimulates new experiences the whole lifethrough ...
Now, this might sound abit philosophical. But for me, theimage of the wheel illustrates very dearly my conceptof elementary music education : The human being (no matterwhat age) is always the focus of interest.People are touched by music and dance,and - whatever technical level theyhave gained up to this moment - they expressthe above mentioned impulses intheir own way by making music and dancing.
Notes: A. Jean Ayres: SensoryIntegration and the Child. WesternPsychological Services 1979 Edwin E. Gordon: A MusicLearning Theory for Newborn andYoung Children. G.LA. Publications, Inc. Chicago.1990 Orff-Schu,werk. American Edition.Music for Children. Volume 1, 2,3. Schott Music Corp. 1977 / 1982
practical Ifpossible, my presentationshould be combined with exercises (about 15-20participants).
. 0 Berit Udall University of Orebro School of Education Mogatan 7 S-702 13 Orebro Sweden FAX (+46)19 12 95 29 Telephone (+46)19 30 10 00
This paper is submitted for consideration for the Seminar "Vital Connections: Young Children, Adults & Music" 11-15 July, 1994
Developing the educational connections in the Swedish Preschool: How do we integ- rate the theories with musical practice? A Model for in-service training in daycare
centras purposing everyday music with young children
Asking the right questions is the issue for all research. I mean that this would be the foundation even in the daily work with music in the groups of children in the day-
care. But my experiences from 20 years in teacher education and my visits under my
students practice often give the impression of "we already know what to do in music".
The repertoir is given and how one does it is a tradition: "that's music with children". You seldom call in question the traditions how to performe the music, and the choice
of songs in the connection with the child's emotions, and what the child can under- stand or even what it can manage in its body. This in spite of that teacher training
gives a lot of theories in developmental psycology; it is very hard for the common preschoolteacher to join her theoretical knowledges with practice in music. It is as
musicmaking lakes over" - it is so hard to sing and play well - so the selfimage with
the adult comes in centre, and she forgets the children. The demands on skills in mu- sicmaking can be so high in a staff so nobody dares to lead the singsongs. In the nineteen seventies big social programmes were biult up in Sweden and
we got daycare centres with places for a high percent of the children.The 6 year old child must attend the compulsury preschool year, and children from about one year 2 could get a place in a community nuriery at a daycare centre.Special centras were built with mostly 3-4 different aged groups. The youngest from 1 to3 years in one group (about 12 children), 'family'-groups: from 3 to5 year (about 15 to 18 children), and one group with the six year old children. The Government made the guiding educational principles for this public sector. The most important psycologist even in Sweden was Jean Piagetand his theories of constructive developmental stages. But in our country we had ahard time to integra-
te his ideas with musical development, and we havehad no research in this area. I witnessed the "for-music-bad" decade from about 1973 to 1983 whenit became out
of date gathering the children in groups: the singing anddancing were out! It was a
decade of the individual in education. 1983 a proposal for a neweducational program
was delivered, and the Government just made itpossible to apply for money for de- velopmental work within the preschool. We got the idea to do thisdevelopment work
"Ljud och rörelse i förskolan" (Sound and movement in thepreschool). At this time I had attended my first ISME-conference (Bristol,England 1982) where I listened to Barbara Andress. Much of my first inspiration todo this work
came from her book Music Experiences in earlyChildhood. Bertil Sundin (Sweden, chair of the ISME Commission of Research) criticized at that timethe teacher training
programs in Sweden and he discussed thequestion 'Who would be the leader of music in the preschool: the music teacher or the preschool teacher."In the early 80s the community discovered the "nonemusic" in the preschooland a lot of developmen-
tal works with statefoundings started with companion musicteachers out of a model
from the compulsary school.It is of my opinion that this showed a ambivalent wiew on the gouls for music in preschool;music as object with wellsinging children as goal in-stead of music as an important part of the child's life. Myhypothesis is that it must
be the preschool teacher who is the best musicleaderbesides the parents. She meets the child every day and becomes so animportant person for the child. What
this important person(s) do(es) with music createsthe deepest impressions with the
child. Our society is nowaday so technified andconveniant, so we adults don't use 3 our bodies ourselves when we move around/travel or when we"make" music etc. We sit in our cars and in the livingroom in front of the TV-set or reciever. We don't have
to make our own music any more. The living song dies.. It is only in communication with the smallest children we do sing everyday. The young preschool teacher stands
with one foot in the medium world full of this machinery and with one foot in the nur-
sery where the children need the singing, acting and playing adult.How shall we ma- nage to do this transformation in a couple of years in the teacher trainingschool?
I witnessed a great need of further education in music in the nursery schools, and lot of teachers were unsecure of what to do. They thought they did not got enough training to integrate the developmental theories and how the young child learns with the musical practice with children. Besides that a lot of the teachers said
that they are no good at music.
A model for in-service training with preschool teachers in daycare centres Our motto: Make the living music a part of the daily life in the nursery and day-
care in singing, dancing and playing games with the childrenin a simple natural way! Because we know that song, sounds and movement helps the child to percieve the
world around, and to develop its skills and abilities in different aspects. It is a ques-
tion of starting somewhere and to dare to expose yourself. And in a professional way
"perform" and interpret the cultural heritage of children's music on the children's con-
ditions, and at the same time be concious of the consequenses of your acting and your choice of material and repertoire. That must of courseinvolve the medium world
too. In our model for in-service training in the daycare centre we demanded that
1 - the whole staffhad to be involved, i.e. preschool teachers, nurses and even
the cook
2 - that in ournetwork of seminars, workshops and lectures as many as possible should participate (though we had to do most of this in the daytime). 4 oc" 19<\ 1
ion Ii
AN (D19'sKokj' I
This is the picture of our work: it is like an eye which see and observe the child and the music together. Through researching one's work and observing both oneself and the music you chose for the children, and how the children percieve, experience
music and are stimulated to learn of what is presented for them.
We started the discussions out of the natural questions Why, What and How
and added When, because we must adapt the first questions to the developmental stages where we find the children in our group.
Our purpuses were to get the teachers
1 to analyze their work: to put in question the traditions in the work with music
to prepare them for changes: Why do we organize the music as we do?
why do we chose to sing this and that song?
why do we perform this song as we do?
why dont we do so and so....? 5
2 to ask questions from the child aspect (actively remembering knowledge in developmental psycology in aspect of music and movement):
Why do we sing, dance and listen to music with children? Does
it contribute to the development of the child? Which type of songs do suit the one-years-old and which
the fives? On what conditions? Melody, rythm, words, content,
acting? What can the child manage in its body when it is two and when
it is four? With arms, hands, fingers, legs, balance, run, crawl
etc. What does the child understand of the language, ideas and
concepts in the songs, in different ages?
Which emotions do different songs/dancing/music awake with
the child?
3 - to ask questions about the musicleading role: How do I communicate with the young child in different deve-
lopmental stages, cognitive, emotionally and socially with my
language, in my way doing the music?
4 - to ask questionsfrom the level of group/department (actively knowledge out of social psycology in the aspects of music and movement): How do we organize the grouping in the singsong-time? Can
we manage to make different aged children interestedin the
same program in the same manner at the sametime? Which type of activities can we manage with a group of 4, 12 or
40 children? In the same age or in different ages? 6
5 - to askquestions from sociaVcultural aspects, the level of communication within the centre and with parents/families: Does music have any social function in the centre?
How do we organize communcation over different depart-
ments? Can music help to communicate with parents/families?
What musical culture do we have?
Do we support every child in its culture? Children with different
backgrounds, girls, boys?
6 - to ask questionsabout planning the setting, the materials and differentactiviti-
es: Does the room inspire to music? Can you see the
reciever/radio? Is there any pictures of music/instruments?
How do we expose the instruments, song-books etc?
How do we plan, teachers together/alone?
Criterias for how to plan different activities? Time/
/continuity/content etc.
7. - The teacher: toask oneself: How do I act and perform music?
Am I prepared? Music/lyrics by heart?
Do I follow the children? Takei*iration from them? Sing in
there voice-level? Supporting everybody? Nervous in front of the collegues? Do I have fun?
What is the most important skills in musicmaking with young
children? 7
What did we do? My first orientation was the setting - what I saw in the daycare centre - signs of music listening - making - things like drawings, pictures musicequipment, instru- ments, books etc. I was of course informed of the situation for music in the centre, when and where it used to happen and what material and equipment they had. I asked for to join different groups of children in their singsongs. I analyzed (wrote it down) what I experienced and put questions afterwards to the leader focusing what she thought the children had experienced and how different children were participa- ting in the program, and we discussed different reasons why e.g. "Sara did not sing"
etc. We also used videotaping as means for observations, though we'know that it
may be disturbing, especially for the adults (some of them refused!).The camera did focus the children in order to registrate their responses to what the leader did. When analyzing afterwards and repeating the film we learned to see more and more of the
situation, focusing different children and different aspects of skills e.g. language, me- lody, rythm, other activities. To hear the sounds and song better we closed our eyes.
The leader could establish that a lot of what happened she never had noticed when it
was going on. "Next time I will think of that and that!" The teachers wereasked to write evaluations themselves in order to be used to analyze their work in a strict man-
ner and out of that to develop it. In the daycare centre we did the music more visuable through putting e.g. the guitar on the wall where both children, parents and staff could see it. One effect of
that was that the parents started to use it besides that the children more often asked
the teachers to play on it. Once a month we had a seminar with delegates from about 10 daycare
centres. We prepared and studied (litterature, own observations and evaluations,vi-
deos from the main daycare centre) different aspects of children and musiceduca- tion. The needs for "new" repertoire were large, and many of the teacherswanted to
play the guitar. In a couple of centres we started up groups for guitarplaying.Different staffs prepared songs out of a theme (e.g. Water, Birds etc.) and printed thelyrics 8 before we met an eVening and sung andplayed all the songs, which we tapedin order to remember all the melodies.The lessons on the guitar tookplace under the daytime, and it was hard to get time, so wejust sat in the middle of theplay room among the children. They foundit most interesting and theyparticipated in the song, even when it wentin slow motion (because the fingers onthe guitars had to change positions)! Of course I took classesof my own sometimes to showthe staff music activities, that they did nothad tried before, e.g. listening tomusic and interpret
in movement, drama and/or inpainting. Another vely popular activityI introduced with a preschool group was "how to playthe piano". We arranged workshops a couple oftimes in the main daycare centre.The per-
sonnel then asked for specialcontent/activities, e.g. how to managethe childrens in- struments? Most preschool teachers have abad conscience about theinstruments. Instruments exist in every daycare centre butthey are often stored somewhere.We worked in the simpliest ways in using thisinstruments and discussed why weshall beautiful sounds and out of use them, how wechose the instruments with the most how the children in different ages canhandle them. Other workshops wehad were etc., in dramatizing e.g. in listening andcreating sounds and music to rhymes, verses for the children at the songs. These workshopsended in different small performances end of the day.
Some discoveries During the one and a half year withthe project in'three different main daycares the 2-3 years old were very we did some simpleexperiments. One idea was that sound in the good at imitating singing tonesbut their tongue couldn't form every I asked language. So in one setting with a groupof about 8-10 children in this ages time for them to them to sing some wellknown songswithout words. It took some and most of the aboundon the words they used tosing, but soon they followed me, who normally children sang the whole melody, verymuch in tune. Even the children tone. I experienced only participated with somewords in tOe song could sing every 9 how happy the children were to succeed tojoin the whole tune in this way. Another idea was to focuse the problem with tempoin the body contra the tempo of the tongue. We knowthat the child's pulse is fast and thatthe child moves better in time with faster tempos whenruning, drumming, clapping. We alsoknow motoric that the communicational languagedevelopment depends much on the to growth in the tongue/mouth. Even if thechild understands and has something say/to sing, perhaps it can notformulate the right sounds in time. We sangthe same playsong in different tempos andobserved what happened from the aspectsof mo- ving with the pulse and singingwords. Our experiences were that quite youngchildren followed in drumming,clapping
hands/knees (elementary movements) ifthey did not sing and if the tempodid not get puls if it too slow. Even a one yearold girl could for more than 10 s. follow a common preschootteachers had to was faster than 120.This we of course know before but the observe this for to understand that itis of importance to chose *quicker' songsif the children should participate in this sortof movements. On the contrary weexperienced that it was easier for the children to expressthe lyrics in a slower tempo. Thisputs what is most the singing of traditional playsongswith young children into problems: important for the child? - to participateonly with the body or only withthe song/the spoken language? Can we find a wayto give the opportunity todevelop both through
a varied repeated wayto sing songs? must en- The idea with playing piano withthe 6 year old children was that you piano standing in the big hallin gage the child in ameaningful problem. There was a didn't know how to use the centre. Most childrenmattreated the piano because they by one of the it. The piano was closed for thiskind of experiments and only used teachers who could play. The purpuse wasnot to teach them how toplay the piano keyboard. We all but to get them to understandhow you can play melodies on a the paper and the key- know the old educational meansto colour the notes both on before the children. I co- board. What I did was to putcopied uncoloured noted songs letter. (I even loured a scale on the paperboard, everynote followed with a coloured 10 included F sharp and B flat because wehad to use this tones in somemelodies.) We explained how they could co- sung together thescale up and down some times and I lour each note on the paper. Thepreschootteachers made observations onhow the children managed the task to colour thefirst melody (Twinkle twinklelittle star). It was 1 very easy for mostof the children to understand and dothis. They helped each other which colour it had. I invi- 1 to follow the lines andcheck what the note was calied and ted the children two by two to cometo the piano. The keyboard wasprepared with coloured letters for each key and I onlypointed out where the C was andasked them
to play from the sheet theyhad coloured. I asked them to usethe right hand but to play with any finger. It was amazing to seehow easy it went for most of thechildren; they played directly with very littlemistakes. After that I asked them toplay without 1 looking at the notesheet. I was as easy.They got more songs to colourand then they
were inspired to go tosong-books for their favorite songs andstart to paint whole the piano, staffs and notes for themselves. Thisexperiment awoke a big interest for and the children started to play anymelody by ear. Another experiment was music associal means when some children wereto be 1 acclimatize in the older group. The youngergroup (1-3,$) and the groupfrom 4-5 have a com- lived next door, and they of courseknowned each orther. We decided to of one younger child mon sing-song group. Iprepared the older children to take care other well- each. We rehearseled someknee-songs: fingerplay, clapping and some known children's song, including oneto move around the room.Each older child was big dolls to asked to chose "her/his" smaller oneand for the rehearsel we used some morning. After keep in their knees and do the songswith. This rehearsel was in the how the older children that all the children went outsidein the garden. We observed contacted "their" child in theplayground outside (atthough wehad not suggested and play. tt was really thatl). Just before lunch wegathered them in the hall to sing small child. How they fantastic seeing how the olderchildren took response for "their how to do the play- in a very clever way lead the youngerones and teached them noticed songs. We thoughtthey growned a little bit intaking this response and we
1 12 system of the child is, means BO rkvold,the spontanious song a part. I do not hesitate after this work "on the floor' insaying: it is how the leader be- have with the material and hut she listens to thechildren and follow them on their way to understand and to managetheir body and singing voice in music.The educa- tors best way is to be the companion,the playing friend, not so much the wayof ta- king the instructor/teacher role. It is naturallyimpossible for the adult to play games in
the same way as the child, but she mustknow the key to play, and she mustknow
how to use the young childs way of learningthrough playing, actually experimenting
and testing. The most vital in the connections between youngchildren, adults and music is
perhaps not in the first place the choice ofrepertoire and activities, but how theim- portant adult behave and do, how she'play' with music as means in thecommunica- tion game with a great knowledge about howchildren develop in every aspect. It is the interpretation in a cultural setting thatchildren learn about.
Litterature Andress, B. (1980) Music Experiences inEarly Childhood New York Bjorkvold, J-R. (1988) Our Musical MotherTongue - World Wide (R. Saderbergh, ec.) Children's CreativeCommunication LundiKent Cobb, E. (1977) The Ecology of Imaginationin Childhood New York Thurman, LJChase, M./Langness, A.P.(1987) Reaching the Young ChiidThrough Music: Is Pre-Natal Infant Music EducationPossible? (Dobbs, ed.) International Music Education, ISMEYearbook, Vol. XIV Trevarthen, C. (1988) Infant's Trying toTalk: How a Child Invttes Communication from the Human World. (St3derberg,ed.)Children's Creative Communication Lund/Kent
BESTCOPYAVAILABLE 11 how happy they were. In rehearsing with theolder children I noticed an eagernessto I manage to sing the songs. We gotanother meaning with the singingand playing; it I was merit for somethingfor them important: to communicate andplay with an other child with the aim to get to know each other.
What is quality in the general musiceducation with young children? The Thurman paper (Thurman et al.1987) in the ECME seminar inKescemet, Hungary, focused my interest towardssound and music as means for theunborned
and the newly borned child, in itscommunication with the mother and the*world". The auditary system and the baby's ownsoundmaking - "song" - is one necessary besides this a spe- part for surviving and gettingthe spoken language. But music has cial connection with the biologicalsOtern: it can call for and support feelings.The physically and che- more we know about howthe brain works in its different systems, mically, the more we understand why musicand feelings are so connected.But the
mother feels that her baby needs thegentle-sounded singing voice. All her senses
are concentrated andobserving her baby - and she (as abiologic human being) gives what her baby demands. Jon-Roar Bjorkvold (1988) hasformed a theory about children's spontanous
song as our musicalmother tongue. One of his referencesis the research of Colwyn Trevarthen (1988) about the new bomedbaby as a selfdepending and socialindivi- dual who's will to live is very strongand who's weapon is the voice"mastering" the
mother. The "motherese" is music.Bjerkvold develops an idea of the"ecological child" out of the book The Ecologyof Imagination in Childhood byEdith Cobb (1977). The thesis is that the childpercieve the world through the nervesystem and The pulse of the body the senses in a way much alikethe forms of energy in nature. and the pulse of the nature are twosides of the same thing. Cobbcalls children's "bioculturar, and that they ways of understandingthrough percieving and creating,
are anchored in physicallife with cultural forms and symbols.In this ecological EFFECT OF PITCH RELATIONSHIP BETWEENTEXT AND MELODY IN YOUNG CHILDREN'S SINGING
This paper is submitted for consideration for the Seminar "Vital Connections: Young Children, Adults & Music," 11-15 July,1994.
Lily Chen
MA. (Reading). B.A. (Hong Kong).
Department of Music University of Hong Kong Pokfulam Road HONG KONG.
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between textand the
accuracy of pitch singing in young children.The same melody, but with differing
texts was taught to three separate groups of children fromHong Kong, aged 3 to
5. One group of Cantonese-speaking children learned the songwith a Cantonese
text in which the melodic contour does not matchthe pattern of linguistic tones in
the text. Another group of Cantonese-speaking childrenlearned the song with
another Cantonese text in which they match. The last group ofEnglish-speaking
children learned the song with an English text. Out of therecordings, 18 were
sampled betng two 3-year-olds, two 4-year-olds and two 5-year-oldsin each group.
It was found that differences in the pitch relationship between textand melody have
certain effect on different aspects of children's tinging such aspitch accuracy, level
of difficulty in learning and singing songs, singingstyle, singing of different
intervals and singing range. This study represents a pilotproject which points the
way to further research in this area. BACKGROUND
For many years, the singing of young children has attracted much attention from music education researchers. Research in this area focuscs mainly on the factors affecting pitch accuracy of children's
------_ singing. They include vocal range of children (Hattwick 1933, Drexler 1938, Wilson 1971,Fox 1983,
Rutkowski 1986, Flowers & Dunne-Sousa 1990), pitch/ tonal patterns that children are morc capable
of singing (Jarjisian 1981, S'inor 1985), pitch discrimination ability of children (Smith 1974,Patrick
1978), harmonic context (Sterling 1985, Stauffer 1985), developmental limitations ofchildren at
different ages (Davidson, McKernon & Gardncr 1981) and various external effect such astraining
(Boardman 1964, Richner 1976, Kramer 1986) and vocal modeling (Sims, Moore & Kuhn1982,
Green 1987, Montgomery 1989).
Despite the fact that so many factors have been explored extensively, the effect of language in the text
of songs has not been closely examined though some attempts have been made to show its
significance. Goetze (1986) has noted that children tend to sing more accurately when they sing with
the neutral syllable "leo" than with text, which shows that such effect does exist. Through the useof
speech to aid children acquiring better pitch accuracy, the remedial training of Gould (1969)and
Roberts & Davies (1976) have proved to be successful. This further assures that the effect of language
is quite strong.
The present study aims at investigating the influence of language on young children's singing.Past
research has always been involved with children of Western cultures but this research looks atChinese
children in Hong Kong as well. Hong Kong Chinese children are chosen because theiriLother-tongue,
Cantonese, is a tonal language' which is very different from non-tonal languages of the Westsuch as
English. lt has been found that Hong Kong children and English children perceivethe expressive
IRefer to Appendix 1for the explxnation of the tones in Cantonese. 2 components in music and language differently (Chen, 1990).This is because in English. pitch is
usually used to express the emotional context of speech whereas inCantonese, pitch ser% es a
grammatical and semantic function by determining the meaning of the words.Therefore, the way
English children and Chinese children perceive pitch in music and language aredifferent. Moreover,
. _ due to the restricted relative pitch levels of Cantonese, there is certainlimitation to the melodic
contour of songs created by Cantonese text. Thus, it is interesting to seeif the Cantonese children sing
their Cantonese songs differently when the melodic contour of the songscorresponds with the
relationship of the linguistic tones of the text and when this is not the case.Furthermore, it is
controversial that the songs in tonal language and non-tonal language are sungdifferently by children.
THE PRESENT STUDY
A song with the same melody but differing texts' was taught tothree separate groups of children in
Hong Kong:
Group (A) : Cantonese-speaking children from a local kindergarten learning the songwith a
Cantonese text which is tone-mismatched (i.e. the pattern of thelinguistic tones in the
text does not match with the melodic contour).
Group (B): Cantonese-speaking children from the same local kindergartcn learningthe song with
a Cantoncse text which is tone-matched(i.e. the pattern of the linguistic tones in the
text match with the melodic contour).
Group (C): English-speaking children from an international kindergartcn learningthe song with
an English text.
The song was taught in groups. Afterwards, individual singingof each child was recorded. Through
the computer, the frequency and amplitude of thechildren's singing were calculated. Out of the
=Refer to appendix 2. 3 recordings, 18 were sampled being 2 three-year-olds, 2 four-year-olds,and 2 five-year-olds in each group.
This study compares the effect of different pitch relationshipbetween text and melody on children's singing. Children in Group A sing a song which has a contradictorypitch relationship between text
and melody whereas children in Group B sing onewhich has a close relationship. Children in Group
C sing a song in which such relationship does not exist.Age difference is also considered. Although
the children have to learn and perform the songsrequired by the researcher, it is not the main aim to
see how well they learnsuch songs. The chosen songs are used only as a mean toanalyze children's
singing. During the recording, the children wereallowed to sing freely and the starting note was not
given.
The results' were analyzed under four aspects. Firstly,the mean scores of the children in each group
was calculated to see how well they singthe learnt songs on the whole. Observations doneduring the
learning process and on the recorded singing were also considered.Then, the individual intervals sung
by the children were examined in two ways: how wellthey can match the required intervals in the
songs and what intervals appear morefrequently than the others in their singing. Lastly,the singing
range of each child was noted.
3The results are listed in Appendix 3.
1_1 4
FINDINGS
Certain effect of text-melody relationship hasbeen found on different aspects ofchildren's singing.
Pitch Accuracy
From the mean score of the three groups, it isprominent that Group A did better thanboth Group B 0.10)4. Group B and C and C in achieving the targeted intervalsin the songs (significant level at showed no significant difference in theirperformance. This is possibly because thechildren in Group
A put more attention to the pitchrelationship of the melody since the text did notmake sense.
Whereas in Group B and C, the children had diverted theirattention to the meaning of the textand
to sing the words clearly. This infact supplements the finding of Goetze (1986)that children sing
more accurately without textthan with text. On the other hand, theft; is notmuch difference between have Group B and C because most probably, the factthat whether language is tonal or not, does not
a strong effect on pitch accuracy.
Age difference is also obvious. However, onlythe difference between Age 3 and Age 5is a significant
one (at the 0.05level)5. This shows that on the whole, children progressin their pitch accuracy of
singing learned songs according to their ageand a difference of two years in age is asignificant one.
Level of Difficulty in Learning andSinging singing, it is noted that From the observations done during thelearning process and on the recorded in Group B and the children in Group A found it moredifficult to learn the song than the children recalling the text.Contrarily, C. They needed more repetition to learnthe song and made more fault in
'Refer to Appendix 4 for the results of the statisticaltestings.
'Refer to Appendix 4 for the results of the statistical testings. 5
Group B and C learned morc quickly and performed with more certainty. This impliesthat although pitch accuracy may be affected by the understanding of text in songs,nonetheless, with such undcrstanding, it helps children to learn and sing the songs.
Singing Style
Differences in the singing style between Group A and Group B have beenfound. It corresponds with
the findings in the previous study (Chen, 1992): the tone-matched songis sung with more articulation
of the linguistic tones, and creative substitution of words are foundin which the children, when they
understand the text, replace some words in the text with other wordsof similar meaning; when they
do not understand the meaning, replace with other words of similar tones.Thus, tone-matched songs
in fact prove to be more beneficial to children's acquisition oflanguage.
Differences in the singing style between Group C and the other two groups arealso noted. The
English children tend to sing with more legato and link up certainwords in the song whereas the
Chinese children tend to cut each word short and take are breath. Such differences maybe due to
the differences in their languages.
Effect on Individual Intervals
On the whole, the results in small intervals (Major 3rd orbelow) are better than large intervals
(Perfect 4th or above). The required interval that has the bestresult is unison. The interval with the
worst result are Perfect 4th
children got better results in large intervals (Major 6th)than younger children and the frequency of
occurrence of large intervals (Major 6th
in older children than younger children. Thus, thisimplies that smaller intervals are easier than larger
intervals for the children, and the singing of large intervals canbe improved with the increase of age.
This can be accounted for by physical factors such asthe maturity and control of the vocal cord. 6
Group differences are also found incertain intervals. Group A and B did better inMajor 3rd
singing of Group A and B than in GroupC. On the contrary, Diminished 5th
intervals commonly sung by children of oneculture may be different from those sungby children of been believed to another culture. It is noted that the famousMinor 3rd
frequently among the English children thanthe Chinese children, which suggeststhat maybe, this
'theory' is not applicable to children of allcultures.
A than in Group Minor 6th
without as much interference of the text as GroupB and C concentrate more on pitchsinging and are
more capable of singingdifficult intervals.
Singing Range of Group B is Group difference is found, but not agedifference. On the whole, the singing range Group B made more effon to greater than Group A and C.Perhaps, this is because the children in manipulations of pitch match the linguistic tones and themelodic contour, thus, making more
variations. In Group A and C, such effort iseither inapplicable or unnecessary.
This is possibly because The pitch range is higher generally inGroup C than in Group A and B. speaking voice while English children tend to use their singingvoice which is higher than their voice since singing singing. It is easier for them to differentiatetheir singing voice from their speaking limitation in pitch level than and speech are quite different for them.In speech, there is not as much already in singing. Howes er. thisis not the case for Chinesechildren. In Cantonese speech, there arc 7 pitch differences and thcy can get a 'melody' simply by speaking. For instance,there are many common Cantonese chants for children which are performedwith their speaking voice and yet they contain both 'melody' and 'rhythm'. Therefore, for Chinese children, when thestarting noie of the song is not given or when they are not reminded to sing with their singing voice,the young children would very naturally sing with their speakingvoice.
CONCLUSION
Especially in young children, the influence of language on singing is strong.
"The overall line of development of singing, which begins with the words, addsthe
rhythm and finally begins to take note of differences of pitch..."
Moog, 1976.
This study has shown that language indeed has an effect on different aspectsof children's singing.
With different kinds of languages, the effect is different on children of differentcultures. Differences
in the pitch relationship between text and melody is a factor that cannot be ignored.Future research
intending to develop further this issue is highly recommended.
-; 8
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Chao, Y.R. (1947) The CantonesePrimer. New York: Greenwood Press. and language. (M.A. Chen, L. (1990) Children's perceptionof the expressive components in music dissertation) Reading: University of Reading. Hong Kong: the relationshipbetween Chen, L. (1992)The song acquisition of young children in melody and lyrics. Paper presented at theEarly Childhood Seminar of the ISMEconference, Tokyo, Japan.
Davidson, L., McKernon, P., & Gardner,H. (1981) The acquisition of song:A developmental approach, in Documentary report ofthe Ann Arbor symposium onthe applications of psychology to the teaching and learningof music. Reston, Virginia: MENC.
Drexler, E.N. (1938) A study of thedevelopment of the ability to cany amelody at the preschool level. Child Development, 9, 319-331. vocal range in Flowers, P.J., & Dunne-Sousa, D. (1990)Pitch-pattern accuracy, tonality, and preschool children's singing. Journalof Research in Music Education, 38,102-114. Dissertation Abstracts Fox, D. 13. (1983)The pitch range and contour of infantvocalizations. International, 43, 2588A.
Goetze, J. (1986)Factors affecting accuracy in children'ssinging. Dissertation Abstracts International, 46, 2955A. Bulletin Gould, A.O. (1969) Developing specialized programsfor singing in the elementary school. of the Council for Research in MusicEducation, no.17, 9-22. ,+fchildren in grades one Green, G. (1987) The effect of vocalmodeling on pitch-matching accuracy through six. Dissertation AbstractsInternational, 46, 1986A. of preschool, first grade Hattwick, M. (1933) The role of pitchlevel and pitch range in the singing and second grade children. ChildDevelopment. 4, 281-291. instruction on the rote Jarjisian. C. (1981) The effects ofpentatonic and/ or diatonic pitch pattern 42, 2015. singing achievement of young children.Dissertation Abstracts International,
The effects of two different music programson third- andfourth-grade Kramer, S.J. (1986) International, 46, 2609A. children's ability to match pitchesvocally. Dissertation Abstracts of preschool age. Psychology Moog, H. (1976) The developmentof musical experience in children of Music, 4, 38-45.
Montgomery, T.D. (1989) A study ofthe associations between two meansof vocal modeling by a pitch patterns. male music teacher and third-gradestudents' vocal accuracy in singing 9
Dissertation Abstracts International. 49,2142A.
Patrick, L.R. (1978)An investigation of the pitch-matching abilities of first gradechildren. Dissertation Abstracts International,40, 531A.
Richner, S. (1976) The effect of classroom and remedial methods of musicinstruction on the ability of inaccurate singers in the third, fourth, and fifth grades to reproducepitches.Dissertation Abstracts- International,37, 1447A.
Roberts, E. & Davies,. A. (1976) A method for extending the vocal rangeof "monotone" school children.Psychology ofMusic, 4 (I), 29-43.
Rutkowski, J. (1986) The effect of restricted song range on kindergartenchildren's use of singing voice and developmental music aptitude.Dissertation Abstracts International,47, 2072A.
Sims, W.L., Moore, R.S. & Kuhn, T.L. (1982)Effects of female and male vocal stimuli, tonal pattern length, and age on vocal pitch-matching abilities of youngchildren from England and the United States.Psychology ofMusic[Special issue], 104-108.
Sinor, E. (1985) The singing of selected tonal patterns by preschool children.Dissertation Abstracts International,45, 3299A.
Smith, R.S. (1974)Factors related to children's in-tune singing ability.Dissertation Abstracts International.34, 7271A.
Stauffer, S.L. (1985) An investigation of the effects of melodic and harmonic context onthe development of singing ability in primary grade children.Dissertation Abstracts International, 46, 1862A.
Sterling, P.A. (1985) A developmental study of the effects of accompanyingharmonic context on children's vocal pitch accuracy of familiar melodies.Dissertation Abstracts International.45, 2436A.
Wilson, D.S. (1971)A study of the child voice from six to twelve. Dissertation Abstracts International,31, 5453A. Appendix 1
CANTONESE TONES
There are 9 tones in Cantonese. They differ in theirpitch levels, rising and falling inflections,long and short durations. They are:
_...__.. . 1. _Upper_aen ._...... 53 o 55 -or 1 2. Upper Rising 35 1 -1 3. Upper Going . 33 4. Upper Entering 5 5. Middle Entering 3 .1 6. Lower Even 21 7. Lower Rising 23 8. Lower Going 22 9. Lower Entering 2 .1
The numerical figures represent from relatively low (1) tohigh (5) pitch levels and the vertical line represents a pitch axis (Chao 1947). 11
Appendix 2
THE SONG (with three versions of the text):
Mcki 3 2
(/.1)11(.1) 4(.1)4(11f1-ott-1) 3(13 4E,1 Group A: Group B: :A(A ) 1(.1 ) 4-11 ) (1)0).(1)fi:(1) t-(d) Group C: bir -cle. -Fly - ;n +hesky,But There s a. mi,3 4, Min3 4. ft.t,v2 1
(a) c 1 ) 4,1) ---(1 )1c.LP) 11;)(.1), imc-1) 13D(.1) c ) X%(1
I ODIC, Ltp see a tron-5terthere,
40
) (a)t(J) (.1) y*-1 )4c7 t 441 44'13 W.L.) ) Aff.(-1(1) A14.1).44V1-1 inI 4-4.1) b ( LtJ) (c)It's ah - 3Ie 1 ock - "Insfor AS f-DOCI SO Per 4 t
11 "IP W
(a) ) -q-c1Aci)1(-1) (1)4zed) cb) '1) 4.(.1)tlfc,t(J)-4(1),_1) (c) LI± tle 1D1 r - aiedotittook odlci-Fly a. way. 12
Appendix 3
RESULTS OF THE STUDY
Mean score of the whole mg: Group (A) 28.17 Group (B) 34.17 Group (C) 33.5
Age (3) 36 Age (4 .32.67 Age (5) 27.17
Scores were given according to how much theyhave deviated from the targeted intervals(in terms of the the sung and the targeted number of semitone difference). Thus, higherthe score, greater the difference between intervals children usually do not Each interval in the songs was scored exceptthe intervals between phrases (since young children (so that each child keep the intervallic relationship betweenphrases) and the intervals missed by some of the whole song and the mean get the same number ofintervals to be scored). Each child had a total score score of each group wascalculated.
The results of individual intervals targetedin the songs: getting the right response One example of each interval was chosen fromthe sone and the number of children at each interval was expressed in percentage. % of response with Intervals % of correct % of response with response I semitone (lilt any greater diff. 67% Major 6th (up) 11% 22% Perfect 5th (up) 0% 11% 89% 69% Perfect 4th (up) 0% 31% 22% Major 3rd (up) 39% 39% 11% Major 3rd (down) 56% 33% Minor 3rd (up) 33% 50% 17% 28% Minor 3rd (down) 22% 50% 11% Major 2nd (up) 50% 39% 0% Major 2nd (down) 44% 56% 6% Minor 2nd (up) 44% 50% 17% Minor 2nd (down) 33% 50% 0% Unison 67% 33%
Distribution of the correct responses in each group: Age 5 Intervals Gp A Gp BGp C Age 3Age 4
0 0 2 Major 6th (up) 0 1 I 0 Perfect Sth (up) 0 0 0 0 0 0 Perfect 4th (up) 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 Major 3rd (up) 3 0 4 4 Major 3rd (down) 4 4 2 3 3 I 3 2 Minor 3rd (up) 3 2 1 2 0 2 Minor 3rd (down) 1 2 1 4 Major 2nd (up) 2 5 2 3 2
Refer to Appendix 2 for the examples chosen to look ateach of the targeted intervals.
BEST COPY AVAILABLE 13
Major 2nd (down) ..i 3 3 4 3 2 1 3 4 Minor 2nd (up) 4 1 3 2 4 2 Minor 2nd (down) 3 2 1 2 5 Unison 3 5 4 5
Distribution of various intervals in the children's singing. The difference bemeen the average percentage of occurrenceof each interval in each group and the percentage of occurrence of each interval required in the model song wascalculated to find out what intervals the ciuldren had sung more than required and what they had sungless. Min 2Unison UP: Maj 6Min 6Per 5Dim 5Per 4Maj 3Min 3Maj 2 +12.4% -5.8% Gp A -2.8% +1.5%-2.3% +1.5%-1.3% +2.5%+2.0%-7.5% +4.4%-1.9% Gp B -2.3%+0 5%-1.3% +1.0%-2.3% +3.5%+2.0%-2.3% +9.2% -7.5% Gp C -2.3%+0.5%-1.8% +1.0%-0.9% +2.0%+4.0%*-5.1% +8.7% -8.0% Age 3-2.8%+0.3%1.3%+1.0%-1.3% +3.5%+4.1%-6.4% +0 5%-2.3% +2.4%-1.8% +0.5%+2.5%-3.8%+10 I% -3.9% Age 4-2.8% +7.2% -3.4% Age 5-1 8%*+1.5%-1.8%0% -1.4% +2.9%+1.5%-4.7%
DOWN:Maj 6Min 6Per 5Dim 5Per 4 Maj 3Min 3Maj 2Min 2 +11.5% Gp A0% 0% 0% +0,5%+1.0%+1.5%*-3.3% -9.6% +12.5% Gp B 0% 0% 0% +0.5%+2.0%+1.5%*-5.2% -1 1.9% +9.2% Gp C 0% 0% 0% +1.0%+0.5%+0.5%-1.3%*-8.4% +13.6%* Age 30% 0% 0% +0.5%+2.0%-0.5% -3.6%-9.3% Age 40% 0% 0% +0.5%+0.5%+2.9%-2.8% -12.9%+1 1.0% +8.6% Age 50% 0% 0% +1.0%*+1.0%+1.0%-3.3% -7.7%
The sinning range of each child:
Gp A Gp B Gp C
Age 3no.1 a, - r,. M6 a, - g4: m9 bb, - g,. M6 no.2 g', - g,. M7 a, - f,: rn6 - c',. 8ve c,: m7 Age 4no.3 r,g,. m9 d', - e,: m9 cl, no.4 bb,- f, P5 a', - a',: 8ve c, - a,: M6 Age 5no.5 a, - r,M6 8ve b, - g',. M6 m9 no.6 a, - a,: 8ve d', - M 10 c, -
Range of model song:Major9th
The distribution of different sirmin a. range amongeach group:
Age 4Age 5 Range Gp AGp B Gp C Age 3 0 Perfect 5th l 0 0 0 I 1 0 0 Minor 6th 0 1 0 Major 6th 7 0 3 2 0 2 0 1 0 Minor 7th 0 0 1 1 0 0 Major 7th 1 0 0 1 I 2 Octrke 1 -1 I 2 1 Minor 9th I 2 1 1 0 0 1 Major 10th 0 1 0
, 14
Appendix 4
RESULTS OF THE STATISTICAL TESTINGS
In order to see if thc differences among the different experimental groups arestatistically significant, t-tests were done.
Group (A) versus Group (B) r--1.76 (sig. at 0.10 level) Group (B) versus Group (C) t= 0.14 Group (C) versus Group (A) t= 1.68 (sig. at 0.10 level)
Age (3) versuc Age (4) t= 0.97 Age (4) versus Age (5) r= 1.08 Age (5) versus Age (3) (sig. at 0.05 level) Some Obse:vations on theSinging Development of Five-Year-Olds by Peta J White1, Desmond C Sergeant2,Graham F Welch3 Centre for Advanced Studies in MusicEducation (ASME), Faculty of Education, Roehampton Institute, London,SW19 5NN, UK
1 Research Officer: ASME; 2 Research Fellow,ASME; 3 Professor of Music Education. Director of ASME
This paper is submitted for considerationfor the ISME Early Childhood Music Education Seminar 'VitalConnections: Young Children, Adults and Music' 11-15 July, 1994, Universityof Missouri-Columbia, USA
Abstract
The paper reports some general findingsfrom the first year of a major
longitudinal study into young children's singingdevelopment. A central focus
during this first year was the design andpiloting of a research protocol which
would be valid for (a) the longitudinalsample of five-year-olds and (b) the
comparative sample aged three to twelve years.The research instrument
included specially-composed songs and a rangeof complementary pitch
stimuli. The resultant data provide anindication of five-year-olds' developing
singing abilities and also offer an insightinto the difficulties inherent in
assessing young children's vocalisationswithin a changing school context. Some Observations on the Singing Development of Five-Year-Olds by Peta J Whitel, Desmond C Sergeant2, Graham F Welch3 Centre for Advanced Studies in Music Education (ASME), Faculty of Education. Roehampton Institute, London, SW19 511N, UK
1 Research Officer: ASME: 2 Research Fellow. ASME: 3 Professor of Music Education. Director of ASME
This paper is submitted for consideration for the ISME Early Childhood Music Education Seminar 'Vital Connections: Young Children, Adults and Music' 11-15 July, 1994, University of Missouri-Columbia, USA
Introduction
A major study of singing development in early childhood is being undertaken at the Centre for Advanced Studies in Music Education at the Roehampton
Institute. An initial three-and-a-half year study, funded by the Leverhulme
Trust, is focusing on mapping the singing development of groups of children
aged four to eight years, taking account of the social and ethnic populations
from which they are drawn, and seeking to identify those aspects of teachincz
that might promote or hinder development. Account is also being taken of a2e.
gender. perception, cognition, social context. musical task, and the possible
effects of training. Empirical data is being gathered through (a) a longitudinal
study of approximately two hundred five-year-olds across their first three
years at school and (b) a comparative study ofapproximately five hundred
children aged three to twelve years. Research method One of the first challenges facing the research team was todesign an appropriate research protocol. Previous (and recent)research into young children's singing development (eg Moog, 1976;Davidson et al, 1981;
Dowling, 1984; Ries, 1987; Goetze et al, 1990;Thurman and Klitzke, 1993)
suggests that a definitionof singing may embrace a number of different forms
of behaviour. The protocol would need toallow for individual differences,
facilitate comparison across groups and, inaddition, be as realistic
('ecologically valid') as possible. A review of previousresearch revealed a
variety of assessment procedures, ranging fromrecordings of spontaneous
singing (eg Davidson et al, 1981; Hargreaves,1986), self-invented songs (eg
Davies, 1986), specially chosen song material (egrounds, folk songs, nursery
rhymes, national anthems - see Anderson, 1937;Joyner, 1969; Pluoridge,
1972: Buckton, 1982; Welch, 1986) and 'sub-musical'items (eg pitches
presented either singly, in pairs. or as a series - seeMadsen et al, 1969; Greer
et al. 1973; Yank Porter,1977; Welch et al, 1989).
Accordingly, the Leverhulme Project researchprotocol has been designed to
embrace the different kinds of evidencemade available by the majority of
these approaches. Because of the school-basedsetting for the research and the
projected large sample size, the establishedprotocol focused on pitch
development in relation to specific singingtasks (particularly as spontaneous and self-invented songs are the subject of other contemporarystudies,eg
Fujita, 1990; Minami and Umezawa, 1990; Davies,1992). The singing tasks were as follows:
(i) glissandi glides between two, three and five pitches, designed to assess a child's ability tomatch the direction of
pitch change (six items);
(li) pitch patterns three and five pitches (six items);
(iii) single pitches (six items);
(iv) songs specially composed to allow a comparative musical context for items (i) to (iii) (twoitems).
The proposed protocol also permitted the researchers to accessthe relative
persistence of those features of singing developmentwhich had emerged in
earlier studies of pre-school children, namely linguistictopology, rhythmic
surface, pitch contour and key stability (cf Moog,1976; Davidson et al, 1981;
Dowling, 1984; Welch, 1986).
In order to reduce the likelihood of the databeing affected by random or
testing variables, the glissandi, pitch patterns andsingle pitches were recorded
onto an audio tape for use by theresearcher during the subsequent individual
assessmentl. The sound sources for the stimuli were aneleven-year-old male
Because of evidence that young children may have little understanding of linguisticdescriptors such as up. and down in relation to pitch movement (cf Crowther etal. 1985), a pilot study was undertaken with a class of five-year-olds in a local school to ascertainthe likely success of using visual symbols (such as arrows and undulatine lines) as the stimuli in the assessment of vocal pitch contour.There was no evidence, however. that the children understood the nature of the contour task. either with thesymbols or with the linguistic 3 I chorister from the Chapel Royal. London andelectronically-produced sinusoids. The two specially-composed songs weremodelled on audio tape by
the male chorister for use by the intendedsubjects' class teachers prior to the
assessment sessions.Subsequently, different versions of the stimulus tape were
prepared in order to take account of orderingeffects.
A group of fifteen Primary schools in theGreater London area were
contacted to participate in the study, having beenselected so as to provide a
mixture of social class, ethnicity and urban/suburbanlocations. Particular age
groups within each school weretargeted and the singing ability of each subject
was assessed individuallyin a quiet area away from the classroom.
Before making the individual assessments, theresearcher took an opportunity
to meet the classteacher andchildren, and to explain the nature of the
research. The teachers had been asked to beginteaching the two project songs
in the two weeks prior to the scheduled assessmentsession. As test materials
were embedded a themelodies of the two songs, this allowed someresearch
control over the amount of exposure that eachsubject had with the song
material, with the intention of providing someclues as to the most significant
features in song acquisition. The childrenattended the testing session in pairs.
one subject waitingwhile the other was interviewed. Thechildren were
measured for height and weight and, onceseated and familiarised with the
chddren to descnptors ior both). and so the decision was made toprovide a set of auditory stimuli on tape for the imitate. This proved to be more successtul. recording situation, were asked somegeneral questions (for example,about their work in school that day and theirfavourite song).
Each subject was assigned a codenumber and the complete interviewsession was recorded ontodigital audio tape for subsequentanalysis. This analysis has taken two forms: (i) the musical aspects(such as melodic contour, tonality. phrasing, and general accuracy ofresponse) are rated by a panel of experienced musicians against specifiedcriteria; (ii) basic vocal function and
related acoustic output are assessedthrough the application of various
established and specially-designed voicescience technologies2.
General findings and commentary on thefive-year-old sample
general tendency for vocal pitch responses tobe lower than the pitch
stimuli, for interval size to bereduced, and for responses to be centred
towards the lower part of the vocal pitch range
When imitating the sound stimuli, subjectshad a general tendency to sing at a
pitch below the external auditorymodel (a finding reported elsewhere inthe
research literature). Subjects alsohad a tendency to reduce pitch intervalsin
their sung responses (eg singing asecond rather than a fourth). There isalso
evidence of responses becoming most accuratearound a notional pitch band of
An analysts of fundamental frequency isundertaken using a revision to the SINGAD software Howard and Welch. 1993): vocal tract resonances arebeing assessed using a Sensunetrics SpeeclaStation: voice source data is being recorded using anelectrolaryngograpb. 5
p p c4 to e4 and being increasingly inaccurate the further awaythe stimuli pitches were from this band. This pitch band is evidencedelsewhere in the research literature as a 'comfortable range' (eg Welch, 1979: Ries,1987), linked to customary vocal register usage (Wurgler, 1990).
the longer the stimulus pattern, the greater the error
Subjects tended to be most accurate in responding to the two-notestimuli and
least accurate in response to five notes. There was also someevidence of
children being more out-of-tune when singing pitches at theend of a sequence
compared to those at the beginning (eg if the same note appeared both atthe
beginning and the end of a five-note sequence, the former was likely tobe
sung more accurately than the latter.)
three common phases in sung response
There are three phases which are common to the sung pitches of all the
subjects across the various vocal tasks (and which are also inevidence in
older, trained singers). First there is an initiation phase inwhich the vocal
mechanism is 'primed for action'. A fundamental frequencyanalysis revealed
a tendency for these naive singers tobegin their sung response with a glide
upwards towards a steady state phase (the 'intended' pitch)which is marked by
a comparatively greaterfrequency stability. The sung response is then
concluded by a phase of relative instability of frequency. thetermination
6 phase. In matching intervals and pitch patterns andin singing the songs, this three-phase pattern is seen to be repeated across successivepitches. However,
the term steady state is relative, in that the five-year-oldsrarely produced one
steady frequency but rather tended to vocalise around ageneral frequency
area (even if this could be perceived as asingle pitch). Schematically, the three
phases are as follows:
fundamental frequency
InseC
rubstion steady state terminal an phese phase phase
The criteria for the accuracy of subjects' responses have to be seen inrelation
to the relative ratio between each of thesethree phases. Judgements have to be
made as to the point in time when the steady state begins. With somesubjects
this is quite difficult because of the general pitch instability in the sung
response.
definition of singing behaviour is problematic
In making an assessment as to the accuracy of a subject'ssinging, one has first
to'make a judgement as to what the singer 'intended'. For example. responses
rn .be rated as 'accurate' in terms of general pitch direction but'inaccurate' in relation to actual pitches. Often the childrenindividually did not seem to know the songs as well as the teachers appeared tobelieve from their group rehearsals. Where there was a reluctance or inability tosing a song, the subjects would often reproduce the words without the melody,but never the melody without the words. It is possible that, to youngchildren, a concept of
song or, rather, melodydoes not exist without words, whereas words can exist
without melody (cf Serafine, Crowder, and Repp, 1984). Thisfinding also
supports the notion of the dominanceof words in the hierarchy of song
development in young children (Davidson et al, 1981) and the suggested
separation of words and music in the teaching of songs to youngchildren
(Levinowitz, 1989).
Some subjects decoded the instruction to copy the sounds il-om the tape as an
instruction to copy those aspects of the sounds that were significant tothem.
Several, for example, focused on the timbral qualities of theelectronically-
generated stimuli rather than the pitch. One subject said thathe could not copy
the sinewave as it was not a human sound. Another attempted todescribe what
he thought could have made the stimulus sound 'That was a cat;that was a
cow.'
Our original intention to provide a contrast between anelectronically-
generated stimulus and a human voice did not prove tobe straight-forward.
8, Although the Chapel Royal chorister provided an extremely accurate pitch model, several subjects appeared to find his singing socially inappropriate, being far removed from their own experience, and some teachers also commented adversely, perhaps indicating some a priori assumptions and attitudes about the nature of singing on the parts of both researchers and teachers. Accordingly, a female vocal pitch model was provided for a further selection of specially-composed songs in the two following years of the study.
evidence of inconsistency and varying task attention
The majority of the five-year-old sample were able to respond to the items on
the stimulus tape and to sing the two songs (within the limitations of their
current ability). There was evidence, however, of an inconsistencyin response
by some subjects to the various components of the stimulus tape, perhaps
related to varying task attention. The testing procedure could elicit no
response at all for several items, then severalsuccessful matches. For another
subject, a complex task (eg a five-note glide) may have been atte7:pted
successfully, whereas there may have been no response to a simpler task (eg a
two-note glide). Some subjects respondedwell to the glissandi, others
appeared to be more comfortable when responding to the specificpitches,
whether in patterns or single notes. Coda
Any description of children's developing singing abilitiesshould address the _ context in which the behaviours wereobserved. In the case of the general
trends identified in this paper, there are caveats withregard to the particular
choice of musical tasks that the children were set and alsowith the
involvement and support that individual teachers wereable to provide. The
research has taken place against a general background ofthe implementation
of a new National Curriculum, of devolved budgetarycontrol, and an
increasing focus on the core curriculum subjects of English,mathematics and
science. For many teachers, curriculum time for the arts has been(and is
being) constrained and the child-focused early years curriculum isunder
threat. There has also been the problem of continuity of staff(staff leaving
and new staff being appointed) in some of the researchschools, as well as
occasional difficulties in the intra-school lines of communicationbetween busy
headteachers, specialist music staff (where they exist), and theclassroom
teachers. Inevitably, our research is a 'snap-shot of singingdevelopment but
we believe that the generalfeatures that we have identified are robust.
Comparison with data from the two subsequent years of thelongitudinal study
will permit us to contexcualise better the performanceof these particular five-
year-olds.
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13 This paper is submitted for consideration forthe ISME Seminar or World Congress "Vital Connections: Young Children. Adults.and Music" 11-15 July. 1994
Danette Littleton. Ph.D. Professor of Music The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga Chattanooga, TN 37405 USA
Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Preschool Children'sSpontaneous Music Behaviors
Abstfact
Play provides the ideal medium forobserJational investigations of children's music behaviors set apart from directadult instruction. suggestion, or guidance. Studies of young children asthey play freely in a music-specific environmentreveal music experiences uniquely child- made and unlike those directed by adults(Moorhead and Pond. 1978, Littleton, 1991). Interest in spontaneous music-making of same-age. same-sex4- and 5-year-old children of Japan and theUnited States prompted this cooperative study. The present study seeks toreveal what , if any. similarities and differences in spontaneous musicbehaviors may occur betw,ten similarly grouped preschool children inJapan and the United States. Three categories of children's music behaviors(Littleton.1991): a) spontaneous song or chant. b) spontaneousimprovisations with musical instruments, and c) spontaneous movementto music; 3 categories of social play behaviors(Parten. 1932, Strickland. 1979): a) b) parallel. and c) group; and, genderdifferences were recorded by videotape and later analyzed by timesampling and anecdotal recording techniques. Comparisons ofchildren's spontaneous music behaviors, social behaviors, and gender differencesbetween settings were made and noteworthy similarities anddifferences reported. This paper is submitted for consideration for the ISME Seminar or World Congress "Vital Connections: Young Children, Adults, and Music" 11-15 July, 1994 Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Preschool Children's Spontaneous Music Behaviors Danette Littleton. Ph.D. Professor of Music The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga 615 Mc Caine Avenue Chattanooga. TN 37403 USA Prologue Several pedagogical questions prompted this study: a) What do young children know, musically? b) Do traditional teacher-directed music activities with young children adequately provide opportunities for child-made music? What is the content of young children's spontaneous music-making behaviors? Are there important similarities and differences across cultures among same- age, same-sex preschool children's spontaneous musical explorations and improvisations? Inspired by the findings of the Pillsbury Studies, 1941-1951 3 (Moorhead and Pond, 1978). I began in 1979 collecting observational data by videotape of 3-.4-.and 5-year old children as they played with music in a free play, music-Sjitcific setting. In 1991. I compared 4-, and 5-year-old children's social, cognitive, and music play behaviors in a music-play versus a house-play setting, Gender differences in each play category. and choice of play materials between settings were also compared (Littleton. 1991). Results of this study promoted my interest in investigating young children's spontaneous music play behaviors across cultures, specifically Japan and the United States.
Research Questions The present study, conducted in collaboration with Professor Reiko Hata, Seiwa College. Nishinomiya City, Japan. compared spontaneous music behaviors of 4-, and 5-year-old children playing freely in a music-specific play setting in Japan with children similarly grouped in similarly prepared music play setting in the United States. Unobtrusive, systematic observations were made onvideotape and data collected to answer the following questions:
1. What musical behaviors do 4-, and 5-year-oldchildren in Japan versus 4-, and 5-year-old-children in theUnited States exhibit in a free play, music-specific settingaccording to: a) spontaneous song or chant b) spontaneousimprovisations with musical instruments, and spontaneous movement tomusic? 2. What social play behaviors do 4-,and5-year-old children in Japan versus 4-, and 5-year-old children inthe United States exhibit in a free play music-specific setting:according to a) solitary play, b) parallel play, and c) group play (Parten,1932, Strickland, 1979). 3. What, if any, gender differences occur as4-, and 5-year-old children in Japan versus 4-,and 5-year-oldchildren in the United States play freely in a music-specific setting?
Relevant Research Literature From Friedrich von Schiller's introduction ofplay categories in 1795 as: a) material superfluity, resulting inphysical play: and, b) aesthetic superfluity, emerging as aesthetic ordramatic play (1845), numerous theories of play havebeen presented (Spencer.1896, Groos. 1898, Freud,1920, Hal1,1920. Parten.1932.C. Buhler,1937, K. Buhler. 1949, Piaget.1962. Erikson.1963, Vygotsky,1978.Czikscentniihalyi. 1990). Studies on children's play and Its relations toemotional development (Freud 1920, Erikson,1963), cognitivedevelopment (C. Buhler,1937, K. Buhler,1949, Piaget. 1962),social development (Parten,1932, Millar,1968), play environments(Prescott,1975, Smith and Connolly,1980), play materials(Van Alstyne.1932, Rubin.1977. Phyfe-Perkins.1980), and gender differences(Sutton-Smith and Rosenberg.1971, Liss,1986) have yieldedimportant findings regarding the role of play in children's emotional,social, and cognitive development. Few studies have been conducted on therole of play in children's musical development. Mostnoteworthy were the studies conducted by Moorhead and Pond (1978) atthe Pillsbury School. The freedom to explore music as an indiv,dual or amongpeers with a minimum of adult interventioncharacterized the approach to music
6 learning for children ages 1 through 7 at thePillsbury School from 1937-1951. From their observations and analysisof young children's spontaneous music-making. Moorhead and Pondconcluded that: a) "...free use of varied instruments led togrowth in understanding timbre, pitch, vibration, rhythm.tonal relationship and melody:" b) "....The children showed increasing power to expresstheir ideas and feelings in spontaneous music and todevelop musical communication with each other:" and, c)"...songs that adults teach are unlike in all waysto children's own music" (p. 117).
Methodology
Subjects, Settings, Materials Twenty-four 4-, and 5-year-old children whocomprised one kindergarten class on the campus of Seiwa College,Nishniomiya City. Japan were observed as they freely played in amusic-specific play setting. Observations by unobtrusivevideo camera were collected in 8, 20-minute sessions with 2 alternating groups ofchildren: group A (12 children) videotaped atlst. 3rd, 5th, and 7th sessions: groupB (12 children) videotaped at 2nd, 4th. 6th, and 8th sessions. A music-speciflc play setting was equipped withguitar, electronic keyboards, xylophories. metalophones,marimba, tone bclls. triangles, jingle bells, small and large cymbals,small and large drums, castanets, wood blocks, maracas, guiro, musicstand, music books, and conductor's baton (Appendix A: musicplayroom diagram). Twenty-two 4-, and 5-year-old children who comprised one kindergarten class at St. Nicholas Episcopal DaySchool, Chattanooga. Tennessee, USA were observed asthey freely played in a music-specific play setting. Observations byunobtrusive video camera were collected in 8,20-minute sessions with 2 alternating groups of children: group A (11children) videotaped atist, 3rd, 5th, and 7th sessions; group B (11 children)videotaped at 2nd, 4th, 6th, and 8th sessions. A music-specific play setting was equipped withviolin, guitar. electronic keyboards, xylophones,metalophones, piano, tone bells, triangles, jingle bells, small cymbals andChinese gong, small and large drums, wood blocks, maracas, guiro, musicstand, books, conductor's baton (Appendix B: music playroomdiagram). Design, Data Collection, and Analysis Quantitative and qualitative methods of inquiry wereused to generate information needed to answerthe research questions in this study. Time sampling procedures providedfrequency counts of selected music play behaviors, socialplay behaviors and gender. Anecdotal recording of the children's experiencesprovided descriptive data to augment and enhance theinterpretability of the quantitative data. All behaviors for descriptionand analysis were recorded by a non-obtrusive video camera for scoring,examination, and analysis on later playback. Upon coming to the music play settings,children were told that they would be videotaped as theyplayed. A minimum of two adults were present duringthe observations: the researcher, operatingthe video camera, and a preschool teacherwho served to monitor behavior as appropriate. Aminimum of adult intervention wasmaintained. Coding instruments were designed bythe researcher for time sampling (Appendix C, Appendix D)and anecdotal recording (Appendix E). At the end of a I-minuteinterval, the targeted behavior of an individual child selected atrandom was observed and recorded. At the end of each subsequent minute,the other children were observed individually in a random sequence,and their behavior recorded, until all the children in the settinghad been observed. Observation and recording of behaviorcontlnued in the sequence until 24 observations in the Japanstudy and 22 observations in the USA study were completed. Frequencycounts of selected play behaviors, and gender provided numericaldata for comparisons. Collection of anecdotal data wasperformed by reviewing each tape and making transcriptionsof dialogue and music playevents.. Narrative descriptions in the form of summarynotations for each 20- minute tape focused on noteworthymusic and social play behaviors within the chosen content limitsof this study. The system of time sampling wastested for reliability by determining a significant degree ofconsistency of observations between the researcher and coders.The coders were trained to memorize categorical definitionsof the targeted music and socialplay behaviors and gender. Use the codinginstruments, observations were made of each play category andgender for 2 complete 20 -minute tapes. Upon completion, the coding sheets were checked, and a 98% inter-observer rate of agreement was obtained.
Results
Analysis of time-sampling data revealed differences across cultures in the social play of these 2 groups of children: a) more solitary play among Japanese children than USA children: b) more instances of parallel and group play among USA children than Japanese children: ci fewer instances of non-play by Japanese children than USA children. Analysis of time-sampling data revealed differences across cultures in the music play of these 2 groups of children: d) more instances of vocal, and movement music behaviors among USA children than Japanese children, e) more instances of music instrument playing behaviors among Japanese children than USA children. f) similar music play behaviors of boys in Japan and USA, and g) similar music play behaviors of girls in Japan and the USA. Anecdotal recordings revealed less dialogue and fantasy play among Japanese children in this study than USA children. In each setting, the presence, attraction, and holding power of selected musical instruments disclosed the children's capability for sustained interest in music-making when allowed to play freely in a music- specific play setting. Noteworthy excepts from the videotapes will be presented to support these findings.
Conclusion By observing young children as they play freely with music. unique perspectives on "the mind [of the child] experiencing the world with music" may be acquired (Swanwick. 1988). It is hoped this study will reveal new insights and perspectives across cultures about young children's' musical knowing as they play freely with music.
I ; References
Buhler, C. (1937). From birth to maturity. London:Kegan Paul. Trench. Trubner. Buhler. K. (1949). The mental development ofthe child. London: Rout ledge and Kegan Paul. Czikscentinihalyi. M. (1990). Flow: The psychology ofoptimal experience. New York: Harper and Row. Erikson, E. (1963). Childhood and society. NewYork: Norton. Freud. S. (1920). Beyond the pleasure principle. inThe completed psychological works of Sigmund Freud. vol. 18.London: Hogarth. Groos, K. (1901). The play of man. New York:Appleton. Hall, G. (1920). Youth. New York: Appleton. Liss. M. (1986). Play of boys and girls. In G.Fein and M. Rivkin (Eds.), The young child at play: Reviews of research,(vol. 4. pp. 127-139). Washington. DC: NationalAssociation -for the Education of Young Children. Littleton, D. (1991). Influence of play settings onpreschool children's music and play behaviors. Unpublisheddoctoral dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin. Millar, S. (1968). The psychology of play. Baltimore:Penguin. Moorhead, G. and Pond, D. (1978). Music of youngchildren. (Reprinted from the 1941-1951 editions.) SantaBarbara, CA: Pillsbury Foundation for the Advancement of MusicEducation. Parten, M. (1932). social play among pre-schoolchildren. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology,28,136-147. Phyfe-Perkins, E. (1980). Children's behavior inpreschool settings -- A review of research concerning the influenceof the physical environment. In L. Katz (Ed.), Current topics inearly childhood education, Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 91-125. Plaget. J. (1962). Play, dreams, and imitation inchildhood. New York: W. W. Norton. Prescott. E. (1975). Assessment of child-rearingenvironments: An ecological approach. Children's Bureau, U.S. Department of Health. Education, and Welfare, (Report #R-219.C6). Pacific Oaks, CA. Rubin, K. (1977). Play behaviors of youngchildren. Young children, 32 6. 16-24. Schiller, F. (1845). The aestheticletters, essays, and the philosophical letters. Boston: Little Brown. Spencer, H. (1896). Principles ofpsychology, (3rd edition. vol.2. part 2.). New York: Appleton. Smith, P. and Connolly, K. (1980).The ecology of preschoolbehavior. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress. Sutton-Smith. B. and Rosenberg. B.(1971). Sixth years of historical change in game preference ofAmerican children. In R. Heron and B. Sutton-Smith (Eds.).Child's play (pp.18-50). New York: Wiley. Van Alstyne, D. (1932). Playbehavior and choice of play materials of preschool children. Chicago:The University of ChicagoPress. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society.Cambridge. MA: Harvard University Press. g i -s 1 EI)1`-"( c v) Tri.coigFit les, TAnao14,villesCymbals, Castaviets , H icii5 5eII, smcil( Q mci (ham., Erl" " tr Swall PYums, ler Microphone, (on Shelf)( 1 al -.Q. Es- Alto Xylopilones A Ito etaloFlioner, Mallets >.- -4-5o akvt \TWO Half OCtOtVe Memiophohe \ --1:3 uottc a.i out sgAmq ?Intl)s pu,04.s tut% l!stiv\I !El Moip P.Avoltayi c,..04)npt40)0 pwo 144 31, 9 At, " (4" '3C1 tia13011 2149i-) tvciul) NMI UM 11110 1111 MN In On OM OM 1 2' 1 5' andSoprano, Mallets Alto Xylophones,GlockenspielsMetalophones, Gong Bass Xylophone Bars and Mallets .111 101111, 1. co) o e.) c2. a3 .< tns. a cn2 : g CS1 2g UIIOA 3isnygpuns 1 dnitiomy Jet!no V ME MI MI OM MN MI uu210MB MI uoieg s,.toionptioD salt trERL 'soul.moqwei, spqdois 'srequbb suoqopuif IN MI MI OM Music Play Observation Form
Time Sampling Unit: One minute
Session Date Children Present Session Number
Time Sampling Starting TimeChild Gender Social Behaviors Materials
1. 10:00 am 2- 10:01 am 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. IQ. I 1. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 2L 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.
28. 22, ,011=11 1
Music Play ObservationForm I Time Sampling Unit:One minute I
Children Present Session Date I Session Number
Materials I Child Gender Musical Behaviors Starting Time I Time Sampling M F V M Unit: 1. 10:00 am I 2. 10:01 am 3. 4. I 5. 6. 7. 8. I 9. 10, 11. 12. I 13. 14. 15. I 16. 17. 18. I 19. 20. 21. I 23- 24. 25. 1
2,/,_11.-- 28. .. 1 29- I 30. I I I i I Music Play Anecdotal Recording
10-Minute Summary Notations Setting Date Setting Number Children Present .
Starting Time Verbal Events NonVerbal Events WORKSHOP PROPOSAL FOR THE 1994 ISME CONFERENCE
DR.LINDA HIGH Coordinator of Teacher Education School of Music East Carolina University Greenville, North Carolina 27858 Office 919-757-6851 FAX 919-757-6258
This workshop proposal is submitted forconsideration for the Seminar "Vital Connections: Young Children, Adults, and Music" 11-15 July, 1994 University of Missouri-Columbia, USA
NAMES OF PRESENTERS:
Dr. Michelle Hairston, RMT-BC Chair of Music Education/Music Therapy East Carolina University Greenville, North Carolina
Dr. Linda High Coordinator of Teacher Education East Carolina University Greenville, North Carolina
TITLE OF PROPOSED WORKSHOP:
Using Jack Tales And Folk Music FromOur Americ.lan Appalachian Heritage To Involve rineYoung Learner, Including Those With Special Needs (AnIntegrated Arts Approach Employing Folk Music, Folktales, andPuppets) Using Jack Tales And Folk Music From OurAmerican Appalachian Heritage To Involve The Young Learner,Including Those With Special Needs by Michelle Hairston and Linda High ABSTRACT
Research has found that early childhoodmusic teachers do not feel pr.c.Tared to teach music tostudents with handicaps. Therefore, the purpose of thispresentation is to present strategies for the music teacher to involve thespecial learner in the early childhood musicclass. The American Appalachian Culture of North Carolina canbe enjoyable for 'all young children; however, the humor,fun, and wit make it especially appealing to young childrenwith handicaps. Unfortunately, teachers and parents tendto focus on the special learner's disabilities (the strongerthe disability, the stronger the focus) ratherthan involve them, as other children are involved in the primarypursuit of education, to learn about their heritage andother cultures. The Appalachian 'Jack Tales' integratedwith folk music, puppets, and Orff-Schulwerktechniques will be adapted with music education and music therapytechniques for the special learner in the early childhoodmusic class. for the Seminar Vital This paper issubmitted for consideration Music'll - 15 July1994. Connections: YoungChildren, Adults and
CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG DOING WHAT COKESNATURALLY; GENERATING A MUSIC
CHILDREN
L.R.A.X.,Senior Lecturer in by Dr JuneBoyce-Tillman,M.A.(0xon), Ph.D., Winchester. Home Address: Music Education atKing Alfred's College,
108,Nimrod Road,LondonSW16 6TQ
What sort of activltiesenable us to How do we developmusically?
simpler and simplerrhythmic and melodic do that? Do we Just invent Or are the nature exercises the youngerthe children are? stages? What do children do of these activitiesdifferent at different freely? From this can we with instruments ifallowed to explore tham in the area ofcomposition deduce what activitieswould be appropriate
for the youngestchildren concerned me when 1embarked It was this lastquestion that really were answered as aresult of it. on my researchproject, but many others who children in a SouthLondon Primary School I took a group of some40 3-7 and tape recordedthem each once a at the time ofstarting were aged opportunities.: term responding tosome nine musical
!.Making up a pattern ona pair of maracas
2.Making up a pattern ona tambour up a patte:nfor it 3.Choosing an unpitchedinstrument and making E,G and A, using onebeater. 4.Making up a patternfor the chime bars
/-% 5.Using two sticks to makeup a pattern tor a xylophone with a
pentatonic scale.
6.Using two sticks to make Utta pattern for a metallophone with a scale of C major on it.
7.Saying something like 'It issunny and I an happy on any of the available instruments.
8. Making up a piece for a group of players.
9.Making up a song.
At the end of this exercise I had hundreds of compositions/improvisations on tape. From these emerged a spiral model of musical development:
Meta- cognition
InMinMtvt play
(4-9)
Imitation
(0-4)
Master+.
To. Has uacuil during
a.41 Ail
BEST COPY AVAILABLE 2
The youngest children in the SENSORY made wereconcerned with the impressiveness of sound, especially timbre. A small maraca was geztly shaken or a beater rattled on a triangle. A variety of sound sources were tried out such as knocking the wood of thedrum. The compositions had the character of unpredictable sound explorations:
AUDIOTAPE (Examples of children's work)
At around four or five the children showed an increasingability to manipulate sounds in the MANIPULATIVE mode. There was increasing
technical mastery and long passages of steady pulse notes were common.
Pieces using two beaters were often created from the mechanical
alternation of two sticks and the physical structure ofthe instruments
often dictated the shape of the composition:
AUDIOTAPE (Examples of children's work)
A quality of intense personal expression seemed to appearfirst in the
songs of the four year olds in thePERSONAL node. A song about the sun
shining built up to a great climax using repetitionand increasing leaps
until the child herself appeared to be taken overby a sense of shining.
In instrumental pieces increases in speed anddynamics were used to
create a climax. There was little structural concernin them and the
gestures appeared spantaneous:
AUDIOTAPE (Examples of children's work)
Around seven, there was a marked shift from these moreidiosyncratic
pieces to some based on more sharedmusical conventions in the
VERNACULAR Mode. Expressiveness Was embedded in established structres
1:e four bar phrases and cllches 1ie familiarrhvthm patterns. Compositions became shorter and repetitive. Group pieces were based on ostinati:
AUDIOTAPE (Examples of children's work)
With the Vernacular the children seemed to have entered the first phase
of conventional mu'ic-making and their wark was more predictable. This
entry into the world of the musical commonplace is essential to the next
phase, the SPECULATIVE Mode, when deliberate repetition makes way for
imaginative deviation. In the IDIOMATIC Made the idiosyncratic
exploration of surprises gave way to a desire to conform to accepted
norms as a particular musical style was chosen, often, although not
always, from the world of rock and pop, and attempts were made to work
within it. There was often an interest in harmony and a concern for the
formal structures of the chosen idiom. The last two swings of the
spiralwere not drawn fron the children's compositions.In the SYMBOLIC
Mode there is a growing sense of music's affective power and a tendency
to become articulate about this experience. In the SYSTEMATIC Mode
compositions are based on general principles of newly organised groups
of musical materials as in serialism.
The spiral model suggests that it is with MATERIALS od sound that
the younger children are concerned. The model has proved useful in
assessing children's musical development and can also help to generate a
curriculum appropriate to their development and one which will enable
them to develop into mature musicians later by being based around their
owm natural instincts.
So with the three to five year olds activiti,_; exploring the toz.s
colour of instruments are suggested. There are many ways or doin?.
tt:s One ts :o have available a 'sound :orner'in whicn a variety DI sound making equipment is available for thechllaren to explore freely.
In tbelammal music session, organisationalstructures have to be developed to enable these explorations to takeplace in a group
A tambour is situation. One of these is a game called 'Magic drum'. passed around the circle of children whilethey all recite the rhyme:
Magic drum,magic drum.
What sounds can you make?
Whoever is holding the drum at the endof the rhyme nust explore the
available sounds as s/he wishes:Here it isplayed by a group of four for year olds with an Africanstyle drum. The game can clearly be used
any instrument:
VIDEOTAPE (Children playing this game)
Similar explorations can take place in anactivity that I call 'a
song with holes in it' as you can seethis four year olds doing withthe
the variety of tone colours availablewith their hands:
VIDEOTAPE (Four year olds singing a song thatcontains a space for tone
colour exploration)
This is also a very useful song if youhave adults and children
introducing the instruments of together. It is a very 'friendly' way of
the orc.stra, for example. when older
players can put whole tunes intothe slot. Here is an activity in which
all can participate at the levelof their own ability.
Guessing games are fun and a simple one canbe made by colle'ting
containers with removable lids that areall the same, and filling them If two are filled with different miterials-stones.gravel.riceand so on.
with the same filling the c..nildren can:Ind the pair. This is 3 zobd
BEST CopyAVAILABLE activity to have available on the sound explorationtable, changing the fillings each week.
After tone colour exploration children startto form the question
'How can I organise this sound?' How this is done often dopends on what
physical action comes easily to each individualchild. One common way
is in pulse patterns. Anyone who has had responsibility for a young
child will know the sound of two saucepanlids being clanged together or
a simple shaker being shakenin a steady beat pattern for a long tine
(if allowed to do so by the carer). Some used tothink that this was a
pointless activity designed to disrupt, but in fact itis a very
important part of musical development. The child is beating out his/her.
own pulse and this stage is aprerequisite for what was once thought to
be the beginning of rhythmic activity - playing in tinewith the pulse
of someone else or a group of people. Such exploration can be
disruptive when carried out on a drum, which is why itis wise to have available softer instruments such as shakers of variouskinds on the 1 sound making table. This pulse exploration is the bedrock on which
future rhythmic security is based. I am sure that pupils who cone to
learn from me later in Iife and who can get therelative note values of
a piece somewhere near correctbut somehow the piece still lacks an
underlying sense of rhythm are people, who,if one looked at :heir early
experience, came from backgrounds where suchactivity was discouraged or
even banned.
The ability to do this is closelyrelated to movement skills; so in
this mode movement activities are importantin the music class. We often
have to mcve from classroom to hall tor musiclessons and we .:se that
time to walk rhythmically. singing as wego. Valking is cv.,ite a complex activity and such sound producing activities as clapping are easier. Kany singing games involve not only skipping or walking in t:me but also clapping as a happy couple are united and dancing together in the middle of the circle.Here a group of four year olds perform the ending of a game based on The Sleeping Beauty story:
VIDEOTAPE (Children dancing last two verses of 'There was a princess long ago)
One game thatI play involves children inventing an action that s/he feels able to do and leading the class band with it. The
leader heads the circle doing the chosen action while every one sings
imitating the action. Here a group of seven year olds play it:
VIDEOTAPE (A class of seven year olds play 'The Leader of the Band')
The strength of the game is that the leader can choose any action s/he
finds easy and this will vary from child to child. It is good to see
how young children take to the role of leader. It is possibly the first
time in their lives that this has been possible and even if they find 1:
difficult, the fact that it only lasts for a defined length of time
makes it possible. It is very valuaole for five year olds to be offerea
a position of authority.
Other rhythmic movement activities include swinging hoops in time
to music. In this tape of seven year olds doing it you can see clearly
the varying levels of development in the group and also how some
children get and then lose the ability to do it rhythmically:
VIDEOTAPE (Children swinging hoops in pairs to Weinberger's Polka from
Schwan:.'a the Bagpiper.)
Vhat I have outlined here are activities appropriate for 3-6 year
ida 03S.ari on my own research.These sounds are prohaoly tam:liar to
BEST COPY AVAILABLE people working in many cultures. Ct is only later (especially in the
VERNACULAR that the sound patterns tend to diverge. Most of all it sets out activities that are in line withthe children's own musical development in classroom structures that are funand relaxed. People develop as musicians by being accepted. So many people in the name of music education have been told only wherethey were wrongand now designate themselves as non-musicians because theactivities on offer were inappropriLte to their stage ofdevelopment. Sone never made music
hopefully we can open again. We grow by acceptance and friendship and up music again to everyone, forit is the birthright of every child in our schools.
REFERESCES
Swanwick K. Xusic. Mind and Education, LondonRoutledge 1988
Swanwick,K. and Tillman J.B., The Sequence of MusicalDevelopment,
British Journal of Music Education Vol 3 No3 Nov.1986 pp305-39
Tillman J.B. Forty Music Games to Make andPlay, Basingstoke Macmillan
1983
ABSTRACT
Drawinz on research carried out in a Londonprimary school,a model of
children's musical development is set outthat suggests that young
children are interested in the Materialsof sound before developing an
interest in its expressive character orrhythmic and melodic patterns.
The 1=1:cations of this for a musiccurriculum appropriate to this
stage in their development are explored with examples onaudio and
73pe o: pupiis in London scnools
BEST COPY AVAILABLE "r. Rv'-akova
F^ 7 nstrumen-_s tent
St. Feti.r...bur.=' of 22 2razhdanskv Fr. Az ' qF990 7t. Peter.:tur Y. Russia
Dr. Krav-.,sov Professnr Hef-, of the Folk Ir..74trumnzs D4parrmen.: Fetersbur Institute of Cu2.ture flff ice Adriress: 2/4 Dvortsvaya Nab.. 120;31 St. Petersburg, Russia
APTRACT
Souncl Msalc: Young Children's Musical Development Program
In thA areaof musical education and development which is cnstantly changinu due to social factors inherent in the modern civilization ideas and teaching methods, both new and thosewhich were known before, are ncwbeingcrystallized. Thisprocess ra.sillts in the necessary adaptatin of the entire peda,gouical system to the current requirements. It should be emphasized that this process is more or less chara,cteristic of allcountries. The present paper deals with the pro!zram for mina'children's musical developmnt "17vukovav Mczalka" (z'ound Mnsair), which is a resul-: of efforts of 7t.F..tersbnr- Inst itutf. of Culture, and the Ce er res.7arch and re t hodics laboratory program, has
inf1men17ed pedazogical strategies in the area of musical
e'CatiC 'n in 7-'t.Feterstur.:i and some other rezions, such az F.arelia (Fetrozavodsk. MUrransk, Perm.
BEST COPY AVAILABLE Cr. EleoncrA R7tQl Professor Folk instrumenrsDepartm,ent St.Peterstunz Instituteof CulturA Grazhdanskv Fr., Apt.19, 19520 St.Petersburct,Russia Dr. Nikolai Kravtsov Professor Head of the FolkInstruments Departirent St.Petersburg Instituteof Cultnre Office Address: 2/4Dvortsovava Nab., 192061 St.Petersburg, Russia for the Seminar This paper issubmitted forconsideration Adults, and Music," 11-15 "Vital Connections: Young Children, ju,v, 1294. Development Program Sound Mosaic: YoungChildren's Musical in the 196C-70ss. Thepedaa'cical systems existing effect. The system of musical '_infortunately, yi-21ded little introduced in ourcountry ty education developedby K..Drff and promotedby and Kodsly's system 7Tofe532r L.A.Earenteum LatvI3,, and rc,rn.Ynition in 7-",..ton,s. Russia. 7 ithu..nlatut not in cut 'by msical and aestheticeducation worked The methods of to musically efficient ,,nnu;hwhenapplied czovi4tteschens.are most hassome drawbacks the. rhildren. However, when is not qlways -successful important ofwhich is that it MUsical children with averazeabilities. musiral development of admittance of 5 but oompetitive schocls haveexcellent teachers, rigid provram, and earlyspeialization or 6 yearold children, On the rather undesirable. characteristic ofsuch schools are where zroups creative:cultural rent,.--ra, hancl, atchi,dren's other failed of those childrenwhchav of pupils areusually made up there is nospecial program to a musicalschool, LW he admitted than not, such Still worse, more often for musicaleducation. professional who have the necessary rAnt:,.,rs lackspecialists musical children. The system of qualifications forteaching such clubs is inmcst casesthe sage education used atsuch centers or theymake to schools. The attempts as the e,neused at musical needs adapting it totheir specific modifythe teaching process etc, do not of specialinstrument, through extendingthe course amateur Both in musicalschools and in solve theproblem either. skills often reduced to developing groups musicaleducation is Traininz under particulErinstrument. and techniqdesof playing a formany simplyunendurable like this is touzhand a system and results in asmall numberof profess:nal children. A7l this hildren andadultswho and a zreatnuter of amateur :rusi.:ians early age 4 sontncngdifficult. At an rejectclassical niusic as process, too starts on aTonctonous learning or F.years': a child BEST COPY AVAILABLE Instead of freemusic-maikin:s m!!,-lh resemblinghis school routine, For the fascinQtinuv.rld of music. whi.-h attractsthe child to 1understocd as professional perfnmance most pe. Ple,the ideas r-Nf education is necessary) performanoe forwhich sChoni 77;1W, (interpreted as reoreation. Lay. and amateur musicianship to a yap between other, whichhas led oppose.j to each listenrs. musicians, pArformers and professional andamateur it exists in typically Russianproblem, This. again, is not a forms of However, sincemid-1980s, new (\then ,Y-Nuntriesas well. development studiosandaesthetic musloal education, such as have emergedand the oldteachinY/edurat'ion centersfo- children the Folk The strategyadoptedby methods had tobe replared. Culture at at St.PetersburgInstitute of InstrumentsDepartment which alreadyexistedoutside that time wasbased on an idea Unique possibilities to yield goodresults. Russiaand proved and the Peoplesinhabiting Russia provided by folkinstruments of basis of of musicaleducation on the suzgestedby the traditions existed in Russiain the 19thcentury, amateurmusicianship which have resulted in advanced worldexperience, as well as the most of the of methodsbased on the summary the creationof a system the methodsof and research into existingteachinY experience which takes into education throu9:hmusic, chilf4ren's aesthetir mastering the one has toface when account the difficulties folk music. Themethodir's "Musical lanuage of musicand leans on basisoffolk of childrenon the ^n1 aestheticeducation Department to submitted by theFolk Instruments instruffents" was Institute of of St.Petg.rsbur,?: State the Mthr.dical Council children allows to attractas many in 19.-1. This method the folk The method isbased an playin,x as o55i.,-1-1 to music. 4 instruiPents which are easyencucth for children. im-re,viaati,o.n, Ch Idren are admitted to a.,ccession "f assncia.tive a4e. Al: schols and studiosirrespective of abilitiesand children are happy to cometn our nlassAs anA earer this la what we:-onsiAer ournst imortant anhievent. for the Vtsaic. - Instrurenta. aesthetic develpment was orzanized at the thia studio aretau=ht D,=-partment. Apart from music, children in laa:).es. Hwever, music is cur art, f-hr,r,,,,:fr-aPhv, forelYn children make ceramicwhistlea, priority.In their art classes, and spoons, able nf pre-maciP platAs, try to desin traditinnQl cr..,,s and the new kevtnar(ia, bnth familiarize themselves in Fravtsov'a, :<,..vt,\=.-d. In this way, they We have prepared ashort the world ni musin from theinside. workofour viden film to show ournew instrurents and the a base for The Sound Mbsaicstudio has practicallybecome well as forseminars and students' teachina practice as whoalready continuous education coursesintended for teachers a special courseof lectures was wore,. At the sage time, in1988 of the Folk Instruments introduced for third-yearstudents 'Musical and aestheticeducation of Department, "The Methodics (30 contact hours). childrfln on the basisof folk instruments" attractthe staffof unique The Department has manazed to Kravtsov N.A.. Head ofthe q'Ialifications tc thiswork. Professor creator of a new Department, a Tallinn:priservatory 9:raduate. the of Kodaly, hasenriched kevt,...ard, who wasbrouht up on the syste:11 leader tnis prram by anumter of new ideas: he has become the basis for the new method. in the :reat i onof the instrut*ntal 13FRT COPY AVAII API 5 n,awideas n the area newnstruments and 1mp 1 eme nt rez :,rst.sat e of Dr. Fvbakova E. L. , a of instrulyental under Prof.a.s.-r St. Fet ervatry, by A L. 0strovsk: endedthra1.,.ctures del .er:-d r-srva-..s.ay.\and:At ,^f thP Ian A. z*.. Chan: lov is a winner and L.;1/4.Earenbe um. lfaader of Masters Comp4,- M'7 1 C == 7 I nst ru7ent s by well-knownscholars who ensemt le. Lectures are readd :hale1ka amn:: ldren' s creat v y, inthe problems ofchi are in:erested professor of the them V. clovn, Dortor of Phi lolocry, assistant I nst itute of at St. Patersburg Chi ldren' sLiterature Department who has workedwith Culture, and Dr. 0. L.Nekrasova-Karateyeva, and Museumforover 12 years chi ldren at theState Hermitage currently superv isesart programfor pre-schools. great interestamong the The cnurseof lectures aroused request , a parallel st oentsthfarefrre, at the students' of seminars. a)t, nnal course wasdevelopedwhichconsisted to 5 persons) practical classes. classes held insmall groups ( 3 The 300contact hours altogether. and individual tutorials, beginning with thesecond year cours,ais designedfor three years ofthe 20th centurypedagogics. of studies. Eased on the ideas topsychologically and this opt ional course is supposed students for the irfutureact iv it les as mus pract cal ly prepare necessary for that the teachers. It is awell-known fact abilities through part i cipat ion in th: s SW& 2Ct t les are bestdeve oped contact hour aweek part icular typeof act ivi es.Therefore, one at the which studentsact as teachers is devotedto seminars at by the i r fellowstudents. les.-hThe role of theclass is played it must not drpl:cate t The curriculum isnon-traditional and basic c=iculurn. BEST COPY AVMLABLE e. by the op.`'ln=1course, the In order _toattain the v-Nals set an,f, wflr in7roduced: Eas:s of Folk Ae,7tneti: three par's: VChildren's InstrH,zents". This ect consists of aspects early stage: 2) Psychological musical development at an of pre-school children; of musical andaesthetic development This musical/aesthetic developmentstudio. Leader/teacher at a "The three other subjects: basic sflbect issupplementedby Solfeggio (theMementaries of Method:3s ofTeaching Elementary ofTeaching Flk Instruments" Notification)" "The gathodics Fintion for Children." "Children's Folkloreand Ethnopedaogics. the theoryand the Ersth of these courses(the special course in Education of "Musical and Aesthetic optional practical course Instruments") became abasis fora Children on theBasis of Folk of training of musicteachers forchildren newspecialization, contacts with thechildren's the youngest age-group.Cie to broad support fromthe Petersburg musical theater"Zazerkalye" and S.Belimov the interestin the composersS.Banevich, V.Uspensky, the students of St.Petersburg Sound Mosaicprogram among the working musicteachers is Institute of Cultureand also among enormous. with the composer Newly-established creative contacts series ofcycles writtenby S.Slonimsky haveresulted in a whole the This hasallowed us to broaden himfor small children. of newmethodon the basis repertoire and to realize the contemporary and professional music. received highqualitymusical ...A ...SI we can saythat we have maor end of the 20th century by a material created at the S.Slonimsky. These piecesreflect the late compo.'er oftoday like j6 BEST COPY AVAILABLE - 7 - tea.:hing methods. W1-,3t is 90th ,'enturydevi4looments in musi: able to understand it. more, childrenlike this music and are resAarch/methodiral rn,-ier new conditions. specialized order to improve thA laboratory. NK-7en-er. was oraniz,,d in childrn. As a res;1lt nf systemof training music teachers for of Culture, Fre- 2oint efforts ofSt.Petersburg State Institute Institute for FurtherEducation of 7chool Methodics Group of the University, andMusic Teachers, the TeacherTraining Program Institute, five Methodics Group at the Cultural framework of the international seminars havebeen held within the Present-Day Culture." Theseseminars ("vole "Musical Education in andRussiawith aim atfamiliarizinteachers in St.Petersturg this area. Our seminars are the world's latest developments in as well asother attended by people from all overRussia countries (Bulgaria.Yugoslavia). educationforteachers As well, the systemof continuous "Leader/Teacherof a rffers special fourmonth course For the past three years, Children's Studio"(150 contact hours). ,It means that atleast over 600 teachershave taken this course. andotherrevions 400-500 schools andpre-schools in Petersburg The results of our have adopted someelements of the newmethod. at various scientific and methodicalwork havebeen presented practically all who work workshops and conferences. In this way, Petersburg have become in the areaof musical education in over 1,000 familiar withthis method. For the past few years, Sound Mosaic. The children have participatedin the pilot program aged 3.5-5 took part ingrand rAsl,lts are moststri:;inv. Children municipal cultural concerts at the GlinkaKapella Hall, the But the most important center, togeher withadult performers. 1 R - to schools have started annt is that manypre-schoolsand pron.ams based onthe SoundWsalc develnp theirownauthor's of and AestheticEducation prozram andthz, mPtho(11.--s"Mus,a1 Cenr-,r zt of FolkInc.trnments" 7hileiren onthe Basis rhildren'ct Art Center kindrtenNo.12n, Sestroretskv Creativ,-, Mtlti-Aspect Approachto a Child's kinderarten Ne-. 7, for kindfargarten, The Schoni Develnpmenr_ atFiroTetrPlant's the Scheiol for Folk InstrumentsSchool, Planetary Thinking, townof ofChildren in the Musical andArtisticDevelopment will be madeavailable at the Kolpino, andothers. These programs of as well asthe programs request of thosewho areinterested, happy to say optional course.Also, we are our specialcourse and St.Petersburg many musicschools in that beeinningthis year, which for childrenaged over 4, have openedpreparatory groups Thus, our idea the SoundMbsaic proeram. use allthe points of has startedto work atall levels. the record of alesson at A videofilm (5 minutes) includes method; it basic principlesofour the studioillustrating the and Kravtsov'skeyboard. also shows theinstrumental base THE WINDOW OFOPPORTUNITY Sheila C. Woodward PhD Research Associate University of Cape Town 2 Shaw Road Rondebosch 7700 South Africa This paper is submitted for considerationfor the Seminar "Vital Connections: Young Children,Adults and Music," 11-15 July 1994. ABSTRACT experience in order to be Man's inherent musical andlinguistic potential requires auditory and postnatal released. The prolific stage ofneurological growth which occurs in pre- stages may constimte a'window of opportunity' for thelearning of music. There appears be received for the to be a critical developmentperiod in which widely varied sound must central auditory system to maturenormally. The long term effect ofprenatal stimulation flmction has been the subject programmes ondevelopmental achievement and intellectual developmental of several recent research programmes,which reflect a downward shift in optimal sound milestones associated with earlystimulation. In striving to provide opportunity of cultivating environments for the prenate, neonateand infant, society has the crucial stage of learning the music learning processduring what is possibly the most development. BEST COPY AVAILABLE THE WINDOW OFOPPORTUNITY Sheila C. Woodward PhD Musicality is a predetermined humanintelligence, as is linguisticity (Gardner1983). However, the release of man's inherentmusical and linguistic potentialrequires auditory experience. Investigation of the routes tomusical competence must span theinfluences occurring in the pre- and postnatal stages.Whether this early period is 'morepropitious for the acquisition of musical skills'than any other, has not been established(Roehmann 1991). Does the prolific stage ofneurological growth which occurs in the pre-and postnatal stages constitute a 'windowof opportunity' for the learning ofmusic?If musical experience does not occur inthis period, does the extent of musicalpotential remain forever unrealised? A vastfield lies unexplored in the need to develop"the kinds of explanatory theories about the causesand origins of excellence in music thatwill make it possible to design more effectivelearning experiences" (Howe and Sloboda1991). The acquisition of musical languageskills requires the same cognitive auditoryprocessing thatisessential to speech development.Both functions concern the perception, discrimination, analysis, categorisation, memoryand learning of sound componentssuch widely recognised that children whohave as frequency,timbre, intensity and duration. It is been exposed to one or morevocal languages from early lifeachieve an accuracy of receiving intonation and igammatical constructionthat is generally unequalled in persons such exposure later. On the one extreme,total auditory deprivation in ezzly lifeis stated to Downs 1984). result in irreversible inability toperceive speech sounds" (Northern and Language exposure in theperiod before two years of age appears tobe critical. Rehabilitation of the deaf, implementedfrom two years of age, is shown toresult in only 1967). A study of partialreversibilityin language learningdeficits (Lennenberg institutionalised homeless iafants in Lebanonindicated that the intellectual functioningin those adopted after the age of tworemained retarded, while thoseadopted before two reached normal intellectual function(Dennis 1973). These childrenreceived minimal stimulation and were fed bybottles suspended on artificial goosenecksupporters. Northern and Downs (1984) comparethe situations of a boy raised in thewild who never attained language function (Lane 1977)with the girl locked in a closetfor 11 years (Fromkin et aL 1974). It was suggestedthat the girl's initial twenty-month exposure to family life was responsible for her achievementsin language abilities. "It seems as if even a short exposure tolanguage, a brief moment during whichthe curtain has been lifted and oralcommunication established, is sufficient togive a child some foundation on which muchlater language may be based" (Lennenberg .1967). musically enriched or What is the "neurologic,physiologic and psychologic effect of a deprived environment" during theprenatal and postnatal stages?(Roehmann 1991). There appears to be acritical development period in whichwidely varied sound must be received When for the central auditory system to maturenormally (Webster and Webster 1977). develop normally in deprived of sound stimulation,the central auditory system does not 2 the br2.in *tem. This is evidenced by theprofound neural changes in the brain stem auditory nuclei associated with sound deprivation(Webster and Webster 1977). For normal maturity of auditory function to occur one musttherefore presume that varied and frequent auditory stimulation is of critical importance. Adeprived period may result in an omission in the normal infant's pattern of sequentialdevelopment, which may be of permanent effect (Rothschild 1966). Proliferation of neuronal cells occurs in intrauterinelife at a rate of 50,000 per second (Diamond 1993). This is unequalled at any other stageof human development. About 50% of these cells die if they don't make functional contact.At birth, the full complement of nerve cells is present inhumans Impairment of brain development can be causedby malnutrition, toxic chemicals, drugs, viruses and teratogensA stimulating or deprived sensory environment is also shown toinfluence brain development. Research has indicated increased weight gaia and cortex mass in the offspringof mothers exposed to stimulating environments during pregnancy (Diamond 1993). DrDiamond also describes the increased numbers of dendrites protruding from the braincells. Experience-dependent learning has been described asinvolving the "active formation of new synaptic connections"between the nerve cells in the sensory system "in response to the events providing the information to bestored" (Greenough et al. 1987). Despite loss of conscious memory with regards early life,there is little doubt regarding the permanent imprinting of environment on the developinghuman being. "It is logically and empirically possiblefor the infant to experience apainful episode in, for example, the thirdday of life which could have aneffect upon his perception of subsequent events in the sameday or in the next, and for these altered perceptions to influence(condition) other experience. Yetby the time several days or years have passed,although none of the experienceswould have been remembered specifically, thepainful episode and its sequelaenonetheless might have altered the organism in certainspecial ways" (Lipsitt 1977 p175). The consequential value of earlylearning is widely assumed: "Early handing could be moreimportant than later handling in the sensethat it would influence a greater number ofsubsequent events than would latehandling" (Fiske and Maddi 1961 P100). Learning experiences in early life mayhave enduring effects on the capacityof the central nervous system to holdinformation in memory and tocapitalise on that capacity for further learning"(Lipsitt 2986 p 174). The extent to which the fetusand nemate are able to experiencenmsic is currently impossible to estimate. However,the maturity of peripheralauditory mechanisms, the auditory stinmlation activity of the auditory nerveand evidence of cortical response to 4 1 . ' indicate hearing function by the 25th week(Anson and Donaldson 1973, Gerber1977, Marty and Thomas 1963, Starr et aL1977). A wide range of external sounds areshown to be transmitted into the human uterus,including music which, although muffled,retains its essential tonal, textural and rhythmic character(Woodward 1992). Research has indicated more than just a basicneurophysiological auditory perception (such asauropalpebral response) before birth. "Infants are not simply pas.rve recipients ofexperience but appear to be active, searching and selective perceivers" (Bornstein1989 p 450). Complex auditory discrimination is shown tobe present in the neonate regarding frequency, timbre, intensity and duration of sound(Weir and Lamb 1990, Wonnirth et a. 1975, Bridger 1961, Aslnet al. 1983, Brody etaL 1984, Bertoncini et aL 1987, Lecanuet et al 1989, Bartoscuk 1964,Steinschneider et aL 1966, Suzuki et aL 1964,Porges et al. 1973, Millot et aL 1987, Weiss et aL 1988,Weir 1976). These being the basic components of vocal and musical language, it is suggestedthat the newboni is able to perceive both music and speech, distinguishing thesesounds from noise and discriminating theirvarying components. So acute is theauditory discriminatory ability of the neonate,that only the first 34-44 milliseconds of a consonant orvowel are required to discriminateit from another (Bertoncini et aL 1987). 5 born in the The value of prenatal auditorystimulation is a concept which was not twentieth century. The 19th centuryChinese document 'The Book of theGreat Society' (Ta T'ung) presents the idea of pregnantmothers attending institutionssituated in beautiful landscapes. Here they wouldread, exercise, listen to and makemusic. The mothers would wear jewellery withbells which would ring as she moved(cited in Blum and 1993). Basic psychological andpsychophysiological effects of sound on prenates neonates have been acceptedthroughout the ages. It is not uncommon tohear of pregnant women needing to removethemselves from a noisy situation becauseof the strong kicking of the child in her womb. The useof lullabies and rhythmic rocking is commonto mothering practice in all cultures. Mothers mayhave a subconscious tendency to give a very personal formof sound stimulation to their babies.Salk found that 78% of left- handed mothers and 83% of right-handedmothers held their babies on the leftside, close to the sound of the heartbeat (Salk 1962). Research hasvalidated these mothering practices (Murooka et aL 1976, Rosnerand Doherty 1979, Hepper 1988).Newborns exposed to heartbeat sounds cry less, sleepbetter and gain more weight (Salk 1962).The unborn child who is exposed to constanthigh noise levels (such as experiencedclose to an airport) tends to be more active andsmall for gestational age (Schell1981, Ando and Hattori 1977). Soothing soundstimulation of the incubated prematureinfant decreases restlessness and enhances weight gain(Katz 1971, Kramer and Pierpont1976). of both neural Stimulation in the prenatal period issuggested to influence the development responsivity in incubated and behavioural patterns (Reisen1961). A study of auditory 6 preterm infants determined greater responsivityin those infants who had received 4 to 8 weeks of auditory stimulation than those who had not(Segall 1972). Research has indicated that there is memory of music and sounds heardprenatally. Learning of these sounds is evidenced by recognition, association, andconditioning. There is plentiful anecdotal and empirical evidence of children and adults recognisingwords, language, sounds and music to which they were exposed duringthe prenatal stage (Verny 1981, Chamberlain 1993, Hepper 1988, Naidoo 1988, Damstra-Wigmenga1988, Mehler et al. 1988, Wilkin 1993). Typically, an auditory stimulus will elicitattention, while repetition thereof will, if neither rewarding or threatening, cause theorientation to attenuate. A novel stimulus will again elicit attention. The third trimester fetus iscapable of habituating to a repeated sound and dishabituating when the stimulus isaltered. The process involves the ability to remember a sound heard previously, to analyse thesignificance of the sound and to compare the present sound to one heard previously. Complexprocessing of sound is further indicated by studies of fetal and neonatal modification ofbehaviour in response to auditory experience (Spelt 1948, Shalev et.al. 1989). Investigations have shown that neonates discriminate the maternal voice fromothers and alter their behaviour to select it (Querleu et al. 1984, DeCasper and Fifer 1980, Harris 1983,Remick 1989, Mayes 1989). They will also select recordings of a story which havebeen read repeatedly during the pregnancy, in preference to a novel story(Decasper and Sigafoos 1983). Some researchers have demonstrated that features of the mother's voice arerecognisable in the infant's cry, suggesting early imitation of language (Truby and Lind1965). 7 The long term effect ofprenatal stimulation programmes ondevelopmental achievement research programmes. and intellectual function hasbeen the subject of several recent Logan (1991) investigates the useof a sonic belt which is attached tothe maternal rhythm of the maternal abdomen. The programme beginswith repetition of the simple through the set of 16 tapes heart beat. The rhythmic soundsbecome increasingly complex conducted on children (designed to be used over a 16-weekperiod). Developmental tests balance, space exposed to this programme indicateadvanced levels of conceptualisation, orientation, rhythm and intuition.The Ladswich study includesthe use of Russian instruments, Western percussion andsinging. Far higher numbers ofstudy infants are control groups. Other shown to exceed normaldevelopmental levels than those in programmes also reflect adownward shift in developmentalmilestones associated with early stimulation (Gros 1990, Vande Carr and Lehrer 1986). TheGros project Van de investigated 983 premature infants, withevaluation extending to 3 years of age. Carr evaluated subjects up to 10 yearsof age who were exposed to aprenatal stimulation and light (Van de Carr programme which includedthe use of sound, movement, touch influential on 1993). A prenatal stimulation programmein Thailand is described as being aspects such as heightand head circumference, fine and grossmotor performance and of deprived speech and language acquisition.(Panthuraamphorn 1993). The upliftment been communities through similarprenatalstimulation programmes has recently A sample of 684 investigated in Venezuela (Manrique1993, Manrique et aL 1993). at appropriate subjects was tested intermittently, up to4 years of age. Using standard tests 8 ages,it was determined that 45%. of children inthe experimental sample displayed significantly superior developmental and intellectualachievements than the control group. The indication that an individual child or a wholecommunity of children could be uplifted from social and economic deprivation throughprenatal stimulation, has vast implications. As a result of early development of neuronalprocessing, the child may enter school with a distinct intellectual advantage. The benefitsof this, particularly in compensatingfor social and educational disadvantages, may befar reaching. g as suggested by the literature,the developmental window for majorneurological input does close at two and a half years, then providing an early stimulatingenvironment should be a primary goalof parents. Enlightenment in this regard could be implementedby national health and education bodies. A practical situation in which to providethis training may be the antenatal clinics which many women across the world attendduring their pregnancies. The literature holds a wealth ofinformation on the influences of early soundstimulation on the fetus, neonateand infant The evidence of auditorydiscrimination, memory and learning which occurs from the fetal stageindicates the vital role which parents,caregivers and society should play in the provisionof optimal sound environments frombefore birth. remember and It also substantiates the argumentthat the unborn child is able to perceive, be conditioned to hisler musicalenvironment. The bripact of the pre-and postnatal acoustic environment on thedevelopment of the 'musical ear' is asubject worth much investigation. No doubt, naturalists willbalk at the idea of educating thefetus. But far 9 need consider from a concept of studiouslypresenting a prescribed syllabus, the parent this simple reality...the power towithhold or grant a world of music. REFERENCES levels in maternal Ando Y, Hattori H. Effectsof noise on human placental lactogen plasma. Br J Obstet Gynaecol1977;84:115-8. 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