AP COURSE OBJECTIVES

I. METHONDS, APPROACHES, HISTORY A. Introduction: The Origins of Psychology a. Define psychology and discuss the issues that shaped psychology’s evolution over the past century and a half, including the influence of philosophy and physiology. b. Describe the roles played by and in the establishment of psychology as a separate scientific discipline. c. Identify the founders of structuralism and functionalism, and compare and contrast their key ideas and goals. d. Identify three early American who were students of William James or Edward Titchener, and list their contributions to the development of psychology. e. Identify the founder and describe the key ideas of psychoanalysis. f. List three key scientists in the development of , and describe behaviorism’s basic assumptions and goals. g. Identify two advocates of , and note how humanistic psychology differs from behaviorism and psychoanalysis. B. Contemporary Psychology a. List and describe the seven major perspectives in contemporary psychology. b. Explain the importance of cross-, and distinguish between individualistic and collectivistic cultures. c. Explain the basic assumptions of the evolutionary perspective. d. List the specialty areas in contemporary psychology, describe the focus of each, and distinguish between psychology and psychiatry. C. The Scientific Method a. List the four goals of psychology, explain the scientific assumptions and attitudes of psychologists, and describe critical thinking. b. Describe the scientific method, note the difference between a hypothesis and a theory, and explain the importance of operational definitions, replication, and statistics. D. Descriptive Research Methods a. Define descriptive research methods, and describe how naturalistic observation and case studies are conducted. b. Define a pseudoscience and explain how to recognize and evaluate pseudoscientific claims. c. Describe survey research and list the criteria that must be met for survey results to be valid. d. Define correlation coefficient, and explain the difference between positive and negative correlations, and describe the functions and limitations of correlational research. E. The Experimental Method a. Define and explain the function of the hypothesis, independent variable, dependent variable, random assignment, experimental group, and control group in an experiment. b. Identify the hypothesis, independent variable, dependent variable, experimental group, and control group in the experiment testing the relationship between playing violent video games and aggressive behavior, and critically evaluate the results of the experiment. c. Explain the purpose of the placebo-control groups, defining expectancy effects, double-blind study, practice effects, and demand characteristics. F. Statistics a. Distinguish the purposes of descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. b. Apply basic descriptive statistical concepts, including interpreting and constructing graphs and calculating simple descriptive statistics, including mean, mode, median, standard deviation, and central tendency.

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G. Ethics in Psychological Research a. Describe the major provisions of the APA’s code of ethics for research with human and nonhuman animal subjects. H. Application: Evaluating Media Reports About Psychology a. List criteria that should be used to evaluate media reports about psychological findings and topics. II. BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR A. Introduction: Neuroscience and Behavior a. Define biological psychology and neuroscience, and explain why psychologists study the biological basis of behavior. B. The Neuron: The Basic Unit of Communication a. Describe the functions of neurons and glial cells, and distinguish among the three types of neurons. b. Identify the basic components of the neuron, describe the action potential, and explain the processes that take place within the neuron when it is activated. c. Explain how information is communicated between neurons, and distinguish between excitatory and inhibitory messages. d. Describe how information is communicated between neurons, and distinguish between excitatory and inhibitory messages. e. Describe how neurotransmitters affect synaptic transmission, identify six important neurotransmitters, and explain their effects on behavior. f. Identify and explain several ways in which drugs can affect the brain activity by interfering with synaptic transmission. C. The Nervous System and the Endocrine System: Communication Throughout the Body a. Describe the functions of the two major parts of the central nervous system, and explain how spinal reflexes work. b. Identify the divisions and subdivisions of the peripheral nervous system, and describe their functions. c. Describe the general functions of the endocrine system, and explain the role hormones play. d. Identify the functions of the major endocrine glands, and explain the relationship between the hypothalamus and the endocrine glands. D. A Guided Tour of the Brain a. Explain how case studies, lesion techniques, and electrical stimulation have been used to study the brain. b. Summarize the results of research on Einstein’s brain tissue, including criticisms of that research. c. Discuss how the pseudoscience called phrenology evolved, and how it ultimately helped advance the idea of cortical localization. d. Describe the basic sequence of the prenatal brain development and the evidence for neurogenesis throughout life. e. Explain how brain-imagining techniques are used to study the brain, and identify some of the limitations of brain-imaging research. f. Identify the structures of the brainstem, and describe their functions. g. Describe the forebrain’s cerebral cortex, and explain the functions of its four lobes and areas. h. Describe the limbic system and the functions of the brain structures that comprise it. E. Specialization in the Cerebral Hemispheres a. Explain how the findings of Broca and Wernicke provided early clinical evidence for lateralization of function. b. Identify and discuss two popular misconceptions about the human brain.

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c. Explain how the brain organization of left-handed people can differ from that of right-handed people, and what factors might be involved in causing left-handedness. d. Discuss the split-brain operation and explain how it provided evidence for the differing abilities of left and right hemispheres. F. Plasticity: The Malleable Brain a. Discuss the evolution of the ideas of brain localization and lateralization b. Distinguish between functional plasticity and structural plasticity, and briefly summarize a recent study that demonstrated how a new motor skill affects the brain. G. Application: Pumping Neurons: Maximizing Your Brain’s Potential a. Describe the research evidence for structural and functional plasticity in the human and nonhuman brain, and discuss some practical applications of this research. III. STRESS, HEALTH, AND COPING A. Introduction: What is Stress? a. Define stress and discuss the role of cognitive appraisal in the experience of stress. b. Identify the focus of , and explain how health psychologists are guided by the biopsychosocial model. c. Contrast the life events approach and the daily hassles approach as explanations of the causes of stress. d. Define conflict, and describe how different types of conflict produce different degrees of stress. e. Describe the four patterns of acculturation, noting the level of acculturative stress likely to be produced by each pattern. B. Physical Effects of Stress: The Mind-Body Connection a. Discuss Walter Cannon’s contributions to the understanding of the physical effects of stress, and describe the sequence of physiological changes involved in the fight-or-flight response. b. Describe the stages of Hans Selye’s general adaptation syndrome and the physiological mechanisms involved in the prolonged stress. c. Define placebo effect, and summarize brain-imaging research findings about the response to real versus fake painkillers. d. Define psychoneuroimmunology, and describe how the work of Robert Ader and Nicholas Cohen challenged the view that the immune system was independent of other body systems. e. Explain how the immune system, the nervous system, and the endocrine system each influence one another. f. Discuss the range of stressors that can adversely affect immune system functioning and the health risk implications of those findings, including susceptibility to the common cold and other infections. C. Individual Factors That Influence Our Response to Stress a. Discuss how psychological factors such as feelings of control, explanatory style, and chronic negative can affect our response to stress. b. Describe the Type A behavior pattern, identifying the component that has the greatest impact on physical health. c. Critically evaluate the notion that personality factors cause disease, noting the advantages and disadvantages of correlational studies and prospective studies. d. Define social support and discuss the impact of relationships on stress and health, noting gender differences. e. Describe the different types of social support, and contrast helpful and unhelpful support behaviors. D. Coping: How People Deal with Stress a. List problem-focused coping strategies and -focused coping strategies, and give an example of each strategy.

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b. Discuss gender differences in responding to stress, contrasting the tend-and-befriend response with the fight-or-flight response. c. Discuss differences between individualistic and collectivistic cultures in attitudes about coping with stressors. E. Application: Turning Your Goals into Reality and Minimizing the Effects of Stress a. Define self-efficacy, and identify different ways to strengthen your sense of self-efficacy. b. Discuss how to create and use implementation intentions to help achieve your goals. c. Identify four ways to help minimize the negative effects of stress. IV. SENSATION AND A. Introduction: What Are Sensation and Perception? a. Distinguish between sensation and perception, giving examples of each b. Explain the process of transduction c. Discuss the idea of sensory thresholds, defining absolute and difference thresholds and explaining the significance of Weber’s Law. d. Explain the process of sensory adaptation. e. Distinguish between subliminal perception and subliminal persuasion, and discuss research on the effects of subliminal perception. B. Vision: From Light to Sight a. Explain the electromagnetic spectrum and its relationship to human vision. b. Describe the visual process, identifying each key structure of the eye and its function, and contrast the functions of rods and cones. c. Explain how visual information is transmitted to and processed in the brain, including the role of the blind spot, feature detectors, and visual pathways. d. Compare the trichromatic and opponent-process theories of color vision, and discuss how each theory explains different aspects of color vision. C. Hearing: From Vibration to Sound a. Describe the nature of sound, and list the physical properties of sound waves. b. Explain the process of hearing, noting the role played by different parts of the ear, and describe how auditory sensations are transmitted from the inner ear and structures of the brain. D. The Chemical and Body Senses a. Describe the process of olfaction, including the transmission of olfactory information to the brain. b. Define pheromones, and discuss the research evidence for the existence of human chemosignals or pheromones. c. Explain how taste sensations are produced and identify the basic taste categories. d. Discuss the role played by the skin in the sensation of touch, including the types and distribution of sensory receptors in the skin. e. Define pain and identify the sensory receptors, neurotransmitters, and nerve pathways that are involved in the sensation of pain, distinguishing between the fast and slow pain systems. f. Explain the gate-control theory of pain, listing factors that influence pain “gates,” and describe the effects of pain sensitization. g. Discuss the role of the kinesthetic and vestibular senses in the body position, balance, and equilibrium. E. Perception a. Distinguish between bottom-up and top-down processing, and the role each plays in perception b. Describe the school of , figure-ground relationships, and the Gestalt principles of organization. c. Define ESP and parapsychology, identify different forms of ESP, and summarize what research has shown about ESP claims.

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d. List and describe the monocular and binocular cues used in depth perception, and give examples of each. e. Identify the sources of information that influence motion perception, and describe induced and stroboscopic motion. f. List and describe two forms of perceptual constancy. F. Perceptual Illusions a. Discuss perceptual illusions, and explain the Müller-Lyer illusion and the moon illusion. b. Distinguish between the nativist and empiricist explanations of perception, and describe the evidence supporting the carpentered-world hypothesis. G. The Effects of Experience on Perceptual Interpretation a. Define perceptual set, and discuss how experience can influence perceptual interpretations. H. Application: Strategies to Control Pain a. Identify and describe several strategies to help control pain, discuss the role of complementary and alternative medicines, and discuss the use of magnets, biofeedback, and acupuncture in pain relief. V. STATES OF CONSIOUSNESS A. Introduction: Consciousness: Experiencing the “Private I” a. Define consciousness, and discuss the history of psychological research on consciousness B. The Biological and Environmental “Clocks” That Regulate Consciousness a. Define circadian rhythms, and explain the roles of melatonin and the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in controlling circadian rhythms. b. Describe the research on “free-running” circadian rhythms, and explain the role of sunlight in regulating the sleep-wake cycle. c. Explain the causes and symptoms of jet lag, including the role played by melatonin. C. Sleep a. Discuss the contributions of the invention of the electroencephalograph and the discovery of REM sleep to modern sleep research. b. Distinguish between REM sleep and NREM sleep, and describe the typical sequence of sleep stages, including sleep onset. c. Describe how sleep patterns change over the lifespan d. Discuss the functions of sleep, including research on the effects of sleep deprivation, and contrast the restorative and adaptive theories of sleep. e. List and describe the characteristics and causes of the major sleep disorders, including insomnia, restless legs syndrome, sleep apnea, and narcolepsy. f. Define parasomnia, and list the characteristics of at least four parasomnias. D. Dreams and Mental Activity During Sleep a. List the characteristics of dreams, and contrast dreams with sleep thinking. b. Identify the brain areas that are active and inactive during REM sleep, and describe the role that REM sleep seems to play in memory consolidation. c. Describe common themes of dreams and nightmares, and explain why we don’t remember most of our dreams. d. Compare and contrast Freud’s theory of dreams as wish fulfillment and the activation-synthesis model of dreaming. E. Hypnosis a. Define hypnosis, describe the characteristics of the hypnotic state, and list the characteristics of people who are most responsive to hypnosis. b. Specify the effects of hypnosis, describe posthypnotic suggestion, and explain the relationship between hypnosis and memory. c. Describe the uses and limits of hypnosis.

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d. Compare and contrast state and non-state theories of hypnosis, discussing the evidence for and against the neodissociation, social-cognitive, and imaginative suggestibility theories. F. Meditation a. List and describe the most common techniques used in medication, and explain their effects. G. Psychoactive Drugs a. Identify the common properties of psychoactive drugs, and specify the factors that influence the effects, use, and abuse of psychoactive drugs. b. Explain the effects of addictive drugs on the brain, including the neural basis for drug tolerance, withdrawal, craving, and relapse. c. Identify and describe the characteristics and effects of the most common depressants, opiates, stimulants, psychedelic drugs, and designer or “club” drugs. H. Application: Improving Sleep and Mental Alertness a. Define sleep inertia and the forbidden zone for sleep, and identify strategies to improve the quality of sleep and counteract the negative effects of working the night shift. VI. LEARNING A. Introduction: What is Learning? a. Define learning and conditioning, and name the forms of conditioning. B. Classical Conditioning: Associating Stimuli a. Describe the background that led to ’s discovery of classical conditioning, and the procedures he developed to create a classically conditioned response. b. Define and give examples of each of the following: unconditioned , unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response. c. Identify factors that can affect the strength of a classically conditioned, and give examples of generalization and discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning. d. Discuss John Watson’s views on the nature of psychology and describe the basic principles of behaviorism. e. Describe Watson and Rayner’s famous “Little Albert” study, and explain how emotional responses can be classically conditioned. f. Describe how Watson applied classical conditioning principles to advertisings. g. Describe how classical conditioning can produce continued durg effects, including the placebo responses. C. Contemporary Views of Classical Conditioning a. Describe Robert Rescorla’s researching and how it demonstrated the role of cognitive processes in classical conditioning. b. Discuss John Garcia’s research on taste aversions, and explain how taste aversions appeared to violate key aspects of the classical conditioning model. c. Explain how the notion of biological preparedness can be applied to taste aversions and phobias. D. : Associating Behaviors and Consequences a. Discuss Edward Thorndike’s contributions to the study of learning, and define the law of effect. b. Discuss B.F. Skinner’s views as a behaviorist, noting his beliefs about the proper subject matter of psychology and his belief that free will is an illusion. c. Describe the basic principles of operant conditioning, giving examples of positive and negative , primary and conditioned reinforcers, and discriminative stimuli. d. Explain the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment, and give examples of punishment by application and punishment by removal. e. Describe four strategies to reduce undesirable behaviors without resorting to punishment, and ways to enhance the effectiveness of positive reinforcement. f. Discuss shaping, explain the difference between continuous and partial reinforcement, and describe and give examples of each of the four schedules of reinforcement.

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g. Give examples of how shaping, , and other operant conditioning principles can be used to develop new behaviors. h. Discuss how researchers have applied operant conditioning principles to train rats via remote control using “virtual reinforcement.” E. Contemporary Views of Operant Conditioning a. Discuss how Edward Tolman’s research demonstrated the role of cognitive factors in operant conditioning, and explain cognitive maps and latent learning. b. Explain the phenomenon of learned helplessness, noting how it provided additional evidence for the role of mental factors in learning, and describe how learned helplessness can be overcome. c. Define instinctive drift and discuss how it challenged the traditional behaviorist view of operant conditioning. F. Observational Learning: Imitating the Actions of Others a. Describe ’s classic studies on observational learning, and identify factors that increase the likelihood of imitation occurring. b. Discuss research on observational learning in nonhuman animals. c. Describe ways in which the principles of observational learning have been applied in the media to promote social change and healthy behaviors through entertainment programs. d. Discuss research on the links between portrayals of sexual and aggressive behavior in the media and sexual and aggressive behavior in the real world, identifying the role played by observational learning. G. Application: Using Learning Principles to Improve Self-Control a. Explain how the relative value of reinforcers can change over time, and identify five strategies that can help you stay focused on long-term reinforcers. VII. COGNITION A. Introduction: What is Cognition? a. Define memory, and explain the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval. b. Describe the stage model of memory, and describe how each of the three stages functions. c. Discuss the function, duration, capacity, and types of sensory memory, and explain how George Sperling’s experiment advanced the understanding of sensory memory. d. Describe the function, duration, and capacity of short-term memory, and explain the usefulness of chunking. e. Explain the functions of the different components in Baddeley’s model of working memory. f. Give examples of maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal, and explain why one is more effective in encoding long-term memories. g. Describe the types of information in long-term memory, and explain the differences between implicit memory and explicit memory. h. Discuss the organization of information in long-term memory. i. Define cognition and thinking, and describe how mental images and concepts are involved in thought processes. j. Discuss concept formation, differentiating between natural concepts and formal concepts, and explain how prototypes and exemplars are used. B. Retrieval: Getting Information from Long-Term Memory a. Define retrieval, noting how retrieval cues work, and describe what happens when retrieval fails, as in a tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) experience. b. Describe how retrieval is tested, and explain the serial position effect. c. Discuss the context effect and mood congruence as different forms of the encoding specificity principle, and evaluate the accuracy of flashbulb memories. C. Forgetting: You Forgot the Plane Tickets?!

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a. Discuss Hermann Ebbinghaus’s studies of forgetting, noting the basic pattern of the forgetting curve. b. Describe how each of the following explanations account for forgetting: encoding failure, , interference theory, and motivated forgetting. c. List the typical characteristics of déjà vu experiences, and summarize the explanations to account for these experiences. D. Imperfect Memories: Errors, Distortions, and False Memories a. Explain how the misinformation effect, source confusion, and schemas and scripts can contribute to distorted or false memories. b. Define imagination inflation, and describe how it has been used in psychological studies to create false memories. c. Discuss the controversy surrounding repressed memory therapy, noting the objections of memory experts. E. The Search for the Biological Basis of Memory a. Explain how research by and by Richard Thompson demonstrated that memories can be both localized and distributed in the brain. b. Define long-term potentiation and discuss how Eric Kandel’s research on Aplysia demonstrated the physical changes associated with forming a new long-term memory. c. Define memory consolidation, retrograde amnesia, and anterograde amnesia. d. Summarize what has been learned about memory from the famous case of H.M., including Suzanne Corkin’s recent studies of H.M.’s limited ability to remember details about famous people. e. Describe the roles of different brain structures in normal memory. f. Describe the underlying brain structures in normal memory. g. Describe the underlying causes and typical course of Alzheimer’s disease, including the progressive destruction of brain tissue. F. Solving Problems and Making Decisions a. Identify and describe three major problem-solving strategies, and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each. b. Describe and intuition, and explain the two-stage model of intuition. c. Explain how functional fixedness and mental set can interfere with problem solving. d. Describe three cognitive strategies used in making decisions. e. Explain how people use the availability heuristic and the representativeness heuristic to estimate the probability of events. f. List and provide examples of four obstacles to logical thinking that can help account for why people persist in pseudoscientific beliefs despite contradictory evidence. G. Language and Thought a. Identify and describe the characteristics of a language. b. Describe some of the different ways that language can influence thinking. c. Describe the ideas of linguist Benjamin Whorf, define the linguistic relativity hypothesis, and discuss the results of cross-cultural research on the influence of language on thinking and perception. d. Summarize research on animal communication, including the ability of different species to grasp aspects of symbolic communication. H. Application: Superpower Memory in Minutes per Day! a. Identify several strategies you can use to enhance your ability to remember information. VIII. TESTING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES A. Introduction: What is testing and individual differences?

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a. Define , list characteristics of how psychologists measure intelligence, and discuss how culture influences the definition of intelligence. b. Explain how psychologists design tests. c. Describe relevant labels related to intelligence testing. B. Measuring Intelligence a. Define intelligence, and discuss the history of the development of intelligence testing, noting the contributions and differing beliefs of Binet, Wechsler, and Terman. b. Discuss the results and implications of ’s study tracking the lives of 1,500 intellectually gifted children. c. Describe the purposes of aptitude and achievement tests, and explain the importance of cultural fairness, standardization, reliability, validity, and the normal curve in intelligence testing. C. The Nature of Intelligence a. Describe the key issues in the debate on the nature of intelligence, and copare and contrast the intelligence theories of Spearman, Thurstone, Gardner, and Sternberg. b. Discuss the interaction of genetics and environment in intelligence, and explain how twin studies have been used to measure the relative influence of heredity and environmental factors. c. Define heritability, and explain why heritability estimates cannot be used to explain group differences in IQ or other characteristics. d. Discuss the results of cross-cultural studies on the effect of social discrimination on IQ, and list some of the ways in which culture might affect intelligence test results. e. Explain the idea of stereotype threat, and explain how it has been shown to affect performance on tests of intelligence and other abilities. D. Application: A Workshop on Creativity a. Define creativity, and discuss several strategies that can be used to encourage creative thinking. IX. AND EMOTION A. Introduction: Motivation and Emotion a. Define motivation, and describe the three characteristics associated with motivation. b. Define stress and discuss the role of cognitive appraisal in the experience of stress. c. Identify the focus of health psychology, and explain how health psychologists are guided by the biopyschological model. d. Contrast the life events approach and the daily hassles approach as explanations of the cause of stress. e. Define conflict, and describe how different types of conflict produce different degrees of stress. f. Describe the four patterns of acculturation, noting the level of acculturative stress likely to be produced by each pattern. B. Motivational Concepts and Theories a. Discuss the major theories of motivation, and specify the limitations of each theory C. Biological Motivation: Hunger and Eating a. Describe energy homeostasis, and explain the difference between positive and negative energy balance. b. Identify short-term signals that regulate eating, and explain how each signal influences motivation to start or stop eating. c. Explain how leptin, insulin, and neuropeptide Y are involved in the long-term regulation of eating behavior. d. Compare and contrast set-point and settling-point theories of body weight regulation over the lifespan. e. Discuss the prevalence of overweight and obese people in the U.S. and other countries.

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f. Discuss the factors contributing to people becoming overweight or obese, including possible evolutionary influences and reduced dopamine receptors in the brain. g. Describe the symptoms, characteristics, and possible causes of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. D. Sexual Motivation and Behavior a. Explain how sexual motivation differs for lower and higher animals, and identify the biological factors that are involved in sexual motivation. b. Discuss how accounts for gender differences in mate preferences and selection. c. Describe the four stages of the human sexual response identified by Masters and Johnson. d. Identify and summarize the factors that research suggests might be involved in the development of a homosexual sexual orientation. E. Sexual Behavior a. Summarize the findings on the typical patterns of sexual behavior, and not which groups are most likely to experience sexual dysfunctions. b. Discuss the brain-imaging research findings on how romantic love influences brain activation. F. Psychological Needs as Motivators a. Explain how Maslow’s hierarchy of needs accounts for motivation, and describe the qualities that characterize self-actualized people. b. Describe the key ideas of Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory, and discuss the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. c. Compare and contrast competence and achievement motivation, noting cultural differences. G. Emotion a. Identify the three components of emotion, and discuss the functions of emotions, including Darwin’s contention that emotions reflect evolutionary adaptations. b. Identify the basic emotions, and discuss individual and cultural differences involved in the subjective experience of emotions. c. Describe gender differences in emotional experiences and expression, and discuss the factors that are thought to contribute to such differences. d. Discuss the role of the sympathetic nervous system in the experience of intense emotions, including the fight-or-flight response. e. Describe the two brain pathways involved in triggering fear, how they differ, and their evolutionary significance. f. Discuss the idea that facial expressions of basic emotions are innate, and explain how facial expressions are affected by cultural display rules. g. Define anthropomorphism, and discuss the idea that nonhuman animals experience emotion. H. Theories of Emotion: Explaining Emotion a. Compare and contrast the major theories of emotion, and explain the facial feedback hypothesis. X. DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFESPAN A. Introduction: Your Life Story a. Discuss the scope and themes of , and identify the major stages of the lifespan. B. Genetic Contributions to Your Life Story a. Define the terms chromosomes, genes, and DNA, and explain how they are related. b. Explain how genes and environmental factors interact to guide the development of living organisms, including a discussion of the role played by alleles and an explanation of the differences between genotype and phenotype. c. Discuss the findings of the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium.

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d. Describe the sex chromosomes, and explain why males are more likely to develop certain genetic disorders than females. C. Prenatal Development a. Describe how a zygote develops into a full-term fetus, noting the characteristics of the three stages of prenatal development. b. Provide examples of common teratogens, and explain how teratogens affect the fetus. D. Development During Infancy and Childhood a. Identify the sensory capabilities and reflexes of newborns that enhance their chances for survival, explain how these abilities promote the development of relationships with caregivers, and describe the development of motor skills in infancy. b. Define temperament, and identify the main temperamental patterns. c. Explain the basic premise of attachment theory, the behavioral differences that characterize secure and insecure attachment, and the effects of day care on attachment. d. Discuss cultural differences in the sleeping customs of American and Mayan families with infants and young children and how those customs reflect different cultural values. e. Describe the stages of language development, and explain how language development is shaped by both innate predispositions and environmental influences, giving examples of each factor. f. Summarize the gender differences that emerge during childhood and contrast how social learning theory and gender schema theory explain the development of gender roles. g. Explain the basic assumptions of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, and describe the main characteristics of each of the four stages of cognitive development in Piaget’s theory. h. Discuss some important criticisms of Piaget’s theory, including research by Renee Baillargeon, and contrast Lev Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s views on cognitive development. i. Explain how the information-processing model of cognitive development differs from Piaget’s model of cognitive development. E. Adolescence a. Define adolescence, and describe the typical course of physical development, including primary and secondary sexual characteristics. b. Discuss factors that affect that timing of puberty, and describe the effects of early and late maturation, including how those effects differ for girls and boys. c. Describe how the brain develops during adolescence, and explain how these changes in brain structure are reflected in adolescent behavior. d. Discuss social development during adolescence, including relationships with parents and peers, and note cultural differences and similarities in parent-adolescent conflict. e. Discuss the important role that adolescent identity formation plays in Erik Erickson’s psychological theory of development, and describe the other stages of psychosocial development in Erikson’s theory. F. a. Explain the major milestones in physical and social development during adulthood. b. Describe changes in the composition of American families and households from 1970 to the present, and discuss some of the characteristics of career paths in adulthood. G. Late Adulthood and Aging a. Characterize physical development in late adulthood, and discuss the accuracy of U.S. stereotypes of old age. b. Describe research findings on the effects of aging on cognitive and intellectual abilities. c. Discuss social development in late adulthood, explain the activity theory of aging, and describe the final stage in Erik Erickson’s psychosocial theory. H. The Final Chapter: Dying and Death

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a. Describe Elisabeth Kübler-Ross’s stage theory of dying, and assess its validity. I. Application: Raising Psychologically Healthy Children a. Explain the effects of authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative parenting styles on children, and list several suggestions that promote authoritative parenting. XI. PERSONALITY A. Introduction: What is Personality? a. Define personality, discuss the nature of personality theories, and identify the four basic theoretical perspectives in personality. B. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality a. Discuss the course of ’s life, some of his notable publications, and the social and cultural events that shaped Freud’s views about human nature. b. Distinguish among the three levels of awareness and describe the nature and development of the three basic structures of personality in Freud’s . c. Discuss Freud’s notion of the ego defense mechanisms, and provide an everyday example of each of the major ego defense mechanisms. d. Describe the psychosexual stages of development, focusing on the core conflict at each stage, and explain the consequence of fixation. e. Compare and contrast Freud’s psychoanalytic theory with the personality theories of neo- Freudians , Karen Horney, and Alfred Alder. f. Identify criticisms of Freud’s theory and, more generally, of the psychoanalytic perspective. C. The Humanistic Perspective on Personality a. Describe the humanistic perspective and contrast it with psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism. b. Discuss the key assumptions of and describe his theory of personality, especially the importance of the actualizing tendency, the self-concept, conditional and unconditional positive regard, and the fully functioning person. c. Compare and contrast the viewpoints of Sigmund Freud and Carl Rogers on human nature. d. Identify the key strengths and weaknesses of the humanistic perspective. D. The Social Cognitive Perspective on Personality a. Discuss the key ideas of Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory of personality, noting the role of self-efficacy beliefs in the development of a person’s self-system. b. Specify the strengths and weaknesses of the social cognitive perspective. E. The Trait Perspective on Personality a. Describe how trait theories differ from the other perspectives on personality, and distinguish between surface traits and source traits. b. Compare and contrast the trait theories of and . c. Describe the brain-imaging research findings suggesting that personality traits are associated with specific patterns of brain activity. d. Describe the five-factor model of personality and the research evidence supporting it. e. Describe the research strategies used in the field of behavioral genetics, and discuss research findings on the relationship between genetics and personality traits. f. Describe the “Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart” and the notion of emergenic traits in explaining similarities between identical twins. g. Identify criticisms of the trait perspective. F. Assessing Personality: Psychological Tests a. Compare and contrast the methods of personality assessment advocated by the pseudoscience of , noting what scientific research has indicated about the validity of each method. b. Compare and contrast the methods used by projective tests and self-report inventories to measure personality.

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c. Identify the key strengths and weaknesses of projective tests and self-report inventories. G. Application: Possible Selves: Imagine the Possibilities a. Discuss how your “possible selves” can influence your sense of self-efficacy, motivation, behavior, and life decisions. XII. A. Introduction: What is Social Psychology? a. Define social psychology, and describe the two areas of social cognition and social influence. B. Person Perception: Forming Impressions of Other People a. Define person perception, describe the components of the interpersonal context in which person perception occurs, and explain the basic principles that guide person perception. b. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using social categories and implicit personality theories in forming of other people. c. Note the effects of physical attractiveness on person perception, including the possible role of brain reward in making eye contact with physically attractive people. C. Attribution: Explaining Behavior a. Define attribution and the fundamental attribution error, and discuss how the fundamental attribution error explains people’s tendency to “blame the victim” of misfortune. b. Define and provide examples of the attributional biases, including actor-observer discrepancy, the self-serving bias, and the self-effacing bias. c. Identify cultural differences in patterns of attributional biases. D. The Social Psychology of Attitudes a. List the components of an attitude, and identify the conditions under which attitudes are most likely to determine behavior. b. Define cognitive dissonance, identify how it occurs, and discuss how it is typically resolved. E. Understanding Prejudice a. Define prejudice and stereotypes, discussing the role of social categories, in-groups, and out- groups in stereotype formation. b. Explain how the out-group homogeneity effect and in-group bias can lead to prejudicial attitudes. c. Discuss the implications of the “Robbers Cave” study and the jigsaw classroom technique for combating prejudice, and describe the steps that individuals can take to overcome prejudicial attitudes. F. Conformity: Following the Crowd a. Define social influence and conformity, and discuss the findings of Solomon Asch’s research on conformity. b. Identify the factors that influence conformity, and explain how culture affects conformity. G. Obedience: Just Following Others a. Define obedience and discuss the experimental design and results of Milgram’s obedience experiments. b. List and explain the factors in Milgram’s original experiments that promoted destructive obedience. c. List and explain the conditions identified by Milgram and other researchers that decrease the level of destructive obedience and help people resist illegal or unethical orders from authority figures. d. Explain the social psychological factors that contributed to abuse of Iraqi prisoners at Abu Ghraib, and describe the findings of the Stanford Prison Experiment. H. Helping Behavior: Coming to the Aid of Strangers a. Describe how the controversy surrounding the murder of Kitty Genovese triggered the study of bystander helping behavior.

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b. Distinguish between altruism and prosocial behavior, and list the factors that increase the likelihood of a bystander coming to the aid of a stranger. c. Define the bystander effect and diffusion of responsibility, and explain how these and other factors played a role in the death of Kitty Genovese. I. Application: The Persuasion Game a. Define persuasion, describe common persuasive tactics, and list suggestions for counteracting persuasion tactics. XIII. PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS A. Introduction: Understanding Psychological Disorders a. Define psychopathology and discuss some of the issues related to labeling behavior as “abnormal.” b. Discuss the social stigma associated with having a mental disorder, including the accuracy of the stereotype that people with a psychological disorder are prone to violence. c. Define a psychological disorder, and discuss the development and role of DSM-IV-TR in classifying psychological disorders. d. Discuss the key findings of the National Comorbidity Survey, including the prevalence of psychological disorders and gender differences in the incidence of specific disorders. e. List and describe core features and examples of key diagnostic categories in DSM-IV-TR. B. Anxiety Disorders: Intense Apprehension and Worry a. Describe the main symptom of anxiety disorders, and differentiate between pathological anxiety and normal anxiety. b. Identify the symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and panic disorder, including cultural variations, and discuss the cognitive-behavioral explanation of panic disorder. c. Describe the most common types of phobias, noting the specific symptoms that characterize agoraphobia and social phobia. d. Discuss how the different learning theories account for the development of phobias. e. List the main symptoms and causes of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and the factors that influence the likelihood of developing PTSD. f. Describe the main symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), identifying common obsessions and compulsions in different cultures, and discuss current thinking about its causes. C. Mood Disorders: Emotions Gone Awry a. Describe the main features of a mood disorder, noting how those features differ from normal mood swings. b. Discuss the range of symptoms that characterize major depression, nothing how major depression differs from dysthymic disorder. c. Discuss the prevalence and course of major depression, including gender differences. d. Define bipolar disorder and cyclothymic disorder, identify the symptoms of each, and discuss the prevalence and course of bipolar disorder. e. Discuss the role of genetic predisposition, brain chemistry, and stressful life-events in the development of mood disorders, and note the relationship between creativity and mood disorders. f. Summarize the findings and implications of research investigating the possible link between cigarette smoking and psychological disorders, especially depression and schizopheria. D. Personality Disorders: Maladaptive Traits a. Identify the key characteristics and symptoms of a personality disorder, and describe the three categories of “clusters” of personality disorders. b. Describe the symptoms and characteristics of paranoid personality disorder, antisocial personality disorder, and borderline personality disorder.

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E. Dissociative Disorders: Fragmentation of the Self a. Contrast common dissociative experiences with the symptoms of a dissociative disorder, noting the formal definition of a dissociative disorder. b. Describe the symptoms of dissociative amnesia and dissociative fugue, and list the factors that have been identified in triggering these disorders. c. Describe the symptoms and possible causes of dissociative identity disorder (DID), and explain the controversy surrounding its diagnosis and reports of its prevalence. F. Schizophrenia: A Different Reality a. Define schizophrenia, distinguishing between positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. b. List and describe the key symptoms of schizophrenia. c. Describe the different types of schizophrenia, discuss the prevalence of schizophrenia, and identify variations of the course of the disease. d. Summarize the evidence for the various factors thought to be involved in the development of schizophrenia, including genetic, factors, paternal age, and expose to the influenza virus. e. Discuss research on the role of the brain in schizophrenia, including abnormal brain structures, the dopamine hypothesis, and the progressive loss of grapy matter in early-onset schizophrenia. f. Discuss the findings and implications of the Finnish Adoptive Family Study of Schizophrenia, describing the roles of heredity and family environment in the development of schizophrenia. G. Application: Understanding and Helping to Prevent Suicide a. Discuss patterns of suicidal behavior, and characterize the thinking of the suicidal person. b. List and explain five guidelines to help someone who is expressing suicidal intentions. XIV. TREATMENT OF DISORDERS A. Introduction: and Biomedical Therapy a. Explain the basic differences between psychotherapy and the biomedical therapies. b. Identify the different types of professionals, and discuss the current status of prescription privileges for licensed psychologists. B. Psychoanalytic Therapy a. Discuss the basic assumptions and techniques of traditional psychoanalysis. b. Explain how short-term dynamic therapies differ from traditional psychoanalysis, and describe the assumptions and basic approach of interpersonal therapy. C. Humanistic Therapy a. Contrast the views of Carl Rogers and Sigmund Freud on the sources of psychological problems and the therapist’s proper role. b. Describe the basic assumptions and techniques of client-centered therapy, listing the therapeutic qualities needed for positive change to occur. D. Behavior Therapy a. Contrast the basic assumptions and goals or behavior therapy with those of psychodynamic and humanistic therapies. b. Identify Mary Cover Jones, and describe the techniques she developed to treat a child’s fear of animals. c. Discuss therapy techniques that are based on classical conditioning principles, including systematic desensitization, virtual reality therapy, the bell and pad treatment, and aversive conditioning. d. Describe the use of operant conditioning principles in therapy, including shaping, reinforcement, extinction, shaping, token economics, and contingency management interventions. E. Cognitive Therapies

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a. Contrast the basic assumptions and goals of behavior therapy and cognitive therapies. b. Explain the ABC model to Albert Ellis’s rational-emotive therapy (RET), identify common irrational beliefs, and describe the techniques used to produce therapeutic change. c. Discuss the basic assumptions of Aaron Beck’s cognitive therapy, identify common cognitive biases, and describe the techniques used to produce therapeutic changes. d. Explain the basic assumptions of cognitive-behavioral therapy, stating how it differs from the other cognitive therapies, and describe the techniques used to produce therapeutic change. F. Group and a. Describe the basic assumptions and approach of group therapy, and list some of the advantages of group therapy as compared to individual therapy. b. Identify the assumptions and goals of self-help groups, family therapy and couple therapy, and describe the treatment strategies that are used. G. Evaluating the Effectiveness of Psychotherapy a. Summarize the research findings on the effectiveness of psychotherapy. b. Describe eye movement desensitization therapy (EMDR), summarize the research findings on its effectiveness, and discuss conditions that should be met before new psychotherapy techniques are widely adopted. c. Explain the common factors that contribute to effective , and discuss the of eclecticism. d. Identify the cultural values that are inherent in Western psychotherapy, and explain how they can clash with the values of other cultures. H. Biomedical Therapies a. Discuss the evolution of medical treatments for psychological disorders. b. Discuss how antipsychotic medications work, and compare and contrast the effects of the early antipsychotic medications and the newer atypical antipsychotic medications. c. Explain how antianxiety medications typically work, and note their potential dangers. d. Discuss the use of lithium as a treatment of bipolar disorder, including its underlying mechanism of action. e. Identify the five categories of antidepressant medications, explain how they work, and list some of the potential side effects associated with their use. f. Describe the findings of a study using PET scans to compare the effects of antidepressants and psychotherapy on brain functioning in depression. g. Describe the procedure of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and the controversy surrounding its use. I. Application: What to Expect in Psychotherapy a. List and explain the eight guidelines to help promote realistic expectations about psychotherapy and the therapist-client relationship.

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