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Edited by Joseph Godlewski Contents 42 Reading 2.2. vii Acknowledgments Excerpts from Risale–I Mi Marriye: An Early Seventeenth Century Ottoman ix Introduction Treatise on Architecture x What Is Architecture? xii What Is Architectural Theory and 53 Chapter 3—Modernism Why Is It Important? 54 Toward an Architecture xiv Aims and Structure of the Book 56 Metabolism xiv References/Further Reading 56 Many Modern Masters 58 References/Further Reading 01 Chapter 1—Foundational Treatises 60 Reading 3.1. Towards an Architec- 02 Vitruvius “Argument” from ture 03 Yingzao Fashi 04 Abbot Suger 63 Reading 3.2. 06 Ibn Khladūn “The Philosophy of Metabolism” from 07 References/Further Reading Metabolism in Architecture 09 Reading 1.1. 73 Chapter 4—The Modern City Ten Books on Architec- Excerpts from and Its Discontents ture De architectura 75 A Compartmentalized World 16 Reading 1.2. 77 The Modernist City The Yingzao Fashi: The Making of 78 Phenomenology Widespread Legitimated Building 79 References/Further Reading Knowledge” from Chinese Architecture 82 Reading 4.1. and Metaphor: Song Culture in the “On Violence” from The Wretched of the Yingzao Fashi Building Manual (Spatial Earth Habitus: Making and Meaning in Asia’s Architecture) 85 Reading 4.2. “Premises and Paradoxes” from The 27 Chapter 2—Early Modern Modernist City: An Anthropological Treatises Critique of Brasília 28 Leon Battista Alberti 30 Ca’fer Efendi 93 Chapter 5—Alternative 31 The Global Spread of Ideas Modernities 33 References/Further Reading 94 The Paris of Asia 94 Lina Bo Bardi 35 Reading 2.1. 96 Critical Regionalism Excerpts from On the Art of Building in 98 References/Further Reading Ten Books 100 Reading 5.1. 156 Reading 8.1. “Shanghai Modern: Reflections on Ur- “Chorale: Man, Society, and Technolo- ban Culture in China in the 1930s” from gy” from Architecture for the Poor: An Alternative Modernities Experiment in Rural Egypt 106 Reading 5.2. 162 Reading 8.2. “Problems of Architecture Theory” from “An Architecture of Change” from Lina Bo Bardi: The Theory of Architec- Expanding Architecture: Design as tural Practice Activism

115 Chapter 6—Formalisms 169 Chapter 9—Race, Gender, and 116 Mathematics of the Ideal Villa Identity 117 Zero 171 Black Bodies/White Cities 118 Autonomy and Contingency 172 Gender and Architecture 120 References/Further Reading 173 Identity, Representation, and Equity 122 Reading 6.1. 176 References/Further Reading “The Mathematics of the Ideal Villa” 178  128 Reading 6.2. Reading 9.1. “Black Bodies/White Cities: Le Corbus- “Zero” from A Place in the Shade: The ANY: Architecture New Landscape and Other Essays ier in Harlem” from New York 16 133 Chapter 7—Postmodernism 186 Reading 9.2. 135 Learning from Pop “Architecture from Without: Body, Logic, 136 Japan-ness in Architecture and Sex” from Assemblage 7 137 The Condition of Postmodernity 138 References/Further Reading 197 Chapter 10—Sustainability 198 The Green Skyscraper 140 Reading 7.1. 200 Cradle to Cradle “Learning from Pop” from Casabella 201 Other Ecological Perspectives 143 Reading 7.2. 204 References/Further Reading “Western Structure versus Japanese 206 Reading 10.1. Space” from Japan-ness in Architecture “A Theory of Ecological Design” from 149 Chapter 8—Activism The Green Skyscraper 150 Architecture for the Poor 211 Reading 10.2. 151 An Architecture of Change “Respect Diversity” from Cradle to 152 The Social Production of Space Cradle 154 References/Further Reading 215 Provisional Conclusions Acknowledgments

racing the origins of a book project can be a frustrating task. This book in particular has many beginnings and T has always been a work in progress developed alongside theory-oriented courses I’ve taught at the Academy of Art in San Francisco, the University of California at Berkeley, and Syracuse University. It’s a remarkable experience seeing your lectures in printed form. This volume would not have come to fruition without the help and contribution of several people and institutions. Generous funding from the School of Architecture and Renée Crown Honors Program at Syracuse University made the necessary research and writing for the project possible. I’d like to extend special thanks to Dean Michael Speaks for sup- porting the project from some of its earliest stages. Colleagues at the Syracuse University School of Architecture, Society of Architectural Historians, International Association for the Study of Traditional Environments, and the Global Architectural History Teaching Collaborative (GAHTC) provided invaluable advice and suggestions. Editors at Cognella Academic Publishing were critical in the refinement and organization of the text. A number of colleagues and students helped clarify the ideas or collect images contained within the book. Some of these individuals include Giovanna Veiga, Kyle Miller, Furui Sun, Kyle Simmons, Lori Brown, Brian Lonsway, Derek Shin, Mook Kaewkoon, Jonathan Massey, Ran Mei, Joseph Bedford, Lawrence Chua, Max Kronauer, Kayleen O’Brien, Vasundhra Aggarawal, Michael Gonzales, Houston Parke, Shiori Green, Eliana Abu-Hamdi, Apoorva Rao, Jesse Valgora, Max Kronauer, Katherine Rodela, and Joao Pedro Ellery Lustosa Furtado de Oliveira. The classes this book was developed in wouldn’t have happened without the help of teams of attentive graduate student assistants. In

vii particular, some students that have facilitated courses viewing the final anthology, I also realized I’ve had multiple times include Hamza Hasan, Tanya Bhatia, the opportunity to meet with or work with many of and Nusrat Jahan Mim. Additionally, a number of my the thinkers included in this volume. Some of those colleagues have given inspiring guest lectures to my in this book include James Holston, David Adjaye, classes over the years. Topics and issues raised in Peter Eisenman, Charles Correa, Mark Jarzombek, those lectures have influenced the composition of this Diana Agrest, and José Gámez. In many ways, these text. Some of these speakers include Amber Bartosh, individuals are now part of my architectural DNA. Per- Tarek Rakha, Yutaka Sho, Julie Larsen, Sekou Cooke, haps most importantly though, I need to thank the Susan Henderson, John May, Richard Nisa, Antonio countless inquisitive students who have participated Furgiuele, Stefan Al, and Sarosh Anklesaria. Research in my lectures, seminars, and studios. Their questions, interns Luyao Wang, Uzomah Idah, Yuexin Xue, and comments, and energy undergird the entire project. Ana Morris among others worked tirelessly finding, Many sections and examples used in this book are collecting, and curating the appropriate content for the my attempts to provide the most concise answers to book. Barbara Opar was instrumental in leading this deceivingly simple questions posed by students. In task. Scott Krabath, in particular, produced many of this sense, the book is for and by them. Lastly, the the diagrams for the book. His assistance and orga- entire project would not have been possible without nization was essential to completing the book. Upon loving support at home from Bess, Tade, and Ziggy.

viii FIGURE 9.1 Hearst Castle. Julia Morgan. San Simeon, California. 1919-1947.

CHAPTER NINE Race, Gender, and Identity

uthors in this chapter address the demand for architecture to respond to the needs of historically oppressed and disenfran- A chised peoples. They argue that since the time of Vitruvius, the narrative of architecture has primarily been told from a white male Eurocentric perspective. Countless examples of racist and misog- ynist practices can be found in the architectural disciplinary canon. Vitruvius described caryatids as bearing the likenesses of enslaved women and “barbarian” Persians (chapter 1), Adolf Loos described the indigenous peoples of New Guinea as less-evolved and “degen- erate” for bearing tattoos, and the influential Levittown suburban development (Figure 7.5) infamously created restrictive covenants barring non-Caucasians from renting homes. As an expression of the established social order, the built environment tends to reinforce existing race and gender relations. The objective of this chapter is to problematize this dominant system, thereby broadening the discussion on architecture, and providing a more inclusive basis for imagining the discipline. The philosopher Cornel West has described this challenge as trying to “understand architectural practices as power-laden cultural practices that are deeply affected by larger historical forces” (West, 1993/1999, p. 457). Working against systemic exclusion, these thinkers aim to increase participation by underrepresented identities in both the academy and the profession.

169 Critical discourse in the 1960s and 1970s provided environments, women were really the first architects. fertile ground for examining the dynamics of race, gender, He writes, “Whether it is the !Kung in South Africa or and identity in architecture. Like Fanon (see chapter 5), the Sioux of the American Plains women build and often architectural theorists and designers in the latter half of ‘own’ the hut” (Jarzombek, 2014, p. 114). Similarly, Labelle the 20th century began to question the tenets of mod- Prussin documents many forms of vernacular African ernism and its relation to marginalized peoples. The work nomadic architecture built by women. Despite excep- of these scholars share many of the same social justice tions such as these, gender and racial representation in aspirations as the activist approaches highlighted in the architectural academic discourse remains problematic. previous chapter (chapter 8). There have been a number of practicing architects Contributions by women architects and people of color who are women and/or people of color that have made remain underrepresented in the canon of architectural significant contributions to the history of architecture. In history and theory. Textbooks and anthologies still tend the early 20th century, Julia Morgan produced an incred- to rely on examples from white male designers to tell the ible body of work including the majestic Hearst Castle in story of the built environment. Certainly, many exceptions San Simeon, California (Figure 9.1). Similarly, Eileen Gray to this trend exist. For example, historian Mark Jarzombek designed seminal works of high modernism, including argues that as builders of many traditional domestic the seaside villa E-1027 (Figure 9.2). Likewise, the African

FIGURE 9.2 E-1027 villa, plan. Eileen Gray. Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, France. 1926-1929.

170 | Introduction to Architecture focus specifically on the entanglement of race, gender, and identity in architecture.

Black Bodies/White Cities Mabel Wilson’s (1996) essay, “Black Bodies/White Cities: Le Corbusier in Harlem,” examines representations of black identity in the context of Jazz Age Harlem with a focus on a number of dialectical relationships. Through the telling of Le Corbusier’s 1935 visit to Harlem, she explains that it is through what is excluded that lies at the heart of modern identity. She analyzes the con- struction of a number of dialectical, or oppositional, FIGURE 9.3 Theme building and restaurant in the middle of the Los Angeles contradictory relationships: whiteness/blackness, International Airport. Paul Revere Williams, Pereira & ­Luckman. Los, Angeles, order/disorder, and modern/primitive. For Wilson, Le California. 1961. Corbusier’s simultaneous “astonishment and disdain” of Harlem is characteristic of this dialectical construction. American architect Paul Revere Williams designed the She describes how he “aligns the art of the Negro with iconic Theme building at the Los Angeles International the art of the engineer” and simultaneously envies and Airport (Figure 9.3). In 2004, Iraqi British architect Zaha dreads the “demonic” and “playful” Louis Armstrong Hadid became the first woman to win the esteemed Pritz- (Wilson, 1996, p. 37). She writes, “In a complex associ- ker Architecture prize. And in 2018, the visionary architect ation, Armstrong’s corporeal and metaphoric blackness Elizabeth Diller of Diller Scofidio + Renfro was named is emblematic of the primitive, a modality that in turn the world’s most influential architect by Time magazine. engenders the modern” (Wilson, 1996, p. 37). For Wilson, Despite these accomplishments, serious work remains projects such as Le Corbusier’s Radiant City were not to be done to create racial and gender equity in the merely tabula rasa visions of modernization but ones discipline and profession of architecture. In her study of “predicated upon physical topographic boundaries women and modern architecture in India, the historian underwritten by racial difference” (Wilson, 1996, p. 39). Mary Woods argues that “prevailing theories and histo- Writing about Le Corbusier, Wilson argues: ries of feminism and modern architecture have limited In his narrative, blackness registers upon purchase outside Western Europe and North America” the architecture of Manhattan and the Negro and are rarely problematized with regard to race, class, body, with the former housing the workers of and culture (Woods, 2018, p. 13). This chapter, however, the modern metropolis and the latter fulfilling serves as an introduction to these concepts and argues a requisite position in America’s socioeco- for an understanding of the intersectionality of these nomic order as the laboring body. (Wilson, categories. Critical race theorist and scholar Kimberlé 1996, p. 38) Crenshaw coined the term intersectionality to denote the ways in which co-existing identities such as race, Le Corbusier’s design for Radiant City became an influ- gender, sexual orientation, ability, and class overlap and ential model for “tower in the park” proposals in a variety reinforce systems of oppression (Crenshaw, 1991). Social of contexts globally. Of particular interest are the New identities do not exist independently, but intersect in York City housing projects Stuyvesant Town in the East complex ways. The texts and case studies in this chapter Village and Riverton in Harlem. Both are examples of

Chapter Nine Race, Gender, and Identity | 171 FIGURE 9.4 Stuyvesant Town and Peter Cooper Village. Metropolitan Life Insurance Company. New York City. 1947. postwar urban renewal projects that razed mixed-use “Architecture from Without: Body, Logic, and Sex,” she neighborhoods and replaced them with high-density borrows from poststructuralist philosophy to question the housing towers. Because they were public-private devel- very foundations of the discipline. She argues that women opments owned by Metropolitan Life Insurance, they have been repressed and excluded by the “system of were allowed to discriminate tenants based on race. architecture” established during the Renaissance. She Stuyvesant Town was a “whites only” project and River- describes the way society establishes a “symbolic order ton was largely inhabited by African-American tenants. where not everyone has an equal chance of fitting” According to Wilson’s logic, Stuyvesant Town housed (Agrest, 1988, p. 30). It is from the outside, excluded the workers of the “modern metropolis” while Riverton position that architecture can be a productive site for fulfilled the position of the “laboring body.” In these proj- reimagining the discipline of architecture. Agrest argues: ects, Wilson’s narrative of the dialectical and racialized The texts of the Renaissance, which in turn tension in Le Corbusier’s version of modernism play draw upon the classic Vitruvian texts, develop themselves out (Figure 9.4). a logocentric and anthropocentric discourse Gender and Architecture that establishes the male body at the center of the unconscious of architectural rules and con- Just as Wilson analyzed representations of racial identity figurations. The body is inscribed in the system in architecture, many theorists examined the relation- of architecture as a male body replacing the ship between gender and architecture. Argentina-born female body. The Renaissance operations of architect, theorist, and educator Diana Agrest (1988) the symbolization of the body are paradig- has critiqued phallocentric, male-dominated concep- matic of the operations of the repression and tions of architecture throughout her career. In her essay,

172 | Introduction to Architecture dynamics of space and women’s role in the discipline and profession of architecture.

Identity, Representation, and ­Equity Despite the significant social and economic barriers that still exist, important contributions to the discipline of architecture have been made by members of historically underrepresented groups. This section will talk through the issues of race, gender, and the construction of iden- tity in the built environment through four case studies. The architects of these projects present a challenge to the “system of architecture” outlined by Agrest and counter the historically privileged position of the white male architect. Philip Freelon is an acclaimed African American architect who designs spaces that celebrate cultural diversity. His design for the Museum of the African Dias- pora (MoAD) in San Francisco is representative of his approach (Figure 9.6). The African diaspora refers to the dispersal of people around the world from African origins. Though it could be argued all of humanity is part of the African diaspora, the term usually denotes communities that have resulted from the transatlantic slave trade from the 1500s to the 1800s. It challenges notions of a fixed

FIGURE 9.5 Vitruvian man. Leonardo da Vinci. c. 1492. place of an identity. Like the diaspora, the organization

exclusion of woman by means of the replace- ment of her body. (Agrest, 1988, p. 30)

The historical expression of these biases has effec- tively repressed and excluded women from the discipline. Logocentrism is the idea that there is a “true” reality existing prior to and external to language. Anthropecen- trism (as discussed in chapter 2 and chapter 10) is a viewpoint that regards humans as the most significant entities, or “center” of the world. The image of the Vitru- vian man, based on Vitruvius’s writings and developed by Leonardo daVinci is representative of this worldview (Figure 9.5). Agrest’s pioneering work is followed by a growing FIGURE 9.6 Museum of the African Diaspora (MoAD). Philip Freelon, Freelon number of scholars and activists exploring the gender Group. San Francisco, California. 2005.

Chapter Nine Race, Gender, and Identity | 173 Jr., Adjaye designed the National Museum of African American History and Culture (NMAAHC) in Washington, DC. (Figure 9.7 and Figure 9.8). The museum marked a dramatic break from the white marble monuments of the National Mall. The building’s massing, materiality, and powerful symbolism combine to create a commanding and memorable architectural experience. As the literary historian Radiclani Clytus describes:

The building itself has the appearance of an upside down ziggurat and consists of three bronze decoratively patterned inverted trap- ezoids that rest atop a massive plinth. … The inverted trapezoids directly reference those Yoruban shrines that were contemporaneous with the existence of the Transatlantic slave trade and thus honor the history of African craftsmanship through the visual effect of a shimmering bronze corona. By having the building’s silhouette reflect upon the foundry cultures of Nigeria and Benin, Adjaye hopes to call attention to the unacknowledged black artisans who developed much of the ornamen- tal metal work that can be found in cities such

FIGURE 9.7 National Museum of African American History and Culture, ­exterior. David Adjaye. Washington, DC. 2016. of space at MoAD is fluid and flexible, accommodating rotating exhibitions. The transparent curtain wall façade reveals a giant mosaic mural and the contents of the museum to the surrounding urban context. Together with his office and Perkins + Will, Freelon’s built several influ- ential cultural institutions like the Museum of Maryland African American History and Culture and the National Center for Civil and Human Rights in Atlanta, Georgia. David Adjaye is a Ghanaian British architect known for his sensitive use of light and material to craft compelling narratives of identity and place. Like Freelon, many of his projects address issues of diversity in architecture. FIGURE 9.8 National Museum of African American History and Culture, ­interior. In 2015, in collaboration with Freelon and Max Bond, David Adjaye. Washington, DC. 2016.

174 | Introduction to Architecture as Savannah, GA; Charleston, SC; and New Orleans, LA. (Clytus, 2015, p. 743)

The edges of the trapezoids are angled at a 17 degrees, mirroring the capstone of the nearby Washington Mon- ument, effectively turning it on its head. The anodized bronze latticework, like Barragán’s Casa Gilardi, changes color over the course of the day. It wraps the building and casts dramatic shadows on the interior spaces of circu- lation. The sequential layers of the project can be read as kind of narrative about the African American experience. The underground floors contain artifacts that tell of the harrowing experience of slavery while the upper levels are dedicated to achievements in popular culture, music, and the arts. Atop the history galleries and embedded in the earth is the powerful contemplative court, which features an oculus and circular waterfall. As a counterpoint to the history of slavery, it offers a space of reflection and calm. Light gently filters through the water and the surrounding walls are adorned with inspiring quotes from the likes of Martin Luther King Jr., Nelson Mandela, and Sam Cooke. The museum, in its orchestration of exhibits and materials, is not merely about reflecting on the suffering of the past, but producing an uplifting experience with a hopeful vision of the future. Also in Washington, DC, is Maya Lin’s landmark Vietnam Veterans Memorial, built in 1982 (Figure 9.9). FIGURE 9.9 Vietnam Veterans Memorial. Maya Lin. Washington, DC. 1982. A counterpoint to the white triumphal architecture of the National Mall, the memorial is conceived as a black I remember at the very first press conference a angular scar in the landscape. The reflective wall of the reporter asking me if I did not find it ironic that memorial is made of reflective black granite and lists the memorial was for the Vietnam War and that the names of Americans killed or missing in action in I was of Asian descent. I was righteous in my the Vietnam War. Its design marked a paradigm shift response that my race was completely irrel- in the making of monuments from the representational evant. It took me almost nine months to ask statue type to those that are more abstract, non-repre- the VVMF (Vietnam Veterans Memorial Fund), sentational, and open to interpretation. The daughter in charge of building the memorial, if my race of Chinese immigrants to the United States, Lin won was at all an issue. It had never occurred to the competition for the memorial when she was still an me that it would be, and I think they had taken undergraduate student at Yale University. The design all the measures they could to shield me from was controversial for several reasons, one of them being such comments about a “gook” designing the Lin’s ethnicity. She recounts: memorial. (Lin, 2000, p. 413)

Chapter Nine Race, Gender, and Identity | 175 FIGURE 9.10 Franklin Court Ghost Structure. Venturi, Scott Brown and Associates, Inc. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 1976.

She explains that she was naïve of her racial identity, are a subterranean museum with a ramp meant to evoke thinking it didn’t matter; however, the often-racist public an old colonial road. Projects like this earned Venturi the comments and contentious atmosphere surrounding her prestigious Pritzker Architecture Prize in 1991. In 2013, a design profoundly changed the way she looked at the petition was begun to retroactively include Scott Brown world. Today, the memorial is one of the most visited as part of the award. Scott Brown argued she should be sites in the nation’s capital. However, in order to quell included to “salute the notion of joint creativity” (Stratiga- the detractors, a more traditional statue and flag was kos, 2016, p. 56). Despite public outcry and thousands of erected near the site. signatures, the Pritzker committee did not change their One last example of the dynamic between identity decision. Discourse surrounding inequities present in politics and architecture involves Denise Scott Brown. the discipline and profession of architecture, as well the Scott Brown’s contributions to the discipline as both a politics of identity and representation, will undoubtedly theorist and designer are beyond question. As discussed continue with the hope that issues such as these can in chapter 7, the work she’s produced with her partner be resolved equitably. Robert Venturi arguably founded the postmodern move- ment in architecture. Collaboratively, they conceived References/Further Reading some of the most influential buildings and texts in the Adjaye, D., & Allison, P. (2011). African metropolitan archi- second half of the 20th century. Distinctive projects tecture. New York, NY: Rizzoli. such as their ghost structures in Franklin Court, Phil- Agrest, D. I. (1988). Architecture from without: Body, logic, adelphia, are simultaneously modern and symbolically and sex. Assemblage (7), 28-41. rich (Figure 9.10). Based on archeological evidence of Barton, C. E. (2001). Sites of memory: Perspectives on the demolished residence of Benjamin Franklin, they architecture and race. New York, NY: Princeton reconstructed the outlines of the buildings on the site Architectural Press. with painted white steel frames. Beneath the structures

176 | Introduction to Architecture Borden, I., Penner, B., & Rendell, J. (Eds.). (2002). Gender space architecture: An interdisciplinary introduction. VIDEO: ROSA SHENG: EQUITY IN ARCHITECTURE London, UK: Routledge. Brown, L. A. (Ed.). (2011). Feminist practices: Interdisci- plinary approaches to women in architecture. Surrey, UK: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the Margins: Intersection- ality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241-1299. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lykWgAC3XTc Clytus, R. (2015). Freedom comes in a box: Reflections on the National Museum of African American History and Culture. Callaloo, 38(4), 742–751. Credits Fig. 9.1: Copyright © Nishithdesai (CC BY-SA 4.0) at Fields, D. W. (2000). Architecture in black. London, UK: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hearst_ Athlone castle_1.jpg. Gürel, M. Ö., & Anthony, K. H. (2006). The canon and Fig. 9.2: Provided by Scott Krabath and Joseph the void: Gender, race, and architectural history Godlewski. texts. Journal of Architectural Education, 59(3), Fig. 9.3: Copyright © EditorASC (CC BY-SA 4.0) at https:// 66–76. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:6207-LAX_Theme_ Hayden, D. (1980). What would a non-sexist city be like? Building-Restaurant.jpg. Speculations on housing, urban design, and human Fig. 9.4: Copyright © Alec Jordan (CC BY-SA 3.0) at work. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Soci- https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Stuyvesant_ ety, 5(S3), S170–S187. Town_and_Peter_Cooper_Village_crop.jpg. Jarzombek, M. M. (2014). Architecture of first societies: Fig. 9.5: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ A global perspective. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. File:Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour.jpg. Lin, M. (2000). Maya Lin: Boundaries. New York, NY: Fig. 9.6: Copyright © Minette Lontsie (CC BY-SA 4.0) at Simon & Schuster. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Museum_ Prussin, L. (1995). African nomadic architecture: Space, of_the_African_Diaspora_MOAD.jpg. place, and gender. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Fig. 9.7: Copyright © Macfawlty (CC BY-SA 4.0) at https:// Institution Press. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Museum_of_Afri- Stratigakos, D. (2016). Where are the women architects? can_American_History_%26_Culture_-_Vertical.jpg. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Fig. 9.8: Copyright © anokarina (CC BY-SA 2.0) at West, C. (1999). Race and architecture. In The Cornel https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NMAAHC_ West Reader (pp. 456–462). New York, NY: Basic (33628523495).jpg. Civitas Books. (Original work published 1993) Fig. 9.9: Source: https://pixabay.com/en/ Wilson, M. O. (1996). Black bodies/white cities: Le Cor- clouds-vietnam-memorial-dc-1786322/. busier in Harlem. ANY: Architecture New York, (16), Fig. 9.10: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ 35-39. File:Independence_National_Historical_Park_Frank- Woods, Mary N. (2018). Women architects in India: His- lin_Court_Ghost_Structure.jpg. tories of practice in Mumbai and Delhi. London, UK: Routledge.

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