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Secularism in Turkey I. Introduction

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Secularism in Turkey I. Introduction SECULARISM IN TURKEY Prof. Dr. Bülent DAVER I. INTRODUCTION Secularism (separatian of state and religion) is the result and the cause of Atatürk's reforms carried out mainly in the years 1922 - 1935. This principle, unlike in western countries, had not been realized by .the evolutionary' currents and ideas of philosophers, disseminated among large parts of the people throughout the centuries, but rather by direct and . resolute action and revolutionary enthusiasm of a considerably small elite composed of bureaucrats and young army officers. The Turkish intelli- gentsia led by Atatürk sought secularism as a modernizing principle. as well as a progressiye idea covering not only the political and governmental life but a whole social and eu1tural milieu whieh was, in its very nature, dominated by superstitions, dogmas and ignoranee. Those faetors prevented the Turkish people from beeoming a modern and prosperous nation. Ho- wever, very strietly applied in the years of one party rule, the principle of seeularism was never meant, in the eyes of its proponents, to be a new dogma or a new religion to replace the old Islam. Instead the republiean leaders were very careful not to attack Islam as a faith. Theirpurpose was rather to "purify" Islam and to open the gate for a reformist Islamic thought and a modern state. Their war-cry was to bring an end to the supremacy of Ulema (Muslim religious officials) and their allies. Thus the secularist mavement in Turkey appeared mainly ~ an anti-elerical drive, a protest at the tyranny of religious fanaticism. Indeed, in Islamic thought and system there was no place for a special clergy or superstitions. Beginning from 1945 with the new era of the mUıti-party system under President İnönü there was some easing and relaxation in govern- mental policies concerning religion and secularism. After 1950, with the crushing victory of the Democrat Party in the general elections, easing the curbs on religious liberties had reached such apoint a some Westem. dbservess have often used the expression "The ıslanne revival in Turkey". However, this policy ai giving too much credit to conservative circles was opposed mainly by the Repu:blican People's Party (a party which was 30 BÜLENT DA VER founded by Atatürk in 1923). The reformist and revolutionary cirdes and elites saw the religious policy of the Democrat Partyas treason to the Ke- malist principles. One of the main causes in the appearance of the military's interventian of 27 May 1960was the "desire to bring an end to the exploita- tion of religion for political and private purposes". For a foreign scholar there can be some inconsistency, if not con- tradiction, in the application of the principle of secularism in Turkey. For instance,. the state (government)controls religious affairs and 01'- ganizes it as a deparment of State. Each year a great deal ()f money is poured out from the State budget for religious affairs.1 Indeed, today almast sixty thousand religious officials recei ve their salary' from the state budget (During the early' years of the Republic this figure was around five hundred). In the realm of religious liberties there were same limitations which can seem "excessive" to a liberal- minded foreign obser- ver. These limitations and exceptional measures regarding religious matters can only be explained in terms of Turkey's special histarical and social structure and conditions. The students of Turkish affairs are very well aware of these special factorso Our purpose in this paper is to make a short outline of the secularist movement in Turkey, and to try to give an answer to some questions raised by the delicate problems of the rela- tionship between state and. religion. In our opinion the most difficult task for Turkey's presenty-day Icaders, in the era of the multi-party system, is to make a canvenient arrangement to bring a:bout a broad consensus concerning religion's proper role in a modern democratic state. This task necessitates a consensus among contending parties and leaders. Some of them are acting in the name of Atatürk's principles and others are speaking on behalf of democraey. However, we can say that the secularisation of the masses is stilI the great unfinished mission of Turkish elites. A convenient balance between the progressive ideas of Atatürk and the needs of a pluralistic society reguires a subtle analysis of the situation as well as dedication and courage on the part of leaders. II. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ı. Ottoman Period The Ottoman. Empire was' a theocratic state like the other Turkish states which appeared on the scene of history, beginning from the 10th 1 For a detailed analysis of the subject: Dr. Bülent DAver, Türkiye Cumhuriyetinde Laiklik (Secularism in Turkish Republic). Ankara, 1955. SECULARISM IN TURKEY 31 until 15th centuries. The Sharia (Roly Koran) was a fundamental law for believers as well as the rulers. But few Muslim rulers in history have made it, in praetiee, the main business of the state. The Koran is intended to enforce God's eternallaws. Administrative, erirninal, civil and eommercial law have, almost from the beginning of Islamic society, been separated from the domain of the Sharia, though this separation was not fonp.ally and e~plicity eodified until 19th eentury.2 Islam had also reeoneiled itself to the separation between religion and the conduet of the state in foreign affairs onee it aequiesced in the peaceful coexistenee of orthodox Islamie states with the Christian and heterodox Islamic nations. As Majid Khadduri pointed out: "The principle of peaeeful relationship among nations of different religions is pcrhap3 the most revolutionary Islamic legal theory and this was for the first time embodied in a treaty signed in 1533 between Francis I of Franee and Suleiman the Magnifieent, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire."3 Despite these facts the hold of Islam on the state as well as on believers was very strong, for Islam was not only a faith, a credo, but also a legal system aimi11Jgat organizing the whole life, including political, social, eivil and eultural spheres. The first reaction to Islam's daim to administer all these matters, eoncerning the temporal world, came during the Tanzimat period which was promulgated in 1839 by a Ferman (Royal Deeree) of S~.lltan.The Tanzimat's administrators, who had been influeneed by Wes- tern institutions, saw the impossibility of condueting state affairs in a rapidly ehanging. world according to old religious principles. Under the heavy pressure of events they felt obliged to introduee western laws and institutions in Turkey, whieh were based on modern principles existing in modern nations. Another breaeh in the orthodox Islamic system was the introduction of public schools whieh were essentially seeular in their nature. Further- more, along with the religious eourts which wue dealing with private cases of citizens, speeial secular eourts in the western style were ereated. The judges appointed to these new eourts were different in their approach as well as in their educatian from their colleagues in the Sharia courts. 2 Manfred, Halpem; The Politics of Social Change in the Middle East and Africa. Princeton University Press, 1963, p. 130. 3 Majid Khadduri; "The Islamic System: Its Competition and Coexistence with Western Systems", Proccedings of the ,American Society of International Law, 1954, p. SI. -32 BÜLENT DA VER Despite tMse steps of secularization and modernization the Ottornan Empire was stilI mainly theocratic in character and outlook, because the Sultan was 'officially the head of all Musılms. The firstConstitution of the Ottoman Empire, promulgated in 1876,explicitıy stated that the main duty of the Assembly was to carry out the principles of the Sharia. Another artiele of this Constitution stipulated that the religion of the state was . Islam. 2. Atatürk's Refonns: For a radical change in these matters one needed to wait until Ata- türk's reforms. Mter the liberation of the country from the enemy, a :series of radical reforms were initiated in order to secularize the state and social life. The first one of these steps was the abolition of the Sul- tanate in 1922 which was followed by the proclamation of the Republic in 1923. in 1924 the Caliphate and the Ministry of Religious Affairs ~were .abolished. In 192~religiousorders (tarikats) were prohibited. A CiviI Code in the western style was introduced in 1926.In 1928the Constitution was amended and the artiele stating that "the state's religion is Islam" was ,deleted. Finally, the principle of secularism Was formally introduced into the Turkish Conitltution by the amendment carried out in 1937. Along with these legal changes came many other reforms secularizing social and cultural life. Religious teachings in public schools were suspended. 'The public demeanor of women was changed (especialİy in big cities like Istanbul, Ankara and Izmir). The language of prayers in mosques was -ehanged to Turkish instead of Arabic ete ... Mter the death of Atatürk in 1938and with the new era of the mUıti- partysystem under President İnönü in 1945, things have somewhat -ehanged. One of the main controversial issues between the Republicar:ı People's Party which started secularism and championed it, and the newly created Democrat Party, was the role of religion in Turkish life. Indeed the Republican People's Party itself had made certain concessionS after 1945 regarding this matter, under the heavy pressure of the opposition party. For instance, the Republican People's Party had agreed to allow religious instruction inpublic schools upon the written request of parents. The party also permitted the openning of some religious places suchas türbes (mausoleums) to the public. President İnönü's Republican Party also authorized the creation of a Faculty of Theology in Ankara and the training of imams (religious officials).
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