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Effect of Rutaceae Plant's Essential Oils and Leaf Extracts on Dermatophytic Fungal Cell Morphology

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Effect of Rutaceae Plant's Essential Oils and Leaf Extracts on Dermatophytic Fungal Cell Morphology Effect of Rutaceae plant’s essential oils and leaf extracts on dermatophytic fungal cell morphology: a hope for the development of an effective antifungal from natural origin Submitted in fulfillment of the academic requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY By OLUFUNKE OMOWUMI FAJINMI Research Centre for Plant Growth and Development School of Life Sciences College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg May 2016 Pictures sourced from google A healthy, glowing, beautiful skin….the pride of every woman i . Table of Contents STUDENT DECLARATION ................................................................................................... v DECLARATION BY SUPERVISORS ....................................................................................... vi COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE ENGINEERING & SCIENCE DECLARATION 1- PLAGIARISM ........ vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................. viii COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE ENGINEERING & SCIENCE DECLARATION 2- PUBLICATIONS ....... x LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. xi LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................ xiv ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... xv CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................. 1 1.1. South Africa and its floral biodiversity ............................................................................. 1 1.2. Aesthetic value and healing power of the “Cape green gold” ......................................... 1 1.3. Aromatic plants meeting the needs of humans from time immemorial ......................... 2 1.4. Use of aromatic plants in aromatherapy and human health since “the days of old” ...... 3 1.5. The Rutaceae, a family of green aromatics in the treasure-box of the Rainbow Nation 4 1.6. Significance of the study ................................................................................................... 7 1.7. Aims and objectives .......................................................................................................... 9 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................... 10 2.1. HIV/AIDS: a trauma to the human race .......................................................................... 10 2.2. The human skin, a vital irreplaceable organ................................................................... 10 2.3. Skin diseases: a health burden across the globe ............................................................ 12 2.4. Skin diseases in Africa, the culprits and way forward .................................................... 13 2.4.1. The increased burden of skin diseases resulting from HIV/AIDS ........................... 14 2.4.2. Prevalence of skin diseases in HIV/AIDS individuals and the microorganisms responsible for the infections/diseases ........................................................................... 15 ii . 2.4.3. Fungi as major causative agents of skin diseases in humans ................................. 16 2.4.4. Classification of Human mycoses ........................................................................... 19 2.4.5. Nail infections caused by fungi ............................................................................... 23 2.4.6. Treatment of Mycosis ............................................................................................. 24 2.5. Plants, a source of therapeutic compounds ................................................................... 33 2.5.1. Plants as a potential source of antifungals ............................................................. 34 2.5.2. Isolation of coumarins and other bioactive compounds from Rutaceae species .. 35 2.5.3. Rutaceae species used in traditional medicine for skin related diseases and infections .......................................................................................................................... 39 2.5.4. Sources and components of essential oil ............................................................... 41 2.6. Pathogenesis of skin diseases ......................................................................................... 45 CHAPTER 3. ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY OF SEVEN RUTACEAE PLANT LEAF EXTRACTS ........... 51 3.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 51 3.2. Materials and methods .................................................................................................. 53 3.3. Results ............................................................................................................................ 54 3.4. Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 56 3.5. Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... 58 CHAPTER 4. ANTIFUNGAL ACTIVITY OF SEVEN RUTACEAE PLANT LEAF EXTRACTS AGAINST TRICHOPHYTON RUBRUM, T. MENTAGROPHYTES AND MICROSPORUM GYPSEUM .......... 59 4.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 59 4.2. Materials and methods .................................................................................................. 60 4.3. Results ............................................................................................................................ 61 4.4. Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 65 4.5. Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... 67 CHAPTER 5. ANTIFUNGAL ACTIVITY OF ESSENTIAL OILS DERIVED FROM RUTACEAE PLANT LEAVES AGAINST THREE SKIN DISEASE FUNGAL STRAINS ................................................. 68 5.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 68 5.2. Materials and methods .................................................................................................. 69 iii . 5.3. Results ............................................................................................................................ 70 5.4. Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 74 5.5. Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... 76 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF THE ESSENTIAL OIL COMPONENTS OF SEVEN RUTACEAE SPECIES ...................................................................................................................................... 77 6.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 77 6.2. Materials and methods .................................................................................................. 78 6.3. Results ............................................................................................................................ 78 6.4. Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 84 6.5. Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... 86 CHAPTER 7. ANTIFUNGAL ACTIVITY OF ESSENTIAL OILS OF AGATHOSMA BETULINA AND COLEONEMA ALBUM AND ITS EFFECT ON THE MORPHOLOGY OF T. RUBRUM AND T. MENTAGROPHYTES ........................................................................................................ 87 7.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 87 7.2. Materials and methods .................................................................................................. 88 7.2.1. Antifungal activity of essential oil volatiles and essential oil analysis .................... 88 7.2.2. Effect of essential oil volatiles on morphology of fungal mycelia .......................... 89 7.3. Results ............................................................................................................................ 89 7.3.1. Antifungal activity of essential oil volatiles and essential oil analysis .................... 89 7.3.2. Effect of essential oil volatiles on morphology of fungi mycelia ............................ 90 7.4. Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 97 7.5. Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 102 CHAPTER 8. GENERAL DISCUSSION ................................................................................ 104 CHAPTER 9. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................
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